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2856	Latin American Integration Association	{{Short description\|Latin American multinational organization}} {{About\|the trade association\|the farming implement\|Laia (tool)}} {{distinguish\|text=Latin American Economic System}} {{redirect\|Aladi\|the given name\|Aladi (name)}} {{More citations needed\|date=August 2012}} {{Infobox Geopolitical organization \| native_name = {{small\|{{nobold\|Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración<br />Associação Latino-Americana de Integração}}}} \| conventional_long_name = Latin American Integration Association \| image_flag = ALADI.jpg \| image_map = Mapa_ALADI.png \| map_caption \| org_type Trade bloc \| membership = {{collapsible list \|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; \|title = 13 members \|{{ARG}} \|{{BOL}} \|{{BRA}} \|{{CHL}} \|{{COL}} \|{{CUB}} \|{{ECU}} \|{{MEX}} \|{{PAR}} \|{{PAN}} \|{{PER}} \|{{URU}} \|{{VEN}} }} \| admin_center = {{nowrap\|Montevideo, Uruguay}} \| languages_type = Working languages \| languages = {{vunblist \|Spanish \|Portuguese}} \| leader_title1 = Secretary General \| leader_name1 = Sergio Abreu \| established_event1 = Treaty of Montevideo \| established_date1 = 12 August 1980 \| area_rank \| area_magnitude \| area_km2 \| area_sq_mi \| percent_water \| population_estimate \| population_estimate_year \| population_density_km2 \| population_density_sq_mi \| GDP_PPP \| GDP_PPP_rank \| GDP_PPP_year \| GDP_PPP_per_capita \| GDP_nominal \| GDP_nominal_rank \| GDP_nominal_year \| GDP_nominal_per_capita \| Gini_year \| Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> \| Gini = <!--number only--> \| Gini_ref \| HDI_year \| HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> \| HDI = <!--number only--> \| HDI_ref \| time_zone \| utc_offset \| official_website http://www.aladi.org/ }} The Latin American Integration Association / Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración / Associação Latino-Americana de Integração (LAIA / ALADI) is an international and regional scope organization. It was created on 12 August 1980 by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty,<ref>[http://wits.worldbank.org/GPTAD/PDF/archive/LAIA-ALADI.pdf 1980 Montevideo Treaty] {{in lang\|en}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aladi.org/sitioALADI/normativaInstTM80.html 1980 Montevideo Treaty] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190109193508/http://www.aladi.org/sitioaladi/normativaInstTM80.html \|date2019-01-09 }} {{in lang\|es}}</ref> replacing the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA/ALALC). Currently, it has 13 member countries, and any of the Latin American States may apply for accession. Objectives The development of the integration process developed within the framework of the ALADI aims at promoting the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region, and its long-term objective is the gradual and progressive establishment of a Latin-American single market. Basic functions * Promotion and regulation of reciprocal trade * Economic complementation * Development of economic cooperation actions contributing to the markets extension. General principles * Pluralism in political and economic matters; * Progressive convergence of partial actions for the establishment of a Latin-American Common Market; * Flexibility; * Differential treatments based on the development level of the member countries; and * Multiple forms of trade agreements. Integration mechanisms The ALADI promotes the establishment of an area of economic preferences within the region, in order to create a Latin-American common market, through three mechanisms: * A Regional Tariff Preference applied to goods from the member countries compared to tariffs in-force for third countries. * Regional Scope Agreements, those in which all member countries participate. * Partial Scope Agreements, those wherein two or more countries of the area participate. The Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries of the region (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay) benefit from a preferential system, through the lists of markets opening offered by the countries in favor of the Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries; special programs of cooperation (business rounds, pre-investment, financing, technological support); and countervailing measures in favor of the land-locked countries, the full participation of such countries in the integration process is sought. The ALADI includes in its legal structure the strongest sub-regional, plurilateral and bilateral integration agreements arising in growing numbers in the continent. As a result, the ALADI – as an institutional and legal framework or “umbrella” of the regional integration- develops actions in order to support and foster these efforts for the progressive establishment of a common economic space. Member states {\| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- !State Members !Join Date !Population !Land Surface !Exclusive Economic Zone !Platform !Capital City \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Argentina}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|40117096}} \| {{nts\|2780400}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|1084386}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|856346}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Buenos Aires \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Bolivia}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|10426160}} \| {{nts\|1098581}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Landlocked \| \| Sucre & La Paz \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Brazil}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|190732694}} \| {{nts\|8514877}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|3660955}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|774563}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Brasília \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Chile}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|17094275}} \| {{nts\|756096.3}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|3681989}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|252947}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Santiago de Chile \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Colombia}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|45656937}} \| {{nts\|1141748}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|817816}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|53691}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Bogotá \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Cuba}} \| 1999 \| {{nts\|11242621}} \| {{nts\|110860}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|350751}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|61525}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Havana \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Ecuador}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|14306876}} \| {{nts\|283561}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|1072533}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|41034}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Quito \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Mexico}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|112322757}} \| {{nts\|1972550}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|3177593}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|419102}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Mexico City \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Paraguay}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|7030917}} \| {{nts\|406752}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Landlocked \| \| Asunción \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Panama}} \| 2011 \| {{nts\|3405813}} \| {{nts\|78200}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|335646}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|53404}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Panama City \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Peru}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|29885340}} \| {{nts\|1285215.6}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|906454}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|82000}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Lima \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Uruguay}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|3424595}} \| {{nts\|176215}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|142166}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|75327}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Montevideo \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| {{Country\|Venezuela}} \| Founder \| {{nts\|30102382}} \| {{nts\|916445}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|860000}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|98500}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| Caracas \|- style"font-weight:bold; background:#f0f0f0" class"sortbottom" \| Total: \| \| {{nts\|521213563}} \| {{nts\|19651873}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|16214170}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| {{nts\|2839313}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> \| \|} Accession of other Latin American countries {{Supranational American bodies\|size400px\|alignright}} The 1980 Montevideo Treaty is open to the accession of any Latin-American country. On 26 August 1999, the first accession to the 1980 Montevideo Treaty was executed, with the incorporation of the Republic of Cuba as a member country of the ALADI. On 10 May 2012, the Republic of Panama became the thirteenth member country of the ALADI. Likewise, the accession of the Republic of Nicaragua was accepted in the Sixteenth Meeting of the Council of Ministers (Resolution 75 (XVI)), held on 11 August 2011. Currently, Nicaragua moves towards the fulfillment of conditions for becoming a member country of the ALADI. The ALADI opens its field of actions for the rest of Latin America through multilateral links or partial agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent (Article 25). The Latin-American Integration Association also contemplates the horizontal cooperation with other integration movements in the world and partial actions with third developing countries or their respective integration areas (Article 27). Institutional structure ;Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs The Council of Ministers is the supreme body of the ALADI, and adopts the decisions for the superior political management of the integration process. It is constituted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries. Notwithstanding, when one of such member countries assigns the competence of the integration affairs to a different Minister or Secretary of State, the member countries may be represented, with full powers, by the respective Minister or Secretary. It is convened by the Committee of Representatives, meets and makes decisions with the presence of all the member countries. ;Evaluation and Convergence Conference It is in charge, among others, of analyzing the functioning of the integration process in all its aspects, promoting the convergence of the partial scope agreements seeking their progressive multilateralization, and promoting greater scope actions as regards economic integration. It is made up of Plenipotentiaries of the member countries. ;Committee of Representatives It is the permanent political body and negotiating forum of the ALADI, where all the initiatives for the fulfillment of the objectives established by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty are analyzed and agreed on. It is composed of a Permanent Representative of each member country with right to one vote and an Alternate Representative. It meets regularly every 15 days and its Resolutions are adopted by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries. ;General Secretariat It is the technical body of the ALADI, and it may propose, evaluate, study and manage for the fulfillment of the objectives of the ALADI. It is composed of technical and administrative personnel, and directed by a Secretary-General, who has the support of two Undersecretaries, elected for a three-year period, renewable for the same term. , ALADI's site.]] Secretaries general {{div col\|colwidth=33em}} * 1980&ndash;1984 {{flagicon\|PAR}} Julio César Schupp (Paraguay) * 1984&ndash;1987 {{flagicon\|URU}} Juan José Real (Uruguay) * 1987&ndash;1990 {{flagicon\|ARG}} Norberto Bertaina (Argentina) * 1990&ndash;1993 {{flagicon\|COL}} Jorge Luis Ordóñez (Colombia) * 1993&ndash;1999 {{flagicon\|BRA}} Antônio José de Cerqueira Antunes (Brasil) * 2000&ndash;2005 {{flagicon\|VEN}} Juan Francisco Rojas Penso (Venezuela) <ref name"secgral">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aladi.org/nsfaladi/prensa.nsf/c58ebfec3291eb91032574a2006afe80/52ad96dec823919383256934005ebe85?OpenDocument \|title20th Anniversary of the Treaty of Montevideo \|date2000-08-07 \|publisherALADI \|languagees}}</ref> * 2005&ndash;2008 {{flagicon\|URU}} Didier Opertti (Uruguay) <ref name"25 aniv">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aladi.org/nsfaladi/prensa.nsf/c58ebfec3291eb91032574a2006afe80/683de92cdc8e98910325705a005a5db9?OpenDocument \|title25th Anniversary of the Treaty of Montevideo \|date2005-08-11 \|publisherALADI \|languagees}}</ref> * 2008&ndash;2009 {{flagicon\|PAR}} Bernardino Hugo Saguier-Caballero (Paraguay) * 2009&ndash;2011 {{flagicon\|PAR}} José Félix Fernández Estigarribia (Paraguay) <ref name="30 aniv">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aladi.org/nsfaladi/prensa.nsf/c58ebfec3291eb91032574a2006afe80/cc1f4db4d6a3652a032577840054d757?OpenDocument \|title30th Anniversary of the Treaty of Montevideo \|date2010-08-19 \|publisherALADI \|language=es}}</ref> * 2011&ndash;2017 {{flagicon\|ARG}} Carlos Álvarez (Argentina) * 2017&ndash; {{flagicon\|MEX}} Alejandro de la Peña Navarrete (Mexico) {{div col end}} See also {{div col\|colwidth=25em}} * Andean Community * Association of Caribbean States * Caribbean Community * Central American Integration System * Community of Latin American and Caribbean States * Latin American economy * Latin American Economic System * Latin American Parliament * Mercosur * Pacific Alliance * Union of South American Nations {{div col end}} External links * [http://www.aladi.org/ Latin American Integration Association – Official Website] References {{Commons category\|Latin American Integration Association}} {{Reflist}} {{Pan-Americanism}} {{Authority control}} Association Category:Trade blocs Category:United Nations General Assembly observers Category:Organizations based in Montevideo Category:Organizations established in 1980 Category:Palermo, Montevideo Category:International organizations based in the Americas	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Integration_Association	2025-04-05T18:26:10.691316
2858	Aircraft spotting	300px\|thumb\|A group of planespotters at Domodedovo International Airport taking photos of a KrasAir Ilyushin Il-96-300 in 2008. Aircraft spotting or planespotting is a hobby consisting of observing and tracking aircraft, which is usually accomplished by photography or videography. Besides monitoring aircraft, planespotters also record information regarding airports, air traffic control communications, airline routes, and more. History and evolution Aviation enthusiasts have been watching airplanes and other aircraft since aviation began. However, as a hobby (distinct from active/wartime work), planespotting did not appear until the second half of the 20th century. During World War II and the subsequent Cold War, some countries encouraged their citizens to become "planespotters" in an "observation corps" or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the Royal Observer Corps which operated between 1925 and 1995. A journal called The Aeroplane Spotter was published in January 1940. The publication included a glossary that was refined in 2010 and published online. The development of technology and global resources enabled a revolution in planespotting. Point and shoot cameras, DSLRs and walkie talkies have significantly changed the hobby. With the help of the internet, websites such as FlightAware and Flightradar24 have made it possible for planespotters to track and locate specific aircraft around the world. Websites such as airliners.net, Instagram and YouTube allow spotters to upload their photos or videos of their sightings and share them with viewers worldwide. Techniques thumb\|right\|The high engine position on this USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II is an easily observed distinguishing feature of this aircraft. When spotting aircraft, observers generally notice the key attributes of an aircraft, such as a distinctive noise from its engine, the number of contrails it is producing, or its callsign. Observers can also assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type, and position of its engines. Another distinctive attribute is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. The wings may be above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint. The number of wings indicates whether it is a monoplane, biplane or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are other attributes. The configuration of the landing gear can be distinctive, as well as the size and shape of the cockpit and passenger windows along with the layout of emergency exits and doors. thumb\|Warning sign at Maho Beach for approaching and departing aircraft at Princess Juliana International Airport. Numerous observers have been injured or even killed after being blown into solid objects by jet blast. Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft. Taken together these traits will enable the identification of an aircraft. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, they are more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity – they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. This is particularly prevalent if the aircraft spotter is spotting commercial aircraft, operated by airlines that have a limited fleet. thumb\|right\|Spotters and photographers enjoy seeing aircraft in special colour schemes, like this Malaysia Airlines Boeing 747-400. Spotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft. The two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the radar data and show the movements on a computer screen. Another tool that spotters can use are apps such as FlightRadar24 or Flightaware, where they can look at arrival and departure schedules and track the location of aircraft that have their transponder on. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a certain route or airport. Spotting styles thumb\|right\|Spotters photographing an Emirates Airbus A380 on descent to Toronto Pearson International Airport (March 2014). thumb\|right\|A Qantas Boeing 747-400 flying over Starbeyevo, Moscow at an altitude of about . The photographer used a telescope and 2x Barlow lens in order to take this photo from the ground. Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national insignia or airline livery or logo, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military aircraft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate. In general, most spotters attempt to see as many aircraft of a given type, a particular airline, or a particular subset of aircraft such as business jets, commercial airliners, military and/or general aviation aircraft. Some spotters attempt to see every airframe and are known as "frame spotters." Others are keen to see every registration worn by each aircraft. Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic control transmissions (using radio scanners, where that is legal), liaising with other "spotters" to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places. Several internet mailing list groups have been formed to help communicate aircraft seen at airports, queries and anomalies. These groups can cater to certain regions, certain aircraft types, or may appeal to a wider audience. The result is that information on aircraft movements can be delivered worldwide in a real-time fashion to spotters. The hobbyist might travel long distances to visit different airports, to see an unusual aircraft, or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as they are opportunities to enter airfields and air bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. Some aircraft may be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) – or perhaps be cannibalized in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved. Aircraft registrations can be found in books, with online resources, or in monthly magazines from enthusiast groups. Most spotters maintained books of different aircraft fleets and would underline or check each aircraft seen. Each year, a revised version of the books would be published and the spotter would need to re-underline every aircraft seen. With the development of commercial aircraft databases spotters were finally able to record their sightings in an electronic database and produce reports that emulated the underlined books. 800px\|thumb\|center\|Major international airports like Tokyo Narita are an opportunity for planespotters to spot a variety of airlines and aircraft models Legal ramifications The legal repercussions of the hobby were dramatically shown in November 2001 when fourteen aircraft spotters (twelve British, two Dutch) were arrested by Greek police after being observed at an open day at the Greek Air Force base at Kalamata. They were charged with espionage and faced a possible 20-year prison sentence if found guilty. After being held for six weeks, they were eventually released on $11,696 (£9,000) bail, and the charges reduced to the misdemeanor charge of illegal information collection. They returned for their trial in April, 2002 and were found guilty, with eight of the group sentenced to three years, the rest for one year. At their appeal a year later, all were acquitted. As airport watch groups In the wake of the targeting of airports by terrorists, enthusiasts' organisations and police in the UK have cooperated in creating a code of conduct for planespotters, in a similar vein to guidelines devised for train spotters. By asking enthusiasts to contact police if spotters believe they see or hear something suspicious, this is an attempt to allow enthusiasts to continue their hobby while increasing security around airports. Birmingham and Stansted pioneered this approach in Britain and prior to the 2012 London Olympics, RAF Northolt introduced a Flightwatch scheme based on the same cooperative principles. These changes are also being made abroad in countries such as Australia, where aviation enthusiasts are reporting suspicious or malicious actions to police. The organisation of such groups has now been echoed in parts of North America. For example, the Bensenville, Illinois police department have sponsored an Airport Watch group at the Chicago O'Hare Airport. Members are issued identification cards and given training to accurately record and report unusual activities around the airport perimeter. (Members are not permitted airside.) Meetings are attended and supported by the FBI, Chicago Department of Aviation and the TSA who also provide regular training to group members. The Bensenville program was modeled on similar programs in Toronto, Ottawa and Minneapolis. In 2009, a similar airport watch group was organized between airport security and local aircraft spotters at Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport. As of 2016, the group has 46 members and a special phone number to use to contact police if suspicious activity is seen around the airport area. Extraordinary rendition Following the events of 9/11, information collected by planespotters helped uncover what is known as extraordinary rendition by the CIA. Information on unusual movements of rendition aircraft provided data that was mapped by critical geographers such as Trevor Paglen and the Institute for Applied Autonomy. These data and maps led first to news reports and then to a number of governmental and inter-governmental investigations. See also Bus spotting Car spotting Train spotting Satellite watching References External links SpottersWiki: The Ultimate Airport Spotting Guide Airport Spotting Websites & Resources Spotter Guide JetPhotos (part of the Flightradar24) Planespotters.net Spotters.Aero (Ukrainian Spotter's Site) Category:Aviation photography Category:Observation hobbies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_spotting	2025-04-05T18:26:10.704358
2861	Advertising	{{Short description\|Form of communication for marketing}} {{redirect-several\|AD\|Advertiser}} {{About\|\|the racehorse\|Advertise (horse)\|the English punk band\|The Adverts\|the QI episode "Advertising"\|List of QI episodes {{!}} List of QI episodes\|information about advertising on Wikipedia\|:Wikipedia:Advertising\|and\|selfref=yes}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use American English\|date=June 2024}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2024}} laundry soap]] {{Marketing}} Advertising is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a product or service. Advertising aims to present a product or service in terms of utility, advantages, and qualities of interest to consumers. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are a wide range of uses, the most common being commercial advertisement. Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding", which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct-response advertising. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and governmental agencies. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement. Advertising may also help to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. In the 19th century, soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Thomas J. Barratt was hired by Pears to be its brand manager—the first of its kind—and in addition to creating slogans and images, he recruited West End stage actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.<ref name"Endorse"/> Modern advertising originated with the techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, considered the founder of modern, "Madison Avenue" advertising.<ref name"Studlar2002p55">Donley T. Studlar (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?idGmN9-GXTu4wC&pgPA55 Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United States and Canada] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160509234835/https://books.google.com/books?idGmN9-GXTu4wC&pgPA55 \|dateMay 9, 2016 }} p.55 quotation: "...&nbsp;from the early days advertising has been intimately intertwined with tobacco. The man who is sometimes considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison Avenue, Edward Bernays, created many of the major cigarette campaigns of the 1920s, including having women march down the street demanding the right to smoke."</ref><ref name"Gifford2010p15">Donald G. Gifford (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id6UYzFt5Qgk4C&pgPA15 Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160510065809/https://books.google.com/books?id6UYzFt5Qgk4C&pgPA15 \|date=May 10, 2016 }}, p.15 quotation: "...&nbsp;during the early twentieth century, tobacco manufacturers virtually created the modern advertising and marketing industry as it is known today."</ref> Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated {{US$\|529.43{{nbsp}}billion\|linkyes}}.<ref name"Carat092015">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.carat.com/au/en/news-views/carat-predicts-positive-outlook-in-2016-with-global-growth-of-plus47/ \|title Carat Predicts Positive Outlook in 2016 with Global Growth of +4.7% \|publisherCarat \|date September 22, 2015 \|access-dateSeptember 30, 2015 \|url-status dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151001222501/http://www.carat.com/au/en/news-views/carat-predicts-positive-outlook-in-2016-with-global-growth-of-plus47/ \|archive-date October 1, 2015 \|dfmdy-all }}</ref> Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on magazines, 5.8% on outdoor, and 4.3% on radio.<ref>{{cite news \| url https://www.wsj.com/articles/plummeting-newspaper-ad-revenue-sparks-new-wave-of-changes-1476955801 \|first1Suzanne \|last1Vranica \|first2Jack \|last2Marshall \| titlePlummeting Newspaper Ad Revenue Sparks New Wave of Changes \| date October 20, 2016 \| workWall Street Journal \| url-status live \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170311112139/https://www.wsj.com/articles/plummeting-newspaper-ad-revenue-sparks-new-wave-of-changes-1476955801 \| archive-date March 11, 2017 \| dfmdy-all }}</ref> Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") advertising agency groups are Omnicom, WPP, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu.<ref>{{cite web \|last1 Parekh \|first1Rupal \|first2 Kunur \|last2Patel \|url http://adage.com/article/agency-news/big-holding-firms-adland-anymore-big/236001/ \|titleNot the 'Big Four' Holding Firms in Adland Anymore – Now It's the Big Five \|url-accesssubscription \|publisherAdvertising Age \|date July 12, 2012 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2014 \|url-status live \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150215032454/http://adage.com/article/agency-news/big-holding-firms-adland-anymore-big/236001/ \|archive-date February 15, 2015 \|df= mdy-all }}</ref> In Latin, advertere means "to turn towards".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?ladvertere&lala#lexicon \|title Latin Word Study Tool - adverto \|publisherPerseus Digital Library \|access-date October 31, 2017}}</ref> History {{Main\|History of advertising}} , Song dynasty China. It is the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.]] LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan]] Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Behal\|first1Vikas\|last2Sareen\|first2Sania\|year2014\|titleGuerilla marketing: a low cost marketing strategy \|journalInternational Journal of Management Research and Business Strategy\|volume3\|viaGoogle Scholar}}</ref> Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.<ref name Bhatia>Bhatia (2000). Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism, 62+68</ref> In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/tcommain.htm\|titleCommercial Advertising in China\|access-dateAugust 31, 2014\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141008012808/http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/tcommain.htm\|archive-dateOctober 8, 2014}}</ref> is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.<ref>Hong Liu, Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies (2013), p.15.</ref> In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/docs.villeneuve.htm\|title Les Crieries de Paris\|access-dateJuly 9, 2015\|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150608094418/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/docs.villeneuve.htm\|archive-date June 8, 2015\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> 18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising created under Thomas J. Barratt's leadership, 1900. Victoria and Albert Museum, London]] In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHowe\|firstDaniel\|titleWhat Hath God Wrought\|year2007\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|pages227–228\|isbn978-0-19-539243-2}}</ref> : Worth a guinea a box", the first advertising slogan from August 1859]] In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm Beechams created a slogan for Beecham's Pills: "Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan.<ref name"Herald"/> The Beechams adverts would appear in newspapers all over the world, helping the company become a global brand.<ref name"Herald">{{cite news \|titleAnniversary of the first ad slogan \|urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/news/17815202.issue-day-anniversary-first-ad-slogan/ \|workThe Herald \|dateAugust 5, 2019}}</ref><ref name"slogan">{{cite news \|titleWhen Beecham put St Helens on the map \|urlhttps://www.sthelensstar.co.uk/news/14288202.when-beecham-put-st-helens-on-the-map/ \|access-dateNovember 5, 2023 \|workSt Helen's Star}}</ref> The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from St Helens, Lancashire, the founder's hometown.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Ratcliffe \|first1Susan \|titleOxford Treasury of Sayings and Quotations \|publisherOxford University Press\|date2011 \|page=478}}</ref> In June 1836, the French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages,{{Citation needed\|date=July 2023}} allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. <ref name"eskilson-pg58">{{Cite book \|titleGraphic Design: A New History \|lastEskilson \|firstStephen J. \|year2007 \|publisherYale University Press \|locationNew Haven, Connecticut \|isbn978-0-300-12011-0 \|page[https://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/58 58] \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/58 }}</ref> Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers.<!-- INSERT ADVERTISING AGENCIES' ROLES AFTER THEY OUTGREW BEING LIMITED TO BEING BROKERS for ADVERTISEMENT SPACE IN NEWSPAPERS --><ref name"eskilson-pg58" /> Late 19th century: Modern Advertising The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern advertising, driven by industrialization and the growth of consumer goods. This era saw the dawn of ad agencies, employing more cunning methods— persuasive diction and psychological tactics.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNorton \|firstNancy P. \|dateJuly 1984 \|titleThe Making of Modern Advertising. By Daniel Pope. (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1983. ix + 340 pp. $18.95.) \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/abs/making-of-modern-advertising-by-daniel-pope-new-york-basic-books-inc-1983-ix-340-pp-1895/2128C528ADA5106E03267826FB44EF78 \|journalBusiness History Review \|languageen \|volume58 \|issue2 \|pages290–292 \|doi10.2307/3115064 \|jstor3115064 \|issn2044-768X}}</ref> Thomas J. Barratt of London has been called "the father of modern advertising".<ref>He was first described as such in T F G Coates, 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of modern advertising"', Modern Business, September 1908, pp. 107–15.</ref><ref name"mat">Matt Haig, Brand failures: the truth about the 100 biggest branding mistakes of all time, Kogan Page Publishers, 2005, pp. 219, 266.</ref><ref name"nick">Nicholas Mirzoeff, The visual culture reader, Routledge, 2002, p. 510.</ref> Working for the Pears soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.<ref name"obit">{{cite web\|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/04/27/100310554.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/04/27/100310554.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive \|titleObituary, Thomas J. Barratt Dead: Chairman of the Firm of A. & F. Pears an Advertising Genius\|workThe New York Times\| page 11 \|dateApril 27, 1914 \|access-dateApril 6, 2014}}</ref><ref name"part">{{cite book\|author1Eric Partridge\|authorlink1Eric Partridge\|author2Paul Beale\|titleA Dictionary of Catch Phrases: British and American, from the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day\|publisherRoutledge\|year1986\|pages164}}</ref> In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.<ref name"Endorse">{{cite book \|last1Jones \|first1Geoffrey \|titleBeauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry \|date2010 \|publisherOxford University Press \|page81}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleWhen Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2002/02/03/when-celebrity-endorsers-go-bad/260776e6-d38c-4319-b683-eb466c499dce/\|access-dateMarch 2, 2022 \|newspaperThe Washington Post\|quoteBritish actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.}}</ref> advertisement from the 1890s]] Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the Guinness Book of Records, Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."<ref name="mat" /> wafers {{Circa\|1890}}]] Enhanced advertising revenues was one effect of the Industrial Revolution in Britain.<ref>{{cite news \|titleThe Sam Weller Bump \|urlhttps://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the-sam-weller-bump/ \|access-dateAugust 25, 2021 \|magazineThe Paris Review}}</ref> Thanks to the revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century biscuits and chocolate became products for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish grocery products.<ref name"V&A"/><ref name"FT">{{cite news \|titleHistory Cook: the rise of the chocolate biscuit \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|access-dateAugust 25, 2021 \|workFinancial Times}}</ref> One the world's first global brands, Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172 countries in 1900, and their global reach was reflected in their advertisements.<ref name"V&A">{{cite news \|titleHuntley & Palmers Biscuits \|urlhttps://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O561034/huntley-palmers-biscuits-poster-wh-smith/huntley--palmers-biscuits-poster-wh-smith/ \|access-dateAugust 25, 2021 \|agency=Victoria & Albert Museum}}</ref> 's depiction of the interior of a late 19th century omnibus conspicuously shows the advertisements placed overhead.]] 20th century shows a rise in audio-visual and digital advertising at the expense of print media.<ref nameBEA_20171023>{{cite web \|last1Nakamura \|first1Leonard I. (FRB) \|last2Samuels \|first2Jon (BEA) \|last3Soloveichik \|first3Rachel H. (BEA) \|titleMeasuring the "Free" Digital Economy Within the GDP and Productivity Accounts \|urlhttps://www.bea.gov/index.php/system/files/papers/WP2017-9.pdf \|websiteSSRN.com \|publisherSocial Science Research Network publishing working paper 17-37 of the Research Department, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210320213029/https://www.bea.gov/index.php/system/files/papers/WP2017-9.pdf \|archive-dateMarch 20, 2021 \|page37 (Fig. 3) \|dateOctober 24, 2017 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>]] advertisement about a cruise between Tallinn and Helsinki in the 1930s]] '']] As a result of massive industrialization, advertising increased dramatically in the United States. In 1919 it was 2.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the US, and it averaged 2.2 percent of GDP between then and at least 2007, though it may have declined dramatically since the Great Recession. Industry could not benefit from its increased productivity without a substantial increase in consumer spending. This contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale.<ref>Ewen, Captains of Consciousness (1976), p. 33. "As Ford's massive assembly line utilized 'extensive single-purpose machinery' to produce automobiles inexpensively and at a rate that dwarfed traditional methods, the costly machinery of advertising that Coolidge had described set out to produce consumers, likewise inexpensively and at a rate that dwarfed traditional methods."</ref> In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "sublimated" into the desire to purchase commodities.<ref>Ewen, Captains of Consciousness (1976), p. 34. "While agreeing that 'human nature is more difficult to control than material nature,' ad men spoke in specific terms of 'human instincts' which if properly understood could induce people 'to buy a given product if it was scientifically presented. If advertising copy appealed to the right instincts, the urge to buy would surely be excited'."</ref> Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, became associated with the method and is sometimes called the founder of modern advertising and public relations.<ref>{{cite book\|lastDiMaggio\|firstAnthony\|titleThe Rise of the Tea Party: Political Discontent and Corporate Media in the Age of Obama\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjfzFF5TT0tUC&pgPA12\|year2012\|publisherNYU Press\|page12\|isbn978-1-58367-306-5\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160429145930/https://books.google.com/books?idjfzFF5TT0tUC&pgPA12\|archive-dateApril 29, 2016}}</ref> Bernays claimed that:{{blockquote\|[The] general principle, that men are very largely actuated by motives which they conceal from themselves, is as true of mass as of individual psychology. It is evident that the successful propagandist must understand the true motives and not be content to accept the reasons which men give for what they do.<ref>{{Cite book\|titlePropaganda\|lastBernays\|firstEdward\|year1928\|pages52}}</ref>}}In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "Sex sells" became a controversial issue, with techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality.<ref>Rodger Streitmatter, ''Sex sells!: The media's journey from repression to obsession (Basic Books, 2004).</ref><ref>Jessica Dawn Blair, et al., "[https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handlehein.journals/jnlolletl9&div15&id&page Ethics in advertising: sex sells, but should it?]" Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues'' 9.1/2 (2006): 109+.</ref> In the 1920s, under Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the American government promoted advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925 called 'Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life."<ref>{{cite book\|lastLeach\|firstWilliam\|titleLand of Desire\|year1993\|publisherPantheon Books\|locationNew York\|page375\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg375\|isbn978-0-307-76114-9\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506134502/https://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg375\|archive-dateMay 6, 2016\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> In October 1929, the head of the U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity."<ref name"Leach367">{{cite book\|lastLeach\|firstWilliam\|titleLand of Desire\|year1993\|publisherPantheon Books\|locationNew York\|page367\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg367\|isbn978-0-307-76114-9\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160502152642/https://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg367\|archive-dateMay 2, 2016\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> This was part of the "unparalleled" collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according to a 1933 European economic journal.<ref>{{cite book\|lastLeach\|firstWilliam\|titleLand of Desire\|year1993\|publisherPantheon Books\|locationNew York\|page373\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg373\|isbn978-0-307-76114-9\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160617042943/https://books.google.com/books?idVHZ6UAudSiUC&pg373\|archive-date=June 17, 2016}}</ref> The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes.<ref name"Brandt2009p31">Brandt (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?idyybaN6j4IpEC&pgPA31 p.31] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160509171427/https://books.google.com/books?idyybaN6j4IpEC&pgPA31 \|dateMay 9, 2016 }}</ref> The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking.<ref name"Studlar2002p55" /><ref name="Gifford2010p15" /> Advertising was also used as a vehicle for cultural assimilation, encouraging workers to exchange their traditional habits and community structure in favor of a shared "modern" lifestyle.<ref>Ewen, Captains of Consciousness (1976), pp. 68–59. "Widespread within the socially oriented literature of business in the twenties and thirties is a notion of educating people into an acceptance of the products and aesthetics of a mass-produced culture.&nbsp;... Beyond this, and perhaps more important to the consciousness of many, were the indigenous networks of social structure which generated mistrust or open opposition to corporate monopolization of culture."</ref> An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.<ref>Ewen, Captains of Consciousness (1976), pp. 62–65.</ref><ref>Petit, The Men and Women We Want (2010), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?idsTubHqECr84C&pgPA66 66] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150415132341/http://books.google.com/books?idsTubHqECr84C&pgPA66 \|dateApril 15, 2015 }}–68.</ref> of the J. Walter Thompson Agency]] At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you love to touch".<ref>[http://www.tvacres.com/adslogans_w.htm Advertising Slogans] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://archive.today/20120530044539/http://www.tvacres.com/adslogans_w.htm \|dateMay 30, 2012 }}, Woodbury Soap Company, "A skin you love to touch", J. Walter Thompson Co., 1911</ref> In the 1920s, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal, but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible".<ref>Benjamin, L.T., & Baker, D.B. 2004. Industrial–organizational psychology: The new psychology and the business of advertising. From Séance to Science: A History of the Profession of Psychology in America. 118–121. California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref> He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer. Radio from the 1920s on May 6, 1930]] In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers, followed by non-profit organizations such as schools, clubs, and civic groups who also set up their own stations.<ref name="uouynv">McChesney, Robert, Educators and the Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–35'', Rich Media, Poor Democracy, {{ISBN\|0-252-02448-6}} (1999)</ref> Retailers and consumer goods manufacturers quickly recognized radio's potential to reach consumers in their homes and soon adopted advertising techniques that would allow their messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s.<ref>Leigh, F., Historical Dictionary of American Radio, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998 pp 7–9</ref> The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to consumers. This was a major paradigm shift that forced manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption, and usage behavior; their needs, wants, and aspirations.<ref>Petty, R.D., "A History of Brand Identity Protection and Brand Marketing", in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones & Mark Tadajewski (eds), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, p. 104</ref> The earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a soap opera.<ref>Copeland, M.A., Soap Opera History, BDD Books; 1991, {{ISBN\|0792454510}}</ref> Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations, which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.<ref>Leigh, F., Historical Dictionary of American Radio, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998, p.8</ref> By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing personal relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense.<ref>Mildred Pierce, [http://newmediagroup.co.uk/pphistory1.htm Newmediagroup.co.uk] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061206032132/http://newmediagroup.co.uk/pphistory1.htm \|dateDecember 6, 2006 }}</ref> Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the 20th century.<ref>Karmasin, H., "Ernest Dichter's Studies on Automobile Marketing", in Schwarzkopf, S. and Gries, R. (eds.), Ernest Dichter and Motivation Research: New Perspectives on the Making of Post-war Consumer Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, pp. 109–125</ref> Commercial television in the 1950s In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastSamuel\|firstLawrence R.\|url\|titleBrought to You By: Postwar Television Advertising and the American Dream\|year2009\|publisherUniversity of Texas Press\|isbn978-0-292-77476-6\|languageen}}</ref> The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateNovember 23, 2011 \|titleSlate \|urlhttps://slate.com/culture/2011/11/hallmark-hall-of-fame-how-did-hallmark-get-into-the-tv-business-and-how-has-it-stayed-there.html }}</ref> Cable television from the 1980s The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.<ref>{{Cite journal\|dateNovember 1, 1996\|titleA brief history of the future of advertising: Visions and lessons from integrated marketing communications\|journalJournal of Business Research\|languageen\|volume37\|issue3\|pages135–138\|doi10.1016/S0148-2963(96)00062-8\|issn0148-2963\|last1Bearden\|first1William O.\|last2Madden\|first2Charles S.}}</ref> Internet from the 1990s {{Main\|Online advertising}} With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Senn\|first1James A.\|titleElectronic Commerce Beyond the "dot com" Boom\|journalNational Tax Journal\|date2000\|volume53\|issue3, Part 1\|pages373–383\|doi10.17310/ntj.2000.3.04\|s2cid42028642\|languageen\|urlhttps://www.ntanet.org/NTJ/53/3/ntj-v53n03p373-84-electronic-commerce-beyond-dot.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ntanet.org/NTJ/53/3/ntj-v53n03p373-84-electronic-commerce-beyond-dot.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive\|issn 0028-0283}}</ref> Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google, changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Ko\|first1Hanjun\|last2Cho\|first2Chang-Hoan\|last3Roberts\|first3Marilyn S.\|titleInternet Uses and Gratifications: A Structural Equation Model of Interactive Advertising\|journalJournal of Advertising\|dateJune 1, 2005\|volume34\|issue2\|pages57–59\|doi10.1080/00913367.2005.10639191\|s2cid144435476\|issn=0091-3367}}</ref> Online advertising introduced new opportunities for targeting and engagement, with platforms like Google and Facebook leading the charge. This shift has significantly altered the advertising landscape, making digital advertising a dominant force in the industry.<ref>Hanafizadeh, P., & Behboudi, M. (2012). "Online advertising: An empirical study of web advertising dimensions." Information Systems Frontiers, 14(2), 301-313. DOI: 10.1007/s10796-010-9270-6.</ref> The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since 1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastFry\|firstErika\|dateFebruary 1, 2018\|titleSuper Bowl Ads Can't Save TV\|url<!--print edition; url not determined-->\|journalFortune\|typemailed print edition\|pages12\|issn0015-8259\|quoteLast year, for the first time, global ad spending on digital platforms exceeded the dolloars spent on TV – by a solid $31 billion margin.}}</ref> Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.galbithink.org/ad-spending.htm \|titleAnnual U.S. Advertising Expenditure Since 1919 \|publisherGalbithink.org \|dateSeptember 14, 2008 \|access-dateApril 20, 2009\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090401205848/http://galbithink.org/ad-spending.htm\| archive-dateApril 1, 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> Guerrilla marketing involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Bigat\|first1Ekrem Cetin\|titleGuerrilla Advertisement and Marketing\|journalProcedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences\|dateJanuary 1, 2012\|volume51\|pages1022–1029\|doi10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.281\|doi-access}}</ref> This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various campaigns utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Culotta\|first1Aron\|last2Cutler\|first2Jennifer\|titleMining Brand Perceptions from Twitter Social Networks\|journalMarketing Science\|dateFebruary 22, 2016\|volume35\|issue3\|pages343–362\|doi10.1287/mksc.2015.0968\|issn=0732-2399}}</ref> The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years.{{when\|dateDecember 2014}}{{clarify \|dateJanuary 2017 \|reason= Which advertising model? Specify}} In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares. Domain name registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes "park" their domains and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to identify through WHOIS records that are publicly available at registrar websites.<ref nameicannwhois>{{cite web \|urlhttp://whois.icann.org/ \|titleICANN Whois Database \|publisherICANN.org \|access-dateDecember 15, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141220121557/http://whois.icann.org/ \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2014 }}</ref> Classification ]] .]] in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular media for advertisers.]] ]] with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station]] bus with an advertisement on its side]] displaying advertising for GEO magazine]] , London in 1877]] Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose.<ref name"Bovee">Courtland L. Bovee, William F. Arens. Contemporary Advertising, Fourth Edition. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1992.</ref>{{rp\|9–15}} For example, in print advertising, classification by style can include display advertising (ads with design elements sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response advertising). The term above the line (ATL) is used for advertising involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and promotion are referred to as below the line (BTL).<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-belowtheline-advertising-10099.html\|titleExamples of Below-the-Line Advertising\|workHouston Chronicle\|access-dateJune 14, 2018\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Marketing Book \|lastBaker \|firstMichael \|date2003 \|publisherButterworth-Heinemann\|isbn0585459525 \|edition5th \|locationOxford \|pages424, 425 \|oclc52732761}}</ref> The two terms date back to 1954 when Procter & Gamble began paying their advertising agencies differently from other promotional agencies.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business-observer/why-we-no-longer-speak-of-above-and-below-the-line-advertising_122677?profile0 \|titleWhy we no longer speak of above and below-the-line advertising \|websitejamaicaobserver.com \|dateJanuary 17, 2018 \|access-dateMarch 4, 2019 \|archive-dateMarch 6, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306043447/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business-observer/why-we-no-longer-speak-of-above-and-below-the-line-advertising_122677?profile0 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a new term, through the line (TTL) began to come into use, referring to integrated advertising campaigns.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.entrepreneurmag.co.za/advice/marketing/marketing-tactics/through-the-line-marketing-lets-have-that-chat/ \|titleThrough The Line Marketing – Let's Have That Chat \|websiteentrepreneurmag.co.za \|dateNovember 5, 2013 \|access-dateMarch 4, 2019 \|archive-dateMarch 6, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306050412/https://www.entrepreneurmag.co.za/advice/marketing/marketing-tactics/through-the-line-marketing-lets-have-that-chat/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Marketing Book \|lastBaker \|firstMichael \|date2003 \|publisherButterworth-Heinemann\|isbn0585459525 \|edition5th \|locationOxford \|pages425, 426 \|oclc52732761}}</ref> Traditional media Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.<ref>{{cite web\|titleCommercial Acting – Science of the Business\|urlhttps://socialbilitty.com/2017/02/commercial-acting/\|dateFebruary 17, 2017\|publisherSocialbilitty\|access-dateFebruary 18, 2017\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170218125757/https://socialbilitty.com/2017/02/commercial-acting/\|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2017}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Share of global adspend<ref>{{cite web \|titleExecutive summary: Advertising Expenditure Forecasts \|date December 2015 \|publisherZenithOptimedia \|url http://www.zenithoptimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Adspend-forecasts-December-2015-executive-summary.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160804010556/http://www.zenithoptimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Adspend-forecasts-December-2015-executive-summary.pdf \|archive-dateAugust 4, 2016 \|df mdy-all }}</ref> \|- ! Medium !! 2015 !! 2017 {{Disputed inline\|date=January 2017}} \|- \| Television advertisement \|\| 37.7% \|\| 34.8% \|- \| Desktop online advertising \|\| 19.9% \|\| 18.2% \|- \| Mobile advertising \|\| 9.2% \|\| 18.4% \|- \| Newspaper \|\| 12.8% \|\| 10.1% \|- \| Magazines \|\| 6.5% \|\| 5.3% \|- \| Outdoor advertising \|\| 6.8% \|\| 6.6% \|- \| Radio advertisement \|\| 6.5% \|\| 5.9% \|- \| Cinema \|\| 0.6% \|\| 0.7% \|} ;Television: Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial airtime during popular events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television – with an audience of over 108 million and studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to see the advertisements.<ref name"A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million" /><ref>{{cite magazine\|title Yes, A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million\|magazine Forbes\|date January 29, 2014\|url https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/\|url-status live\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20171002055356/https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/\|archive-date October 2, 2017\|df mdy-all}}</ref> During the 2014 edition of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4 million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second spot.<ref name"A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million">{{cite magazine \|titleA Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million \|magazineForbes \|dateJanuary 29, 2014 \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171002055356/https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/ \|archive-dateOctober 2, 2017 }}</ref> Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops<ref name"McCarthy">{{cite web \|lastMcCarthy \|firstMichael \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/2002-10-17-fake-ads_x.htm \|titleDigitally inserted ads pop up more in sports \|publisherusatoday.Com \|dateOctober 17, 2002 \|access-dateApril 20, 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090327010635/http://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/2002-10-17-fake-ads_x.htm \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2009 }}</ref> or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.<ref name"Keith Mcarthur">{{cite news \|lastMcarthur \|firstKeith \|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060315.RVIRTUAL15/TPStory/Business \|titleBusiness \|publisherglobeandmail.com \|access-dateApril 20, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060316150845/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060315.RVIRTUAL15/TPStory/Business/ \|archive-dateMarch 16, 2006 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Virtual billboards may be inserted into the background where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. Virtual product placement is also possible.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/business/media/advertisings-twilight-zone-that-signpost-up-ahead-may-be-a.html\|titleAdvertising's Twilight Zone: That Signpost Up Ahead May Be a Virtual Product\|firstSam\|lastLubell\|dateOctober 15, 2017\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170709120431/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/business/media/advertisings-twilight-zone-that-signpost-up-ahead-may-be-a.html\|archive-dateJuly 9, 2017\|newspaperThe New York Times}}</ref><ref name"Welcome to E-Commerce Times">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/48956.html \|titleWelcome to E-Commerce Times \|dateFebruary 23, 2006 \|publisherEcommercetimes.com \|access-dateApril 20, 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090303233228/http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/48956.html \|archive-dateMarch 3, 2009 }}</ref> An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The name blends the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the target sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe and often demonstrate products, and commonly have testimonials from customers and industry professionals.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastBraxton\|firstGreg\|title"Latest Amazing Discovery: The Un-Infomercial : Television: Storymercials cost more to shoot and don't look like infomercials – they look like real shows. The soft-sell approach is more appealing to corporate America"\|publisherThe Los Angeles Times.}}</ref> ;Radio: Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleThe radio industry's oldest on line magazine..featurning Radio Superstar morning show network\|urlhttp://newradio.com/NRS/31192\|access-dateNovember 8, 2021\|websitenewradio.com}}</ref> ;Online: Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Semerádová\|first1Tereza\|url\|titleImpacts of Online Advertising on Business Performance\|last2Weinlich\|first2Petr\|year2019\|publisherIGI Global\|isbn978-1-7998-1618-8\|languageen}}</ref> A newer form of online advertising is Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.digitalmarketer.com/what-is-native-advertising/\|titleWhat is Native Advertising?\|workDigital Marketer\|dateJune 30, 2014\|access-dateSeptember 8, 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906104032/http://www.digitalmarketer.com/what-is-native-advertising/\|archive-dateSeptember 6, 2015}}</ref> ;Domain names: Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click web search engines, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead.<ref nametargetedtraffic>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ1nyTNnVSGAC&qwhat%20is%20targeted%20domain%20name%20traffic&pgPT61 \|titleGet Rich Click!: The Ultimate Guide to Making Money on the Internet \|publisherFree Press, Simon and Schuster \|lastOstrofsky \|firstMarc \|date2011 \|access-dateDecember 15, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150415132523/https://books.google.com/books?idJ1nyTNnVSGAC&pgPT61#vonepage&qtargeted%20domain%20name%20traffic \|archive-dateApril 15, 2015 \|isbn978-1451668391 }}</ref> Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of Google's early acquisitions.<ref nameoingo>{{cite web \|urlhttp://allthingsd.com/20130422/ten-years-later-lessons-from-the-applied-semantics-google-acquisition/ \|titleTen Years Later – Lessons from the Applied Semantics Google Acquisition \|publisherAllthingsd.com \|lastElbaz \|firstEytan \|dateApril 22, 2013 \|access-dateDecember 15, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141214035929/http://allthingsd.com/20130422/ten-years-later-lessons-from-the-applied-semantics-google-acquisition/ \|archive-dateDecember 14, 2014 }}</ref> ;Product placements: {{vanchor\|Covert advertising}} is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.{{citation needed\|date=December 2014}} ;Print: Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.<ref name="Bovee" />{{rp\|14}} ;Outdoor: , London {{Circa\|1949}} pictured here, are usually placed in busy locations.]] ]] :Billboards, also known as hoardings in some parts of the world, are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large numbers of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums. The form known as street advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancers and 3D pavement advertising, for getting brand messages out into public spaces.<ref name":0">{{Cite book\|last1Nelson\|first1Richard\|titleOutdoor Advertising (RLE Advertising)\|last2Sykes\|first2Anthony\|year2013\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-136-66930-9\|languageen}}</ref> Sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.<ref name":0" /> Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: target advertising, one-day and long-term campaigns, conventions, sporting events, store openings and similar promotional events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.<ref name":0" /> '' newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan.]] ;Point-of-sale: In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Kotler\|first1Philip\|titleMarketing Management\|last2Keller\|first2Kevin Lane\|date2012\|publisherPrentice Hall\|isbn978-0-13-210292-6\|language=en}}</ref> ;Novelties: Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers. {{citation needed\| date= January 2017}} ;Celebrity endorsements: Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, and popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastMacur\|firstJuliet\|dateFebruary 6, 2009\|titlePhelps Disciplined Over Marijuana Pipe Incident\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/sports/othersports/06phelps.html\|access-dateNovember 8, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastStrunck\|firstMichael\|titleCelebrity Endorsement: The Key Success Factors of Brand Endorsers\|publisherLAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing\|year2011\|isbn=978-3844301175}}</ref> ;Aerial: Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.{{citation needed\|date=December 2014}} aircraft in the special Blue Man Group livery]] (D-LZFN) of Friedrichshafen used for advertisement]] New media approaches A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting.<ref>[https://www.adweek.com/tv-video/advanced-advertising-is-delivering-more-data-better-targeting-but-what-else/ Advanced Advertising Is Delivering More Data, Better Targeting … but What Else?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327192303/https://www.adweek.com/tv-video/advanced-advertising-is-delivering-more-data-better-targeting-but-what-else/ \|dateMarch 27, 2019 }} Published by adweek.com on April 19, 2018, retrieved March 27, 2019</ref> Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Lafayette \|first1Jon \|titleAttribution Data Points to TV Ads Driving More Sales \|urlhttps://www.nexttv.com/news/attribution-data-points-tv-ads-driving-more-sales \|websiteNextTV \|access-dateDecember 4, 2021 \|date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/how-americans-get-news/\|titleHow Americans get their news\|dateMarch 17, 2014\|workAmerican Press Institute\|access-dateDecember 14, 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151113113347/http://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/how-americans-get-news/\|archive-dateNovember 13, 2015}}</ref> Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users since 1978.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.adpushup.com/blog/the-history-of-online-advertising/\|titleThe History of Online Advertising\|access-dateApril 28, 2016\|firstAnkit\|lastOberoi\|websiteAdPush\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160425171749/http://www.adpushup.com/blog/the-history-of-online-advertising/\|archive-dateApril 25, 2016}}</ref> As new online communication channels became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://mashable.com/2013/08/09/first-banner-ad\|websiteMashable\|titleThis is the World's First Banner Ad\|firstTodd\|lastWasserman\|dateAugust 9, 2013\|access-dateApril 28, 2016\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160421022220/http://mashable.com/2013/08/09/first-banner-ad/\|archive-dateApril 21, 2016}}</ref> Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. The display is not only used for generating awareness, it is used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.{{citation needed\|date=December 2014}} As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland,<ref>{{Cite book\|titleA Brief History of Science with Levity\|lastBennet\|firstMike\|year2015\|isbn978-1784622954\|page301\|publisherTroubador Publishing }}</ref>{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSHAPING THE FUTURE MOBILE INFORMATION SOCIETY: THE CASE OF JAPAN \|urlhttps://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/futuremobile/general/casestudies/JapancaseLS1.pdf \|website=www.itu.int}}</ref> Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Robinson \|first1Gail \|titleMass Commnunication and Journalism \|date2019 \|publisherEDTECH \|isbn978-1839472060}}</ref> Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" "photocopier", "Kleenex" tissue, "Vaseline" petroleum jelly, "Hoover" vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" adhesive bandage). However, some companies{{which\|dateDecember 2014}} oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a generic trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.<ref>{{cite web\|publisherHarvard Law School\|titleOverview of Trademark Law\|urlhttp://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tm.htm\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100115150952/http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tm.htm\|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2010}} "Under some circumstances, terms that are not originally generic can become generic over time (a process called "genericity"), and thus become unprotected."</ref> {{Disputed inline\|date=January 2017}} Early in its life, The CW aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB115811168010161509\|titleCW Will Try A New Ad Idea: 'Content Wraps'\|lastSteinberg\|firstBrian\|dateSeptember 13, 2006\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|access-dateAugust 23, 2019\|languageen-US\|issn0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.warnerbros.com/news/press-releases/warner-bros-television-group-cw-and-toyota-launch-%E2%80%9Csmallville-legends-justice-and-doom%E2%80%9D\|titleWarner Bros. Television Group, The CW And Toyota Launch "Smallville Legends: Justice And Doom," A Marketing Campaign For The Hit Series "Smallville"\|websiteWarner Bros. \|access-date=August 23, 2019}}</ref> A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology.<ref>{{cite web\|titlePepsi's bus stop ad in London might be the best use of augmented reality yet\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/3/25/5545842/pepsi-bus-stop-ad-augmented-reality\|workBlippar\|dateMarch 25, 2014\|publisherThe Verge, Jacob Kastrenakes\|access-dateMarch 25, 2014\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140325205500/http://www.theverge.com/2014/3/25/5545842/pepsi-bus-stop-ad-augmented-reality\|archive-date=March 25, 2014}}</ref> Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (propaganda). Rise in new media thumb\|upright=1.3\| US newspaper advertising revenue, Newspaper Association of America published data<ref name=NAAdata>{{cite web \|title=Trends & Numbers \|date=March 14, 2012 \|publisher=Newspaper Association of America \|access-date=September 18, 2012 \|url=http://www.spotlightlocal.co.uk/annual-newspaper-ad-expenditures-newspaper-association-of-america/ \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218194728/http://www.spotlightlocal.co.uk/annual-newspaper-ad-expenditures-newspaper-association-of-america/ \|archive-date=December 18, 2014 }}</ref> With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up, Flash, banner, pop-under, advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% respectively, while older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers).{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2010}} Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their print advertising revenue.<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1Schwartz\|first1Jason\|titleWill John Henry Save the Globe?\|urlhttps://www.bostonmagazine.com/\|magazineBoston Magazine\|dateMarch 2014\|page133}}</ref> Niche marketing Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the long tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined,{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.<ref>[http://www.comcastspotlight.com/sites/Default.aspx?pageid7608&siteid62&subnav3 "Interactive – VOD"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090326200208/http://www.comcastspotlight.com/sites/Default.aspx?pageid7608&siteid62&subnav3 \|date=March 26, 2009 }} "Comcast Spotlight website". Retrieved October 5, 2006.</ref> Niche marketing could also be helped by bringing the issue of color into advertisements. Different colors play major roles when it comes to marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos. Google AdSense is an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors. Crowdsourcing {{Main\|Crowdsourcing}} The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own Doritos commercials.<ref name"Advertising Age">{{cite news \|urlhttp://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/ \|titleWho's Buying What at Super Bowl 2007 \|publisherAdvertising Age \|access-dateMay 10, 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100218070122/http://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/ \|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2010 }}</ref> Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.<ref name"Advertising Age" /> Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/business/media/09adco.html \|titleDo-It-Yourself Super Ads \|newspaperNew York Times \|dateFebruary 8, 2010 \|access-dateMay 10, 2010 \|firstStuart \|lastElliott \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100217050431/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/business/media/09adco.html \|archive-dateFebruary 17, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/admeter/2009admeter.htm \|title'Two nobodies from nowhere' craft winning Super Bowl ad \|newspaperUSA Today \|dateDecember 31, 2009 \|access-dateMay 10, 2010 \|firstBruce \|lastHorovitz \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091227030845/http://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/admeter/2009admeter.htm \|archive-dateDecember 27, 2009 }}</ref> Another example of companies using crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company Jones Soda that encourages consumers to participate in the label design themselves.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://adage.com/article/digitalnext/crowdsourcing/132873/ \|titleCrowdsourcing: Everything Old Is New Again, and Again \|websiteadage.com \|dateNovember 26, 2008 \|access-dateMarch 4, 2019}}</ref> This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId34241909\|titleZooppa.com, Inc.: Private Company Information \|websitewww.bloomberg.com\|access-dateApril 30, 2017\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171019210743/https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId34241909\|archive-dateOctober 19, 2017}}</ref> Crowdsourcing remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.imediaconnection.com/content/9521.asp \|titleAre Consumer-Generated Ads Here to Stay? \|publisheriMediaConnection \|dateMay 10, 2006 \|access-dateMay 10, 2010\|firstRobert\|lastMoskowitz\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100426103023/http://www.imediaconnection.com/content/9521.asp\| archive-date April 26, 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Globalization {{Main\|Global marketing}} Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximizing local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.<ref>Global marketing Management, 2004, pp. 13–8</ref> Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.<ref>Young, p.131</ref> Foreign public messaging {{See also\|Soft power\|International tourism advertising}} Foreign governments,{{which\|dateDecember 2014}} particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. Diversification In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more".<ref>{{cite web \|lastHoward \|firstTheresa \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2005-10-09-goodson-profile_x.htm \|titleUSA Today, October 9, 2005 \|publisherUsatoday.com \|dateOctober 10, 2005 \|access-dateApril 20, 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090327010633/http://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2005-10-09-goodson-profile_x.htm \|archive-date=March 27, 2009 }}</ref> This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".<ref>{{cite magazine \|url = https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/12/12/8363132/index.htm \|title = Madison Ave. Lights Up \|first = Devin \|last = Leonard \|magazine = Fortune \|date = December 12, 2005 \|url-status = live \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090606210859/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/12/12/8363132/index.htm \|archive-date = June 6, 2009 \|df = mdy-all }}</ref> New technology The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from these sets. To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected program guidess (EPGs), advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating mobile apps for TV programs. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com/2011/05/09/survivor-jeff-probst-says-product-placement-is-here-to-stay/\|titleReality TV\|websiterealitytvmagazine.sheknows.com\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150419064602/http://realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com/2011/05/09/survivor-jeff-probst-says-product-placement-is-here-to-stay/\|archive-dateApril 19, 2015}}</ref> The emerging technology of drone displays has recently been used for advertising purposes.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2016/11/intel-launches-500-drones-into-sky-and-breaks-world-record-in-spectacular-style-449886\| title Intel launches 500 drones into sky and breaks world record in spectacular style\| date November 4, 2016}}</ref> Education In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Adams\|first1Britt\|last2Schellens\|first2Tammy\|last3Valcke\|first3Martin\|date2017\|titlePromoting Adolescents' Moral Advertising Literacy in Secondary Education\|journalComunicar\|languagees\|volume25\|issue52\|pages93–103\|doi10.3916/c52-2017-09\|issn1134-3478\|doi-accessfree\|hdl10272/14091\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.<ref>{{Cite book \|url http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpbtrue&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0ED351711&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0no&accno=ED351711 \|title = Student-Run Advertising Agency: A Showcase for Student Work. \|first = James \|last = Avery \|date = August 1, 1992 \|url-status = live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090724163231/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpbtrue \|archive-date = July 24, 2009 \|df = mdy-all }}</ref> Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish companies with students to create these campaigns.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2014}} Purposes Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers.<ref>{{cite book\|title How to start and succeed in a business of your own \|firstJohn\| lastTaylor\| year 1978\| page293}}</ref> Sales promotions and brand loyalty Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.<ref>Altstiel, Tom, and Jean Grow. Advertising Strategy: Creative Tactics From the Outside/In. CA: Sage Publication Inc. 2006. Print.</ref> Criticisms {{Main\|Criticism of advertising}} {{see also\|Racial stereotyping in advertising}} for Camel cigarettes in the 1940s]] While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth,<ref name"Leach367" /> it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid03/03/03/1528247&tid111 \|titleSlashdot &#124; ISP Operator Barry Shein Answers Spam Questions \|publisherInterviews.slashdot.org \|dateMarch 3, 2003 \|access-dateApril 20, 2009 \|url-status=live \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090813200327/http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid03%2F03%2F03%2F1528247&tid111 \|archive-dateAugust 13, 2009 }}</ref> Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.<ref>{{cite web \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090416200521/http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm\|urlhttp://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm \|archive-dateApril 16, 2009 \|titleHow Marketers Target Kids \|access-date=January 18, 2014}}</ref> This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to specific audiences can result in negative backlash for advertisers.<ref>{{Cite journal \|title=Influence of gender stereotypes on advertising offensiveness and attitude toward advertising in general \|journal=International Journal of Advertising}}</ref> In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative cultural portrayals.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Cohen \|first1Andrew C. \|last2Dromi \|first2Shai M. \|title=Advertising morality: maintaining moral worth in a stigmatized profession \|journalTheory & Society \|volume47 \|issue2 \|pages175–206 \|doi=10.1007/s11186-018-9309-7 \|year2018 \|s2cid49319915 \|url=http://osf.io/h6kvu/}}</ref> A 2021 study found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Shapiro \|first1Bradley T. \|last2Hitsch \|first2Günter J. \|last3Tuchman \|first3Anna E. \|date=2021 \|title=TV Advertising Effectiveness and Profitability: Generalizable Results From 288 Brands \|journalEconometrica \|languageen \|volume89 \|issue4 \|pages1855–1879 \|doi10.3982/ECTA17674 \|s2cid233474042 \|issn1468-0262\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Unsolicited ads have been criticized as attention theft.<ref name"Wired">{{cite news \|last1Wu \|first1Tim \|authorlink=Tim Wu \|title=The Crisis of Attention Theft—Ads That Steal Your Time for Nothing in Return \|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/04/forcing-ads-captive-audience-attention-theft-crime \|access-dateAugust 9, 2021 \|magazineWired \|date=April 14, 2017}}</ref> One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Gussow \|first1Joan \|title=Counternutritional Messages of TV Ads Aimed at Children \|journalJournal of Nutrition Education \|volume4 \|issue2 \|dateMarch 2, 1972 \|pages48–52 \|doi10.1016/S0022-3182(72)80136-5}}</ref> Michelle Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more in line with dietary guidelines.<ref>{{cite news \|title=First Lady to Food Companies: Make Healthier Ads for Kids Now \|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/first-lady-to-food-companies-make-healthier-ads-for-kids-now \|publisherCBS \|access-dateApril 20, 2015 \|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150427111344/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/first-lady-to-food-companies-make-healthier-ads-for-kids-now \|archive-date=April 27, 2015 }}</ref> The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.actnownews.com/deceiving-misleading-ads \|titleMisleading Ads – be Wary!! \|access-dateMay 6, 2016 \|url-status=dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160507012033/http://www.actnownews.com/deceiving-misleading-ads/ \|archive-dateMay 7, 2016 }}</ref> Political advertisement and their regulations have been scrutinized for misinformation, ethics and political bias.<ref name"y759">{{cite web \| lastFischer \| firstSara \| titleHarris-sponsored Google ads suggest publishers are on her side \| websiteAxios \| date13 August 2024 \| urlhttps://www.axios.com/2024/08/13/harris-campaign-google-poltical-ads-news-publishers \| access-date14 August 2024}}</ref> Regulation There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.<ref name"UK_advertising">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law/overview \|titleMarketing and Advertising: The Law \|publisherHer Majesty's Stationery Office \|dateJanuary 15, 2016 \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|authorUK_advertising \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160924105931/https://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law/overview \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2016 }}</ref> The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation.<ref name"UK_advertising" /><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.asa.co.nz/ \|titleAdvertising Standards Authority \|publisherAdvertising Standards Authority \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160831014312/http://www.asa.co.nz/ \|archive-dateAugust 31, 2016 }}</ref><ref nameasasa>{{Citation\|titleAdvertising Standards Authority of South Africa: About Us\|urlhttp://www.asasa.org.za/Default.aspx?mnu_id10/\|access-dateJuly 5, 2010\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303202014/http://www.asasa.org.za/Default.aspx?mnu_id10%2F\|archive-dateMarch 3, 2016}}</ref> Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.asa.org.uk/About-ASA/About-regulation \|titleAbout Regulation Our Framework \|publisherASA.org.uk \|access-dateOctober 5, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151007111318/https://www.asa.org.uk/About-ASA/About-regulation \|archive-dateOctober 7, 2015 }}</ref> In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising, such as the display of billboards, are regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. The display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/advertisments/is-consent-from-the-local-planning-authority-always-required-to-display-advertisements/ \|titleWhat happens if an advertisement is displayed without the necessary consent? \|publisherPlanningGuidance.PlanningPortal.gov.uk \|access-dateOctober 5, 2015 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151006191802/http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/advertisments/is-consent-from-the-local-planning-authority-always-required-to-display-advertisements/ \|archive-dateOctober 6, 2015 }}</ref> In the US, where some communities believe that outdoor advertising are a blight on landscapes, attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside occurred in the 1960s, leading to the Highway Beautification Act.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/beauty.cfm \|titleHow the Highway Beautification Act Became a Law \|publisherFhwa.dot.gov \|access-dateApril 20, 2009\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090604005907/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/beauty.htm\| archive-dateJune 4, 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/world/americas/12iht-brazil.html \|titleBillboard ban in São Paulo angers advertisers – Americas \|newspaperInternational Herald Tribune \|dateDecember 12, 2006 \|access-dateJanuary 20, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140226112132/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/world/americas/12iht-brazil.html \|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2014 }}</ref> with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMarketing and advertising: the law \|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law \|access-date2024-12-31 \|websiteGOV.UK \|language=en}}</ref> Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English.<ref>Bhatia and Ritchie 2006:542</ref> The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://dor.wa.gov/content/getaformorpublication/publicationbysubject/taxtopics/TaxIncluded.aspx \|titleAdvertising – Tax Included in Price \|publisherDepartment of Revenue, Washington State \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160827174442/http://dor.wa.gov/Content/GetAFormOrPublication/PublicationBySubject/TaxTopics/TaxIncluded.aspx \|archive-dateAugust 27, 2016 }}</ref> In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.tico.ca/industry-info/advertising-requirements.html \|titleAdvertising Requirements \|publisherTravel Industry Council of Ontario \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160918231329/http://www.tico.ca/industry-info/advertising-requirements.html \|archive-dateSeptember 18, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.consumerprotection.govt.nz/get-guidance/shopping-and-buying/pricing/ \|titlePricing \|publisherConsumer Protection \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160913213536/https://www.consumerprotection.govt.nz/get-guidance/shopping-and-buying/pricing/ \|archive-dateSeptember 13, 2016 }}</ref> In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.accc.gov.au/business/pricing-surcharging/displaying-prices \|titleDisplaying Prices \|publisherAustralian Competition and Consumer Commission \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|authorACCC \|dateSeptember 11, 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160913152407/http://www.accc.gov.au/business/pricing-surcharging/displaying-prices \|archive-dateSeptember 13, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/Display-Code.aspx?CodeId%7B1BB5E9A2-C840-46CB-8211-88E7E34E61B7%7D&ItemId%7B37D44B06-C5E4-430C-A161-035555C10543%7D \|titleRelevant Code Rule \|publisherAdvertising Standards Authority \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161105203616/https://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/Display-Code.aspx?CodeId%7B1BB5E9A2-C840-46CB-8211-88E7E34E61B7%7D&ItemId%7B37D44B06-C5E4-430C-A161-035555C10543%7D \|archive-dateNovember 5, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/consumer_affairs/consumer_protection/pricing/price_display_of_goods_and_services.html \|titleDisplay of Prices for Goods and Services \|publisherCitizens Information \|dateMay 31, 2016 \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160828161455/http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/consumer_affairs/consumer_protection/pricing/price_display_of_goods_and_services.html \|archive-dateAugust 28, 2016 }}</ref> Theory {{See also\|Advertising management}} Hierarchy-of-effects models {{See also\|AIDA (marketing)}} Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice.{{clarify\|dateJanuary 2017\|reason which ones? provide details}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|editor-first = Stephen W. \|editor-last = Littlejohn \|encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Communication Theory \|title = Advertising Theories \|url https://books.google.com/books?id2veMwywplPUC \|access-date = August 16, 2013 \|year = 2009 \|publisher = SAGE \|volume = 1 \|isbn = 978-1-4129-5937-7 \|page = 19 \|quote = Originally developed in the personal-selling literature, the hierarchy-of-effects model has undergone various modifications in its historical development such that today we use it in the plural form, indicating that competing models exist. \|url-status = live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140627123917/http://books.google.com/books?id2veMwywplPUC \|archive-date = June 27, 2014 \|df = mdy-all }}</ref> * The model of Clow and Baack<ref>Clow, Kenneth E.; Baack, Donald (2007). Integrated Advertising, Promotion, and Marketing Communications 3rd edition. Pearson Education. pp. 165–171. {{ISBN\|0-13-186622-2}}.</ref> clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase: # Awareness # Knowledge # Liking # Preference # Conviction # Purchase * Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkjB5AgAAQBAJ&qmeans-end+theory&pgPP1\|titleUnderstanding Consumer Decision Making: The Means-end Approach To Marketing and Advertising Strategy\|last1Reynolds\|first1Thomas J.\|last2Olson\|first2Jerry C.\|dateMay 1, 2001\|publisherPsychology Press\|isbn978-1135693169\|page3\|languageen\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170216191453/https://books.google.com/books?idkjB5AgAAQBAJ&pgPP1#vonepage&qmeans-end%20theory\|archive-date=February 16, 2017}}</ref> * Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleIntegrated advertising, promotion, and marketing communications\|lastClow, Kenneth E.\|date2007\|publisherPearson Prentice Hall\|othersBaack, Donald.\|isbn978-0131866225\|edition3rd\|locationUpper Saddle River, N.J.\|oclc61448283}}</ref> Marketing mix {{Main\|Marketing mix}} The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book\|lastMcCarthy\|firstJerome E.\|titleBasic Marketing. A Managerial Approach\|year1964\|publisherIrwin\|locationHomewood, IL}}</ref> It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product. In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's.<ref name"Business for Higher Awards">{{cite book \|title Business for Higher Awards \|lastNeedham \|first Dave \|year1996 \|publisherHeinemann \|location=Oxford, England }}</ref> There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience) <ref nameSchultz>{{Citation \| author1Schultz, Don E \| author2Tannenbaum, Stanley I \| author3Lauterborn, Robert F \| titleIntegrated marketing communications \| date1993 \| publisherNTC Business Books \| isbn978-0-8442-3363-5 \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/integratedmarket00schu_0 }}</ref> and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, and MIS.<ref>Shimizu, Koichi (1989) "Advertising Theory and Strategies", (Japanese) first edition, Souseisha Book Company in Tokyo. ({{ISBN\|4-7944-2030-7}} C3034 P3980E) pp.&nbsp;63–102.</ref><ref>Shimizu, Koichi (2014) "Advertising Theory and Strategies", (Japanese) 18th edition, Souseisha Book Company ({{ISBN\|4-7944-2132-X}} C3034) pp.&nbsp;63–102.</ref><ref>Solis, Brian (2011) Engage!: The Complete Guide for Brands and Businesses to Build, Cultivate, and Measure Success in the New Web, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.&nbsp;201–202.</ref><ref>Shimizu, Koichi (2003) "Symbiotic Marketing Strategy", (Japanese) 4th edition, Souseisha Book Company.({{ISBN\|4-7944-2158-3}} C3034) pp.&nbsp;25–62.</ref> Research {{Main\|Advertising research}} Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns. Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.copytesting.org\|titleCopyTesting.org\|websitewww.copytesting.org\|access-dateFebruary 13, 2017\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170425021551/http://copytesting.org/\|archive-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref> Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement.<ref>See, for instance: Panton, M. McB. (1936), "The Master Adman Nobody Knows", Advertising & Selling, Vol.27, (September 10, 1936), pp.32, 46.</ref> With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.<ref>Peeter Verlegh, Hilde Voorveld, and Martin Eisend, eds. Advances in Advertising Research (Vol. VI): The Digital, the Classic, the Subtle, and the Alternative (Springer, 2015).</ref> Semiotics {{Main\|Semiotics}} Meanings between consumers and marketers depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastMick\|firstDevid Glen\|titleConsumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance\|journalThe Journal of Consumer Research\|dateSeptember 1986\|volume13\|issue2\|page196\|doi10.1086/209060}}</ref> Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example) advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product.{{citation needed\|dateApril 2015}} These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBeasley\|first Ron\|titlePersuasive Signs: The Semiotics of Advertising\|year 2002\|publisherWalter deGruyter GmbH & KG\|location Berlin\|isbn978-3-11-017341-3}}</ref> The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.<ref>{{cite book\|last Pinson\|firstChristian\|title Marketing Semiotics\|year1998\|url http://flora.insead.edu/fichiersti_wp/inseadwp1998/98-39.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110816121627/http://flora.insead.edu/fichiersti_wp/inseadwp1998/98-39.pdf\|archive-dateAugust 16, 2011\|df mdy-all}}</ref> A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line.<ref>{{cite book\|lastUmiker-Sebeok\|first Donna Jean\|titleMarketing and Semiotics\|year 1987\|publisherWalter de Gruyter & Co.\|location Berlin}}</ref> Apple's commercials{{when\|dateApril 2015}} used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.<ref>{{cite web\|last Salsburey\|firstJustin\|title Semiotic analysis of iPod Advertisements\|urlhttp://sites.google.com/site/jsalsburey/macintoshsemiotics\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130521105135/https://sites.google.com/site/jsalsburey/macintoshsemiotics\|archive-date May 21, 2013\|df= mdy-all}}</ref> The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.{{citation needed\|date=August 2021}} There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastKoc\|first Erdogan\|titleImpact of gender in marketing communications: the role of cognitive and affective cues\|journal Journal of Marketing Communications\|year2002\|volume 8\|issue4\|page 257\|doi10.1080/13527260210145993\|s2cid 167941776}}</ref> Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastHolbrook\|first Morris\|titleBeyond Attitude Structure: Toward the Informational Determinants of Attitude\|journal Journal of Marketing Research\|dateNovember 1978\|volume 15\|issue4\|pages 545–556\|doi10.2307/3150624\|jstor 3150624}}</ref> Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastSilverman\|first Julian\|author2King, Catherine\|title Pseudoperceptual differentiation\|journalJournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology\|year 1970\|volume34\|issue 1\|pages119–23\|doi 10.1037/h0028807\|pmid= 5436459}}</ref> Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94% having been reported.<ref>{{cite web\|titleFemale Celebrities Still Can't Break Through the Glass Ceiling of Voice-over Work\|date August 20, 2013\|urlhttps://www.vulture.com/2013/08/female-celebrity-voiceovers-glass-ceiling.html\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151009060321/http://www.vulture.com/2013/08/female-celebrity-voiceovers-glass-ceiling.html\|archive-date October 9, 2015\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> There have been more female voiceovers in recent years,{{when\|dateApril 2015}} but mainly for food, household products, and feminine-care products.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1207/s15506878jobem4403_10\|title Gender-Differentiated Production Features in Toy Commercials\|journalJournal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media\|volume 44\|issue3\|pages 503\|year2010\|last1 Chandler\|first1Daniel\|last2 Griffiths\|first2Merris\|s2cid 144741368}}</ref> Gender effects on comprehension According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.<ref>{{cite book\|lastStatt\|first David\|titleUnderstanding the Consumer – A Psychological Approach\|year 1977\|publisherMacmillan Press\|location London}}</ref>{{request quotation\|dateFebruary 2017}} According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team<ref>Vestergaard and Schrøder, The Language of Advertising, 75</ref> found that advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to women aims at transformation toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article "The Objectification of Women in Advertising" he discusses the negative impact that these women in advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thebalance.com/advertising-women-and-objectification-38754\|titleAdvertising Sets Impossible Standards for Women\|workThe Balance\|access-dateMay 7, 2017\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170326082225/https://www.thebalance.com/advertising-women-and-objectification-38754\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2017}}</ref> Advertising's manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on stage, within music videos and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of female reality and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of women and young girls negatively affect their views about their bodies and appearances. These advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized.<ref>Splendora, "Discourse", Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, The Language of Advertising in Language in Society, 449</ref>{{request quotation\|dateFebruary 2017}} There are some companies like Dove and aerie<!--- no caps as stylized ---> that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less post production manipulation, so more women and young girls are able to relate to them.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2018}} More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state.<ref> Martin, Brett A. S. (2003), [http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-2003.pdf "The Influence of Gender on Mood Effects in Advertising"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121025120035/http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-2003.pdf \|dateOctober 25, 2012 }}, Psychology and Marketing,20 (3), 249–73.</ref> Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don't just Break Stereotypes—They're also Effective" discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first Barbie commercial, where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/ads-empower-women-don-t-just-break-stereotypes-they-re-also-effective-170953/\|titleAds That Empower Women Don't Just Break Stereotypes—They're Also Effective\|access-dateMay 7, 2017\|languageen-US\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170326152331/http://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/ads-empower-women-don-t-just-break-stereotypes-they-re-also-effective-170953/\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2017}}</ref>AlternativesOther approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions, microtransactions, and data monetization. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using advertisements at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopedia Wikipedia provides free<ref>aside from rare popups seeking donations, Wikipedia routinely seeks voluntary donations of time to improve itself via research to be done by those who then make edits to existing articles.</ref> content by receiving funding from charitable donations.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idm3oEDgAAQBAJ&pgPA209 Page 209] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221227161813/https://books.google.se/books?idm3oEDgAAQBAJ&pgPA209 \|dateDecember 27, 2022 }} in: {{cite book \|titleSocial Media: A Critical Introduction \|firstChristian \|lastFuchs \|publisherSAGE \|year2017 \|isbn978-1473987494}}</ref> "Fathers" of advertising * Late 1700s – Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) – "father of advertising in America"<ref name"HJSJ">Winfield Scott Downs, American Historical Company, American Historical Society, 1940 – Biography & Autobiography (pp. 260–263) [https://books.google.com/books?idkpoMAQAAMAAJ&q%22father%20of%20advertising%22%20franklin%20smythe&pgRA2-PA260] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221227161857/https://books.google.com/books?idkpoMAQAAMAAJ&vq%22father%20of%20advertising%22%20franklin%20smythe&pgRA2-PA260\|dateDecember 27, 2022}} J. Henry Smythe, Jr – "the world's best known slogan writer... compiled and edited "The Amazing Benjamin Franklin," published in 1929 ... approved by the American Library Association. ... Over forty official contributions ... Each paid tribute to some special "side" of Franklin ... "Franklin, the Printer," is a Craftsman, Father of Advertising in America, Editor, Publisher ..."</ref> * Late 1800s – Thomas J. Barratt (1841–1914) of London – called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates<ref> T F G Coates: 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of modern advertising"', Modern Business, September 1908, pp 107–115. </ref> * Early 1900s – J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe Jr of Philadelphia – "world's best known slogan writer"<ref name="HJSJ" /> * Early 1900s – Albert Lasker (1880–1952) – the "father of modern advertising"; defined advertising as "salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why"<ref>{{cite web\| url https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Mass_Media/Advertising\| title Introduction to Mass Media/Advertising\|authorWilliam Hart and his graduate students in MCM510\|locationNorfolk State University\|publisherWikibooks}}</ref>Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice{{Div col\|smallno\|colwidth=30em}} * N. W. Ayer & Son – probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in a promotional campaign * Claude C. Hopkins (1866–1932) – popularised the use of test campaigns, especially coupons in direct mail, to track the efficiency of marketing spend * Ernest Dichter (1907–1991) – developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising * E. St. Elmo Lewis (1872–1948) – developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and advertising * Arthur Nielsen (1897–1980) – founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and developed ratings for radio & TV * David Ogilvy (1911–1999) – pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image in advertising * Charles Coolidge Parlin (1872–1942) – regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing research in advertising * Rosser Reeves (1910–1984) – developed the concept of the unique selling proposition (USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising * Al Ries (1926–2022) – advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the late 1960s * Daniel Starch (1883–1979) – developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness (still in use) * J Walter Thompson – one of the earliest advertising agencies {{div col end}} See also {{Portal\|Business and economics\|Media}} {{Div col\|smallno\|colwidth17em}} * Advertisements in schools * Advertorial * Annoyance factor * Bibliography of advertising * Branded content * Commercial speech * Comparative advertising * Conquesting * Copywriting * Demo mode * Direct-to-consumer advertising * Family in advertising * Graphic design * Gross rating point * History of Advertising Trust * Informative advertising * Integrated marketing communications * List of advertising awards * Local advertising * Market overhang * Media planning * Meta-advertising * Mobile marketing * Performance-based advertising * Promotional mix * Senior media creative * Shock advertising * Viral marketing * World Federation of Advertisers {{div col end}} References Notes {{Reflist}} Further reading {{refbegin\|30em}} * Arens, William, and Michael Weigold. Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing Communications (2012) * Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective (10th ed. 2014) * Biocca, Frank. Television and Political Advertising: Volume I: Psychological Processes (Routledge, 2013) * Chandra, Ambarish, and Ulrich Kaiser. "Targeted advertising in magazine markets and the advent of the internet." Management Science 60.7 (2014) pp: 1829–1843. * Chen, Yongmin, and Chuan He. "Paid placement: Advertising and search on the internet." The Economic Journal 121#556 (2011): F309–F328. [http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304201829/http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf \|dateMarch 4, 2016 }} Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary Copeland. Negative political advertising: Coming of age (2013) * McAllister, Matthew P. and Emily West, eds. HardcoverThe Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture (2013) * McFall, Elizabeth Rose Advertising: a cultural economy (2004), cultural and sociological approaches to advertising * Moriarty, Sandra, and Nancy Mitchell. Advertising & IMC: Principles and Practice (10th ed. 2014) * Okorie, Nelson. The Principles of Advertising: concepts and trends in advertising (2011) * Reichert, Tom, and Jacqueline Lambiase, eds. Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic appeal (Routledge, 2014) * Sheehan, Kim Bartel. Controversies in contemporary advertising (Sage Publications, 2013) * Vestergaard, Torben and Schrøder, Kim. The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985. {{ISBN\|0-631-12743-7}} ** Splendora, Anthony. "Discourse", a Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, The Language of Advertising in Language in Society Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec. 1986), pp.&nbsp;445–449 History {{Main\|History of advertising#Further reading}} * Brandt, Allan. [https://books.google.com/books?idyybaN6j4IpEC&pgPA31 The Cigarette Century (2009)] * Crawford, Robert. ''But Wait, There's More!: A History of Australian Advertising, 1900–2000 (2008) * Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. {{ISBN\|0-07-019846-2}} * Fox, Stephen R. The mirror makers: A history of American advertising and its creators (University of Illinois Press, 1984) * Friedman, Walter A. Birth of a Salesman (Harvard University Press, 2005), In the United States * Jacobson, Lisa. Raising consumers: Children and the American mass market in the early twentieth century (Columbia University Press, 2013) * Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Packaging the presidency: A history and criticism of presidential campaign advertising (Oxford University Press, 1996) * Laird, Pamela Walker. Advertising progress: American business and the rise of consumer marketing (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.) * Lears, Jackson. Fables of abundance: A cultural history of advertising in America (1995) * Liguori, Maria Chiara. "North and South: Advertising Prosperity in the Italian Economic Boom Years." Advertising & Society Review (2015) 15#4 * Meyers, Cynthia B. A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio (2014) * Mazzarella, William. Shoveling smoke: Advertising and globalization in contemporary India (Duke University Press, 2003) * Moriarty, Sandra, et al. Advertising: Principles and practice (Pearson Australia, 2014), Australian perspectives * Nevett, Terence R. Advertising in Britain: a history (1982) * Oram, Hugh. The advertising book: The history of advertising in Ireland (MOL Books, 1986) * Presbrey, Frank. "The history and development of advertising." Advertising & Society Review (2000) 1#1 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asr/v001/1.1presbrey.html online] * Saunders, Thomas J. "Selling under the Swastika: Advertising and Commercial Culture in Nazi Germany." German History (2014): ghu058. * Short, John Phillip. "Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany." Enterprise and Society (2014): khu013. * Sivulka, Juliann. Soap, sex, and cigarettes: A cultural history of American advertising (Cengage Learning, 2011) * Spring, Dawn. "The Globalization of American Advertising and Brand Management: A Brief History of the J. Walter Thompson Company, Proctor and Gamble, and US Foreign Policy." Global Studies Journal (2013). 5#4 * Stephenson, Harry Edward, and Carlton McNaught. The Story of Advertising in Canada: A Chronicle of Fifty Years (Ryerson Press, 1940) * Tungate, Mark. Adland: a global history of advertising (Kogan Page Publishers, 2007.) * West, Darrell M. Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns, 1952–2012 (Sage, 2013) {{refend}} External links {{sister project links\|auto1\|wiktAdvertising\|ny\|sPortal:Advertising\|vy\|dQ37038}} {{Library resources box \|byno \|onlinebooksno \|othersyes \|lcheadingAdvertising}} * [http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140106134741/http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html \|dateJanuary 6, 2014 }} Duke University Libraries Digital Collections: * [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess/ AdAccess], over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda. [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa/ Emergence of Advertising in America], 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States. * [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adviews/ AdViews], vintage television commercials * [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/outdooradvertising/ ROAD 2.0], 30,000 outdoor advertising images * [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/mma/ Medicine & Madison Avenue], documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products * Art & Copy'', a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry {{Product advertising}} {{Media manipulation}} {{Media culture}} {{Aspects of capitalism}} {{Authority control}} Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Communication design Category:Promotion and marketing communications Category:Business models	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising	2025-04-05T18:26:10.800709
2862	AI-complete	{{Short description\|Term describing difficult problems in AI}} In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), tasks that are hypothesized to require artificial general intelligence to solve are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard.<ref name" Shapiro92">Shapiro, Stuart C. (1992). [http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~shapiro/Papers/ai.pdf Artificial Intelligence] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160201014644/http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~shapiro/Papers/ai.pdf \|date=2016-02-01 }} In Stuart C. Shapiro (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence (Second Edition, pp.&nbsp;54–57). New York: John Wiley. (Section 4 is on "AI-Complete Tasks".)</ref> Calling a problem AI-complete reflects the belief that it cannot be solved by a simple specific algorithm. In the past, problems supposed to be AI-complete included computer vision, natural language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real-world problem.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastYampolskiy \|firstRoman \|dateJanuary 2013 \|titleTuring Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness \|urlhttp://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf \|journalArtificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computing and Metaheuristics \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130522094547/http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf \|archive-date2013-05-22}}</ref> AI-complete tasks were notably considered useful for testing the presence of humans, as CAPTCHAs aim to do, and in computer security to circumvent brute-force attacks.<ref>Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas Hopper, and John Langford. [http://www.captcha.net/captcha_crypt.pdf CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems for Security] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304001102/http://www.captcha.net/captcha_crypt.pdf \|date2016-03-04 }}. In Proceedings of Eurocrypt, Vol. 2656 (2003), pp. 294–311.</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| first Richard \| last Bergmair \| title Natural Language Steganography and an "AI-complete" Security Primitive \| citeseerx 10.1.1.105.129 \| date January 7, 2006 }} (unpublished?)</ref>HistoryThe term was coined by Fanya Montalvo by analogy with NP-complete and NP-hard in complexity theory, which formally describes the most famous class of difficult problems.<ref>{{Citation \| lastMallery \| firstJohn C. \| year1988 \| urlhttp://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mallery88thinking.html \| contributionThinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers \| titleThe 1988 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association. \| locationSt. Louis, MO \| access-date2007-04-27 \| archive-date2008-02-29 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080229024012/http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mallery88thinking.html \| url-statuslive }}.</ref> Early uses of the term are in Erik Mueller's 1987 PhD dissertation<ref>Mueller, Erik T. (1987, March). [http://ftp.cs.ucla.edu/tech-report/198_-reports/870017.pdf Daydreaming and Computation (Technical Report CSD-870017)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201030213109/http://ftp.cs.ucla.edu/tech-report/198_-reports/870017.pdf \|date2020-10-30 }} PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. ("Daydreaming is but one more AI-complete problem: if we could solve anyone artificial intelligence problem, we could solve all the others", p.&nbsp;302)</ref> and in Eric Raymond's 1991 Jargon File.<ref>Raymond, Eric S. (1991, March 22). [http://catb.org/esr/jargon/oldversions/jarg282.txt Jargon File Version 2.8.1] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604150347/http://catb.org/esr/jargon/oldversions/jarg282.txt \|date2011-06-04 }} (Definition of "AI-complete" first added to jargon file.)</ref> Expert systems, that were popular in the 1980s, were able to solve very simple and/or restricted versions of AI-complete problems, but never in their full generality. When AI researchers attempted to "scale up" their systems to handle more complicated, real-world situations, the programs tended to become excessively brittle without commonsense knowledge or a rudimentary understanding of the situation: they would fail as unexpected circumstances outside of its original problem context would begin to appear. When human beings are dealing with new situations in the world, they are helped by their awareness of the general context: they know what the things around them are, why they are there, what they are likely to do and so on. They can recognize unusual situations and adjust accordingly. Expert systems lacked this adaptability and were brittle when facing new situations.<ref>{{Citation \|last1Lenat \|first1Douglas \|titleBuilding Large Knowledge-Based Systems \|pages1–5 \|year1989 \|publisherAddison-Wesley \|last2Guha \|first2R. V. \|author-link=Douglas Lenat}}</ref> DeepMind published a work in May 2022 in which they trained a single model to do several things at the same time. The model, named Gato, can "play Atari, caption images, chat, stack blocks with a real robot arm and much more, deciding based on its context whether to output text, joint torques, button presses, or other tokens."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Generalist Agent \|urlhttps://www.deepmind.com/publications/a-generalist-agent \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220802000307/https://www.deepmind.com/publications/a-generalist-agent \|archive-date2022-08-02 \|access-date2022-05-26 \|websitewww.deepmind.com \|languageen}}</ref> Similarly, some tasks once considered to be AI-complete, like machine translation,<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastKatz \|firstMiranda \|titleWelcome to the Era of the AI Coworker {{!}} Backchannel \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/welcome-to-the-era-of-the-ai-coworker/ \|access-date2024-04-28 \|magazineWired \|languageen-US \|issn1059-1028}}</ref> are among the capabilities of large language models.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleUnveiling the Power of Large Language Models (LLMs) \|urlhttps://www.unite.ai/large-language-models/ \|access-date2024-04-28 \|websitewww.unite.ai}}</ref> AI-complete problems AI-complete problems have been hypothesized to include: * AI peer review<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastStockton \|firstNick \|titleIf AI Can Fix Peer Review in Science, AI Can Do Anything \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2017/02/ai-can-solve-peer-review-ai-can-solve-anything/ \|access-date2024-04-27 \|magazineWired \|languageen-US \|issn1059-1028}}</ref> (composite natural language understanding, automated reasoning, automated theorem proving, formalized logic expert system) * Bongard problems<ref name"Sekrst2020">{{Citation \|lastŠekrst \|firstKristina \|titleAI-Completeness: Using Deep Learning to Eliminate the Human Factor \|date2020 \|workGuide to Deep Learning Basics: Logical, Historical and Philosophical Perspectives \|pages117–130 \|editor-lastSkansi \|editor-firstSandro \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37591-1_11 \|access-date2024-04-05 \|placeCham \|publisherSpringer International Publishing \|languageen \|doi10.1007/978-3-030-37591-1_11 \|isbn978-3-030-37591-1}}</ref> * Computer vision (and subproblems such as object recognition)<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Strat \|first1Thomas M. \|last2Chellappa \|first2Rama \|last3Patel \|first3Vishal M. \|date2020 \|titleVision and robotics \|journalAI Magazine \|volume42 \|issue2 \|pages49–65 \|doi10.1609/aimag.v41i2.5299 \|s2cid220687545 \|viaABI/INFORM Collection\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> * Natural language understanding (and subproblems such as text mining,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Krestel \|first1Ralf \|last2Aras \|first2Hidir \|last3Andersson \|first3Linda \|last4Piroi \|first4Florina \|last5Hanbury \|first5Allan \|last6Alderucci \|first6Dean \|titleProceedings of the 45th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval \|chapter3rd Workshop on Patent Text Mining and Semantic Technologies (PatentSemTech2022) \|date2022-07-06 \|chapter-urlhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3477495.3531702 \|languageen \|locationMadrid Spain \|publisherACM \|pages3474–3477 \|doi10.1145/3477495.3531702 \|isbn978-1-4503-8732-3 \|s2cid250340282 \|access-date2023-04-15 \|archive-date2023-04-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415213932/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3477495.3531702 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> machine translation,<ref>{{Citation \|lastOrynycz \|firstPetro \|titleSay It Right: AI Neural Machine Translation Empowers New Speakers to Revitalize Lemko \|date2022 \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-05643-7_37 \|workArtificial Intelligence in HCI \|seriesLecture Notes in Computer Science \|volume13336 \|pages567–580 \|editor-lastDegen \|editor-firstHelmut \|access-date2023-04-15 \|placeCham \|publisherSpringer International Publishing \|languageen \|doi10.1007/978-3-031-05643-7_37 \|isbn978-3-031-05642-0 \|editor2-lastNtoa \|editor2-firstStavroula}}</ref> and word-sense disambiguation<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ide \|first1N. \|last2Veronis \|first2J. \|year1998 \|titleIntroduction to the special issue on word sense disambiguation: the state of the art \|journalComputational Linguistics \|volume24 \|issue1 \|pages2–40\|urlhttps://www.aclweb.org/anthology/J/J98/J98-1001.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/J/J98/J98-1001.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>) * Autonomous driving<ref>{{cite interview \|lastMusk \|firstElon \|subject-linkElon Musk \|interviewerChris_Anderson_(entrepreneur) \|titleElon Musk talks Twitter, Tesla and how his brain works — live at TED2022 \|workTED (conference) \|locationVancouver \|dateApril 14, 2022 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vcdZZpaB2kDM \|access-dateDecember 15, 2022 \|archive-dateDecember 15, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221215004220/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vcdZZpaB2kDM \|url-status=live }}</ref> * Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem,<ref>{{Citation \|lastŠekrst \|firstKristina \|titleGuide to Deep Learning Basics \|date2020 \|work\|editor-lastSkansi \|editor-firstSandro \|urlhttps://philarchive.org/archive/EKRAUD \|chapterChapter 11 - AI-Completeness: Using Deep Learning to Eliminate the Human Factor \|publisherSpringer \|languageen \|isbn978-3-030-37591-1}}</ref> whether navigation, planning, or even the kind of reasoning done by expert systems.{{citation needed\|dateFebruary 2021}}FormalizationComputational complexity theory deals with the relative computational difficulty of computable functions. By definition, it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterized formally. Since many AI problems have no formalization yet, conventional complexity theory does not enable a formal definition of AI-completeness.ResearchRoman Yampolskiy<ref>{{Citation \|lastYampolskiy \|firstRoman \|titleAI-Complete, AI-Hard, or AI-Easy – Classification of Problems in AI \|date2012 \|work23rd Midwest Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science Conference, MAICS 2012, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, 21-22 April 2012 \|urlhttps://www.proceedings.com/content/022/022437webtoc.pdf \|access-date2024-04-05 \|language=en}}</ref> suggests that a problem <math>C</math> is AI-Complete if it has two properties: * It is in the set of AI problems (Human Oracle-solvable). * Any AI problem can be converted into <math>C</math> by some polynomial time algorithm. On the other hand, a problem <math>H</math> is AI-Hard if and only if there is an AI-Complete problem <math>C</math> that is polynomial time Turing-reducible to <math>H</math>. This also gives as a consequence the existence of AI-Easy problems, that are solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine with an oracle for some problem. Yampolskiy<ref>{{Citation \|lastYampolskiy \|firstRoman \|title=Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness \|date2013 \|workArtificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computing and Metaheuristics \|seriesStudies in Computational Intelligence \|volume427 \|pages3–17 \|languageen \|doi10.1007/978-3-642-29694-9_1\|isbn978-3-642-29693-2 }}</ref> has also hypothesized that the Turing Test is a defining feature of AI-completeness. Groppe and Jain<ref>{{Citation \|last1Groppe \|first1Sven \|first2Sarika \| last2Jain \|titleThe Way Forward with AI-Complete Problems \|date2024 \|journalNew Generation Computing\|volume42 \|pages1–5 \|languageen \|doi10.1007/s00354-024-00251-8}}</ref> classify problems which require artificial general intelligence to reach human-level machine performance as AI-complete, while only restricted versions of AI-complete problems can be solved by the current AI systems. For Šekrst,<ref name"Sekrst2020" /> getting a polynomial solution to AI-complete problems would not necessarily be equal to solving the issue of artificial general intelligence, while emphasizing the lack of computational complexity research being the limiting factor towards achieving artificial general intelligence. For Kwee-Bintoro and Velez,<ref>{{Citation \|last1Kwee-Bintoro \|first1Ted \| last2 Velez \| first2 Noah \|titleAI-Complete: What it Means to Be Human in an Increasingly Computerized World \|date2022 \|workBridging Human Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence \|seriesEducational Communications and Technology: Issues and Innovations \|pages257–274 \|placeCham \|publisherSpringer \|languageen \|doi10.1007/978-3-030-84729-6_18\|isbn978-3-030-84728-9 }}</ref> solving AI-complete problems would have strong repercussions on society. See also * ASR-complete * List of unsolved problems in computer science * Synthetic intelligence References <references/> {{Natural Language Processing}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ai-Complete}} Category:Artificial intelligence Category:Computational problems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-complete	2025-04-05T18:26:10.815972
2864	Archaeoastronomy	thumb\|The rising Sun illuminates the inner chamber of Newgrange, Ireland, only at the winter solstice. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice. thumb\|The sunset at the equinox seen from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture. Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements. Archaeoastronomy can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs. It is perhaps the need to balance the social and scientific aspects of archaeoastronomy which led Clive Ruggles to describe it as "a field with academic work of high quality at one end but uncontrolled speculation bordering on lunacy at the other". History Two hundred years before John Michell wrote the above, there were no archaeoastronomers and there were no professional archaeologists, but there were astronomers and antiquarians. Some of their works are considered precursors of archaeoastronomy; antiquarians interpreted the astronomical orientation of the ruins that dotted the English countryside as William Stukeley did of Stonehenge in 1740, while John Aubrey in 1678 and Henry Chauncy in 1700 sought similar astronomical principles underlying the orientation of churches. Late in the nineteenth century astronomers such as Richard Proctor and Charles Piazzi Smyth investigated the astronomical orientations of the pyramids. The term archaeoastronomy was advanced by Elizabeth Chesley Baity (following the suggestion of Euan MacKie) in 1973, but as a topic of study it may be much older, depending on how archaeoastronomy is defined. Clive Ruggles says that Heinrich Nissen, working in the mid-nineteenth century was arguably the first archaeoastronomer. Rolf Sinclair says that Norman Lockyer, working in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, could be called the 'father of archaeoastronomy'. Euan MacKie would place the origin even later, stating: "...the genesis and modern flowering of archaeoastronomy must surely lie in the work of Alexander Thom in Britain between the 1930s and the 1970s". left\|thumb\|Early archaeoastronomers surveyed Megalithic constructs in the British Isles, at sites like Auglish in County Londonderry, in an attempt to find statistical patterns. In the 1960s the work of the engineer Alexander Thom and that of the astronomer Gerald Hawkins, who proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer, inspired new interest in the astronomical features of ancient sites. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed, but this was not the case for Alexander Thom's work, whose survey results of megalithic sites hypothesized widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. Euan MacKie, recognizing that Thom's theories needed to be tested, excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter's prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom's long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom's geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom's conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain. In contrast a re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork by Clive Ruggles argued that Thom's claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless, Thom's legacy remains strong, Edwin C. Krupp wrote in 1979, "Almost singlehandedly he has established the standards for archaeo-astronomical fieldwork and interpretation, and his amazing results have stirred controversy during the last three decades." His influence endures and practice of statistical testing of data remains one of the methods of archaeoastronomy. alt=\|left\|thumb\|It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments. The approach in the New World, where anthropologists began to consider more fully the role of astronomy in Amerindian civilizations, was markedly different. They had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies and the historical records of the early colonizers. Following the pioneering example of Anthony Aveni, this allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy that were comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe. This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Oxford in 1981. The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless, the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today, rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies, archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky. Relations to other disciplines Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures. As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes), history of astronomy (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies). Reflecting Archaeoastronomy's development as an interdisciplinary subject, research in the field is conducted by investigators trained in a wide range of disciplines. Authors of recent doctoral dissertations have described their work as concerned with the fields of archaeology and cultural anthropology; with various fields of history including the history of specific regions and periods, the history of science and the history of religion; and with the relation of astronomy to art, literature and religion. Only rarely did they describe their work as astronomical, and then only as a secondary category. Both practicing archaeoastronomers and observers of the discipline approach it from different perspectives. Other researchers relate archaeoastronomy to the history of science, either as it relates to a culture's observations of nature and the conceptual framework they devised to impose an order on those observations or as it relates to the political motives which drove particular historical actors to deploy certain astronomical concepts or techniques. Art historian Richard Poss took a more flexible approach, maintaining that the astronomical rock art of the North American Southwest should be read employing "the hermeneutic traditions of western art history and art criticism" Astronomers, however, raise different questions, seeking to provide their students with identifiable precursors of their discipline, and are especially concerned with the important question of how to confirm that specific sites are, indeed, intentionally astronomical. The reactions of professional archaeologists to archaeoastronomy have been decidedly mixed. Some expressed incomprehension or even hostility, varying from a rejection by the archaeological mainstream of what they saw as an archaeoastronomical fringe to an incomprehension between the cultural focus of archaeologists and the quantitative focus of early archaeoastronomers. Yet archaeologists have increasingly come to incorporate many of the insights from archaeoastronomy into archaeology textbooks and, as mentioned above, some students wrote archaeology dissertations on archaeoastronomical topics. Since archaeoastronomers disagree so widely on the characterization of the discipline, they even dispute its name. All three major international scholarly associations relate archaeoastronomy to the study of culture, using the term Astronomy in Culture or a translation. Michael Hoskin sees an important part of the discipline as fact-collecting, rather than theorizing, and proposed to label this aspect of the discipline Archaeotopography. Ruggles and Saunders proposed Cultural Astronomy as a unifying term for the various methods of studying folk astronomies. Others have argued that astronomy is an inaccurate term, what are being studied are cosmologies and people who object to the use of logos have suggested adopting the Spanish cosmovisión. When debates polarise between techniques, the methods are often referred to by a colour code, based on the colours of the bindings of the two volumes from the first Oxford Conference, where the approaches were first distinguished. Green (Old World) archaeoastronomers rely heavily on statistics and are sometimes accused of missing the cultural context of what is a social practice. Brown (New World) archaeoastronomers in contrast have abundant ethnographic and historical evidence and have been described as 'cavalier' on matters of measurement and statistical analysis. Finding a way to integrate various approaches has been a subject of much discussion since the early 1990s. Methodology There is no one way to do archaeoastronomy. The divisions between archaeoastronomers tend not to be between the physical scientists and the social scientists. Instead, it tends to depend on the location and/or kind of data available to the researcher. In the Old World, there is little data but the sites themselves; in the New World, the sites were supplemented by ethnographic and historic data. The effects of the isolated development of archaeoastronomy in different places can still often be seen in research today. Research methods can be classified as falling into one of two approaches, though more recent projects often use techniques from both categories. Green archaeoastronomy Green archaeoastronomy is named after the cover of the book Archaeoastronomy in the Old World. It is based primarily on statistics and is particularly apt for prehistoric sites where the social evidence is relatively scant compared to the historic period. The basic methods were developed by Alexander Thom during his extensive surveys of British megalithic sites. Thom wished to examine whether or not prehistoric peoples used high-accuracy astronomy. He believed that by using horizon astronomy, observers could make estimates of dates in the year to a specific day. The observation required finding a place where on a specific date the Sun set into a notch on the horizon. A common theme is a mountain that blocked the Sun, but on the right day would allow the tiniest fraction to re-emerge on the other side for a 'double sunset'. The animation below shows two sunsets at a hypothetical site, one the day before the summer solstice and one at the summer solstice, which has a double sunset. To test this idea he surveyed hundreds of stone rows and circles. Any individual alignment could indicate a direction by chance, but he planned to show that together the distribution of alignments was non-random, showing that there was an astronomical intent to the orientation of at least some of the alignments. His results indicated the existence of eight, sixteen, or perhaps even thirty-two approximately equal divisions of the year. The two solstices, the two equinoxes and four cross-quarter days, days halfway between a solstice and the equinox were associated with the medieval Celtic calendar. While not all these conclusions have been accepted, it has had an enduring influence on archaeoastronomy, especially in Europe. Euan MacKie has supported Thom's analysis, to which he added an archaeological context by comparing Neolithic Britain to the Mayan civilization to argue for a stratified society in this period. This, Thom argued, was a notch on the horizon where a double sunset would occur at midwinter. However, from ground level, this sunset would be obscured by a ridge in the landscape, and the viewer would need to be raised by two meters: another observation platform was needed. This was identified across a gorge where a platform was formed from small stones. The lack of artifacts caused concern for some archaeologists and the petrofabric analysis was inconclusive, but further research at Maes Howe and on the Bush Barrow Lozenge led MacKie to conclude that while the term 'science' may be anachronistic, Thom was broadly correct upon the subject of high-accuracy alignments. In contrast Clive Ruggles has argued that there are problems with the selection of data in Thom's surveys. Others have noted that the accuracy of horizon astronomy is limited by variations in refraction near the horizon. A deeper criticism of Green archaeoastronomy is that while it can answer whether there was likely to be an interest in astronomy in past times, its lack of a social element means that it struggles to answer why people would be interested, which makes it of limited use to people asking questions about the society of the past. Keith Kintigh wrote: "To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn't inform the current interpretive questions." Nonetheless, the study of alignments remains a staple of archaeoastronomical research, especially in Europe. Brown archaeoastronomy In contrast to the largely alignment-oriented statistically led methods of green archaeoastronomy, brown archaeoastronomy has been identified as being closer to the history of astronomy or to cultural history, insofar as it draws on historical and ethnographic records to enrich its understanding of early astronomies and their relations to calendars and ritual. These cycles would have been of astrological and ritual significance as Venus was associated with Quetzalcoatl or Xolotl. Associations of architectural features with settings of Venus can be found in Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and probably some other Mesoamerican sites. left\|thumb\|upright=1.15\|"El Caracol", a possible observatory temple at Chichen Itza The Temple of the Warriors bears iconography depicting feathered serpents associated with Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. This means that the building's alignment towards the place on the horizon where Venus first appears in the evening sky (when it coincides with the rainy season) may be meaningful. However, since both the date and the azimuth of this event change continuously, a solar interpretation of this orientation is much more likely. Anthony Aveni claims that another building associated with the planet Venus in the form of Kukulcan, and the rainy season at Chichen Itza is the Caracol. This is a building with a circular tower and doors facing the cardinal directions. The base faces the most northerly setting of Venus. Additionally the pillars of a stylobate on the building's upper platform were painted black and red. These are colours associated with Venus as an evening and morning star. However the windows in the tower seem to have been little more than slots, making them poor at letting light in, but providing a suitable place to view out. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles considered the interpretation that the Caracol is an observatory site was debated among specialists, meeting the second of their four levels of site credibility. In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the history of astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the Han dynasty, in the second century BC. A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are. Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area and in other parts of Mesoamerica. Source materials Because archaeoastronomy is about the many and various ways people interacted with the sky, there are a diverse range of sources giving information about astronomical practices. Alignments A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites. An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree. A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer. Artifacts thumb\|The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)For artifacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists. A more mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings. This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time. Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read. Art and inscriptions thumb\|left\|Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the Fajada Butte petroglyph on various days Art and inscriptions may not be confined to artefacts, but also appear painted or inscribed on an archaeological site. Sometimes inscriptions are helpful enough to give instructions to a site's use. For example, a Greek inscription on a stele (from Itanos) has been translated as:"Patron set this up for Zeus Epopsios. Winter solstice. Should anyone wish to know: off 'the little pig' and the stele the sun turns." From Mesoamerica come Mayan and Aztec codices. These are folding books made from Amatl, processed tree bark on which are glyphs in Mayan or Aztec script. The Dresden codex contains information regarding the Venus cycle, confirming its importance to the Mayans. A widely known example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte at which a glint of sunlight passes over a spiral petroglyph. The location of a dagger of light on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the summer solstice a dagger can be seen through the heart of the spiral; at the winter solstice two daggers appear to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. Recent studies have identified many similar sites in the US Southwest and Northwestern Mexico. It has been argued that the number of solstitial markers at these sites provides statistical evidence that they were intended to mark the solstices. The Sun Dagger site on Fajada Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stands out for its explicit light markings that record all the key events of both the solar and lunar cycles: summer solstice, winter solstice, equinox, and the major and minor lunar standstills of the Moon's 18.6 year cycle. In addition at two other sites on Fajada Butte, there are five light markings on petroglyphs recording the summer and winter solstices, equinox and solar noon. Numerous buildings and interbuilding alignments of the great houses of Chaco Canyon and outlying areas are oriented to the same solar and lunar directions that are marked at the Sun Dagger site. If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols. Ethnographies As well as the materials left by peoples themselves, there are also the reports of other who have encountered them. The historical records of the Conquistadores are a rich source of information about the pre-Columbian Americans. Ethnographers also provide material about many other peoples. Anthony Aveni uses the importance of zenith passages as an example of the importance of ethnography. For peoples living between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn there are two days of the year when the noon Sun passes directly overhead and casts no shadow. In parts of Mesoamerica this was considered a significant day as it would herald the arrival of rains, and so play a part in the cycle of agriculture. This knowledge is still considered important amongst Mayan Indians living in Central America today. The ethnographic records suggested to archaeoastronomers that this day may have been important to the ancient Mayans. There are also shafts known as 'zenith tubes' which illuminate subterranean rooms when the Sun passes overhead found at places like Monte Albán and Xochicalco. It is only through the ethnography that we can speculate that the timing of the illumination was considered important in Mayan society. Alignments to the sunrise and sunset on the day of the zenith passage have been claimed to exist at several sites. However, it has been shown that, since there are very few orientations that can be related to these phenomena, they likely have different explanations. Ethnographies also caution against over-interpretation of sites. At a site in Chaco Canyon can be found a pictograph with a star, crescent and hand. It has been argued by some astronomers that this is a record of the 1054 Supernova. However recent reexaminations of related 'supernova petroglyphs' raises questions about such sites in general. Cotte and Ruggles used the Supernova petroglyph as an example of a completely refuted site Ethnoastronomy is also an important field outside of the Americas. For example, anthropological work with Aboriginal Australians is producing much information about their Indigenous astronomies and about their interaction with the modern world. Recreating the ancient sky Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment. Declination To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. On a clear night observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole can be observed. This point is +90° of the North Celestial Pole or −90° observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The arc connecting the points on the horizon due East and due West (if the horizon is flat) and all points midway between the Celestial Poles is the Celestial Equator which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say whether a specific body can be seen in that direction. center\|thumb\|600px\|Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes Solar positioning While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation. Lunar positioning The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits—known as lunistices rather than solstices. However, its travel between lunistices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year-long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunistices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the Moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due to the extremely variable nature of the Moon. See Moon for more details. Stellar positioning thumb\|right\|Precessional movement Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. The movement of the Earth's axis was already noticed by the Sumerians over six thousand years ago, when they were able to observe the star Canopus culminating directly above the horizon on the southern meridian for the first time in their oldest and southernmost city Eridu. For several decades, Canopus was not yet visible in the neighbouring town of Ur to the north-east of Eridu, and therefore, it was called the "Star of the City of Eridu" in Sumerian. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the Sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the Sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes. Transient phenomena thumb\|left\|Halley's Comet depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to 28 May, 585 BC. Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the Solar System once and so are inherently unpredictable. Meteor showers should be predictable, but some meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena. Major topics of archaeoastronomical research The use of calendars A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod's Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to partially confirm this: astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical studies of the Hopi of the southwestern United States indicate that they carefully observed the rising and setting positions of the Sun to determine the proper times to plant crops. However, ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that their luni-solar calendar was somewhat haphazard, indicating the limits of astronomical calendars in some societies. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities. One such example is the Tzolk'in calendar of 260 days. Together with the 365-day year, it was used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, forming part of a comprehensive calendrical system, which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles. Archaeoastronomical studies throughout Mesoamerica have shown that the orientations of most structures refer to the Sun and were used in combination with the 260-day cycle for scheduling agricultural activities and the accompanying rituals. The distribution of dates and intervals marked by orientations of monumental ceremonial complexes in the area along the southern Gulf Coast in Mexico, dated to about 1100 to 700 BCE, represents the earliest evidence of the use of this cycle. Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could pause or skip days with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping. Orientation measurements in Greek temples and Byzantine churches have been associated to deity's name day, festivities, and special events. Myth and cosmology thumb\|upright=1.15\|The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690 Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In these cultures myth was a tool for achieving this, and the explanations, while not reflecting the standards of modern science, are cosmologies. The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion. The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions. The Chinese system was composed of five directions: North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as feng shui. There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce. A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate. The loss of one of the sisters, Merope, in some Greek myths may reflect an astronomical event wherein one of the stars in the Pleiades disappeared from view by the naked eye. Giorgio de Santillana, professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Hertha von Dechend, professor at Goethe University Frankfurt, argued that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They argued that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate, late Neolithic astronomy that was lost. Santillana and von Dechend argued in their book Hamlet's Mill: An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time (1969) that ancient myths have no historical or factual basis other than a cosmological one encoding astronomical phenomena, especially the precession of the equinoxes. Santillana and von Dechend's approach is not widely accepted. Displays of power thumbnail\|250px\|left\|The Precinct of Amun-Re was aligned on the midwinter solstice. By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism. Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. When viewed from a ceremonial plaza on the Island of the Sun (the mythical origin place of the Sun) in Lake Titicaca, the Sun was seen to rise at the June solstice between two towers on a nearby ridge. The sacred part of the island was separated from the remainder of it by a stone wall and ethnographic records indicate that access to the sacred space was restricted to members of the Inca ruling elite. Ordinary pilgrims stood on a platform outside the ceremonial area to see the solstice Sun rise between the towers. In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. In a later period the Serapeum of Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god. Major sites of archaeoastronomical interest Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte recently edited a book on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy which discussed a worldwide sample of astronomical and archaeoastronomical sites and provided criteria for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites. Newgrange right\|thumb\|The sunlight enters the tomb at Newgrange via the roofbox built above the door. Newgrange is a passage tomb in the Republic of Ireland dating from around 3,300 to 2,900 BC For a few days around the Winter Solstice light shines along the central passageway into the heart of the tomb. What makes this notable is not that light shines in the passageway, but that it does not do so through the main entrance. Instead it enters via a hollow box above the main doorway discovered by Michael O'Kelly. It is this roofbox which strongly indicates that the tomb was built with an astronomical aspect in mind. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Newgrange as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility. It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in the Plough / Big Dipper which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where north lay. The deviations from true north using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction. thumb\|Constellations on the astronomical ceiling of Senemut Tomb Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as a map of the three stars in the belt of Orion, although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers. The site was instead probably governed by a spectacular hierophany which occurs at the summer solstice, when the Sun, viewed from the Sphinx terrace, forms—together with the two giant pyramids—the symbol Akhet, which was also the name of the Great Pyramid. Further, the south east corners of all the three pyramids align towards the temple of Heliopolis, as first discovered by the Egyptologist Mark Lehner. The astronomical ceiling of the tomb of Senenmut (BC) contains the Celestial Diagram depicting circumpolar constellations in the form of discs. Each disc is divided into 24 sections suggesting a 24-hour time period. Constellations are portrayed as sacred deities of Egypt. The observation of lunar cycles is also evident. El Castillo El Castillo, also known as Kukulcán's Pyramid, is a Mesoamerican step-pyramid built in the centre of Mayan center of Chichen Itza in Mexico. Several architectural features have suggested astronomical elements. Each of the stairways built into the sides of the pyramid has 91 steps. Along with the extra one for the platform at the top, this totals 365 steps, which is possibly one for each day of the year (365.25) or the number of lunar orbits in 10,000 rotations (365.01). left\|thumb\|Plumed Serpent A visually striking effect is seen every March and September as an unusual shadow occurs around the equinoxes. Light and shadow phenomena have been proposed to explain a possible architectural hierophany involving the sun at Chichén Itzá in a Maya Toltec structure dating to about 1000 CE. A shadow appears to descend the west balustrade of the northern stairway. The visual effect is of a serpent descending the stairway, with its head at the base in light. Additionally the western face points to sunset around 25 May, traditionally the date of transition from the dry to the rainy season. The intended alignment was, however, likely incorporated in the northern (main) facade of the temple, as it corresponds to sunsets on May 20 and July 24, recorded also by the central axis of Castillo at Tulum. The two dates are separated by 65 and 300 days, and it has been shown that the solar orientations in Mesoamerica regularly correspond to dates separated by calendrically significant intervals (multiples of 13 and 20 days). In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles used the "equinox hierophany" at Chichén Itzá as an example of an Unproven site, the third of their four levels of credibility. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Stonehenge as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility. As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. Anthony Aveni notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received. Maeshowe thumb\|The interior of Maeshowe chambered tomb This is an architecturally outstanding Neolithic chambered tomb on the mainland of Orkney, Scotland—probably dating to the early 3rd millennium BC, and where the setting Sun at midwinter shines down the entrance passage into the central chamber (see Newgrange). In the 1990s further investigations were carried out to discover whether this was an accurate or an approximate solar alignment. Several new aspects of the site were discovered. In the first place the entrance passage faces the hills of the island Hoy, about 10 miles away. Secondly, it consists of two straight lengths, angled at a few degrees to each other. Thirdly, the outer part is aligned towards the midwinter sunset position on a level horizon just to the left of Ward Hill on Hoy. Fourthly the inner part points directly at the Barnhouse standing stone about 400m away and then to the right end of the summit of Ward Hill, just before it dips down to the notch between it at Cuilags to the right. This indicated line points to sunset on the first Sixteenths of the solar year (according to A. Thom) before and after the winter solstice and the notch at the base of the right slope of the Hill is at the same declination. Fourthly a similar 'double sunset' phenomenon is seen at the right end of Cuilags, also on Hoy; here the date is the first Eighth of the year before and after the winter solstice, at the beginning of November and February respectively—the Old Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc. This alignment is not indicated by an artificial structure but gains plausibility from the other two indicated lines. Maeshowe is thus an extremely sophisticated calendar site which must have been positioned carefully in order to use the horizon foresights in the ways described. Moreover, the great northerly extremes of Venus always occur in late April or early May, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. The Venus glyphs placed in the cheeks of the Maya rain god Chac, most likely referring to the concomitance of these phenomena, support the west-working orientation scheme. Chaco Canyon thumb\|upright=1.15\|The Great Kiva at Chaco Canyon In Chaco Canyon, the center of the ancient Pueblo culture in the American Southwest, numerous solar and lunar light markings and architectural and road alignments have been documented. These findings date to the 1977 discovery of the Sun Dagger site by Anna Sofaer. Three large stone slabs leaning against a cliff channel light and shadow markings onto two spiral petroglyphs on the cliff wall, marking the solstices, equinoxes and the lunar standstills of the 18.6 year cycle of the moon. In addition, research shows that the Great North Road, a thirty-five mile engineered "road", was constructed not for utilitarian purposes but rather to connect the ceremonial center of Chaco Canyon with the direction north. Lascaux Cave thumb \|According to Rappenglueck, the eyes of the bull, the bird, and the bird-man may represent the three stars Vega, Altair, and Deneb commonly known as the Summer Triangle. In recent years, new research has suggested that the Lascaux cave paintings in France may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Michael Rappenglueck of the University of Munich argues that some of the non-figurative dot clusters and dots within some of the figurative images correlate with the constellations of Taurus, the Pleiades and the grouping known as the "Summer Triangle". Based on her own study of the astronomical significance of Bronze Age petroglyphs in the Vallée des Merveilles and her extensive survey of other prehistoric cave painting sites in the region—most of which appear to have been selected because the interiors are illuminated by the setting Sun on the day of the winter solstice—French researcher Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez has further proposed that the gallery of figurative images in the Great Hall represents an extensive star map and that key points on major figures in the group correspond to stars in the main constellations as they appeared in the Paleolithic. Appliying phylogenetics to myths of the Cosmic Hunt, Julien d'Huy suggested that the palaeolithic version of this story could be the following: there is an animal that is a horned herbivore, especially an elk. One human pursues this ungulate. The hunt locates or gets to the sky. The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation. It forms the Big Dipper. This story may be represented in the famous Lascaux shaft 'scene' Fringe archaeoastronomy Archaeoastronomy owes something of a poor reputation among scholars due to its occasional misuse to advance a range of pseudo-historical accounts. During the 1930s, Otto S. Reuter compiled a study entitled Germanische Himmelskunde, or "Teutonic Skylore". The astronomical orientations of ancient monuments claimed by Reuter and his followers would place the ancient Germanic peoples ahead of the Ancient Near East in the field of astronomy, demonstrating the intellectual superiority of the "Aryans" (Indo-Europeans) over the Semites. More recently I. J. Gallagher, R. L. Pyle, and B. Fell interpreted inscriptions in West Virginia as a description in Celtic Ogham alphabet of the supposed winter solstitial marker at the site. The controversial translation was supposedly validated by a problematic archaeoastronomical indication in which the winter solstice Sun shone on an inscription of the Sun at the site. Subsequent analyses criticized its cultural inappropriateness, as well as its linguistic and archaeoastronomical claims, to describe it as an example of "cult archaeology". Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza. India Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. David Pingree, a historian of Indian astronomy, condemned "the scholars who perpetrate wild theories of prehistoric science and call themselves archaeoastronomers". Organisations There are currently several academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy (including ethnoastronomy and Indigenous astronomy). ISAACthe International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culturewas founded in 1996 as the global society for the field. It sponsors the Oxford conferences and the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC – La Société Européenne pour l'Astronomie dans la Culture was founded in 1992 with a focus on broader Europe. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. SIACLa Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura was founded in 2003 with a focus on Latin America. SCAAS - The Society for Cultural Astronomy in the American Southwest was founded in 2009 as a regional organisation focusing on the astronomies of the native peoples of the Southwestern United States; it has since held seven meetings and workshops. AAAC – the Australian Association for Astronomy in Culture was founded in 2020 in Australia, focusing on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander astronomy. The Romanian Society for Cultural Astronomy was founded in 2019, holding an annual international conference and publishing the first monograph on archaeo- and ethnoastronomy in Romania (2019). SMART – the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions was founded in Aotearoa/New Zealand in 2013, focusing on Maori astronomy. Native Skywatchers was founded in 2007 in Minnesota, USA to promote Native American star knowledge, particularly of the Lakota and Ojibwe peoples of the northern US and Canada. Publications Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes (from 1979 to 2002) it published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy. The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, Culture & Cosmos, and the Journal of Skyscape Archaeology also publish papers on archaeoastronomy. Academic programs National projects and university programs including, or dedicated to, cultural astronomy are found globally. They include: The Sophia Centre for Cosmology in Culture at the University of Wales - Trinity Saint David in Lampeter, UK. The Cultural Astronomy Program at the University of Melbourne in Australia. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research made interesting findings in this field. See also References Citations Bibliography . reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000), pp. 30–39. Three volumes; 217 articles. Šprajc, Ivan (2015). Governor's Palace at Uxmal. In: Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, ed. by Clive L. N. Ruggles, New York: Springer, pp. 773–81 Šprajc, Ivan, and Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava (2013). Astronomía en la arquitectura de Chichén Itzá: una reevaluación. Estudios de Cultura Maya XLI: 31–60. Further reading External links Astronomy before History - A chapter from The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, Michael Hoskin ed., 1999. Clive Ruggles: images, bibliography, software, and synopsis of his course at the University of Leicester. Traditions of the Sun – NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories. Ancient Observatories: Timeless Knowledge NASA Poster on ancient (and modern) observatories. Astronomy is the most ancient of the sciences. (About Kazakh folk astronomy) Category:Ancient astronomy Category:Astronomical sub-disciplines Category:Archaeological sub-disciplines Category:Traditional knowledge Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy	2025-04-05T18:26:11.098504
2865	Andrzej Sapkowski	{{short description\|Polish fantasy Writer of The Witcher series}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2020}} {{Infobox writer \| name = Andrzej Sapkowski \| image = Andrzej Sapkowski - Lucca Comics & Games 2015.JPG \| caption = Sapkowski at Lucca Comics & Games 2015 \| birth_name \| birth_date {{birth date and age\|1948\|6\|21\|df=y}} \| birth_place = Łódź, Poland \| alma_mater = University of Łódź \| occupation = Novelist, economist \| period = 1986–present \| genre = Fantasy, history \| notableworks = The Witcher<br />Hussite Trilogy \| awards = Janusz A. Zajdel Award<br />Paszport Polityki<br />Medal for Merit to Culture - Gloria Artis<br />World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement<br />David Gemmell Legend Award<br />Ignotus Award<br />European Science Fiction Society Award \| signature = Sapkowski A signature.svg }} Andrzej Sapkowski ({{IPA\|pl\|ˈandʐɛj sapˈkɔfski\|lang}}; born 21 June 1948) is a Polish fantasy writer. He is best known for his series of books The Witcher, which revolves around the eponymous monster-hunter, Geralt of Rivia. The saga has been popularized through television, stage, comic books, video games and translated into 37 languages making him the second most-translated Polish science fiction and fantasy writer after Stanisław Lem.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://fakty.interia.pl/kultura/news/sapkowski-potwierdza-powstanie-nowy-wiedzmin,1795388,5 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120515140956/http://fakty.interia.pl/kultura/news/sapkowski-potwierdza-powstanie-nowy-wiedzmin,1795388,5 \| url-status dead \| archive-date2012-05-15 \|language pl \|titleSapkowski potwierdza: Powstanie nowy "Wiedźmin"! \| access-date = 13 July 2021}}</ref> Described as the "Polish Tolkien",<ref>{{cite web\| url https://mercatornet.com/a-polish-tolkien-the-fantasy-world-of-andrzej-sapkowski/10619/ \|titleA Polish Tolkien? The fantasy world of Andrzej Sapkowski \|date13 December 2016 \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref> he has written multiple novels and short story collections, selling over 30 million copies worldwide.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/the-proper-reading-order-for-the-witcher-books/ar-AAX06V6 \|titleThe Proper Reading Order For The Witcher Books \|websiteMSN \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\| url https://gamerant.com/cd-projekt-red-royalty-sapowski/ \|titleCD Projekt Red Offering More Compensation to Witcher Series Creator \|date4 February 2019 \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.tvinsider.com/836558/the-witcher-henry-cavill-geralt-of-rivia-season-1-preview/\|title'The Witcher's Henry Cavill Says 'Tough' Geralt Has a 'Heart of Gold'\|lastHolbrook\|firstDamian\|date10 December 2019\|websiteTV Insider\|access-date23 June 2021\|languageen-US}}</ref> The influence of Slavic mythology is seen as a characteristic feature of many of his works.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://brignews.com/2020/06/30/how-did-slavic-mythology-influence-andrzej-sapkowski/ \|titleHow did Slavic Mythology Influence Andrzej Sapkowski? \|date30 June 2020 \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref> He is a five-time recipient of the Zajdel Award, Poland's most popular science fiction and fantasy prize, as well as many other awards and honors including David Gemmell Award, World Fantasy Life Achievement Award and the Gloria Artis Medal for Merit to Culture. s on display occupying two shelves at an Empik bookstore in Katowice, Poland]] Early life He was born on 21 June 1948 in Łódź, in central Poland. His father served in the Polish People's Army and participated in the Battle of Berlin.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.fakt.pl/plotki/kim-jest-andrzej-sapkowski-autor-wiedzmina-ciekawe-szczegoly-biografii/m9qc5jg \|languagepl \|titleŻyciorys autora "Wiedźmina" jest pełen zaskakujących zwrotów akcji. Sapkowski miał zostać inżynierem, przeżył życiową tragedię i... był w wojsku z Markiem Belką \|date15 December 2021 \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref> After the end of World War II, his parents lived near Nowa Sól before settling in Łódź.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBereś \|firstStanisław \|author-link \|date2005 \|titleHistoria i fantastyka \|url\|locationWarsaw \|publisherSuperNowa \|page53, 203-204 \|isbn83-7054-178-X}}</ref> He attended the Bolesław Prus High School No. 21.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://lo21.szkoly.lodz.pl/index.php?pagewybitni \|language pl \|titleWybitni absolwenci \|access-date 5 February 2022}}</ref> He also studied economics at the University of Łódź, and before turning to writing, he had worked as a senior sales representative for a foreign trade company. He started his literary career as a translator, in particular, of science fiction. Among the first works translated by him was The Words of Guru by Cyril M. Kornbluth.<ref>{{cite book \|lastFlamma \|firstAdam \|author-link\|date2020 \|titleWiedźmin. Historia fenomenu \|url \|location\|publisherWydawnictwo Dolnośląskie Oddział \|page\|isbn978-83-245-8425-3}}</ref> Career Major works He says he wrote his first short story, The Witcher (1986), ("Wiedźmin", also translated "The Hexer" or "Spellmaker"), on a whim, in order to enter a contest by Polish science fiction and fantasy magazine Fantastyka. In an interview, he said that being a businessman at the time and thus familiar with marketing, he knew how to sell, and indeed, he won third prize.<ref>[http://www.mirf.ru/Articles/art934.htm НО МЫ ЖЕ СЛАВЯНЕ! РАЗГОВОР С АНДЖЕЕМ САПКОВСКИМ], An interview with Sapkowski for Russian monthly magazine "World of Fatnastics"</ref> The story was published in Fantastyka in 1986 and was enormously successful both with readers and critics. Sapkowski has created a cycle of tales based on the world of "The Witcher", comprising three collections of short stories and eight novels. This cycle and his other works have made him one of the best-known fantasy authors in Poland in the 1990s.<ref name=mo/> The main character of "The Witcher" is Geralt of Rivia, trained as a monster hunter since childhood. Geralt exists in a morally ambiguous universe, yet manages to maintain his own coherent code of ethics. At the same time cynical and noble, Geralt has been compared to Raymond Chandler's signature character Philip Marlowe.<ref namemo>{{in lang\|pl}} Marek Oramus [http://archiwum.polityka.pl/art/jedynie-sluszny-wizerunek-wiedzmina,365834.html Jedynie słuszny wizerunek wiedźmina] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110807202628/http://archiwum.polityka.pl/art/jedynie-sluszny-wizerunek-wiedzmina,365834.html \|date=7 August 2011 }}, Polityka – nr 36 (2261) from 2000-09-02; pp. 52–54</ref> The world in which these adventures take place is heavily influenced by Slavic mythology.<ref>[http://www.fantasybookreview.co.uk/Andrzej-Sapkowski/The-Last-Wish.html The Last Wish by Andrzej Sapkowski ], fantasybookreview</ref> In her review of Blood of Elves, Alice Wybrew of Total Sci-Fi writes that "Moving effortlessly between moments of wrought emotion and staggeringly effective action, to lengthy periods of political discussion and war stratagems, Sapkowski addresses every aspect of a good fantasy novel eloquently and with ease. His style reads as easily as David Gemmel, but hits harder and deeper than his late fantasy comrade. Creating a world that is both familiar and comfortable, it is through his inventive use of character manipulation that he generates a new and realistic experience".<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.fantasybookreview.co.uk/Andrzej-Sapkowski/Blood-Of-Elves.html \|titleBlood Of Elves by Andrzej Sapkowski (The Witcher #3) \|access-date25 August 2022}}</ref> Alex Jay of Polygon further observes that within Sapkowski's fantasy tales, "there are parallels to the complicated history of ethnic strife and resistance to oppression in Central and Eastern Europe". The depictions of the disputes between nonhumans and humans "echo real-world disputes over territory and citizenship that draw dividing lines according to race, nationality, or ethnicity".<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.polygon.com/2020/1/4/21043407/the-witcher-explained-history-poland-holocaust-soviet-comparisons \|titleThe real-world history that breathes life into The Witcher \|websitepolygon.com \|authorAlex Jay \|date4 January 2020 \|access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref> In 2001, he published the ''Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave'', an original and personal guide to fantasy literature. It was written in the form of an encyclopaedia and the author discusses in it the history of the literary genre, well-known fantasy heroes, descriptions of magic terminology as well as major works of notable writers including J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, Robert E. Howard's Conan, C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea, Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter, and George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://culture.pl/en/work/manuscript-discovered-in-a-dragons-cave-andrzej-sapkowski \|titleManuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave - Andrzej Sapkowski \|access-date= 14 August 2022}}</ref> Sapkowski's next book series was the Hussite Trilogy set in the 15th century at the time of the Hussite Wars with Reinmar of Bielawa as the main protagonist. Mariusz Czubaj writes:<ref>{{cite web\| url https://culture.pl/en/artist/andrzej-sapkowski \|titleAndrzej Sapkowski \| access-date = 5 February 2022}}</ref> {{Blockquote\|Sapkowski's trilogy is a form of polemics with the Polish tradition of the historical novel, with let's say Kraszewski and Sienkiewicz, who wrote about cruel times while depriving them of that dose of atrocities and a most basic human dimension. Yet the author of The Witcher does not hide that his characters are not exactly subtle, but who nonetheless bask with delight in what the literature theoretician Mikhail Bakhtin once called "the material bodily lower stratum".}} Although the Hussite Trilogy proved less popular compared to The Witcher, it has been described as the author's "magnum opus". Published between 2002 and 2006, the series was released as an audiobook in 2019.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://wiadomosci.onet.pl/tylko-w-onecie/narrenturm-andrzeja-sapkowskiego-trylogia-husycka-czeka-na-ekranizacje/07cm7w5 \|languagepl \|titleNajlepsze dzieło Sapkowskiego wciąż czeka na ekranizację \|date18 December 2019 \|access-date= 14 August 2022}}</ref> In August 2023, Sapkowski announced he was working on a new novel from The Witcher universe during an on-line meeting with his Ukrainian fans. He added that his work on the book "may take a year, but no longer" giving it a potential expected publication date at some point in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.thefirstnews.com/article/the-witcher-author-delights-fans-with-surprise-announcement-there-will-be-a-new-book-40536 \|titleThe Witcher author delights fans with surprise announcement there WILL be a new book \|websitethefirstnews.com \|authorBlanka Konopka \|date14 August 2023 \|access-date14 August 2023}}</ref> The novel, titled Rozdroże Kruków, was published in Poland in November 2024, and will release internationally as Crossroads of Ravens in September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEddy \|firstCheryl \|date2025-02-27 \|titleThe Long-Awaited Next Witcher Novel Arrives Later This Year \|urlhttps://gizmodo.com/new-witcher-book-2025-release-date-details-geralt-netflix-2000569369 \|access-date2025-03-13 \|websiteGizmodo \|languageen-US}}</ref> Legal dispute with CD Projekt In October 2018, he sent an open letter to CD Projekt demanding 60 million zloty ($16.1 million) in royalty payments from the company for using the Witcher universe in their computer games.<ref name"wyborcza_23992478">{{cite web\| url https://wyborcza.biz/biznes/7,177150,23992478,andrzej-sapkowski-wzywa-cd-projekt-do-zaplaty-60-mln-zl.html?disableRedirectstrue \|languagepl \|titleAndrzej Sapkowski wzywa CD Projekt do zapłaty 60 mln zł \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref> The letter was written despite the fact that Sapkowski had sold the video game rights to the Witcher for a single sum, rather than through a royalties contract. Sapkowski and his lawyers based their claims on Article 44 of the Copyright and Related Rights Act.<ref name="wyborcza_23992478"/> CD Projekt released a statement claiming that the author's demands are groundless and that the company had legitimately and legally acquired copyright to Sapkowski's works. His decision was criticized by many commentators and gaming journalists including Dmitry Glukhovsky, the author of Metro 2033, who described him as "an old fool" and noted that without the gaming franchise, the Witcher series "would never get this crazy international readership" and would have remained popular only in Central and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.vgr.com/cd-projekt-witcher-lawsuit-author-sapkowski/ \|titleCD Projekt Resolves Lawsuit with Witcher Author Andrzej Sapkowski \|date9 February 2019 \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.polygon.com/2019/12/20/21032021/the-witcher-author-cd-projekt-legal-battle-royalties-new-contract \|titleThe Witcher author and CD Projekt end royalties dispute with licensing agreement \|websitePolygon \|date20 December 2019 \|access-date= 14 August 2022}}</ref> On 20 December 2019, the writer and the company resolved the dispute with an amicable settlement. The company stated this deal was made in an effort "to maintain good relations with authors of works which have inspired CD Projekt Red's own creations." The details of this arrangement were not made public.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://infostrefa.com/infostrefa/pl/wiadomosci/34907806,cd-projekt-sa-17-2019-zawarcie-porozumienia \|languagepl \|titleCD PROJEKT SA (17/2019) Zawarcie porozumienia \|access-date 14 August 2022}}</ref> Personal life , Czech Republic]] Sapkowski resides in his hometown of Łódź in central Poland. He had a son named Krzysztof (1972–2019), who was an avid reader of the Polish Fantastyka magazine, and for whom he wrote the first Witcher story, who has since deceased.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://natemat.pl/277191,nie-zyje-syn-andrzeja-sapkowskiego-to-dzieki-niemu-powstal-wiedzmin\|titleZmarł jedyny syn Andrzeja Sapkowskiego. Gdyby nie on, nie byłoby "Wiedźmina"\|access-date5 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://niestatystyczny.pl/2017/02/24/10-ciekawostek-o-andrzeju-sapkowskim/\|title10 ciekawostek o Andrzeju Sapkowskim\|date24 February 2017}}</ref> Sapkowski is a member of the Polish Writers Association.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.ppibl.ibl.waw.pl/mediawiki/index.php?titleAndrzej_SAPKOWSKI \|languagepl \|titleAndrzej Sapkowski \| access-date 30 January 2022}}</ref> In an interview, he mentioned that his favorite writers included Ernest Hemingway, Mikhail Bulgakov, Raymond Chandler and Umberto Eco.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://lithub.com/andrzej-sapkowski-on-the-mythologies-behind-the-witcher/ \|titleAndrzej Sapkowski on the Mythologies Behind The Witcher \|date27 August 2022}}</ref> In 2005, Stanisław Bereś conducted a lengthy interview with Sapkowski that was eventually published in a book form as Historia i fantastyka.<ref name"hif">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://wyborcza.pl/1,75410,2987535.html?disableRedirectstrue\|titleHistoria i fantastyka, Bereś, Stanisław; Sapkowski, Andrzej\|lastOrliński\|firstWojciech\|date26 October 2005\|websitewyborcza.pl\|languagepl\|access-date2019-02-20}}</ref> Translations and adaptations of Sapkowski's works Sapkowski's books have been translated into Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, Georgian, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Persian,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://azarbadbook.ir/product-category/bookprint/fantasy/fantasyseries/%d9%88%db%8c%da%86%d8%b1-fantasyseries/ \|script-titlefa:مجموعه حماسه ویچر \|languagefa \|websiteazarbadbook.ir \|access-date2023-06-06}}</ref> Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Ukrainian. An English translation of The Last Wish short story collection was published by Gollancz in 2007.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gollancz.co.uk/2012/02/the-last-wish-cover-reveal-of-sorts/\|titleThe Last Wish Cover Reveal. . . of sorts!\|workGollancz blog\|access-date4 August 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004224434/http://www.gollancz.co.uk/2012/02/the-last-wish-cover-reveal-of-sorts/\|archive-date4 October 2013\|url-statusdead}}</ref> From 2008, the Witcher saga is published by Gollancz.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.worldcat.org/search?qisbn%3A0575083182\|titleBlood of elves\|workworldcat.org}}</ref> The English translation of Sapkowski's novel Blood of Elves won the David Gemmell Legend Award in 2009.<ref name="gemmellAward">{{cite web \|title = The final 2008 longlist for the David Gemmell Legends Award \|url = http://www.fantasybookreview.co.uk/blog/2009/01/01/the-final-2008-longlist-for-the-david-gemmell-legends-award/ \|date = 1 January 2009 \|access-date = 23 January 2009 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090206214205/http://www.fantasybookreview.co.uk/blog/2009/01/01/the-final-2008-longlist-for-the-david-gemmell-legends-award/ \|archive-date = 6 February 2009 \|url-status = dead \|df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>Alison Flood, [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/jun/19/1 Gemmell prize for fantasy goes to Polish novel, Blood of Elves], Guardian, Friday 19 June 2009</ref> In the years 1993–1995, a six-issue comic book series entitled The Witcher was released in the Komiks magazine by Prószyński i S-ka publishing house. The comic was written by Maciej Parowski and illustrated by Bogusław Polch. The comics were the first attempt to portray the Witcher universe outside the novels.<ref name":2">{{Cite book \|last1Pisula \|first1Radosław \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvRcfEAAAQBAJ&dqGeralt+w%C2%A0niewoli+kadru.++Strategie+adaptacyjne+i%C2%A0recepcja++polskich+komiks%C3%B3w+o%C2%A0wied%C5%BAminie&pgPA127 \|titleWiedźmin – polski fenomen popkultury \|last2Słoński \|first2Łukasz \|access-date2022-08-20 \|publisherStowarzyszenie Badaczy Popkultury i Edukacji Popkulturowej Trickster \|isbn978-83-64863-05-9 \|pages128–140 \|languagepl \|chapterGeralt w niewoli kadru. Strategie adaptacyjne i recepcja polskich komiksów o wiedźminie\|date16 March 2016 }}</ref> Since 2014, a comic book series The Witcher has been published by the American publisher Dark Horse Comics. The stories presented in the series are mostly originals, written not by Andrzej Sapkowski but by other writers; the exception being volume 2, Fox Children, which adapted a story from the anthology Season of Storms.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastWarnke\|firstAgnieszka\|date18 December 2019\|titleThe Witcher: The Road From Rivia to Hollywood\|urlhttps://culture.pl/en/article/the-witcher-the-road-from-rivia-to-hollywood\|access-date20 August 2022\|websiteCulture.pl\|language=en}}</ref> In 2001, a television series based on the Witcher cycle was released in Poland and internationally, entitled Wiedźmin (The Hexer). A film by the same title was compiled from excerpts of the television series but both have been critical and box office failures.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.inquisitr.com/5809558/the-witcher-polish-tv-series/\|titleBefore Netflix Adapted 'The Witcher,' There Was A Polish Version of the TV Series\|date2019-12-25\|websiteThe Inquisitr\|languageen-US\|access-date2020-01-22}}</ref> In 2009, Russian heavy metal band Esse staged The Road with No Return, a rock opera based on the works by Sapkowski. Yevgeny Pronin is the author of the libretto and the composer of much of the opera's music. The premiere of the opera took place the same year in Rostov-on-Don and was subsequently released as a DVD in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://9lib.org/article/droga-z-kt%C3%B3rej-si%C4%99-nie-wraca-zespo%C5%82u-esse.yngnpdjp \|languagepl \|titleDroga, z której się nie wraca zespołu Esse \|access-date25 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://culture.pl/en/article/the-witcher-the-road-from-rivia-to-hollywood \|title'The Witcher': The Road From Rivia to Hollywood \|websiteculture.pl \|authorAgnieszka Warnke \|date18 December 2019 \|access-date13 May 2023}}</ref> The Polish game developer, CD Projekt Red, created a role-playing game series based on The Witcher universe. The first game, titled simply The Witcher, was first released in October 2007.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.thewitcher.com/community/en/press_releases/18.html \|titleThe Witcher Official Website – Official Release Date! \|access-date17 July 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070709103856/http://www.thewitcher.com/community/en/press_releases/18.html \|archive-date9 July 2007 \|url-status dead\|dfdmy }}</ref> The sequel, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings was released in 2011.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.computerandvideogames.com/275941/news/witcher-2-release-date-confirmed/ \|titleWitcher 2 release date confirmed \|date16 January 2010 \|publisherCVG \|access-date4 June 2011 \|lastRobinson \|firstAndy}}</ref> The third game in the trilogy, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, was released in May 2015.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ign.com/articles/2014/12/08/the-witcher-3-wild-hunt-release-date-delayed-again/\|titleThe Witcher 3: Wild Hunt release date delayed again\|firstLuke\|lastKarmali\|date8 December 2014\|websiteIGN\|archive-date29 March 2015\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20150329010122/http://www.ign.com/articles/2014/12/08/the-witcher-3-wild-hunt-release-date-delayed-again/\|url-status = live}}</ref> The game shipped over 40 million copies, making it one of the best selling video games of all time. In May 2017, Netflix commissioned The Witcher, an English-language adaptation of the book series. The Witcher television series premiered on Netflix on 20 December 2019. Sapkowski served for a while as a creative consultant on the project.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/witcher-saga-tv-series-adaptation-ordered-at-netflix-1004558\|title'The Witcher' Saga TV Series Adaptation Ordered at Netflix\|lastStanhope\|firstKate\|magazineThe Hollywood Reporter\|date17 May 2017\|access-date3 November 2019}}</ref> The popularity of the Netflix show led to Sapkowski topping Amazon's list of best-selling authors ahead of J.K. Rowling and Stephen King.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://wegotthiscovered.com/tv/witcher-writer-amazons-popular-author-due-netflix-series/ \|titleThe Witcher Writer Now Amazon's Most Popular Author Due To Netflix Series \|date31 December 2019 \|access-date30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url https://comicbook.com/gaming/news/witcher-netflix-adaptation-books-andrzej-sapkowski-amazon/ \|titleNetflix's New Show Has Made The Witcher Writer #1 on Amazon's Most Popular Author Rankings \|date30 December 2019 \|access-date30 August 2022}}</ref> A spin-off anime The Witcher: Nightmare of the Wolf, produced by Lauren Schmidt Hissrich, premiered in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://gizmodo.com/i-do-not-like-working-too-hard-or-too-long-a-refreshin-1841209529 \|title'I Do Not Like Working Too Hard or Too Long': A Refreshingly Honest Talk With The Witcher's Creator \|date27 January 2020 \|access-date= 29 August 2022}}</ref> A second spinoff anime, The Witcher: Sirens of the Deep, was released on February 11 2025, adapting the short story A Little Sacrifice from the collection Sword of Destiny. In September 2017, a musical Wiedźmin (The Witcher) directed by Wojciech Kościelniak was premiered at the Musical Theatre in Gdynia.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.muzyczny.org/pl/spektakle/9-wiedzmin.html \|languagepl \|titleSpektakle \|access-date 15 August 2022}}</ref> The Witcher: Blood Origin is a fantasy miniseries created by Declan de Barra and Lauren Schmidt Hissrich adapted from The Witcher book series which serves as a prequel to the Netflix television series. It was released on Netflix in December 2022.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://directories.wga.org/project/1228776/the-witcher-blood-origin/ \|titleThe Witcher: Blood Origin \|access-date2023-09-12 \|websitedirectories.wga.org}}</ref> Awards and recognition Sapkowski is a recipient of numerous awards and honours both Polish and foreign including: 1990: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Mniejsze zło (The Lesser of Two Evils) 1992: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Miecz przeznaczenia (Sword of Destiny) 1993: Ikaros Award (Czech Republic); Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story W leju po bombie (In a Bomb Crater) 1994: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his novel Krew elfów (Blood of Elves) 1995: Raczyński Library Award for lifetime achievements 1996: European Science Fiction Society Hall of Fame: author<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.esfs.info/esfs-awards/1990-1999/\|title1990 – 1999 – European Science Fiction Society}}</ref> 1997: Paszport Polityki,<ref name"libraryThing">{{cite web\|title Andrzej Sapkowski - biography\|url https://culture.pl/en/artist/andrzej-sapkowski\|date October 2010\|publisher = culture.pl}}</ref> which is awarded annually to artists who have strong prospects for international success 2002: Janusz A. Zajdel for his novel Narrenturm 2003: Ignotus Award (Spain) for The Last Wish in the Best Anthology category and for Muzykanci (The Musicians) in the Best Foreign Short Story category; Nike Award nomination (Poland's top literary prize) for his novel Narrenturm 2008: Honorary citizenship of the city of Łódź<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://wiadomosci.onet.pl/andrzej-sapkowski-honorowym-obywatelem-lodzi/qtzht \|languagepl \|titleAndrzej Sapkowski Honorowym Obywatelem Łodzi \|date9 July 2008 \|access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref> 2009: David Gemmell Legend Award<ref>{{cite news\|last1Flood\|first1Alison\|titleGemmell prize for fantasy goes to Polish novel, Blood of Elves\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/jun/19/1\|access-date2 January 2018\|workThe Guardian\|date=19 June 2009}}</ref> 2010: European Science Fiction Society "European Grand Master" honorary award<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.esfs.info/esfs-awards/2010-2/\|title2010 – 2019 – European Science Fiction Society}}</ref> 2011: FantLab's Book of the Year Award (Russia) for his short story Żmija (Viper) in the Best Translated Novella or Short Story category 2012: Tähtifantasia Award (Finland) for his short story Sword of Destiny translated from Polish by Tapani Kärkkäinen; Science Fiction & Fantasy Translation Award nomination for his novel Spellmaker, translated from the Polish by Michael Kandel 2016: World Fantasy Award—Life Achievement for The Witcher saga<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.sfadb.com/World_Fantasy_Awards_2016\|titlesfadb: World Fantasy Awards 2016\|websitewww.sfadb.com}}</ref>Decorations 2014: Silver Medal Gloria Artis, conferred by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland<ref>[http://www.mkidn.gov.pl/pages/posts/minister-bogdan-zdrojewski-wreczyl-medale-bdquozasluzony-kulturze---gloria-artisrdquo-4584.php "Minister Bogdan Zdrojewski wręczył medale „Zasłużony Kulturze - Gloria Artis”"], 14 April, 2014</ref> Bibliography The Witcher Saga {{main\|The Witcher}} Short story collections The Witcher (pl:Wiedźmin, 1986), 5 stories. Currently out of print, although 4 of its stories were reprinted in The Last Wish along with new material, while the fifth story was reprinted in Something ends, Something begins and The Malady and Other Stories. Sword of Destiny (Miecz przeznaczenia, 1992), 6 stories. English edition: 2015<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttp://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/andrzej-sapkowski/sword-of-destiny/9780316389716\|titleSword of Destiny\|date27 June 2017 \|isbn9780316389716 \|last1Sapkowski \|first1Andrzej \|publisher=Orbit }}</ref> The Last Wish (Ostatnie życzenie, 1993), 7 stories. English edition: 2007 (in US: 2008).<ref>{{Cite book\|lastSapkowski, Andrzej.\|titleThe last wish\|date2008\|publisherGollancz\|othersStok, Danusia.\|isbn978-0-575-08244-1\|locationLondon\|oclc861342636}}</ref> Its stories (including both its original stories and the stories which it republishes from The Witcher) take place before Sword of Destiny even though it was published later. The short story "The Hexer" in the English anthology Chosen by Fate: Zajdel Award Winner Anthology (by SuperNOVA in cooperation with the Silesian Club of Fantasy Literature, 2000) is an English translation by Agnieszka Fulińska of the short story "The Witcher" which had previously been published in Polish in The Witcher and The Last Wish. The Last Wish was later translated into English in full. The short story "Spellmaker" in the English anthology A Polish Book of Monsters (edited and translated by Michael Kandel, 2010) is another translation of the short story "The Witcher" which had previously been published in The Witcher, The Last Wish, and Chosen by Fate: Zajdel Award Winner Anthology.<ref name"rev">{{cite journal \|dateJuly 11, 2011 \|editor-lastWodzynski \|editor-firstLukasz \|editor2-lastTomaszewski \|editor2-firstIrene \|editor3-lastJablonska \|editor3-firstJustine \|titleA Polish Book of Monsters: Five Dark Tales from Contemporary Poland: A Review \|urlhttp://cosmopolitanreview.com/a-polish-book-of-monsters/ \|url-statusdead \|journalThe Cosmopolitan Review \|volume3 \|issue2 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110814005139/http://cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/41-reviews/339-a-polish-book-of-monsters-review \|archive-dateAugust 14, 2011 \|access-date=August 6, 2011}}</ref> Something Ends, Something Begins (pl:Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna, 2000), 8 stories. Only two of its stories are related to The Witcher saga ("The Road with No Return" and the titular "Something Ends, Something Begins"). The Malady and Other Stories (:pl:Maladie i inne opowiadania, 2012), 10 stories. It includes the 8 stories from Something ends, Something begins plus two new stories that aren't related to The Witcher saga. The contents of the English translation is different, containing excerpts from the first and third novels, 2 stories from The Last Wish, and the titular short story. Pentalogy Blood of Elves (Krew elfów, 1994). English edition: 2009 Time of Contempt (Czas pogardy, 1995). English edition: 27 June 2013<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/Time-Contempt-Andrzej-Sapkowski/dp/0575084952/refsr_1_4?sbooks&ieUTF8&qid1364569541&sr=1-4 Amazon page ]</ref> Baptism of Fire (Chrzest ognia, 1996). English edition: 6 March 2014<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.orionbooks.co.uk/books/detail.page?isbn9780575090965\|titleISBN Unavailable\|workOrion Publishing Group\|access-date26 March 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140326180826/https://www.orionbooks.co.uk/books/detail.page?isbn9780575090965\|archive-date26 March 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Tower of Swallows (Wieża Jaskółki, 1997). English edition: May 2016<ref name"gollancz.co.uk">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gollancz.co.uk/2015/01/gollancz-acquire-three-more-witcher-novels\|titleGollancz Acquire Three More Witcher Novels\|workGollancz blog\|access-date23 May 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619012722/https://www.gollancz.co.uk/2015/01/gollancz-acquire-three-more-witcher-novels/\|archive-date19 June 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Lady of the Lake (Pani Jeziora, 1999). English edition: 14 March 2017<ref name"gollancz.co.uk"/> Prequel novels * Season of Storms (Sezon burz, 2013). English edition: 22 May 2018 – set between the short stories in The Last Wish<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://mediarivermagazine.pl/sezon-burz-wiedzmin-andrzej-sapkowski/\|titleSezon Burz - Wiedźmin - Andrzej Sapkowski - Serwis o filmach, książkach, grach i technologiach\|authorAleksandra Ksann\|workmediarivermagazine.pl\|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140313144147/http://mediarivermagazine.pl/sezon-burz-wiedzmin-andrzej-sapkowski/\|archive-date13 March 2014}}</ref> * Crossroad of Ravens (Rozdroże kruków, 2024) – set before the short stories in The Last Wish New book Shortly before the release of Rozdroże kruków, in an interview for the Polish weekly periodical Polityka, Sapkowski announced that it would not be the last book set in the Witcher universe. Again, he did not provide more details, saying only that "there'll be a new book" and "if I set the time horizon to three or four years, it'll be without much risk". Hussite Trilogy The Tower of Fools (Narrenturm, 2002). English edition: 2020<ref>{{cite web \|titleA brand new fantasy trilogy by Andrzej Sapkowski, New York Times bestselling author of the Witcher novels! \|urlhttps://www.orbitbooks.net/2018/10/11/a-brand-new-fantasy-trilogy-by-andrzej-sapkowski-new-york-times-bestselling-author-of-the-witcher-novels/ \|websiteorbitbooks.net \|date11 October 2018 \|publisherOrbit Books \|access-date23 April 2020}}</ref> Warriors of God (Boży bojownicy, 2004). English edition: 2021 Light Perpetual (Lux perpetua, 2006). English edition: 2022 Standalone novel The Viper (Żmija, 2009), a stand-alone novel set during the Soviet–Afghan War Other works The Eye of Yrrhedes (Oko Yrrhedesa, 1995), roleplaying game The World of King Arthur. Maladie (Świat króla Artura. Maladie, 1995), essay and an illustrated short story set in Arthurian mythology ''Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave (Rękopis znaleziony w Smoczej Jaskini, 2001, 2008, 2011 (expanded)), fantasy encyclopedic compendium See also Polish literature Science fiction and fantasy in Poland List of Polish writers Stanisław Lem Jacek Dukaj Janusz A. Zajdel Award Toss a Coin to Your Witcher Gwent: The Witcher Card Game The Witcher: Monster Slayer'' References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons\|Andrzej Sapkowski\|Andrzej Sapkowski}} {{wikiquote\|Andrzej Sapkowski\|Andrzej Sapkowski}} {{IMDb name\|1140292}} {{isfdb name\|id77165\|nameAndrzej Sapkowski}} * [http://culture.pl/en/artist/andrzej-sapkowski Andrzej Sapkowski] at Culture.pl *[http://najlepszefantasy.pl/czytelnia/18-kanon-fantasy-andrzeja-sapkowskiego/ Canon of fantasy literature, by Andrzej Sapkowski] {{Witcher series}} {{World Fantasy Award Life Achievement}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sapkowski, Andrzej}} Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:People from Łódź Category:Polish fantasy writers Category:20th-century Polish novelists Category:21st-century Polish novelists Category:Polish male novelists Category:Polish male short story writers Category:20th-century Polish male writers Category:21st-century Polish male writers Category:20th-century short story writers Category:21st-century short story writers Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages Category:Polish translators Category:Polish economists Category:Constructed language creators Category:University of Łódź alumni Category:Recipients of the Silver Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis Category:World Fantasy Award–winning writers Category:Slavic mythology in popular culture Category:Works based on Slavic mythology Category:Writers from Łódź Category:People from Łódź Voivodeship Category:Janusz A. Zajdel Award winners	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrzej_Sapkowski	2025-04-05T18:26:11.138785
2866	Ammeter	{{Short description\|Device that measures electric current}} An ammeter (abbreviation of ampere meter) is an instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. For direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter usually has low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being measured. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments that relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th&nbsp;century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems. It is generally represented by letter 'A' in a circuit. History terminal service plant in New York City]] The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, who observed a compass needle was deflected from pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field. This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect – the instruments were called "multipliers".<ref>{{cite journal \|firstL.A. \|lastGeddes \|dateFeb–Mar 1996 \|titleLooking back: How measuring electric current has improved through the ages \|journalIEEE Potentials \|volume15 \|pages40–42\|doi10.1109/MP.1996.481376 \|s2cid=11392090 }}</ref> The word rheoscope as a detector of electrical currents was coined by Sir Charles Wheatstone about 1840 but is no longer used to describe electrical instruments. The word makeup is similar to that of rheostat (also coined by Wheatstone) which was a device used to adjust the current in a circuit. Rheostat is a historical term for a variable resistance, though unlike rheoscope may still be encountered.<ref>{{cite book \|firstBrian \|lastBowers \|orig-year1975 \|year2001 \|titleSir Charles Wheatstone FRS: 1802–1875 \|seriesIEE History of Technology Series \|pages104–105 \|placeLondon, UK \|publisherInstitution of Electrical Engineers / Science Museum \|isbn0-85296-103-0 \|oclc48111113 \|doi10.1049/PBHT029E}} <!-- The IET Library linked through the DOI shows several people as editors, and edits in 2019 after the 2001 publication, and lists a different author. These all appear to be somehow related to the entry in the IET e‑book library, and not the actual biography. I recommend not inserting them into the citation. I went with just what was in the ISBN data on WorldCat, for the printed (and e‑book) editions, both of which are cataloged the same. --></ref><ref>{{LSJ\|r(e/os\|{{math\|ῥέος}}}}, {{LSJ\|i(/sthmi\|{{math\|ἱστάναι}}\|ref}}</ref> Types Some instruments are panel meters, meant to be mounted on some sort of control panel. Of these, the flat, horizontal or vertical type is often called an edgewise meter. Moving-coil The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet causes the coil to move. The modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral springs to provide the restoring force. The uniform air gap between the iron core and the permanent magnet poles make the deflection of the meter linearly proportional to current. These meters have linear scales. Basic meter movements can have full-scale deflection for currents from about 25&nbsp;microamperes to 10&nbsp;milliamperes.<ref name=Spitzer72/> Because the magnetic field is polarised, the meter needle acts in opposite directions for each direction of current. A DC&nbsp;ammeter is thus sensitive to which polarity it is connected in; most are marked with a positive terminal, but some have centre-zero mechanisms{{efn\| The needle's resting position is in the centre of the scale and the restoring spring can act equally well in either direction. }} and can display currents in either direction. A moving coil meter indicates the average (mean) of a varying current through it,{{efn\| It shows an average provided that the current's frequency is faster than the meter can respond to. }} which is zero for AC. For this reason, moving-coil meters are only usable directly for DC, not AC. This type of meter movement is extremely common for both ammeters and other meters derived from them, such as voltmeters and ohmmeters. Moving magnet Moving magnet ammeters operate on essentially the same principle as moving coil, except that the coil is mounted in the meter case, and a permanent magnet moves the needle. Moving magnet Ammeters are able to carry larger currents than moving coil instruments, often several tens of amperes, because the coil can be made of thicker wire and the current does not have to be carried by the hairsprings. Indeed, some Ammeters of this type do not have hairsprings at all, instead using a fixed permanent magnet to provide the restoring force. Electrodynamic An electrodynamic ammeter uses an electromagnet instead of the permanent magnet of the d'Arsonval movement. This instrument can respond to both alternating and direct current<ref nameSpitzer72/> and also indicates true RMS for AC. See wattmeter for an alternative use for this instrument. Moving-iron Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. The moving-iron meter was invented by Austrian engineer Friedrich Drexler in 1884.<ref> {{cite web \|titleFragebogen aus der Personenmappe Friedrich Drexler (1858–1945) \|languagede \|trans-titleQuestionnaire from the Friedrich Drexler personal folder \|publisherTechnisches Museum Wien \|urlhttp://www.technischesmuseum.at/objekt/fragebogen-aus-der-personenmappe-friedrich-drexler-1858-1945 \|access-date2013-07-10 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029201512/http://www.technischesmuseum.at/objekt/fragebogen-aus-der-personenmappe-friedrich-drexler-1858-1945 \|archive-date=2013-10-29}}</ref> This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other and the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical springs.<ref nameSpitzer72/> The deflection of a moving iron meter is proportional to the square of the current. Consequently, such meters would normally have a nonlinear scale, but the iron parts are usually modified in shape to make the scale fairly linear over most of its range. Moving iron instruments indicate the RMS value of any AC waveform applied. Moving iron ammeters are commonly used to measure current in industrial frequency AC circuits. Hot-wire In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it heats. Although these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy, they were sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency current.<ref nameSpitzer72> {{cite book \|first1Frank \|last1Spitzer \|first2Barry \|last2Howarth \|year1972 \|titlePrinciples of Modern Instrumentation \|atchapter&nbsp;11 \|publisherHolt, Rinehart, and Winston \|placeNew York, NY \|isbn0-03-080208-3}}</ref> These also measure true RMS for an applied AC. Digital In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of meter are built around this. Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt. Such instruments are often calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a sine wave only, but many designs will indicate true RMS within limitations of the wave crest factor. Integrating There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters.<ref> {{cite report \|titlePermanent magnet radiation hardness tests at the 100&nbsp;MeV Linac: Preliminary results \|date1 September 1992 \|websiteSLAC \|publisherStanford University \|urlhttp://www-project.slac.stanford.edu/lc/local/notes/dr/Wiggler/Wigrad_BK.pdf \|access-date11 October 2022}} </ref><ref> {{cite journal \|author1Lee, Mike Tien-Chen \|author2Tiwari, Vivek \|author3Malik, Sharad \|author4Fujita, Masahiro \|dateMarch 1997 \|titlePower analysis and minimization techniques for embedded DSP software \|journalIEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems \|volume5 \|issue1 \|pages123–135 \|doi10.1109/92.555992 \|urlhttp://dit.upc.es/lpdntt/biblio/BREUS/LEE97a.pdf \|access-date2009-12-02 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720145617/http://dit.upc.es/lpdntt/biblio/BREUS/LEE97a.pdf \|archive-date2011-07-20 }} </ref> In these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to the electrical charge transferred with that current. These can be used for metering energy (the charge needs to be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for estimating the charge of a battery or capacitor. Picoammeter A picoammeter, or pico ammeter, measures very low electric current, usually from the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere range at the upper end. Picoammeters are used where the current being measured is below the limits of sensitivity of other devices, such as multimeters. Most picoammeters use a "virtual short" technique and have several different measurement ranges that must be switched between to cover multiple decades of measurement. Other modern picoammeters use log compression and a "current sink" method that eliminates range switching and associated voltage spikes.<ref> {{cite web \|titlePocketPico ammeter theory of operation \|websitepocketpico.com \|publisherIx Innovations \|url http://pocketpico.com/pdf/pp_theoryofoperation.pdf \|access-date = 2014-07-11}} </ref> Special design and usage considerations must be observed in order to reduce leakage current which may swamp measurements such as special insulators and driven shields. Triaxial cable is often used for probe connections. Application Ammeters must be connected in series with the circuit to be measured. For relatively small currents (up to a few amperes), an ammeter may pass the whole of the circuit current. For larger direct currents, a shunt resistor carries most of the circuit current and a small, accurately-known fraction of the current passes through the meter movement. For alternating current circuits, a current transformer may be used to provide a convenient small current to drive an instrument, such as 1 or 5 amperes, while the primary current to be measured is much larger (up to thousands of amperes). The use of a shunt or current transformer also allows convenient location of the indicating meter without the need to run heavy circuit conductors up to the point of observation. In the case of alternating current, the use of a current transformer also isolates the meter from the high voltage of the primary circuit. A shunt provides no such isolation for a direct-current ammeter, but where high voltages are used it may be possible to place the ammeter in the "return" side of the circuit which may be at low potential with respect to earth. Ammeters must not be connected directly across a voltage source since their internal resistance is very low and excess current would flow. Ammeters are designed for a low voltage drop across their terminals, much less than one volt; the extra circuit losses produced by the ammeter are called its "burden" on the measured circuit(I). Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most, because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents. To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The resistances of shunts is in the integer to fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of {{nowrap\|50 mV}}, so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of {{nowrap\|50 mV}} when carrying their full rated current. To make a multi-range ammeter, a selector switch can be used to connect one of a number of shunts across the meter. It must be a make-before-break switch to avoid damaging current surges through the meter movement when switching ranges. A better arrangement is the Ayrton shunt or universal shunt, invented by William E. Ayrton, which does not require a make-before-break switch. It also avoids any inaccuracy because of contact resistance. In the figure, assuming for example, a movement with a full-scale voltage of 50&nbsp;mV and desired current ranges of 10&nbsp;mA, 100&nbsp;mA, and 1&nbsp;A, the resistance values would be: R1 4.5&nbsp;ohms, R2 0.45&nbsp;ohm, R3 = 0.05&nbsp;ohm. And if the movement resistance is 1000&nbsp;ohms, for example, R1 must be adjusted to 4.525&nbsp;ohms. Switched shunts are rarely used for currents above 10 amperes. Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side. A special type of zero-center ammeter for testing high currents in cars and trucks has a pivoted bar magnet that moves the pointer, and a fixed bar magnet to keep the pointer centered with no current. The magnetic field around the wire carrying current to be measured deflects the moving magnet. Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury. In AC circuits, a current transformer can be used to convert the large current in the main circuit into a smaller current more suited to a meter. Some designs of transformer are able to directly convert the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current, typically either {{nowrap\|1 A}} or {{nowrap\|5 A}} at full rated current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Some recent types have a parallel pair of magnetically soft probes that are placed on either side of the conductor. See also {{bulleted list \|Clamp meter \|Class of accuracy in electrical measurements \|Electric circuit \|Electrical measurements \|Electrical current#Measurement \|Electronics \|List of electronics topics \|Measurement category \|Multimeter \|Ohmmeter \|Rheoscope \|Voltmeter }} Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist\|25em}} External links {{Commons category\|Ammeters}} * {{cite book \|firstTony R. \|lastKuphaldt \|date=2000–2023 \|chapter=Chapter&nbsp;8: DC metering circuits \|title=Lessons in Electric Circuits \|volume1: DC \|editionfree e‑book \|chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/DC/DC_8.html \|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/DC/index.html }} — from [http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/ Lessons in Electric Circuits] series main page {{Electrical and electronic measuring equipment}} Category:Electrical meters Category:Electronic test equipment Category:Flow meters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammeter	2025-04-05T18:26:11.150779
2868	Amanda Hesser	{{Short description\|American food writer}} {{Infobox person \| name \| image File:Amanda hesser 2010.jpg \| alt \| caption Hesser at the 2010 Texas Book Festival. \| birth_name \| birth_date {{birth year and age\|1971}} \| birth_place \| death_date <!-- {{Death date and age\|YYYY\|MM\|DD\|YYYY\|MM\|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> \| death_place \| nationality American \| other_names \| occupation \| years_active \| known_for \| notable_works = }} Amanda Hesser (born 1971) is an American food writer, editor, cookbook author and entrepreneur. Most notably, she was the food editor of The New York Times Magazine, the editor of T Living, a quarterly publication of The New York Times, author of The Essential New York Times Cookbook which was a New York Times bestseller, and co-founder and CEO of Food52. Biography After finishing her first book, in 1997, Hesser was hired as a food reporter for The New York Times where she wrote more than 750 stories. While at the Times, Hesser wrote about the influence of Costco on the wine industry, and how the Farmer Consumer Advisory Committee made decisions for the New York City Greenmarket.<ref>{{cite news\|titleApple Cart Upset: Who Runs Greenmarket?\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/14/dining/apple-cart-upset-who-runs-greenmarket.html\|date2004-01-14\|firstAmanda\|lastHesser\|newspaperNew York Times\|access-date2019-07-19}}</ref> She was also among the first to write about Ferran Adrià of El Bulli in a major American publication.<ref>{{cite news\|lastHesser\|firstAmanda\|titleIn Spain, A Chef To Rival Dali\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/15/dining/in-spain-a-chef-to-rival-dali.html#\|access-dateNovember 22, 2011\|newspaperNew York Times\|dateSeptember 15, 1999}}</ref> Hesser was involved in two cases of conflict of interest while working at the Times. In 2004, she awarded the restaurant Spice Market a three-star rating without disclosing that the year before, the restaurant's owner, Jean-Georges Vongerichten, had provided a complimentary jacket blurb for her book Cooking for Mr. Latte. In 2007, Hesser published a favorable review of Vegetable Harvest by Patricia Wells without noting that in 1999, Wells had provided a jacket blurb for Hesser's book The Cook and the Gardener. In both cases, the Times subsequently pointed out the conflicts of interest with editors' notes.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/03/books/review/Hesser-t.html?pagewantedprint&_r0 \| workThe New York Times \| firstAmanda \| lastHesser \| titleCooking \| date3 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/31/nyregion/editors-note-editors-note-014850.html \| workThe New York Times \| titleEditors' Note; Editors' Note \| date31 March 2004}}</ref> While Hesser left the Times in March 2008 to focus on the development of Food52, she continued to write the "Recipe Redux" feature for the Times magazine until February 27, 2011.<ref>{{citation \| title Amanda Hesser Blows Her Own Internet Bubble \| date 3 April 2008 \| publisher New York \| url http://nymag.com/daily/food/2008/04/amanda_hesser_out_at_the_times.html}}</ref><ref>{{citation \| title Amanda Hesser Sets Us Straight About Her Plans for the Future \| date 7 April 2008 \| url http://nymag.com/daily/food/2008/04/amanda_hesser_sets_us_straight.html \| publisher New York}}</ref> As co-founder and CEO of Food52, she has raised two rounds of investment from parties including Lerer Hippeau Ventures and Bertelsmann Digital Media Investments. Food52 has won numerous notable awards, including the James Beard Foundation Award for Publication of the Year (2012)<ref>{{citation\|titleJames Beard Foundation 2012 Award Winners \|urlhttp://www.jamesbeard.org/awards/search/food52 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304002548/http://www.jamesbeard.org/awards/search/food52 \|archive-date2016-03-04 }}</ref> and the International Association of Culinary Professionals Award for Best Website (2013). In February 2017, noting that 92 percent of the company was white, she and her co-founder Merrill Stubbs "issued a statement about the ways in which the company intended to redress a lack of racial equality in its workplace." By the following January, "they published a follow-up letter updating readers on the progress of their efforts, stating that their staff had been reduced to being 76 percent white."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cjr.org/special_report/food-writing-race-identity.php/\|title=Where Food Writing Leads}}</ref> Hesser was featured in Food & Wine's 40 under 40<ref>{{citation \| title 40 Big Food Thinkers 40 and Under \| date November 2010 \| url http://www.foodandwine.com/articles/40-big-food-thinkers-under-40 \| publisher Food & Wine}}</ref> list, was named one of the 50 most influential women in food by Gourmet magazine, and had a cameo as herself in the film Julie & Julia.<ref>{{citation \| title Julie & Julia \| url https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1135503/fullcredits?ref_=tt_cl_sm#cast}}</ref> Hesser lives in Brooklyn Heights with her husband, Tad Friend,<ref>{{cite news\|titleWEDDINGS/CELEBRATIONS; Amanda Hesser, Tad Friend\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/15/style/weddings-celebrations-amanda-hesser-tad-friend.html\|workThe New York Times\|access-date31 March 2012\|dateSeptember 15, 2002\|quoteAmanda Hesser, a reporter for The New York Times, and Tad Friend, a staff writer for The New Yorker, were married yesterday in Wainscott, N.Y., at the summer house of the bridegroom's family.}}</ref> a staff writer for The New Yorker, and their two children. Bibliography {{BLP unreferenced section\|dateFebruary 2021}}Books The Cook and the Gardener (W. W. Norton & Company, 1999) ''Cooking for Mr. Latte: A Food Lover's Courtship, with Recipes (W. W. Norton & Company, 2004) [Collected Food Diary columns she wrote from 2000 to 2002] Eat, Memory: Great Writers at the Table, a Collection of Essays from the New York Times (W. W. Norton & Company, 2009) [Edited 26 previously published essays] The Essential New York Times Cookbook: Classic Recipes for a New Century (W. W. Norton & Company, 2010) The Food52 Cookbook: 140 Winning Recipes from Exceptional Home Cooks (William Morrow Cookbooks, 2011) The Food52 Cookbook, Volume 2: Seasonal Recipes from Our Kitchens to Yours (William Morrow Cookbooks, 2012) Food52 Genius Recipes: 100 Recipes That Will Change the Way You Cook (Ten Speed Press, 2015) Food52 Vegan: 60 Vegetable-Driven Recipes for Any Kitchen (Ten Speed Press, 2015) Food52 Baking: 60 Sensational Treats You Can Pull Off in a Snap (Ten Speed Press, 2015) Food52 A New Way to Dinner: A Playbook of Recipes and Strategies for the Week Ahead (Ten Speed Press, 2016) Food52 Mighty Salads: 60 New Ways to Turn Salad into Dinner (Ten Speed Press, 2017) Food52 Ice Cream and Friends: 60 Recipes and Riffs for Sorbets, Sandwiches, No-Churn Ice Creams, and More (Ten Speed Press, 2017) Food52 Any Night Grilling: 60 Ways to Fire Up Dinner (and More) (Ten Speed Press, 2018) Food52 Genius Desserts: 100 Recipes That Will Change the Way You Bake (Ten Speed Press, 2018) eBooks * "Food 52 Holiday Recipes & Party Planning Guide: A cookbook, instruction manual, and entertaining battle plan" (Open Air Publishing, 2011) Anthologized works Women Who Eat (2003) Best Food Writing (2002, 2004) The Art of Eating (2004) Alone in the Kitchen with an Eggplant (2007) Eat, Memory: Great Writers at the Table'' (2009) References {{reflist}} External links {{IMDb name\|2430440}} {{Authority control\|state=collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hesser, Amanda}} Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:American food writers Category:American cookbook writers Category:American women food writers Category:People from Brooklyn Heights Category:American women chief executives Category:American company founders Category:American women company founders Category:International Association of Culinary Professionals award winners Category:21st-century American women writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American businesswomen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Hesser	2025-04-05T18:26:11.173488
2869	Anxiolytic	{{short description\|Class of medications used to alleviate anxiety}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2020}} {{Infobox drug class \| Image\| Alt \| Caption\| Pronounce \| Synonyms=Sedative, minor tranquilizer <!-- Class identifiers --> \| Use=Anxiety disorders \| ATC_prefix\| Mode_of_action \| Mechanism_of_action\| Biological_target \| Chemical_class= <!-- Clinical data --> \| Drugs.com={{Drugs.com\|drug-class\|anxiolytics-sedatives-and-hypnotics}} \| MedlinePlus\| Consumer_Reports \| medicinenet\| rxlist <!-- External links --> }} An anxiolytic ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|ŋ\|k\|s\|i\|ə\|ˈ\|l\|ɪ\|t\|ɪ\|k\|,_\|ˌ\|æ\|ŋ\|k\|s\|i\|oʊ\|-}}; also antipanic or anti-anxiety agent)<ref>{{DorlandsDict\|nine/100020674\|Antianxiety agent}}</ref> is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and their related psychological and physical symptoms. Nature of anxiety Anxiety is a naturally-occurring emotion and response. When anxiety levels exceed the tolerability of a person, anxiety disorders may occur. People with anxiety disorders can exhibit fear responses, such as defensive behaviors, high levels of alertness, and negative emotions. Those with anxiety disorders may have concurrent psychological disorders, such as depression. Anxiety disorders are classified using six possible clinical assessments:<ref name"Elsevier 2018">{{Cite book \|editor-lastWhittlesea \|editor-firstCate\|editor-last2 Hodson\|editor-first2Karen \|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/1084882482 \|titleClinical pharmacy and therapeutics \|date7 August 2018 \|publisherElsevier \|isbn978-0-7020-7012-9 \|oclc=1084882482}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" !Type !Description \|- \|Generalized anxiety disorders (GAD) \|The anxiety symptoms are usually persistent and constant. Patients of this disorder could experience excessive anxiety for a long duration, commonly over six months and the symptoms could occur without any specific triggers. \|- \|Panic disorder \|This disorder specifically refers to the suffering from panic attacks and also the fear of repetitive attacks. Commonly found in agoraphobia patients (the fear of difficulty in leaving a confined venue). Panic attacks are sudden upsurges in anxiety level usually with unexplained reasons. \|- \|Social phobia \|This refers to the fear of staging in social situations where one experiences public observation among people or performs in front of the public. The fears are often unexplained and persistent. The fear could also be attributed to the possible humiliation in front of others due to poor performance or awkward social interactions. \|- \|Specific phobias \|Persistent fear towards a specific object, either tangible or intangible. This leads to undeniable avoidance or thought of escape from the object or endurance of the object in immense levels of anxiety. \|- \|Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) \|PTSDs develop due to experience of severe trauma or life-threatening events. Specific symptoms include flashbacks to traumatic events triggered during similar situations, as well as avoidance of these situations. The fear of re-experiencing the event is also associated with feelings of helplessness or horror. \|- \|Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) \|Person with OCD would experience compulsive impulses of removing an obsession. One common example is the obsession with impurities or contamination. The person would have compulsion or urge in sterilizing the environment to remove the contamination. Another example is the obsession with orderliness. The person would manipulate the surroundings including visual presentations to ease their obsession. \|} Different types of anxiety disorders will share some general symptoms while having their own distinctive symptoms. This explains why people with different types of anxiety disorders will respond differently to different classes of anti-anxiety medications. Etiology The etiology of anxiety disorder remains unknown. There are several contributing factors that are still yet to be proved to cause anxiety disorders.<ref name"Elsevier 2018" /> These factors include childhood anxiety, drug induction by central stimulant drugs, metabolic diseases or having depressive disorder.MedicationsAnti-anxiety medication is any drug that can be taken or prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders, which may be mediated by neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system.<ref name"Cleveland">{{Cite web \|titleAnxiolytics and you: How anxiety medications can help. \|urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/24776-anxiolytics \|access-date2024-01-15 \|websiteCleveland Clinic \|languageen}}</ref> Anti-anxiety medication can be classified into six types according to their different mechanisms: antidepressants, benzodiazepines, azapirones, antiepileptics, antipsychotics, and beta blockers.<ref name"Cleveland" /><ref name"CAMH">{{Cite web \|titleAnxiety: Pharmacotherapy \|urlhttps://www.camh.ca/en/professionals/treating-conditions-and-disorders/anxiety-disorders/anxiety---treatment/anxiety---pharmacotherapy \|access-date2024-01-15 \|websiteCAMH \|languageen-CA}}</ref> Antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). SSRIs are used in all types of anxiety disorders while SNRIs are used for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Both of them are considered as first-line anti-anxiety medications. TCAs are second-line treatment as they cause more significant adverse effects when compared to the first-line treatment. Benzodiazepines are effective in emergent and short-term treatment of anxiety disorders due to their fast onset but carry the risk of dependence.<ref name"CAMH" /> Buspirone is indicated for GAD, which has much slower onset but with the advantage of less sedating and withdrawal effects.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Cassano \|first1Giovanni B. \|last2Rossi \|first2Nicolò Baldini \|last3Pini \|first3Stefano \|date2002 \|titlePsychopharmacology of anxiety disorders \|journalDialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \|volume4 \|issue3 \|pages271–285 \|doi10.31887/DCNS.2002.4.3/gcassano \|issn1294-8322 \|pmc3181684 \|pmid22033867}}</ref> History The first monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), iproniazid, was discovered accidentally when developing the new antitubercular drug isoniazid. The drug was found to induce euphoria and improve the patient's appetite and sleep quality.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Van Der Walt \|first1Martie \|last2Keddy \|first2Karen H. \|date2021-06-01 \|titleThe Tuberculosis-Depression Syndemic and Evolution of Pharmaceutical Therapeutics: From Ancient Times to the Future \|journalFrontiers in Psychiatry \|volume12 \|pages617751 \|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2021.617751 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1664-0640 \|pmc8203803 \|pmid=34140898}}</ref> The first tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, was originally developed and studied to be an antihistamine alongside other first-generation antihistamines of the time, such as promethazine.<ref name"Hillhouse">{{Cite journal \|last1Hillhouse \|first1Todd M. \|last2Porter \|first2Joseph H. \|titleA brief history of the development of antidepressant drugs: From monoamines to glutamate. \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038550 \|journalExperimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology \|year2015 \|volume23 \|issue1 \|pages1–21 \|doi10.1037/a0038550 \|pmid25643025 \|pmc4428540 \|issn1936-2293}}</ref> TCAs can increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin by inhibiting their reuptake transport proteins.<ref>{{Citation \|last1Moraczewski \|first1Jordan \|titleTricyclic Antidepressants \|date2023 \|urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557791/ \|workStatPearls \|access-date2024-01-15 \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid32491723 \|last2Awosika \|first2Ayoola O. \|last3Aedma \|first3Kapil K.}}</ref> The majority of TCAs exert greater effect on norepinephrine, which leads to side effects like drowsiness and memory loss. {{citation needed\|date=January 2024}} In order to be more effective on serotonin agonism and avoid anticholinergic and antihistaminergic side effects, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) were researched and introduced to treat anxiety disorders. The first SSRI, fluoxetine (Prozac), was discovered in 1974 and approved by FDA in 1987. After that, other SSRIs like sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), and escitalopram (Lexapro) have entered the market.<ref name="Hillhouse" /> The first serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), venlafaxine (Effexor), entered the market in 1993.<ref name"Hillhouse" /> SNRIs can target serotonin and norepinephrine transporters while avoiding imposing significant effects on other adrenergic (α<sub>1</sub>, α<sub>2</sub>, and β), histamine (H<sub>1</sub>), muscarinic, dopamine, or postsynaptic serotonin receptors.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2024}} Classifications There are six groups of anti-anxiety medications available that have been proven to be clinically significant in treatment of anxiety disorders.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012">{{Citation \|titleRang and Dale's Pharmacology 7th Edition Preface \|date2012 \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-7020-3471-8.00064-0 \|workRang &amp Dale's Pharmacology \|pagesxv \|publisherElsevier \|doi10.1016/b978-0-7020-3471-8.00064-0 \|isbn9780702034718 \|access-date2022-03-16}}</ref> The groups of medications are as follows. {\| class="wikitable" !Drug Class !Examples \|- \|Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs, SNRIs) \|SSRIs e.g., fluoxetine, sertraline; SNRIs e.g., venlafaxine; MAOIs; TCAs \|- \|Benzodiazepines \|Lorazepam, diazepam, alprazolam \|- \|Azapirones \|Buspirone, gepirone, tandospirone \|- \|Antiepileptics \|Gabapentin, pregabalin, tiagabine and valproate \|- \|Antipsychotics \|Olanzapine, risperidone \|- \|Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists \|Propranolol, atenolol \|} Antidepressants Medications that are indicated for both anxiety disorders and depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are new generations of antidepressants. They have a much lower adverse effect profile than older antidepressants like monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Therefore, SSRIs and SNRIs are now the first-line agent in treating long term anxiety disorders, given their applications and significance in all six types of disorders.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines are used for acute anxiety and could be added along with current use of SSRIs to stabilize a treatment. Long-term use in treatment plans is not recommended. Different kinds of benzodiazepine will vary in its pharmacological profile, including its strength of effect and time taken for metabolism. The choice of the benzodiazepine will depend on the corresponding profiles.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Benzodiazepines are used for emergent or short-term management. They are not recommended as the first-line anti-anxiety drugs, but they can be used in combination with SSRIs/SNRIs during the initial treatment stage.<ref name"CAMH" /> Indications include panic disorder, sleep disorders, seizures, acute behavioral disturbance, muscle spasm and premedication and sedation for procedures.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBenzodiazepines: What They Are, Uses, Side Effects & Risks \|urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/24570-benzodiazepines-benzos \|access-date2024-01-15 \|websiteCleveland Clinic \|languageen}}</ref> Azapirones Buspirone can be useful in GAD but not particularly effective in treating phobias, panic disorder or social anxiety disorders.<ref name"Elsevier 2018" /> It is a safer option for long-term use as it does not cause dependence like benzodiazepines.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-11-23 \|titleBuSpar For Anxiety: Is It Right For Me? {{!}} Klarity \|urlhttps://www.klarityadhd.com/post/buspar-for-anxiety-is-it-right-for-me/ \|access-date2023-10-19 \|websitewww.klarityadhd.com \|languageen-US}}</ref> Antiepileptics Antiepileptics are rarely prescribed as an off-label treatment for anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorders.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2014-10-28 \|titleWhat is the Best Anticonvulsant for Anxiety? \|urlhttps://psychcentral.com/anxiety/antipsychotics-anticonvulsants-for-anxiety-disorders \|access-date2023-10-19 \|websitePsych Central \|languageen}}</ref> There have been some suggestions that they may help with anxiety symptoms but there is generally a lack of research on its use.<ref name"Garakani 2020">{{Cite journal \|last1Garakani \|first1Amir \|last2Murrough \|first2James W. \|last3Freire \|first3Rafael C. \|last4Thom \|first4Robyn P. \|last5Larkin \|first5Kaitlyn \|last6Buono \|first6Frank D. \|last7Iosifescu \|first7Dan V. \|date2020 \|titlePharmacotherapy of Anxiety Disorders: Current and Emerging Treatment Options \|journalFrontiers in Psychiatry \|volume11 \|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2020.595584\|doi-accessfree \|pmid33424664 \|pmc7786299 \|issn=1664-0640}}</ref> One antiepileptic, pregabalin, has been found to be better at treating GAD than a placebo, and comparable effects to benzodiazepines. It has also been shown be potentially efficient in treating social anxiety disorder. Gabapentin has been prescribed off-label for anxiety despite a lack of research evidence supporting such use, although some studies have indicated that it may relieve anxiety symptoms. The potential anxiolytic effect of tiagabine has been observed in some pre-clinical trials, but its effectiveness has not yet been proved. Similarly, there is a lack of research on valproate for the treatment of anxiety disorders.<ref name"Garakani 2020" /> Antipsychotics Olanzapine and risperidone are atypical antipsychotics which are also effective in GAD and PTSD treatment. However, there is a higher chance of experiencing adverse effects than the other anti-anxiety medications.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists Propranolol is originally used for high blood pressure and heart diseases. It can also be used to treat anxiety with symptoms like tremor or increased heart rate. They work on the nervous system and alleviate the symptoms as a relief.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Propranolol is also commonly used for public speaking when one is nervous.<ref name"Garakani 2020" /> Mechanism of action SSRIs and SNRIs Both selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI) are reuptake inhibitors of a class of nerve signal transduction chemical called neurotransmitters. Serotonin and norepinephrine are neurotransmitters that are related to nervous control in mood regulation. The level of these neurotransmitters is regulated by the nerve through reuptake to avoid accumulation of the neurotransmitter at the endings of nerve fibers. By reuptaking the neurotransmitter, the level of neuronal activity will go back down and be ready to go back up upon excitation from a new nerve signal.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> However the neurotransmitter level of patients with anxiety disorders is usually low or the patients’ nerve fibers are insensitive to the neurotransmitters. SSRIs and SNRIs will then block the channel of reuptake and increase the level of the neurotransmitter. The nerve fibers will inhibit further production of neurotransmitters upon the increase. However the prolonged increase will eventually desensitize the nerve about the change in level. Therefore, the action of both SSRIs and SNRIs will take 4–6 weeks to exert their full effect.<ref name"Elsevier 2018" /><ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Benzodiazepine Benzodiazepines bind selectively to the GABA receptor, which is the receptor protein found in the nervous system and is in control of the nervous response. Benzodiazepine will increase the entry of chloride ions into the cells by improving the binding between GABA and GABA receptors and then the better opening of the channel for chloride ion passage. The high level of chloride ion inside the nerve cells makes the nerve more difficult to depolarize and inhibit further nerve signal transduction. The excitability of the nerves then reduces and the nervous system slows down. Therefore, the drug can alleviate symptoms of anxiety disorder and make the person less nervous.<ref name"Rang Dale 2012" /> Clinical use Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of medications used in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, OCD and some personality disorders.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Kanba \|first1S. \|year2004 \|titleAlthough antidepressants and anxiolytics are frequently used together to treat depression in the acute phase, how effective is the concomitant use of these drugs? \|journalJournal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience \|volume29 \|issue6 \|pages485 \|pmc524966 \|pmid15644990}}</ref><ref name"BARLOW">{{cite book \|authorBarlow, David H. \|titleAbnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach \|author2Durand, Mark V \|publisherWadsworth Cengage Learning \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-495-09556-9 \|editionFifth \|locationBelmont, CA \|page239 \|chapterChapter 7: Mood Disorders and Suicide \|oclc192055408}}{{page needed\|dateAugust 2016}}</ref> SSRIs are the first-line anti-anxiety medications.<ref name"Lochmann 2018">{{Citation \|last1Lochmann \|first1Dee \|titleSelective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors \|date2018 \|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/164_2018_172 \|workAntidepressants \|volume250 \|pages135–144 \|editor-lastMacaluso \|editor-firstMatthew \|placeCham \|publisherSpringer International Publishing \|languageen \|doi10.1007/164_2018_172 \|isbn978-3-030-10948-6 \|access-date2022-03-16 \|last2Richardson \|first2Tara \|pmid30838457 \|editor2-lastPreskorn \|editor2-firstSheldon H.}}</ref> Serotonin is one of the crucial neurotransmitters in mood enhancement, and increasing serotonin level produces an anti-anxiety effect.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSerotonin: What Is It, Function & Levels \|urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22572-serotonin \|access-date2024-01-15 \|websiteCleveland Clinic \|languageen}}</ref> SSRIs increase the serotonin level in the brain by inhibiting serotonin uptake pumps on serotonergic systems, without interactions with other receptors and ion channels. SSRIs are beneficial in both acute response and long-term maintenance treatment for both depression and anxiety disorder.<ref name="Lochmann 2018" /> SSRIs can increase anxiety initially due to negative feedback through the serotonergic autoreceptors; for this reason a concurrent benzodiazepine can be used until the anxiolytic effect of the SSRI occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Dunlop \|first1Boadie W. \|last2Davis \|first2Paula G. \|date2008 \|titleCombination Treatment With Benzodiazepines and SSRIs for Comorbid Anxiety and Depression: A Review \|journalPrimary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \|volume10 \|issue3 \|pages222–228 \|doi10.4088/pcc.v10n0307 \|issn1523-5998 \|pmc2446479 \|pmid18615162}}</ref> The SSRIs paroxetine and escitalopram are USFDA approved to treat generalized anxiety disorder.<ref name"Garakani 2020" /> Therapeutic use {\| class"wikitable" !Drug !Indication !Common side effect \|- \|Citalopram \| * Depressive illness<ref name="BNF 2014" /> * Panic disorder<ref name="Lochmann 2018" /> \| * Acute angle closure glaucoma<ref name="Lochmann 2018" /> * Apathy (caused by decrease in dopamine release) * Flatulence * Drowsiness<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStahl \|firstStephen M. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701672553 \|titleStahl's essential psychopharmacology : the prescriber's guide \|date2011 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|othersMeghan M. Grady \|isbn978-0-521-17364-3 \|edition4th \|locationCambridge, UK \|oclc=701672553}}</ref> * Hypersalivation * Migraine * Rhinitis \|- \|Escitalopram<ref name"BNF 2014">{{Cite book \|lastFormulary. \|firstCommittee, Joint \|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/874322467 \|titleBritish National Formulary. \|date2014 \|publisherPharmaceutical Press \|isbn978-0-85711-152-4 \|oclc=874322467}}</ref> (active enantiomer of citalopram) \| * Depressive illness * Generalized anxiety disorder * Obsessive-compulsive disorder * Panic disorder * Social anxiety disorder \| * Sinusitis \|- \|Fluoxetine<ref name="BNF 2014" /> \| * Major depression * Bulimia nervosa * Obsessive-compulsive disorder * Menopausal symptoms \| * Chills * Feeling abnormal * Postmenopausal hemorrhage * Uterine disorder * Vasodilation * Blurred vision \|} Adverse effect The common early side effects of SSRIs include nausea and loose stool, which can be solved by discontinuing the treatment. Headache, dizziness, insomnia are the common early side effects as well.<ref name"nhs.uk">{{Cite web \|date2021-02-15 \|titleSide effects - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) \|urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/talking-therapies-medicine-treatments/medicines-and-psychiatry/ssri-antidepressants/side-effects/ \|access-date2024-01-15 \|websitenhs.uk \|language=en}}</ref> Sexual dysfunction, anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, and reduced libido are common adverse side effects of SSRIs. Sometimes they may persist after the cessation of treatment.<ref name="nhs.uk"/> Withdrawal symptoms like dizziness, headache and flu-like symptoms (fatigue/myalgia/loose stool) may occur if SSRI is stopped suddenly. The brain is incapable of upregulating the receptors to sufficient levels especially after discontinuation of the drugs with short half life like paroxetine. Both fluoxetine and its active metabolite have a long half life therefore it causes the least withdrawal symptoms.<ref name"Lochmann 2018" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|dateJune 2017 \|titleTreatment of anxiety disorders \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2017.19.2/bbandelow \|journalGeneralized Anxiety Disorders \|volume19 \|issue2 \|pages93–107 \|doi10.31887/dcns.2017.19.2/bbandelow \|issn2608-3477\|last1Bandelow \|first1Borwin \|last2Michaelis \|first2Sophie \|last3Wedekind \|first3Dirk \|pmid28867934 \|pmc5573566 }}</ref> Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs) include venlafaxine and duloxetine drugs. Venlafaxine, in extended release form, and duloxetine, are indicated for the treatment of GAD. SNRIs are as effective as SSRIs in the treatment of anxiety disorders.<ref name"Vanin">{{cite book \|author1John Vanin \|titleAnxiety Disorders: A Pocket Guide For Primary Care \|author2James Helsley \|date19 June 2008 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|page189}}</ref> Tricyclic antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have anxiolytic effects; however, side effects are often more troubling or severe and overdose is dangerous. They are considered effective, but have generally been replaced by antidepressants that cause different adverse effects. Examples include imipramine, doxepin, amitriptyline, nortriptyline and desipramine.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Post\|first1Jason W.\|last2Migne\|first2Louis J.\|titleAntidepressants : Pharmacology, Health Effects and Controversy\|date2012\|publisherNova Science Publishers\|locationNew York\|isbn9781620815557\|page58}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/antidepressants/art-20046983\|title Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)\|website Mayo Clinic}}</ref> Therapeutic use {\| class="wikitable" !Drugs !Indication !Common side effect \|- \|Imipramine \| * Nocturnal enuresis for children above six years old * Severe depression \| * Antihistamine side effects like sedation, weight gain * Anticholinergic side effects like blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation \|- \|Clomipramine<ref name="BNF 2014" /> \| * Depressive illness * Phobic and obsessional states * Adjunctive treatment of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy \| * Aggression * Anxiety * Arrhythmias * Breast enlargement \|} Contraindication TCAs may cause drug poisoning in patients with hypotension, cardiovascular diseases and arrhythmias.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Thanacoody \|first1H. K. Ruben \|last2Thomas \|first2Simon H. L. \|date2005 \|titleTricyclic antidepressant poisoning : cardiovascular toxicity \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16390222/#:~:textTricyclic%20antidepressants%20remain%20a%20common,be%20particularly%20toxic%20in%20overdose. \|journalToxicological Reviews \|volume24 \|issue3 \|pages205–214 \|doi10.2165/00139709-200524030-00013 \|issn1176-2551 \|pmid16390222\|s2cid44532041 }}</ref> Tetracyclic antidepressants Mirtazapine has demonstrated anxiolytic effect comparable to SSRIs while rarely causing or exacerbating anxiety. Mirtazapine's anxiety reduction tends to occur significantly faster than SSRIs.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Montano \|first1C. Brendan \|last2Jackson \|first2W. Clay \|last3Vanacore \|first3Denise \|last4Weisler \|first4Richard \|date2023-07-04 \|titleConsiderations when selecting an antidepressant: a narrative review for primary care providers treating adults with depression \|journalPostgraduate Medicine \|languageen \|volume135 \|issue5 \|pages449–465 \|doi10.1080/00325481.2023.2189868 \|pmid36912037 \|issn0032-5481\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are first-generation antidepressants effective for anxiety treatment but their dietary restrictions, adverse effect profile and availability of newer medications have limited their use. MAOIs include phenelzine, isocarboxazid and tranylcypromine. Pirlindole is a reversible MAOI that lacks dietary restriction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Tanghe \|first1A. \|last2Geerts \|first2S. \|last3Van Dorpe \|first3J. \|last4Brichard \|first4B. \|last5Bruhwyler \|first5J. \|last6Géczy \|first6J. \|dateAugust 1997 \|titleDouble-blind randomized controlled study of the efficacy and tolerability of two reversible monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, pirlindole and moclobemide, in the treatment of depression \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272198/ \|journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica \|volume96 \|issue2 \|pages134–141 \|doi10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb09918.x \|issn0001-690X \|pmid9272198 \|s2cid23485112}}</ref> Barbiturates Barbiturates are powerful anxiolytics but the risk of abuse and addiction is high. Many experts consider these drugs obsolete for treating anxiety but valuable for the short-term treatment of severe insomnia, though only after benzodiazepines or non-benzodiazepines have failed.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleLehne's pharmacology for nursing care\|last1Burchum\|first1Jacqueline Rosenjack\|last2Rosenthal \|first2Laura D. \|isbn9780323321907\|edition9th\|locationSt. Louis, Missouri\|oclc890310283\|date 2015-01-29}}</ref> Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines are prescribed to quell panic attacks. Benzodiazepines are also prescribed in tandem with an antidepressant for the latent period of efficacy associated with many ADs for anxiety disorder. There is risk of benzodiazepine withdrawal and rebound syndrome if BZDs are rapidly discontinued.<ref name"Cassano">{{Cite journal\|last1Cassano\|first1Giovanni B.\|last2Rossi\|first2Nicolò Baldini\|last3Pini\|first3Stefano\|date2002\|titlePsychopharmacology of anxiety disorders\|journalDialogues in Clinical Neuroscience\|volume4\|issue3\|pages271–285\|doi10.31887/DCNS.2002.4.3/gcassano\|issn1294-8322\|pmc3181684\|pmid22033867}}</ref> Tolerance and dependence may occur.<ref>Gelder, M, Mayou, R. and Geddes, J. 2005. Psychiatry. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford. pp236.</ref> The risk of abuse in this class of medication is smaller than in that of barbiturates. Cognitive and behavioral adverse effects are possible.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsLader M, Tylee A, Donoghue J \|titleWithdrawing benzodiazepines in primary care \|journalCNS Drugs \|volume23 \|issue1 \|pages19–34 \|year2009 \|pmid19062773 \|doi10.2165/0023210-200923010-00002 \|s2cid=113206 }}</ref> Benzodiazepines include: alprazolam (Xanax), bromazepam, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan), oxazepam, temazepam, and Triazolam. Therapeutic use {\| class="wikitable" !Drug !Indication !Common Side effect \|- \|Lorazepam \| * Short term use in anxiety * Short term use in insomnia associated anxiety * Conscious sedation for procedures * Premedication * Status epilepticus/febrile convulsions/convulsions caused by poisoning \| * Decreased alertness * Ataxia, confusion (more in elderly) \|- \|Diazepam \| * Muscle spasm of varied aetiology * Anxiety * Acute drug-induced dystonic reactions * Sedation for minor surgical and medical procedures \| * Abnormal appetite * Concentration impairment * Gastrointestinal disorder * Movement disorder * Muscle spasm * Vomiting \|- \|Alprazolam \| * Short term use in anxiety \| * As all benzodiazepines{{specify\|date=November 2022}} \|} Adverse effect Benzodiazepines lead to central nervous system depression, resulting in common adverse effects like drowsiness, oversedation, light-headedness. Memory impairment can be a common adverse effect especially in elderly, hypersalivation, ataxia, slurred speech, psychomotor effects.<ref name"Elsevier 2018" />SympatholyticsSympatholytics are a group of anti-hypertensives which inhibit activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Beta blockers reduce anxiety by decreasing heart rate and preventing shaking. Beta blockers include propranolol, oxprenolol, and metoprolol.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hayes \|first1Peggy E. \|last2Schulz \|first2S. Charles \|titleBeta-blockers in anxiety disorders \|journalJournal of Affective Disorders \|volume13 \|issue2 \|pages119–30 \|year1987 \|pmid2890677 \|doi10.1016/0165-0327(87)90017-6 \|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1258347 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1974.01760170071012 \|pmid4155284 \|titleBeta-Adrenergic Receptor Blocking Drugs in Psychiatry \|journalArchives of General Psychiatry \|volume31 \|issue5 \|pages681–91 \|year1974 \|last1Jefferson \|first1James W. }}</ref> The alpha-1 antagonist prazosin could be effective for PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1177/2045125313500982 \|pmid24490030 \|pmc3896131 \|titleHigh-dose prazosin for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder \|journalTherapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology \|volume4 \|issue1 \|pages43–7 \|year2013 \|last1Koola \|first1M. M. \|last2Varghese \|first2S. P. \|last3Fawcett \|first3J. A. }}</ref> The alpha-2 agonists clonidine and guanfacine have demonstrated both anxiolytic and anxiogenic effects.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1981.01780360094011 \|pmid7305609 \|titleEffects of Clonidine on Anxiety Disorders \|journalArchives of General Psychiatry \|volume38 \|issue11 \|pages1278–82 \|year1981 \|last1Hoehn-Saric \|first1Rudolf \|last2Merchant \|first2A. F. \|last3Keyser \|first3M. L. \|last4Smith \|first4V. K. }}</ref> Miscellaneous BuspironeBuspirone (Buspar) is a 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor agonist used to treated generalized anxiety disorder.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idoJY8LrP_JysC&q%22Azapirone%22+%225-HT1A%22+%22receptor%22+%22Sediel%22&pgPA319 Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 32 p. 319]</ref> If an individual has only recently stopped taking benzodiazepines, buspirone will be less effective.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1DeMartinis \|first1N. \|last2Rynn \|first2M. \|last3Rickels \|first3K. \|last4Mandos \|first4L. \|dateFebruary 2000 \|titlePrior benzodiazepine use and buspirone response in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10732655/ \|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \|volume61 \|issue2 \|pages91–94 \|doi10.4088/jcp.v61n0203 \|issn0160-6689 \|pmid10732655}}</ref> Pregabalin Pregabalin (Lyrica) produces anxiolytic effect after one week of use comparable to lorazepam, alprazolam, and venlafaxine with more consistent psychic and somatic anxiety reduction. Unlike BZDs, it does not disrupt sleep architecture nor does it cause cognitive or psychomotor impairment.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1586/14737175.7.7.769 \|pmid17610384 \|titlePregabalin for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A novel pharmacologic intervention \|journalExpert Review of Neurotherapeutics \|volume7 \|issue7 \|pages769–81 \|year2014 \|last1Bandelow \|first1Borwin \|last2Wedekind \|first2Dirk \|last3Leon \|first3Teresa \|s2cid6229344 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1358/dot.2007.43.9.1133188 \|pmid17940637 \|titlePregabalin: Its efficacy, safety and tolerability profile in generalized anxiety \|journalDrugs of Today \|volume43 \|issue9 \|pages601–10 \|year2007 \|last1Owen \|first1R.T. }}</ref>HydroxyzineHydroxyzine (Atarax) is an antihistamine originally approved for clinical use by the FDA in 1956. Hydroxyzine has a calming effect which helps ameliorate anxiety. Hydroxyzine efficacy is comparable to benzodiazepines in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.4088/JCP.v63n1112 \|pmid12444816 \|titleEfficacy and Safety of Hydroxyzine in the Treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder \|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \|volume63 \|issue11 \|pages1020–7 \|year2002 \|last1Llorca \|first1Pierre-Michel \|last2Spadone \|first2Christian \|last3Sol \|first3Olivier \|last4Danniau \|first4Anne \|last5Bougerol \|first5Thierry \|last6Corruble \|first6Emmanuelle \|last7Faruch \|first7Michel \|last8Macher \|first8Jean-Paul \|last9Sermet \|first9Eric \|last10Servant \|first10Dominique }}</ref>PhenibutPhenibut (Anvifen, Fenibut, Noofen) is an anxiolytic<ref name"Lapin 2001">{{Cite journal\|lastLapin\|firstIzyaslav\|date2001\|titlePhenibut (β-Phenyl-GABA): A Tranquilizer and Nootropic Drug\|journalCNS Drug Reviews\|languageen\|volume7\|issue4\|pages471–481\|doi10.1111/j.1527-3458.2001.tb00211.x\|issn1527-3458\|pmc6494145\|pmid11830761}}</ref> used in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.rmj.ru/articles/nevrologiya/Fenomen_aminofenilmaslyanoy_kisloty/\|titleФеномен аминофенилмасляной кислоты\|lastжурнал»\|firstИздание для практикующих врачей «Русский медицинский\|websitewww.rmj.ru\|access-date2018-12-19}}</ref> Phenibut is a GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor agonist,<ref name"Lapin 2001" /> as well as an antagonist at α<sub>2</sub>δ subunit-containing voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs), similarly to gabapentinoids like gabapentin and pregabalin.<ref>{{Cite journal\|date2015-10-01\|titleR-phenibut binds to the α2–δ subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels and exerts gabapentin-like anti-nociceptive effects\|journalPharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior\|languageen\|volume137\|pages23–29\|doi10.1016/j.pbb.2015.07.014\|pmid26234470\|issn0091-3057\|last1Zvejniece\|first1Liga\|last2Vavers\|first2Edijs\|last3Svalbe\|first3Baiba\|last4Veinberg\|first4Grigory\|last5Rizhanova\|first5Kristina\|last6Liepins\|first6Vilnis\|last7Kalvinsh\|first7Ivars\|last8Dambrova\|first8Maija\|s2cid42606053}}</ref> The medication is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States, but is sold online as a supplement.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Owen\|first1David R.\|last2Wood\|first2David M.\|last3Archer\|first3John R. H.\|last4Dargan\|first4Paul I.\|date2016\|titlePhenibut (4-amino-3-phenyl-butyric acid): Availability, prevalence of use, desired effects and acute toxicity\|journalDrug and Alcohol Review\|languageen\|volume35\|issue5\|pages591–596\|doi10.1111/dar.12356\|pmid26693960\|issn1465-3362\|hdl10044/1/30073\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Cohen \|first1Pieter A. \|last2Ellison \|first2Ross R. \|last3Travis \|first3John C. \|last4Gaufberg \|first4Slava V. \|last5Gerona \|first5Roy \|titleQuantity of phenibut in dietary supplements before and after FDA warnings \|journalClinical Toxicology \|date22 September 2021 \|volume60 \|issue4 \|pages486–488 \|doi10.1080/15563650.2021.1973020\|pmid34550038 \|s2cid237594860 }}</ref>TemgicolurilTemgicoluril (Mebicar) is an anxiolytic produced in Latvia and used in Eastern Europe. Temgicoluril has an effect on the structure of limbic-reticular activity, particularly on the hypothalamus, as well as on all four basic neuromediator systems – γ aminobutyric acid (GABA), choline, serotonin and adrenergic activity.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAdaptol. Summary of Product Characteristics \|urlhttp://olainfarm.lv/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ADAPTOL_Summary-of-Product-Characteristics.pdf \|access-date24 July 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151203130342/http://olainfarm.lv/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ADAPTOL_Summary-of-Product-Characteristics.pdf \|archive-date3 December 2015 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Temgicoluril decreases noradrenaline, increases serotonin, and exerts no effect on dopamine.<ref name"Missingor">{{cite journal \|vauthorsVal'dman AV, Zaikonnikova IV, Kozlovskaia MM, Zimakova IE \|title[Characteristics of the psychotropic spectrum of action of mebicar] \|languageru \|journalBiulleten' Eksperimental'noĭ Biologii I Meditsiny \|volume89 \|issue5 \|pages568–70 \|year1980 \|pmid6104993 }}</ref>FabomotizoleFabomotizole (Afobazole) is an anxiolytic drug launched in Russia in the early 2000s. Its mechanism of action is poorly-defined, with GABAergic, NGF and BDNF release promoting, MT<sub>1</sub> receptor agonism, MT<sub>3</sub> receptor antagonism, and sigma receptor agonism thought to have some involvement.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Neznamov \| first1 GG \| last2 Siuniakov \| first2 SA \| last3 Chumakov \| first3 DV \| last4 Bochkarev \| first4 VK \| last5 Seredenin \| first5 SB \| title Clinical study of the selective anxiolytic agent afobazol \| journal Eksperimental'naia i Klinicheskaia Farmakologiia \| volume 64 \| issue 2 \| pages 15–9 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11548440 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Silkina \| first1 IV \| last2 Gan'shina \| first2 TC \| last3 Seredin \| first3 SB \| last4 Mirzoian \| first4 RS \| title Gabaergic mechanism of cerebrovascular and neuroprotective effects of afobazole and picamilon \| journal Eksperimental'naia i Klinicheskaia Farmakologiia \| volume 68 \| issue 1 \| pages 20–4 \| year 2005 \| pmid 15786959 }}</ref>BromantaneBromantane is a stimulant drug with anxiolytic properties developed in Russia during the late 1980s. Bromantane acts mainly by facilitating the biosynthesis of dopamine, through indirect genomic upregulation of relevant enzymes (tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD)).<ref name"Ladasten induces the expression of">{{cite journal \| vauthors ((Vakhitova IuV)), Iamidanov RS, Seredinin SB \| title [Ladasten induces the expression of genes regulating dopamine biosynthesis in various structures of rat brain] \| language ru \| journal Eksp Klin Farmakol \| volume 67 \| issue 4 \| pages 7–11 \| year 2004 \| pmid 15500036 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Vakhitova\|first1Yu. V.\|last2Yamidanov\|first2R. S.\|last3Vakhitov\|first3V. A.\|last4Seredenin\|first4S. B.\|titleThe effect of ladasten on gene expression in the rat brain\|journalDoklady Biochemistry and Biophysics\|volume401\|issue1–6\|year2005\|pages150–153\|issn1607-6729\|doi10.1007/s10628-005-0057-z\|pmid15999825\|s2cid28048257}}</ref>EmoxypineEmoxypine is an antioxidant that is also a purported anxiolytic.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1007/s10517-015-2855-3 \|pmid25894772 \|titleComparative Analysis of the Anxiolytic Effects of 3-Hydroxypyridine and Succinic Acid Derivatives \|journalBulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine \|volume158 \|issue6 \|pages756–61 \|year2015 \|last1Volchegorskii \|first1I. A. \|last2Miroshnichenko \|first2I. Yu. \|last3Rassokhina \|first3L. M. \|last4Faizullin \|first4R. M. \|last5Malkin \|first5M. P. \|last6Pryakhina \|first6K. E. \|last7Kalugina \|first7A. V. \|s2cid6052275 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1007/s11055-012-9646-3 \|id{{INIST\|26388033}} \|titleAntioxidant Treatment of Ischemic Brain Lesions \|journalNeuroscience and Behavioral Physiology \|volume42 \|issue8 \|pages842–5 \|year2012 \|last1Rumyantseva \|first1S. A. \|last2Fedin \|first2A. I. \|last3Sokhova \|first3O. N. \|s2cid39971165 }}</ref> Its chemical structure resembles that of pyridoxine, a form of vitamin B<sub>6</sub>.Menthyl isovalerateMenthyl isovalerate is a flavoring food additive marketed as a sedative and anxiolytic drug in Russia under the name Validol.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| encyclopedia The Great Soviet Encyclopedia \| url http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Validol \| title Validol}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| title Farmak Product Information - Validol \| url http://farmak.ua/assets_images/drugs/instruction/en/25/Validol_Product_Information.pdf \| access-date 9 April 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131219200018/http://farmak.ua/assets_images/drugs/instruction/en/25/Validol_Product_Information.pdf \| archive-date 19 December 2013 \| url-status dead }}</ref> Racetams Some racetam based drugs such as aniracetam can have an antianxiety effect.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000 \|pmid20166767 \|titlePiracetam and Piracetam-Like Drugs \|journalDrugs \|volume70 \|issue3 \|pages287–312 \|year2010 \|last1Malykh \|first1Andrei G. \|last2Sadaie \|first2M. Reza \|s2cid12176745 }}</ref>AlpidemAlpidem is a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic with similar anxiolytic effectiveness as benzodiazepines but reduced sedation and cognitive, memory, and motor impairment.<ref name"pmid22981367">{{cite journal \| vauthors Skolnick P \| title Anxioselective anxiolytics: on a quest for the Holy Grail \| journal Trends Pharmacol Sci \| volume 33 \| issue 11 \| pages 611–20 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 22981367 \| pmc 3482271 \| doi 10.1016/j.tips.2012.08.003 \| url }}</ref> It was marketed briefly in France but was withdrawn from the market due to liver toxicity.<ref name"pmid22981367" /> Etifoxine Etifoxine has similar anxiolytic effects as benzodiazepine drugs, but does not produce the same levels of sedation and ataxia.<ref name"nuss">{{cite journal \| last1Nuss \| first1Philippe \| last2Ferreri \| first2Florian \| last3Bourin \| first3Michel \| title An update on the anxiolytic and neuroprotective properties of etifoxine: from brain GABA modulation to a whole-body mode of action (Review)\|journalNeuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment \| volume15 \| year2019 \| issn1178-2021 \| pmid31308671 \| pmc6615018 \| doi10.2147/ndt.s200568 \| pages1781–1795 \| doi-accessfree }}</ref> Further, etifoxine does not affect memory and vigilance, and does not induce rebound anxiety, drug dependence, or withdrawal symptoms.<ref namenuss/> Alcohol Alcohol is sometimes used as an anxiolytic by self-medication. fMRI can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0086-08.2008 \|pmid18448634 \|pmc2730732 \|titleWhy We Like to Drink: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study of the Rewarding and Anxiolytic Effects of Alcohol \|journalJournal of Neuroscience \|volume28 \|issue18 \|pages4583–91 \|year2008 \|last1Gilman \|first1J. M. \|last2Ramchandani \|first2V. A. \|last3Davis \|first3M. B. \|last4Bjork \|first4J. M. \|last5Hommer \|first5D. W. }}</ref> Alternatives to medication Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder, while exposure therapy is the recommended treatment for anxiety related phobias. Healthcare providers can guide those with anxiety disorder by referring them to self-help resources.<ref name"Shearer-2007">{{cite journal \|doi10.1016/j.pop.2007.05.002 \|pmid17868756 \|titleRecent Advances in the Understanding and Treatment of Anxiety Disorders \|journalPrimary Care: Clinics in Office Practice \|volume34 \|issue3 \|pages475–504, v–vi \|year2007 \|last1Shearer \|first1Steven L. }}</ref> Sometimes medication is combined with psychotherapy but research has not found a benefit of combined pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy versus monotherapy.<ref name"Pull-2007">{{cite journal \|doi10.1097/YCO.0b013e3280115e52 \|pmid17143079 \|titleCombined pharmacotherapy and cognitive-behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders \|journalCurrent Opinion in Psychiatry \|volume20 \|issue1 \|pages30–5 \|year2007 \|last1Pull \|first1Charles B \|s2cid43737803 }}</ref> If CBT is found ineffective, both the Canadian and American medical associations then suggest the use of medication.<ref>CMA & AMA Home medical guides 2012 & 2014 {{full citation needed\|dateMarch 2018}}</ref>{{verify source\|dateMarch 2018}} See also * {{section link\|ATC code N05\|N05B Anxiolytics}} Categories {{See also for drug classes defined by psychological effects\|Anxiolytics}} References {{Reflist}} External links * {{Commons category-inline\|Anxiolytics}} {{Major Drug Groups}} {{Anxiolytics}} {{Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs}} Category:Anxiety disorder treatment Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiolytic	2025-04-05T18:26:11.225115
2870	Antipsychotic	{{short description\|Class of medications}} {{cs1 config\|modecs1\|name-list-stylevanc}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2020}} {{Infobox drug class \| Image = Zyprexa.PNG \| Synonyms Neuroleptics, major tranquilizers<ref nameFin2009/> \| Alt \| Caption Olanzapine, an example of a second-generation (atypical) antipsychotic \| Use = Principally: Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective disorder, Dementia, Tourette syndrome, Bipolar disorder, irritability in autism spectrum disorder \| MeshID = D014150 \| Consumer_Reports \| ATC_prefix \| Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com\|drug-class\|antipsychotics}} \| Biological_target = }} <!-- Definition and medical uses --> Antipsychotics, previously known as neuroleptics<ref nameFin2009>{{cite book\| vauthors Finkel R, Clark MA, Cubeddu LX \|titlePharmacology \|date2009 \|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins \|isbn978-0-7817-7155-9 \|page151 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ4hG2gRhy7oC&pgPA151 \|languageen \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170401065559/https://books.google.com/books?idQ4hG2gRhy7oC&pgPA151 \|archive-date1 April 2017}}</ref> and major tranquilizers,<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBurnett \|firstGB \|date1975 \|titleThe assessment of thiothixene in chronic schizophrenia. A double-blind controlled trial. \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1102277/ \|journalDis Nerv Syst \|volume36 \|issue11 \|pages625–9\|pmid1102277 }}</ref> are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of other psychotic disorders.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bartoli F, Cavaleri D, Callovini T, Riboldi I, Crocamo C, D'Agostino A, Martinotti G, Bertolini F, Ostuzzi G, Barbui C, Carrà G \| title Comparing 1-year effectiveness and acceptability of once-monthly paliperidone palmitate and aripiprazole monohydrate for schizophrenia spectrum disorders: Findings from the STAR Network Depot Study \| journal Psychiatry Research \| volume 309 \| page 114405 \| date March 2022 \| pmid 35093701 \| doi 10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114405 \| s2cid 246054926 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lally J, MacCabe JH \| title Antipsychotic medication in schizophrenia: a review \| journal British Medical Bulletin \| volume 114 \| issue 1 \| pages 169–79 \| date June 2015 \| pmid 25957394 \| doi 10.1093/bmb/ldv017 \| quote Antipsychotic medications are mainstays in the treatment of schizophrenia and a range of other psychotic disorders. \| doi-access free }}</ref> They are also the mainstay, together with mood stabilizers, in the treatment of bipolar disorder.<ref name"Grande">{{cite journal \| vauthors Grande I, Berk M, Birmaher B, Vieta E \| title Bipolar disorder \| journal Lancet \| volume 387 \| issue 10027 \| pages 1561–1572 \| date April 2016 \| pmid 26388529 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00241-X \| s2cid 205976059 }}</ref> Moreover, they are also used as adjuncts in the treatment of treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. <!-- Side effects and mechanism --> The use of antipsychotics may result in many unwanted side effects such as involuntary movement disorders, gynecomastia, impotence, weight gain and metabolic syndrome. Long-term use can produce adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia, tardive dystonia, tardive akathisia, and brain tissue volume reduction. <!-- History and culture --> First-generation antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, etc.), known as typical antipsychotics, were first introduced in the 1950s, and others were developed until the early 1970s.<ref name"Shen">{{cite journal \| vauthors Shen WW \| title A history of antipsychotic drug development \| journal Comprehensive Psychiatry \| volume 40 \| issue 6 \| pages 407–14 \| date December 1999 \| pmid 10579370 \| doi 10.1016/s0010-440x(99)90082-2 }}</ref> Second-generation antipsychotics, known as atypical antipsychotics, arrived with the introduction of clozapine in the early 1970s followed by others (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, etc.).<ref name"Aringhieri">{{cite journal \| vauthors Aringhieri S, Carli M, Kolachalam S, Verdesca V, Cini E, Rossi M, McCormick PJ, Corsini GU, Maggio R, Scarselli M \| display-authors 6 \| title Molecular targets of atypical antipsychotics: From mechanism of action to clinical differences \| journal Pharmacology & Therapeutics \| volume 192 \| pages 20–41 \| date December 2018 \| pmid 29953902 \| doi 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.06.012 \| s2cid 49602956 }}</ref> Both generations of medication block receptors in the brain for dopamine, but atypicals block serotonin receptors as well. Third-generation antipsychotics were introduced in the 2000s and offer partial agonism, rather than blockade, of dopamine receptors.<ref name":0" /> Neuroleptic, originating from {{langx\|grc\|νεῦρον}} (neuron) and {{lang\|grc\|λαμβάνω}} (take hold of)—thus meaning "which takes the nerve"—refers to both common neurological effects and side effects.<ref name="king" /> {{TOC limit\|3}} Medical uses Antipsychotics are most frequently used for the following conditions: * Schizophrenia<ref name="Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/> * Schizoaffective disorder most commonly in conjunction with either an antidepressant (in the case of the depressive subtype) or a mood stabilizer (in the case of the bipolar subtype). Antipsychotics possess mood stabilizing properties and thus they may be used as standalone medication to treat mood dysregulation. * Bipolar disorder (acute mania and mixed episodes) may be treated with either typical or atypical antipsychotics, although atypical antipsychotics are usually preferred because they tend to have more favourable adverse effect profiles<ref nameLancet2009/> and, according to a recent meta-analysis, they tend to have a lower liability for causing conversion from mania to depression.<ref name"Haldep">{{cite journal \| vauthors Goikolea JM, Colom F, Torres I, Capapey J, Valentí M, Undurraga J, Grande I, Sanchez-Moreno J, Vieta E \| title Lower rate of depressive switch following antimanic treatment with second-generation antipsychotics versus haloperidol \| journal Journal of Affective Disorders \| volume 144 \| issue 3 \| pages 191–8 \| date January 2013 \| pmid 23089129 \| doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2012.07.038 }}</ref> * Psychotic depression. In this indication it is a common practice for the psychiatrist to prescribe a combination of an atypical antipsychotic and an antidepressant as this practice is best supported by the evidence.<ref name = Maudsley/> * Treatment-resistant depression as an adjunct to standard antidepressant therapy.<ref name = Maudsley /> Given the limited options available to treat the behavioral problems associated with dementia, other pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions are usually attempted before using antipsychotics. A risk-to-benefit analysis is performed to weigh the risk of the adverse effects of antipsychotics versus: the potential benefit, the adverse effects of alternative interventions, and the risk of failing to intervene when a patient's behavior becomes unsafe.<ref nameChoose2013>{{cite web\|titleAmerican Psychiatric Association Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question\|urlhttp://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/\|workChoosing Wisely\|access-date23 September 2013\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203174206/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/\|archive-date3 December 2013}}</ref> The same can be said for insomnia, in which they are not recommended as first-line therapy.<ref nameChoose2013/> There are evidence-based indications for using antipsychotics in children (e.g., tic disorder, bipolar disorder, psychosis), but the use of antipsychotics outside of those contexts (e.g., to treat behavioral problems) warrants significant caution.<ref nameChoose2013/> Antipsychotics are used to treat tics associated with Tourette syndrome.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Budman CL \| title The role of atypical antipsychotics for treatment of Tourette's syndrome: an overview \| journal Drugs \| volume 74 \| issue 11 \| pages 1177–1193 \| date July 2014 \| pmid 25034359 \| doi 10.1007/s40265-014-0254-0 \| s2cid 24378317 }}</ref> Aripiprazole, an atypical antipsychotic, is used as add-on medication to ameliorate sexual dysfunction as a symptom of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants in women.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Basson R, Gilks T \| title Women's sexual dysfunction associated with psychiatric disorders and their treatment \| journal Women's Health \| volume 14 \| pages 1745506518762664 \| date 2018-01-01 \| pmid 29649948 \| pmc 5900810 \| doi 10.1177/1745506518762664 }}</ref>{{Rp\|10}} Quetiapine is used to treat generalized anxiety disorder.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kreys TJ, Phan SV \| title A literature review of quetiapine for generalized anxiety disorder \| journal Pharmacotherapy \| volume 35 \| issue 2 \| pages 175–188 \| date February 2015 \| pmid 25689246 \| doi 10.1002/phar.1529 \| s2cid 24744675 }}</ref>Schizophrenia {{Main\|Schizophrenia#Medication}} Antipsychotic drug treatment is a key component of schizophrenia treatment recommendations by the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE),<ref name"NICE">{{cite web\|urlhttp://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG178\|titlePsychosis and schizophrenia in adults (CG178)\|date12 February 2014 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140304005556/http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG178\|archive-date4 March 2014}}</ref> the American Psychiatric Association,<ref name "APA">{{cite web\|urlhttps://psychiatryonline.org/guidelines\|titleAmerican Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines\|websitePsychiatry Online}}</ref> and the British Society for Psychopharmacology.<ref name "BAP">{{cite journal \| vauthors Barnes TR \| s2cid 40089561 \| title Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 25 \| issue 5 \| pages 567–620 \| date May 2011 \| pmid 21292923 \| doi 10.1177/0269881110391123 }}</ref> The main aim of treatment with antipsychotics is to reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis, that include delusions and hallucinations.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/> There is mixed evidence to support a significant impact of antipsychotic use on primary negative symptoms (such as apathy, lack of emotional affect, and lack of interest in social interactions) or on cognitive symptoms (memory impairments, reduced ability to plan and execute tasks).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Miyamoto S, Miyake N, Jarskog LF, Fleischhacker WW, Lieberman JA \| title Pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: a critical review of the pharmacology and clinical effects of current and future therapeutic agents \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 17 \| issue 12 \| pages 1206–27 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 22584864 \| doi 10.1038/mp.2012.47 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"ReferenceA">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hartling L, Abou-Setta AM, Dursun S, Mousavi SS, Pasichnyk D, Newton AS \| title Antipsychotics in adults with schizophrenia: comparative effectiveness of first-generation versus second-generation medications: a systematic review and meta-analysis \| journal Annals of Internal Medicine \| volume 157 \| issue 7 \| pages 498–511 \| date October 2012 \| pmid 22893011 \| doi 10.7326/0003-4819-157-7-201210020-00525 \| doi-access free }}</ref> In general, the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment in reducing positive symptoms appears to increase with the severity of baseline symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Furukawa TA, Levine SZ, Tanaka S, Goldberg Y, Samara M, Davis JM, Cipriani A, Leucht S \| title Initial severity of schizophrenia and efficacy of antipsychotics: participant-level meta-analysis of 6 placebo-controlled studies \| journal JAMA Psychiatry \| volume 72 \| issue 1 \| pages 14–21 \| date January 2015 \| pmid 25372935 \| doi 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2127 \| doi-access free }}</ref> All antipsychotic medications work relatively the same way: by antagonizing D2 dopamine receptors. However, there are some differences when it comes to typical and atypical antipsychotics. For example, atypical antipsychotic medications have been seen to lower the neurocognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia more than conventional antipsychotics, although the reasoning and mechanics of this are still unclear to researchers.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Keefe RS, Silva SG, Perkins DO, Lieberman JA \| title The effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs on neurocognitive impairment in schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis \| journal Schizophrenia Bulletin \| volume 25 \| issue 2 \| pages 201–22 \| date 1 January 1999 \| pmid 10416727 \| doi 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033374 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Applications of antipsychotic drugs in the treatment of schizophrenia include prophylaxis for those showing symptoms that suggest that they are at high risk of developing psychosis; treatment of first-episode psychosis; maintenance therapy (a form of prophylaxis, maintenance therapy aims to maintain therapeutic benefit and prevent symptom relapse); and treatment of recurrent episodes of acute psychosis.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/><ref name BAP /> A recent 2024 study found that using high doses of antipsychotics for schizophrenia was linked to a higher risk of mortality.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Brodeur \|first1Sébastien \|last2Chiu \|first2Yohann M. \|last3Courteau \|first3Josiane \|last4Dorais \|first4Marc \|last5Oliver \|first5Dominic \|last6Stip \|first6Emmanuel \|last7Fleury \|first7Marie-Josée \|last8Roy \|first8Marc-André \|last9Vanasse \|first9Alain \|last10Lesage \|first10Alain \|last11Leclerc \|first11Jacinthe \|date2024-11-22 \|titleMedication Exposure and Mortality in Patients With Schizophrenia \|journalJAMA Network Open \|languageen \|volume7 \|issue11 \|pagese2447137 \|doi10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.47137 \|issn2574-3805 \|pmc11584925 \|pmid39576638}}</ref> Researchers analyzed data from 32,240 individuals aged 17 to 64 diagnosed with schizophrenia between 2002 and 2012 to arrive at this conclusion.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-11-26 \|titleCan Antipsychotics Increase Mortality Risk? A New Study Shows It Might \|urlhttps://www.hcplive.com/view/can-antipsychotics-increase-mortality-risk-a-new-study-shows-it-might \|access-date2024-11-29 \|websiteHCP Live \|languageen}}</ref>Prevention of psychosis and symptom improvementTest batteries such as the PACE (Personal Assessment and Crisis Evaluation Clinic) and COPS (Criteria of Prodromal Syndromes), which measure low-level psychotic symptoms and cognitive disturbances, are used to evaluate people with early, low-level symptoms of psychosis. Test results are combined with family history information to identify patients in the "high-risk" group; they are considered to have a 20–40% risk of progression to frank psychosis within two years.<ref name BAP/> These patients are often treated with low doses of antipsychotic drugs with the goal of reducing their symptoms and preventing progression to frank psychosis. While generally useful for reducing symptoms, clinical trials to date show little evidence that early use of antipsychotics improves long-term outcomes in those with prodromal symptoms, either alone or in combination with cognitive-behavioral therapy.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178/resources/cg178-psychosis-and-schizophrenia-in-adults-full-guideline3 \|titleNICE Treatment Guidance 2014 \|access-date7 August 2014 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140813081133/http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178/resources/cg178-psychosis-and-schizophrenia-in-adults-full-guideline3 \|archive-date13 August 2014 }}</ref> First-episode psychosis First-episode psychosis (FEP) is the first time that psychotic symptoms are presented. NICE recommends that all people presenting with first-episode psychosis be treated with both an antipsychotic drug and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). NICE further recommends that those expressing a preference for CBT alone be informed that combination treatment is more effective.<ref name NICE /> A diagnosis of schizophrenia is not made at this time as it takes longer to be determined by both DSM-5 and ICD-11, and only around 60% of those presenting with a first episode of psychosis will later be diagnosed with schizophrenia.<ref name"McGorry">{{cite journal \| vauthors McGorry PD, Hartmann JA, Spooner R, Nelson B \| title Beyond the "at risk mental state" concept: transitioning to transdiagnostic psychiatry \| journal World Psychiatry \| volume 17 \| issue 2 \| pages 133–142 \| date June 2018 \| pmid 29856558 \| pmc 5980504 \| doi 10.1002/wps.20514 }}</ref> The conversion rate for a first episode of drug induced psychosis to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia is lower, with 30% of people converting to either bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.<ref name"drug">{{cite journal \| vauthors Starzer MS, Nordentoft M, Hjorthøj C \| title Rates and Predictors of Conversion to Schizophrenia or Bipolar Disorder Following Substance-Induced Psychosis \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 175 \| issue 4 \| pages 343–350 \| date April 2018 \| pmid 29179576 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17020223 \| publisher American Psychiatric Association Publishing \| doi-access free }}</ref> NICE makes no distinction between substance-induced psychosis and any other form of psychosis. The rate of conversion differs for different classes of drugs.<ref name="drug"/> Pharmacological options for the specific treatment of FEP have been discussed in recent reviews.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Robinson DG, Gallego JA, John M, Petrides G, Hassoun Y, Zhang JP, Lopez L, Braga RJ, Sevy SM, Addington J, Kellner CH, Tohen M, Naraine M, Bennett N, Greenberg J, Lencz T, Correll CU, Kane JM, Malhotra AK \| display-authors 6 \| title A Randomized Comparison of Aripiprazole and Risperidone for the Acute Treatment of First-Episode Schizophrenia and Related Disorders: 3-Month Outcomes \| journal Schizophrenia Bulletin \| volume 41 \| issue 6 \| pages 1227–1236 \| date November 2015 \| pmid 26338693 \| pmc 4601722 \| doi 10.1093/schbul/sbv125 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gómez-Revuelta M, Pelayo-Terán JM, Juncal-Ruiz M, Vázquez-Bourgon J, Suárez-Pinilla P, Romero-Jiménez R, Setién Suero E, Ayesa-Arriola R, Crespo-Facorro B \| display-authors 6 \| title Antipsychotic Treatment Effectiveness in First Episode of Psychosis: PAFIP 3-Year Follow-Up Randomized Clinical Trials Comparing Haloperidol, Olanzapine, Risperidone, Aripiprazole, Quetiapine, and Ziprasidone \| journal The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 23 \| issue 4 \| pages 217–229 \| date April 2020 \| pmid 31974576 \| pmc 7177160 \| doi 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa004 }}</ref> The goals of treatment for FEP include reducing symptoms and potentially improving long-term treatment outcomes. Randomized clinical trials have provided evidence for the efficacy of antipsychotic drugs in achieving the former goal, with first-generation and second generation antipsychotics showing about equal efficacy. The evidence that early treatment has a favorable effect on long-term outcomes is equivocal.<ref name NICE /><ref name BAP /> Recurrent psychotic episodes Placebo-controlled trials of both first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs consistently demonstrate the superiority of active drugs over placebos in suppressing psychotic symptoms.<ref name BAP /> A large meta-analysis of 38 trials of antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia with acute psychotic episodes showed an effect size of about 0.5.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Leucht S, Arbter D, Engel RR, Kissling W, Davis JM \| title How effective are second-generation antipsychotic drugs? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 14 \| issue 4 \| pages 429–47 \| date April 2009 \| pmid 18180760 \| doi 10.1038/sj.mp.4002136 \| doi-access free }}</ref> There is little or no difference in efficacy among approved antipsychotic drugs, including both first- and second-generation agents.<ref name NICE /><ref name "Leucht_2013">{{cite journal \| vauthors Leucht S, Cipriani A, Spineli L, Mavridis D, Orey D, Richter F, Samara M, Barbui C, Engel RR, Geddes JR, Kissling W, Stapf MP, Lässig B, Salanti G, Davis JM \| s2cid 32085212 \| title Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis \| journal Lancet \| volume 382 \| issue 9896 \| pages 951–62 \| date September 2013 \| pmid 23810019 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60733-3 }}</ref> The efficacy of such drugs is suboptimal. Few patients achieve complete resolution of symptoms. Response rates, calculated using various cutoff values for symptom reduction, are low, and their interpretation is complicated by high placebo response rates and selective publication of clinical trial results.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Beitinger R, Lin J, Kissling W, Leucht S \| s2cid 207408308 \| title Comparative remission rates of schizophrenic patients using various remission criteria \| journal Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry \| volume 32 \| issue 7 \| pages 1643–51 \| date October 2008 \| pmid 18616969 \| doi 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.06.008 }}</ref>Maintenance therapyThe majority of patients treated with an antipsychotic drug will experience a response within four weeks. The goals of continuing treatment are to maintain suppression of symptoms, prevent relapse, improve quality of life, and support engagement in psychosocial therapy.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/><ref name = BAP /> Maintenance therapy with antipsychotic drugs is clearly superior to placebo in preventing relapse but is associated with weight gain, movement disorders, and high dropout rates.<ref name"Ceraso_2020">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ceraso A, Lin JJ, Schneider-Thoma J, Siafis S, Tardy M, Komossa K, Heres S, Kissling W, Davis JM, Leucht S \| display-authors 6 \| title Maintenance treatment with antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2020 \| issue 8 \| pages CD008016 \| date August 2020 \| pmid 32840872 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD008016.pub3 \| pmc 9702459 \| s2cid 221306099 }}</ref> A 3-year trial following persons receiving maintenance therapy after an acute psychotic episode found that 33% obtained long-lasting symptom reduction, 13% achieved remission, and only 27% experienced satisfactory quality of life. The effect of relapse prevention on long term outcomes is uncertain, as historical studies show little difference in long term outcomes before and after the introduction of antipsychotic drugs.<ref name BAP /> While maintenance therapy clearly reduces the rate of relapses requiring hospitalization, a large observational study in Finland found that, in people that eventually discontinued antipsychotics, the risk of being hospitalized again for a mental health problem or dying increased the longer they were dispensed (and presumably took) antipsychotics prior to stopping therapy. If people did not stop taking antipsychotics, they remained at low risk for relapse and hospitalization compared to those that did.<ref name"Tiihonen Tanskanen Taipale 2018 pp. 765–773">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tiihonen J, Tanskanen A, Taipale H \| title 20-Year Nationwide Follow-Up Study on Discontinuation of Antipsychotic Treatment in First-Episode Schizophrenia \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 175 \| issue 8 \| pages 765–773 \| date August 2018 \| pmid 29621900 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17091001 \| publisher American Psychiatric Association Publishing \| doi-access free }}</ref> The authors speculated that the difference may be because the people that discontinued treatment after a longer time had more severe mental illness than those that discontinued antipsychotic therapy sooner.<ref name="Tiihonen Tanskanen Taipale 2018 pp. 765–773" /> A significant challenge in the use of antipsychotic drugs for the prevention of relapse is the poor rate of adherence.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/> In spite of the relatively high rates of adverse effects associated with these drugs, some evidence, including higher dropout rates in placebo arms compared to treatment arms in randomized clinical trials, suggests that most patients who discontinue treatment do so because of suboptimal efficacy.<ref name"Ceraso_2020" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kinon BJ, Ascher-Svanum H, Adams DH, Chen L \| s2cid 203910 \| title The temporal relationship between symptom change and treatment discontinuation in a pooled analysis of 4 schizophrenia trials \| journal Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology \| volume 28 \| issue 5 \| pages 544–9 \| date October 2008 \| pmid 18794651 \| doi 10.1097/JCP.0b013e318185e74a }}</ref> If someone experiences psychotic symptoms due to nonadherence, they may be compelled to receive treatment through a process called involuntary commitment, in which they can be forced to accept treatment (including antipsychotics). A person can also be committed to treatment outside of a hospital, called outpatient commitment. Antipsychotics in long-acting injectable (LAI), or "depot", form have been suggested as a method of decreasing medication nonadherence (sometimes also called non-compliance).<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/><ref name"lai">{{cite journal \| vauthors Park SC, Choi MY, Choi J, Park E, Tchoe HJ, Suh JK, Kim YH, Won SH, Chung YC, Bae KY, Lee SK, Park CM, Lee SH \| display-authors 6 \| title Comparative Efficacy and Safety of Long-acting Injectable and Oral Second-generation Antipsychotics for the Treatment of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis \| journal Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience \| volume 16 \| issue 4 \| pages 361–375 \| date November 2018 \| pmid 30466208 \| pmc 6245299 \| doi 10.9758/cpn.2018.16.4.361 }}</ref> NICE advises LAIs be offered to patients when preventing covert, intentional nonadherence is a clinical priority.<ref name"nice-full-guidelines">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178/evidence/full-guideline-490503565\|titlePSYCHOSIS and Schizophreniain adults: THE NICE GUIDELINE ON TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT\|page10.11.1.27}}</ref> LAIs are used to ensure adherence in outpatient commitment.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/><ref name"cto">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lambert TJ, Singh BS, Patel MX \| title Community treatment orders and antipsychotic long-acting injections \| journal The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement \| volume 52 \| issue S52 \| pages S57-62 \| date November 2009 \| pmid 19880919 \| doi 10.1192/bjp.195.52.s57 \| publisher Royal College of Psychiatrists \| doi-access free }}</ref> A meta-analysis found that LAIs resulted in lower rates of rehospitalization with a hazard ratio of 0.83; however, these results were not statistically significant (the 95% confidence interval was 0.62 to 1.11).<ref name"lai"/>Bipolar disorder {{Main\|Bipolar disorder}} Antipsychotics are routinely used, often in conjunction with mood stabilizers such as lithium/valproate, as a first-line treatment for manic and mixed episodes associated with bipolar disorder.<ref name"Maudsley">{{cite book \| vauthors Taylor D, Paton C, Kapur S, Taylor D \| title The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry \| year2012 \| publisher Wiley-Blackwell \| location Chichester, West Sussex, UK \| isbn 978-0-470-97948-8 \| edition 11th }}</ref><ref nameYoung >{{cite book \| vauthors Young LL, Kradjan WA, Guglielmo BJ, Corelli RL, Williams BR, Koda-Kimble MA \| title Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs \| year 2009 \| publisher Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins \| location Philadelphia \| isbn 978-0-7817-6555-8 \| pages 3040 \| edition 9th }}</ref> The reason for this combination is the therapeutic delay of the aforementioned mood stabilizers (for valproate therapeutic effects are usually seen around five days after treatment is commenced whereas lithium usually takes at least a week<ref name "Young" /> before the full therapeutic effects are seen) and the comparatively rapid antimanic effects of antipsychotic drugs.<ref name"pmid20402706">{{cite journal \| vauthors Correll CU, Sheridan EM, DelBello MP \| title Antipsychotic and mood stabilizer efficacy and tolerability in pediatric and adult patients with bipolar I mania: a comparative analysis of acute, randomized, placebo-controlled trials \| journal Bipolar Disorders \| volume 12 \| issue 2 \| pages 116–41 \| date March 2010 \| pmid 20402706 \| doi 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2010.00798.x }}</ref> The antipsychotics have a documented efficacy when used alone in acute mania/mixed episodes.<ref name=Lancet2009/> At least five atypical antipsychotics (lumateperone,<ref>{{cite web \|titleDailyMed - CAPLYTA- lumateperone capsule \|urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setiddb730b06-6351-47fd-8183-e61e61bbead5 \|access-date2022-12-10 \|websitedailymed.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> cariprazine,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Earley W, Burgess MV, Rekeda L, Dickinson R, Szatmári B, Németh G, McIntyre RS, Sachs GS, Yatham LN \| display-authors 6 \| title Cariprazine Treatment of Bipolar Depression: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Phase 3 Study \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 176 \| issue 6 \| pages 439–448 \| date June 2019 \| pmid 30845817 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.18070824 \| s2cid 73471270 \| doi-access free }}</ref> lurasidone,<ref name"Lur">{{cite web \| url http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807204 \| title Lurasidone Approved for Bipolar Depression \| vauthors Lowes R \| website Medscape \| access-date 2 October 2013 \|url-status live\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131002013831/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807204 \| archive-date 2 October 2013 \| df dmy-all \| date 1 July 2013}}</ref> olanzapine,<ref name"OLD">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tohen M, Katagiri H, Fujikoshi S, Kanba S \| title Efficacy of olanzapine monotherapy in acute bipolar depression: a pooled analysis of controlled studies \| journal Journal of Affective Disorders \| volume 149 \| issue 1–3 \| pages 196–201 \| date July 2013 \| pmid 23485111 \| doi 10.1016/j.jad.2013.01.022 }}</ref> and quetiapine<ref name "QuetD">{{cite journal \| vauthors Thase ME \| title Quetiapine monotherapy for bipolar depression \| journal Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment \| volume 4 \| issue 1 \| pages 11–21 \| date February 2008 \| pmid 18728771 \| pmc 2515925 \| doi 10.2147/ndt.s1162 \| doi-access free }}</ref>) have also been found to possess efficacy in the treatment of bipolar depression as a monotherapy, whereas only olanzapine<ref name"OlanM">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tohen M, Greil W, Calabrese JR, Sachs GS, Yatham LN, Oerlinghausen BM, Koukopoulos A, Cassano GB, Grunze H, Licht RW, Dell'Osso L, Evans AR, Risser R, Baker RW, Crane H, Dossenbach MR, Bowden CL \| display-authors 6 \| title Olanzapine versus lithium in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder: a 12-month, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 162 \| issue 7 \| pages 1281–1290 \| date July 2005 \| pmid 15994710 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1281 \| s2cid 20932562 }}</ref> and quetiapine<ref name"QuetM1">{{cite journal \| vauthors Duffy A, Milin R, Grof P \| title Maintenance treatment of adolescent bipolar disorder: open study of the effectiveness and tolerability of quetiapine \| journal BMC Psychiatry \| volume 9 \| pages 4 \| date February 2009 \| pmid 19200370 \| pmc 2644292 \| doi 10.1186/1471-244X-9-4 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"QuetM2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Weisler RH, Nolen WA, Neijber A, Hellqvist A, Paulsson B \| title Continuation of quetiapine versus switching to placebo or lithium for maintenance treatment of bipolar I disorder (Trial 144: a randomized controlled study) \| journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 72 \| issue 11 \| pages 1452–1464 \| date November 2011 \| pmid 22054050 \| doi 10.4088/JCP.11m06878 }}</ref> have been proven to be effective broad-spectrum (i.e., against all three types of relapse—manic, mixed and depressive) prophylactic (or maintenance) treatments in patients with bipolar disorder. A recent Cochrane review also found that olanzapine had a less favourable risk/benefit ratio than lithium as a maintenance treatment for bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cipriani A, Rendell JM, Geddes J \| title Olanzapine in long-term treatment for bipolar disorder \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD004367 \| date January 2009 \| pmid 19160237 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD004367.pub2 \| veditors Cipriani A \| s2cid = 205173641 }}</ref> The American Psychiatric Association and the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommend antipsychotics for managing acute psychotic episodes in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and as a longer-term maintenance treatment for reducing the likelihood of further episodes.<ref name"pmid15000267">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, McGlashan TH, Miller AL, Perkins DO, Kreyenbuhl J \| title Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia, second edition \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 161 \| issue 2 Suppl \| pages 1–56 \| date February 2004 \| pmid 15000267 }}</ref><ref name"Centre">{{cite journal \| author National Collaborating Centre \| titleSchizophrenia \| websiteNCBI Bookshelf \| year2009 \| pmid20704054 \| urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11681/ \| access-date2021-03-09}}</ref> They state that response to any given antipsychotic can be variable so that trials may be necessary, and that lower doses are to be preferred where possible. A number of studies have looked at levels of "compliance" or "adherence" with antipsychotic regimes and found that discontinuation (stopping taking them) by patients is associated with higher rates of relapse, including hospitalization.DementiaPsychosis and agitation develop in as many as 80 percent of people living in nursing homes.<ref name"pmid21191528" /> Despite a lack of FDA approval and black-box warnings, atypical antipsychotics are very often prescribed to people with dementia.<ref name"pmid21191528" /> An assessment for an underlying cause of behavior is needed before prescribing antipsychotic medication for symptoms of dementia.<ref>{{Citation \|author1 AMDA – The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine \|author1-link AMDA – The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine \|date February 2014 \|title Ten Things Physicians and Patients Should Question \|publisher AMDA – The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine \|work Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation \|url http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/amda/ \|access-date 20 April 2015 \|url-status live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140913011101/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/amda/ \|archive-date 13 September 2014 \|df dmy-all }}.</ref> Antipsychotics in old age dementia showed a modest benefit compared to placebo in managing aggression or psychosis, but this is combined with a fairly large increase in serious adverse events. Thus, antipsychotics should not be used routinely to treat dementia with aggression or psychosis, but may be an option in a few cases where there is severe distress or risk of physical harm to others.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ballard C, Waite J \| title The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer's disease \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD003476 \| date January 2006 \| pmid 16437455 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003476.pub2 \| veditors Ballard CG \| pmc 11365591 }}</ref> Psychosocial interventions may reduce the need for antipsychotics.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lühnen J, Richter T, Calo S, Meyer G, Köpke S, Möhler R \| title Psychosocial interventions for reducing antipsychotic medication in care home residents \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2023 \| issue 8 \| pages CD008634 \| date August 2023 \| pmid 37650479 \| pmc 10471006 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD008634.pub3 }}</ref> In 2005, the FDA issued an advisory warning of an increased risk of death when atypical antipsychotics are used in dementia.<ref name"pmid21191528">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ventimiglia J, Kalali AH, Vahia IV, Jeste DV \| title An analysis of the intended use of atypical antipsychotics in dementia \| journal Psychiatry \| volume 7 \| issue 11 \| pages 14–17 \| date November 2010 \| pmid 21191528 \| pmc 3010964 }}</ref> In the subsequent 5 years, the use of atypical antipsychotics to treat dementia decreased by nearly 50%.<ref name"pmid21191528" /> Major depressive disorder A number of atypical antipsychotics have some benefits when used in addition to other treatments in major depressive disorder.<ref name "Cochrane Dep">{{cite journal \| vauthors Komossa K, Depping AM, Gaudchau A, Kissling W, Leucht S \| title Second-generation antipsychotics for major depressive disorder and dysthymia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 12 \| pages CD008121 \| date December 2010 \| pmid 21154393 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD008121.pub2 }}</ref><ref name"Plos">{{cite journal \| vauthors Spielmans GI, Berman MI, Linardatos E, Rosenlicht NZ, Perry A, Tsai AC \| title Adjunctive atypical antipsychotic treatment for major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of depression, quality of life, and safety outcomes \| journal PLOS Medicine \| volume 10 \| issue 3 \| pages e1001403 \| year 2013 \| pmid 23554581 \| pmc 3595214 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001403 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Aripiprazole, quetiapine extended-release, and olanzapine (when used in conjunction with fluoxetine) have received the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labelling for this indication.<ref name "DrugPoint">Truven Health Analytics, Inc. DrugPoint System (Internet) [cited 2013 Oct 2]. Greenwood Village, CO: Thomsen Healthcare; 2013.</ref> There is, however, a greater risk of side effects with their use compared to using traditional antidepressants.<ref name "Cochrane Dep"/> The greater risk of serious side effects with antipsychotics is why, e.g., quetiapine was denied approval as monotherapy for major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder, and instead was only approved as an adjunctive treatment in combination with traditional antidepressants.<ref name"AACAP FDA Psychopharm QTP Recap">{{cite web \|titleFDA Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee Hearing \|urlhttps://www.aacap.org/App_Themes/AACAP/docs/Advocacy/regulatory_issues/2009/FDA_Psychopharm_Hearing_Summary_Final.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aacap.org/App_Themes/AACAP/docs/Advocacy/regulatory_issues/2009/FDA_Psychopharm_Hearing_Summary_Final.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteAmerican Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry \|access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> A recent study on the use of antipychotics in unipolar depression concluded that the use of those drugs in addition to antidepressants alone leads to a worse disease outcome. This effect is especially pronounced in younger patients with psychotic unipolar depression. Considering the wide use of such combination therapies, further studies on the side effects of antipychotics as an add-on therapy are warranted.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Al-Wandi \|first1Ahmed \|last2Landén \|first2Mikael \|last3Nordenskjöld \|first3Axel \|date2023-11-06 \|titleAntipsychotics in the maintenance phase for psychotic depression \|journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica \|volume149 \|issue1 \|pages6–17 \|languageen \|doi10.1111/acps.13628 \|issn0001-690X\|doi-accessfree \|pmid37932158 }}</ref>OtherGlobal antipsychotic utilization has seen a steady growth since the introduction of atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics and this is ascribed to off-label use for many other unapproved disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hálfdánarson \|first1Óskar \|last2Zoëga \|first2Helga \|last3Aagaard \|first3Lise \|last4Bernardo \|first4Miquel \|last5Brandt \|first5Lena \|last6Fusté \|first6Anna Coma \|last7Furu \|first7Kari \|last8Garuoliené \|first8Kristina \|last9Hoffmann \|first9Falk \|last10Huybrechts \|first10Krista F. \|last11Kalverdijk \|first11Luuk J. \|last12Kawakami \|first12Koji \|last13Kieler \|first13Helle \|last14Kinoshita \|first14Takuya \|last15Litchfield \|first15Melisa \|dateOctober 2017 \|titleInternational trends in antipsychotic use: A study in 16 countries, 2005-2014 \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28755801/ \|journalEuropean Neuropsychopharmacology \|volume27 \|issue10 \|pages1064–1076 \|doi10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.07.001 \|issn1873-7862 \|pmid28755801\|hdl1959.4/unsworks_79133 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Radha Krishnan \|first1Ramya Padmavathy \|last2Harrison \|first2Christopher \|last3Buckley \|first3Nicholas \|last4Raubenheimer \|first4Jacques Eugene \|dateApril 2024 \|titleOn- and off-label utilisation of antipsychotics in Australia (2000–2021): Retrospective analysis of two medication datasets \|journalAustralian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry \|languageen \|volume58 \|issue4 \|pages320–333 \|doi10.1177/00048674231210209 \|issn0004-8674\|doi-accessfree \|pmid37941354 \|pmc10960313 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1McKean \|first1Andrew \|last2Monasterio \|first2Erik \|date2012-05-01 \|titleOff-label use of atypical antipsychotics: cause for concern? \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22448598/ \|journalCNS Drugs \|volume26 \|issue5 \|pages383–390 \|doi10.2165/11632030-000000000-00000 \|issn1179-1934 \|pmid22448598}}</ref> Besides the above uses antipsychotics may be used for obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Tourette syndrome, autism and agitation in those with dementia.<ref nameRand2012/> Evidence however does not support the use of atypical antipsychotics in eating disorders or personality disorder.<ref name"Off-Label Use">{{cite book \|vauthorsMaglione M, Maher AR, Hu J, Wang Z, Shanman R, Shekelle PG, Roth B, Hilton L, Suttorp MJ \| year 2011 \| title Off-Label Use of Atypical Antipsychotics: An Update \|seriesComparative Effectiveness Reviews, No. 43 \| location Rockville \| publisher Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality \| pmid 22973576 }}</ref> The atypical antipsychotic risperidone may be useful for obsessive–compulsive disorder.<ref nameRand2012>{{cite journal \| vauthors Maher AR, Theodore G \| title Summary of the comparative effectiveness review on off-label use of atypical antipsychotics \| journal Journal of Managed Care Pharmacy \| volume 18 \| issue 5 Suppl B \| pages S1-20 \| date June 2012 \| pmid 22784311 \| doi 10.18553/jmcp.2012.18.s5-b.1 \| pmc 10438344 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The use of low doses of antipsychotics for insomnia, while common, is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit as well as concern regarding adverse effects.<ref name"Off-Label Use"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Coe HV, Hong IS \| title Safety of low doses of quetiapine when used for insomnia \| journal The Annals of Pharmacotherapy \| volume 46 \| issue 5 \| pages 718–722 \| date May 2012 \| pmid 22510671 \| doi 10.1345/aph.1Q697 \| s2cid 9888209 }}</ref> Some of the more serious adverse effects may also occur at the low doses used, such as dyslipidemia and neutropenia,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pillinger T, McCutcheon RA, Vano L, Mizuno Y, Arumuham A, Hindley G, Beck K, Natesan S, Efthimiou O, Cipriani A, Howes OD \| display-authors 6 \| title Comparative effects of 18 antipsychotics on metabolic function in patients with schizophrenia, predictors of metabolic dysregulation, and association with psychopathology: a systematic review and network meta-analysis \| journal The Lancet. Psychiatry \| volume 7 \| issue 1 \| pages 64–77 \| date January 2020 \| pmid 31860457 \| pmc 7029416 \| doi 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30416-x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Yoshida K, Takeuchi H \| title Dose-dependent effects of antipsychotics on efficacy and adverse effects in schizophrenia \| journal Behavioural Brain Research \| volume 402 \| pages 113098 \| date March 2021 \| pmid 33417992 \| doi 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113098 \| s2cid 230507941 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and a recent network meta-analysis of 154 double-blind, randomized controlled trials of drug therapies vs. placebo for insomnia in adults found that quetiapine did not demonstrated any short-term benefits in sleep quality.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors De Crescenzo F, D'Alò GL, Ostinelli EG, Ciabattini M, Di Franco V, Watanabe N, Kurtulmus A, Tomlinson A, Mitrova Z, Foti F, Del Giovane C, Quested DJ, Cowen PJ, Barbui C, Amato L, Efthimiou O, Cipriani A \| display-authors 6 \| title Comparative effects of pharmacological interventions for the acute and long-term management of insomnia disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis \| language English \| journal Lancet \| volume 400 \| issue 10347 \| pages 170–184 \| date July 2022 \| pmid 35843245 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00878-9 \| s2cid 250536370 \| doi-access free \| hdl 11380/1288245 \| hdl-access free }}</ref> Low dose antipsychotics may also be used in treatment of impulse-behavioural and cognitive-perceptual symptoms of borderline personality disorder.<ref>{{cite book \| publisher American Psychiatric Association Publications \| author Work Group on Borderline Personality Disorder\|titlePractice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxvQ2QKok3-oC\|access-date5 June 2013\|year2001 \|page4\|isbn978-0-89042-319-6}}</ref> Despite the lack of evidence supporting the benefit of antipsychotics in people with personality disorders, 1 in 4 who do not have a serious mental illness are prescribed them in UK primary care. Many people receive these medication for over a year, contrary to NICE guidelines.<ref>{{cite journal \|date2022-11-10 \|titleAntipsychotics are commonly prescribed to people with personality disorders, contrary to guidelines \|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/antipsychotics-commonly-prescribed-people-personality-disorders-contrary-guidelines/ \|journalNIHR Evidence \|languageen \|doi10.3310/nihrevidence_54520\|s2cid253467990 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hardoon S, Hayes J, Viding E, McCrory E, Walters K, Osborn D \| title Prescribing of antipsychotics among people with recorded personality disorder in primary care: a retrospective nationwide cohort study using The Health Improvement Network primary care database \| journal BMJ Open \| volume 12 \| issue 3 \| pages e053943 \| date March 2022 \| pmid 35264346 \| pmc 8968526 \| doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053943 }}</ref> In children they may be used in those with disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders and pervasive developmental disorders or intellectual disability.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zuddas A, Zanni R, Usala T \| s2cid 1254352 \| title Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) for non-psychotic disorders in children and adolescents: a review of the randomized controlled studies \| journal European Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 21 \| issue 8 \| pages 600–20 \| date August 2011 \| pmid 21550212 \| doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.04.001 }}</ref> Antipsychotics are only weakly recommended for Tourette syndrome, because although they are effective, side effects are common.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pringsheim T, Doja A, Gorman D, McKinlay D, Day L, Billinghurst L, Carroll A, Dion Y, Luscombe S, Steeves T, Sandor P \| title Canadian guidelines for the evidence-based treatment of tic disorders: pharmacotherapy \| journal Canadian Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 57 \| issue 3 \| pages 133–43 \| date March 2012 \| pmid 22397999 \| doi 10.1177/070674371205700302 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The situation is similar for those on the autism spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors McPheeters ML, Warren Z, Sathe N, Bruzek JL, Krishnaswami S, Jerome RN, Veenstra-Vanderweele J \| s2cid 2903864 \| title A systematic review of medical treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders \| journal Pediatrics \| volume 127 \| issue 5 \| pages e1312–21 \| date May 2011 \| pmid 21464191 \| doi 10.1542/peds.2011-0427 }}</ref> Much of the evidence for the off-label use of antipsychotics (for example, for dementia, OCD, PTSD, personality disorders, Tourette's) was of insufficient scientific quality to support such use, especially as there was strong evidence of increased risks of stroke, tremors, significant weight gain, sedation, and gastrointestinal problems.<ref>{{cite press release \|titleEvidence Lacking to Support Many Off-label Uses of Atypical Antipsychotics \|publisherAgency for Healthcare Research and Quality \|date17 January 2007 \|urlhttp://archive.ahrq.gov/news/press/pr2007/antipsypr.htm \|access-date29 July 2013 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130225052120/http://archive.ahrq.gov/news/press/pr2007/antipsypr.htm \|archive-date25 February 2013 }}</ref> A UK review of unlicensed usage in children and adolescents reported a similar mixture of findings and concerns.<ref>{{cite journal \| doi10.1192/apt.bp.108.005652 \| titlePrescribing antipsychotics for children and adolescents \| year2010 \| vauthors James AC \| journal Advances in Psychiatric Treatment \| volume 16 \| issue 1 \| pages 63–75 \| doi-access free }}</ref> A survey of children with pervasive developmental disorder found that 16.5% were taking an antipsychotic drug, most commonly for irritability, aggression, and agitation. Both risperidone and aripiprazole have been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents.<ref name DD>Truven Health Analytics, Inc. DRUGDEX System (Internet) [cited 2013 Oct 10]. Greenwood Village, CO: Thomsen Healthcare; 2013.</ref> A review in the UK found that the use of antipsychotics in England doubled between 2000 and 2019. Children were prescribed antipsychotics for conditions for which there is no approval, such as autism.<ref>{{cite journal \|date2023-04-18 \|titleAntipsychotics are increasingly prescribed to children and teenagers \|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/antipsychotics-are-increasingly-prescribed-to-children-and-teenagers/ \|journalNIHR Evidence \|languageen \|doi10.3310/nihrevidence_57289\|s2cid258224542 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Radojčić MR, Pierce M, Hope H, Senior M, Taxiarchi VP, Trefan L, Swift E, Abel KM \| display-authors 6 \| title Trends in antipsychotic prescribing to children and adolescents in England: cohort study using 2000-19 primary care data \| journal The Lancet. Psychiatry \| volume 10 \| issue 2 \| pages 119–128 \| date February 2023 \| pmid 36638816 \| doi 10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00404-7 \| s2cid 255703855 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Aggressive challenging behavior in adults with intellectual disability is often treated with antipsychotic drugs despite lack of an evidence base. A recent randomized controlled trial, however, found no benefit over placebo and recommended that the use of antipsychotics in this way should no longer be regarded as an acceptable routine treatment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Romeo R, Knapp M, Tyrer P, Crawford M, Oliver-Africano P \| s2cid 34448894 \| title The treatment of challenging behaviour in intellectual disabilities: cost-effectiveness analysis \| journal Journal of Intellectual Disability Research \| volume 53 \| issue 7 \| pages 633–43 \| date July 2009 \| pmid 19460067 \| doi 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2009.01180.x }}</ref> Antipsychotics may be an option, together with stimulants, in people with ADHD and aggressive behavior when other treatments have not worked.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Linton D, Barr AM, Honer WG, Procyshyn RM \| title Antipsychotic and psychostimulant drug combination therapy in attention deficit/hyperactivity and disruptive behavior disorders: a systematic review of efficacy and tolerability \| journal Current Psychiatry Reports \| volume 15 \| issue 5 \| pages 355 \| date May 2013 \| pmid 23539465 \| doi 10.1007/s11920-013-0355-6 \| s2cid 45484062 }}</ref> They have not been found to be useful for the prevention of delirium among those admitted to hospital.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Oh ES, Needham DM, Nikooie R, Wilson LM, Zhang A, Robinson KA, Neufeld KJ \| title Antipsychotics for Preventing Delirium in Hospitalized Adults: A Systematic Review \| journal Annals of Internal Medicine \| volume 171 \| issue 7 \| pages 474–484 \| date October 2019 \| pmid 31476766 \| doi 10.7326/M19-1859 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Typicals vs atypicals Aside from reduced extrapyramidal symptoms, and with the clear exception of clozapine, it is unclear whether the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics offer advantages over older, first generation antipsychotics.<ref name"Comparing 1-year effectiveness and"/><ref name"ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kane JM, Correll CU \| title Pharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia \| journal Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 12 \| issue 3 \| pages 345–57 \| year 2010 \| doi 10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.3/jkane \| pmid 20954430 \| pmc 3085113 }}</ref> Amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects.<ref name"barry 2012">{{cite journal \| vauthors Barry SJ, Gaughan TM, Hunter R \| title Schizophrenia \| journal BMJ Clinical Evidence \| volume 2012 \| date June 2012 \| pmid 23870705 \| pmc 3385413 }}</ref> Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages.<ref nameAFP07>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schultz SH, North SW, Shields CG \| title Schizophrenia: a review \| journal American Family Physician \| volume 75 \| issue 12 \| pages 1821–9 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17619525 \| url https://www.aafp.org/afp/2007/0615/p1821.html \| citeseerx=10.1.1.602.7571 }}</ref> Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ("treatment-resistant" or "refractory" schizophrenia),<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Taylor DM, Duncan-McConnell D \| s2cid 27270415 \| title Refractory schizophrenia and atypical antipsychotics \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 14 \| issue 4 \| pages 409–18 \| year 2000 \| pmid 11198061 \| doi 10.1177/026988110001400411 }}</ref> but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Essali A, Al-Haj Haasan N, Li C, Rathbone J \| title Clozapine versus typical neuroleptic medication for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD000059 \| date January 2009 \| volume 2009 \| pmid 19160174 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD000059.pub2 \| pmc 7065592 }}</ref> Due to bias in the research the accuracy of comparisons of atypical antipsychotics is a concern.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Heres S, Davis J, Maino K, Jetzinger E, Kissling W, Leucht S \| s2cid 3849348 \| title Why olanzapine beats risperidone, risperidone beats quetiapine, and quetiapine beats olanzapine: an exploratory analysis of head-to-head comparison studies of second-generation antipsychotics \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 163 \| issue 2 \| pages 185–94 \| date February 2006 \| pmid 16449469 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.2.185 }}</ref> In 2005, a US government body, the National Institute of Mental Health published the results of a major independent study (the CATIE project).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK \| s2cid 22499842 \| title Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 353 \| issue 12 \| pages 1209–23 \| date September 2005 \| pmid 16172203 \| doi 10.1056/NEJMoa051688 \| url https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/g732dk11n \| doi-access free }}</ref> No other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the first-generation antipsychotic perphenazine on the measures used, nor did they produce fewer adverse effects than the typical antipsychotic perphenazine, although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8% vs. 2% to 4%).<ref nameLancet2009>{{cite journal \| vauthors Leucht S, Corves C, Arbter D, Engel RR, Li C, Davis JM \| s2cid 1071537 \| title Second-generation versus first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia: a meta-analysis \| journal Lancet \| volume 373 \| issue 9657 \| pages 31–41 \| date January 2009 \| pmid 19058842 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61764-X }}</ref> This is significant because any patient with tardive dyskinesia was specifically excluded from randomization to perphenazine; i.e., in the CATIE study the patient cohort randomized to receive perphenazne was at lower risk of having extrapyramidal symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Swartz \|first1Marvin S. \|last2Stroup \|first2T. Scott \|last3McEvoy \|first3Joseph P. \|last4Davis \|first4Sonia M. \|last5Rosenheck \|first5Robert A. \|last6Keefe \|first6Richard S. E. \|last7Hsiao \|first7John K. \|last8Lieberman \|first8Jeffrey A. \|dateMay 2008 \|titleSpecial Section on Implications of CATIE: What CATIE Found: Results From the Schizophrenia Trial \|journalPsychiatric Services \|languageen \|volume59 \|issue5 \|pages500–506 \|doi10.1176/ps.2008.59.5.500 \|pmid18451005 \|pmc5033643 \|issn1075-2730}}</ref> Atypical antipsychotics do not appear to lead to improved rates of medication adherence compared to typical antipsychotics.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Voruganti LP, Baker LK, Awad AG \| s2cid 34935 \| title New generation antipsychotic drugs and compliance behaviour \| journal Current Opinion in Psychiatry \| volume 21 \| issue 2 \| pages 133–9 \| date March 2008 \| pmid 18332660 \| doi 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f52851 }}</ref> Many researchers question the first-line prescribing of atypicals over typicals, and some even question the distinction between the two classes.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Paczynski RP, Alexander GC, Chinchilli VM, Kruszewski SP \| title Quality of evidence in drug compendia supporting off-label use of typical and atypical antipsychotic medications \| journal The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine \| volume 24 \| issue 3 \| pages 137–146 \| date January 2012 \| pmid 22936056 \| doi 10.3233/JRS-2012-0567 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Owens DC \|titleHow CATIE brought us back to Kansas: a critical re-evaluation of the concept of atypical antipsychotics and their place in the treatment of schizophrenia\|journalAdvances in Psychiatric Treatment \|volume14 \|issue1 \|pages17–28 \|year2008 \|doi10.1192/apt.bp.107.003970\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fischer-Barnicol D, Lanquillon S, Haen E, Zofel P, Koch HJ, Dose M, Klein HE \| title Typical and atypical antipsychotics--the misleading dichotomy. Results from the Working Group 'Drugs in Psychiatry' (AGATE) \| journal Neuropsychobiology \| volume 57 \| issue 1–2 \| pages 80–87 \| year 2008 \| pmid 18515977 \| doi 10.1159/000135641 \| s2cid 2669203 }}</ref> In contrast, other researchers point to the significantly higher risk of tardive dyskinesia and other extrapyramidal symptoms with the typicals and for this reason alone recommend first-line treatment with the atypicals, notwithstanding a greater propensity for metabolic adverse effects in the latter.<ref name"pmid10190226">{{cite journal \| vauthors Casey DE \| title Tardive dyskinesia and atypical antipsychotic drugs \| journal Schizophrenia Research \| volume 35 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pages S61–S66 \| date March 1999 \| pmid 10190226 \| doi 10.1016/S0920-9964(98)00160-1 \| s2cid = 31807817 }}</ref> The UK government organization NICE recently revised its recommendation favoring atypicals, to advise that the choice should be an individual one based on the particular profiles of the individual drug and on the patient's preferences. The re-evaluation of the evidence has not necessarily slowed the bias toward prescribing the atypicals.<ref name"pmid20098227">{{cite journal \| vauthors Makhinson M \| title Biases in medication prescribing: the case of second-generation antipsychotics \| journal Journal of Psychiatric Practice \| volume 16 \| issue 1 \| pages 15–21 \| date January 2010 \| pmid 20098227 \| doi 10.1097/01.pra.0000367774.11260.e4 \| s2cid 46530288 }}</ref>Other usesAntipsychotics, such as risperidone, quetiapine, and olanzapine, have been used as hallucinogen antidotes or "trip killers" to block the effects of serotonergic psychedelics like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).<ref name"HalmanKongSarris2024">{{cite journal \| vauthors Halman A, Kong G, Sarris J, Perkins D \| title Drug-drug interactions involving classic psychedelics: A systematic review \| journal J Psychopharmacol \| volume 38 \| issue 1 \| pages 3–18 \| date January 2024 \| pmid 37982394 \| pmc 10851641 \| doi 10.1177/02698811231211219 \| url }}</ref><ref name"YatesMelon2024">{{cite journal \| vauthors Yates G, Melon E \| title Trip-killers: a concerning practice associated with psychedelic drug use \| journal Emerg Med J \| volume 41 \| issue 2 \| pages 112–113 \| date January 2024 \| pmid 38123961 \| doi 10.1136/emermed-2023-213377 \| url }}</ref><ref name"Suran2024">{{cite journal \| vauthors Suran M \| title Study Finds Hundreds of Reddit Posts on "Trip-Killers" for Psychedelic Drugs \| journal JAMA \| volume 331 \| issue 8 \| pages 632–634 \| date February 2024 \| pmid 38294772 \| doi 10.1001/jama.2023.28257 \| url }}</ref><ref name"VollenweiderVollenweider-ScherpenhuyzenBäbler1998">{{cite journal \| vauthors Vollenweider FX, Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen MF, Bäbler A, Vogel H, Hell D \| title Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action \| journal NeuroReport \| volume 9 \| issue 17 \| pages 3897–3902 \| date December 1998 \| pmid 9875725 \| doi 10.1097/00001756-199812010-00024 \| url }}</ref> Adverse effects {{for\|more detailed comparison of atypical antipsychotics\|Atypical antipsychotic#Adverse effects}} Generally, more than one antipsychotic drug should not be used at a time because of increased adverse effects.<ref name"APAfive polypharmacy">{{Citation\|titleFive Things Physicians and Patients Should Question\|dateSeptember 2013\|urlhttp://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/\|author1American Psychiatric Association\|author1-linkAmerican Psychiatric Association\|workChoosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association\|access-date30 December 2013\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203174206/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/\|archive-date3 December 2013}}, which cites * {{cite book\|year2006\|titlePractice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia \| edition Second \|volume1\|doi10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363.45859\|isbn978-0-89042-336-3 \| publisher American Psychiatric Association\|doi-broken-date4 December 2024 }} * {{Citation\|titleSpecifications Manual for Joint Commission National Quality Core Measures\|date30 June 2013\|urlhttp://www.jointcommission.org/specifications_manual_joint_commission_national_quality_core_measures.aspx\|authorJoint Commission\|author-linkJoint Commission\|chapterHBIPS-4, Patients discharged on multiple antipsychotic medications\|chapter-urlhttp://manual.jointcommission.org/releases/TJC2013A/MIF0119.html\|access-date27 October 2013\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110024015/http://www.jointcommission.org/specifications_manual_joint_commission_national_quality_core_measures.aspx\|archive-date=10 November 2013}} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Stahl SM, Grady MM \| title A critical review of atypical antipsychotic utilization: comparing monotherapy with polypharmacy and augmentation \| journal Current Medicinal Chemistry \| volume 11 \| issue 3 \| pages 313–27 \| date February 2004 \| pmid 14965234 \| doi = 10.2174/0929867043456070 }}</ref> Use of antipsychotics is associated with reductions in brain tissue volumes,<ref name"Ho">{{cite journal \|vauthorsHo BC, Andreasen NC, Ziebell S, Pierson R, Magnotta V \|dateFebruary 2011 \|titleLong-term antipsychotic treatment and brain volumes: a longitudinal study of first-episode schizophrenia \|journalArchives of General Psychiatry \|volume68 \|issue2 \|pages128–137 \|doi10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.199 \|pmc3476840 \|pmid21300943}}</ref><ref name"Moncrieff">{{cite journal \|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Leo J \|dateSeptember 2010 \|titleA systematic review of the effects of antipsychotic drugs on brain volume \|journalPsychological Medicine \|volume40 \|issue9 \|pages1409–1422 \|doi10.1017/S0033291709992297 \|pmid20085668 \|s2cid23522488}}</ref> including white matter reduction,<ref name"Chopra">{{cite journal \|display-authors6 \|vauthorsChopra S, Fornito A, Francey SM, O'Donoghue B, Cropley V, Nelson B, Graham J, Baldwin L, Tahtalian S, Yuen HP, Allott K, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Harrigan S, Sabaroedin K, Pantelis C, Wood SJ, McGorry P \|dateJuly 2021 \|titleDifferentiating the effect of antipsychotic medication and illness on brain volume reductions in first-episode psychosis: A Longitudinal, Randomised, Triple-blind, Placebo-controlled MRI Study \|journalNeuropsychopharmacology \|volume46 \|issue8 \|pages1494–1501 \|doi10.1038/s41386-021-00980-0 \|pmc8209146 \|pmid33637835}}</ref> an effect which is dose-dependent and time-dependent.<ref name"Ho" /><ref name"Moncrieff" /> However, a recent controlled trial suggests that second generation antipsychotics<ref>please see Chopra et al 2021: Strengths and limitations "only examined risperidone and paliperidone"</ref> combined with intensive psychosocial therapy<ref>please see Chopra et al 2021: Method Study design</ref> may potentially prevent pallidal brain volume loss in first episode psychosis.<ref>please see Chopra et al 2021: Introduction, 3rd paragraph, Lieberman JA, et al. 2005 & Shao Y et al 2015, and Chopra et al: Are antipsychotics neuroprotective? 1st paragraph last sentence</ref><ref name="Chopra" /> Some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain, diabetes and the risk of metabolic syndrome.<ref name"Barry2012">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBarry SJ, Gaughan TM, Hunter R \|dateJune 2012 \|titleSchizophrenia \|journalBMJ Clin Evid \|volume2012 \|issue\|pages \|pmc3385413 \|pmid23870705}}</ref> Unwanted side effects cause people to stop treatment, resulting in relapses.<ref name"Nakata2">{{cite journal \|vauthorsNakata Y, Kanahara N, Iyo M \|dateDecember 2017 \|titleDopamine supersensitivity psychosis in schizophrenia: Concepts and implications in clinical practice \|journalJournal of Psychopharmacology \|volume31 \|issue12 \|pages1511–1518 \|doi10.1177/0269881117728428 \|pmid28925317 \|s2cid1957881}}</ref> Risperidone (atypical) has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol (typical).<ref name"Barry2012" /> A rare but potentially lethal condition of neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) has been associated with the use of antipsychotics. Through its early recognition, and timely intervention rates have declined. However, an awareness of the syndrome is advised to enable intervention.<ref name"Ware">{{cite journal \|vauthorsWare MR, Feller DB, Hall KL \|date4 January 2018 \|titleNeuroleptic Malignant Syndrome: Diagnosis and Management \|journalThe Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders \|volume20 \|issue1 \|doi10.4088/PCC.17r02185 \|pmid29325237}}</ref> Another less rare condition of tardive dyskinesia can occur due to long-term use of antipsychotics, developing after months or years of use. It is more often reported with use of typical antipsychotics.<ref name"Carbon">{{cite journal \|vauthorsCarbon M, Kane JM, Leucht S, Correll CU \|dateOctober 2018 \|titleTardive dyskinesia risk with first- and second-generation antipsychotics in comparative randomized controlled trials: a meta-analysis \|journalWorld Psychiatry \|volume17 \|issue3 \|pages330–340 \|doi10.1002/wps.20579 \|pmc6127753 \|pmid30192088}}</ref> Very rarely antipsychotics may cause tardive psychosis.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSy7OBgAAQBAJ&pgPA791 \|titleTextbook of Clinical Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Third Edition \|vauthorsMoore DP, Puri BK \|date2012 \|publisherCRC Press \|isbn978-1-4441-6494-7 \|page791 \|languageen \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171125213437/https://books.google.com/books?idSy7OBgAAQBAJ&pgPA791 \|archive-date25 November 2017 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Clozapine is associated with side effects that include weight gain, tiredness, and hypersalivation. More serious adverse effects include seizures, NMS, neutropenia, and agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) and its use needs careful monitoring.<ref name"De Berardis">{{cite journal \|display-authorsetal \|vauthorsDe Berardis D, Rapini G, Olivieri L \|dateMay 2018 \|titleSafety of antipsychotics for the treatment of schizophrenia: a focus on the adverse effects of clozapine \|journalTherapeutic Advances in Drug Safety \|volume9 \|issue5 \|pages237–256 \|doi10.1177/2042098618756261 \|pmc5956953 \|pmid29796248}}</ref><ref name"Legge">{{cite journal \|vauthorsLegge SE, Walters JT \|dateMarch 2019 \|titleGenetics of clozapine-associated neutropenia: recent advances, challenges and future perspective \|journalPharmacogenomics \|volume20 \|issue4 \|pages279–290 \|doi10.2217/pgs-2018-0188 \|pmc6563116 \|pmid=30767710}}</ref> Clozapine is also associated with thromboembolism (including pulmonary embolism), myocarditis, and cardiomyopathy.<ref name"Kritharides">{{cite journal \|vauthorsKritharides L, Chow V, Lambert TJ \|date6 February 2017 \|titleCardiovascular disease in patients with schizophrenia \|journalThe Medical Journal of Australia \|volume206 \|issue2 \|pages91–95 \|doi10.5694/mja16.00650 \|pmid28152356 \|s2cid5388097}}</ref><ref name"Sarvaiya">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSarvaiya N, Lapitskaya Y, Dima L, Manu P \|dateAugust 2018 \|titleClozapine-Associated Pulmonary Embolism: A High-Mortality, Dose-Independent and Early-Onset Adverse Effect \|journalAmerican Journal of Therapeutics \|volume25 \|issue4 \|pagese434–e438 \|doi10.1097/MJT.0000000000000806 \|pmid29985823 \|s2cid51608744}}</ref> A systematic review of clozapine-associated pulmonary embolism indicates that this adverse effect can often be fatal, and that it has an early onset, and is dose-dependent. The findings advised the consideration of using a prevention therapy for venous thromboembolism after starting treatment with clozapine, and continuing this for six months.<ref name"Sarvaiya" /> Constipation is three times more likely to occur with the use of clozapine, and severe cases can lead to ileus and bowel ischemia resulting in many fatalities.<ref name"De Berardis" /> Very rare clozapine adverse effects include periorbital edema due to several possible mechanisms (e.g., inhibition of platelet-derived growth factor receptors leading to increased vascular permeability, antagonism of renal dopamine receptors with electrolyte and fluid imbalance and immune-mediated hypersensitivity reactions).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Teodoro T, Nogueira V, Aldeias J, Teles Martins M, Salgado J \| title Clozapine Associated Periorbital Edema in First Episode Psychosis: A Case Report of a Rare Adverse Effect in Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia \| journal Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology \| date September 2022 \| volume 42 \| issue 6 \| pages 594–596 \| pmid 36066404 \| doi 10.1097/JCP.0000000000001600\| s2cid 252088054 }}</ref> However, the risk of serious adverse effects from clozapine is low, and there are the beneficial effects to be gained of a reduced risk of suicide, and aggression.<ref name"Citrome">{{cite journal \|vauthorsCitrome L, McEvoy JP, Saklad SR \|year2016 \|titleGuide to the Management of Clozapine-Related Tolerability and Safety Concerns \|journalClinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses \|volume10 \|issue3 \|pages163–177 \|doi10.3371/1935-1232.10.3.163 \|doi-broken-date11 February 2025 \|pmid27732102}}</ref><ref name"Sriretnakumar">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSriretnakumar V, Huang E, Müller DJ \|date2015 \|titlePharmacogenetics of clozapine treatment response and side-effects in schizophrenia: an update \|journalExpert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology \|volume11 \|issue11 \|pages1709–31 \|doi10.1517/17425255.2015.1075003 \|pmid26364648 \|s2cid207492339}}</ref> Typical antipsychotics and atypical risperidone can have a side effect of sexual dysfunction.<ref name"BMJ07">{{cite journal \|vauthorsPicchioni MM, Murray RM \|dateJuly 2007 \|titleSchizophrenia \|journalBMJ \|volume335 \|issue7610 \|pages91–5 \|doi10.1136/bmj.39227.616447.BE \|pmc1914490 \|pmid17626963}}</ref> Clozapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine are associated with beneficial effects on sexual functioning helped by various psychotherapies.<ref name"Adam">{{cite journal \|display-authorsetal \|vauthorsAdam RL, Sidi H, Midin M \|date2018 \|titleThe Role of Atypical Antipsychotics in Sexuality: Road to Recovery in Schizophrenia \|journalCurrent Drug Targets \|volume19 \|issue12 \|pages1402–1411 \|doi10.2174/1389450118666170502130126 \|pmid28464773 \|s2cid41487184}}</ref>By rate'Common (≥ 1% and up to 50% incidence for most antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include:'<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Muench J, Hamer AM \| title Adverse effects of antipsychotic medications \| journal American Family Physician \| volume 81 \| issue 5 \| pages 617–22 \| date March 2010 \| pmid = 20187598 }}</ref> * Dysphoria and apathy (due to dopamine receptor blockade) * Sedation (particularly common with asenapine, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, chlorpromazine and zotepine<ref name = "Leucht_2013" />) * Headaches * Dizziness * Diarrhea * Anxiety * Extrapyramidal side effects (particularly common with first-generation antipsychotics), which include: Akathisia, an often distressing sense of inner restlessness. Dystonia, an abnormal muscle contraction ** Pseudoparkinsonism, symptoms that are similar to what people with Parkinson's disease experience, including tremulousness and drooling * Hyperprolactinaemia (rare for those treated with clozapine, quetiapine and aripiprazole<ref name "Maudsley" /><ref name "Leucht_2013" />), which can cause: Galactorrhoea, the unusual secretion of breast milk. Gynaecomastia, abnormal growth of breast tissue Sexual dysfunction (in both sexes) Osteoporosis * Orthostatic hypotension * Weight gain (particularly prominent with clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine and zotepine,<ref name "Leucht_2013" /> can be counteracted by starting the drug with metformin<ref namePraharajJana2011>{{cite journal \| vauthors Praharaj SK, Jana AK, Goyal N, Sinha VK \| title Metformin for olanzapine-induced weight gain: a systematic review and meta-analysis \| journal British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology \| volume 71 \| issue 3 \| pages 377–82 \| date March 2011 \| pmid 21284696 \| pmc 3045546 \| doi 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2010.03783.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Yu \|first1O \|last2Lu \|first2M \|last3Lai \|first3TKY \|last4Hahn \|first4M \|last5Agarwal \|first5SM \|last6O'Donoghue \|first6B \|last7Ebdrup \|first7BH \|last8Siskind \|first8D \|titleMetformin co-commencement at time of antipsychotic initiation for attenuation of weight gain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. \|journalTherapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology \|date2024 \|volume14 \|pages20451253241255476 \|doi10.1177/20451253241255476 \|pmid38827016\|doi-accessfree\|pmc=11141220 }}</ref>) * Anticholinergic side-effects (common for olanzapine, clozapine; less likely on risperidone<ref name"Lieberman, 2004">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lieberman JA \| title Managing anticholinergic side effects \| journal Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 6 \| issue Suppl 2 \| pages 20–3 \| year 2004 \| pmid 16001097 \| pmc 487008 }}</ref>) such as: Blurred vision Constipation Dry mouth (although hypersalivation may also occur) Reduced perspiration * Tardive dyskinesia appears to be more frequent with high-potency first-generation antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, and tends to appear after chronic and not acute treatment. It is characterized by slow (hence the tardive) repetitive, involuntary and purposeless movements, most often of the face, lips, legs, or torso, which tend to resist treatment and are frequently irreversible. The rate of appearance of TD is about 5% per year of use of antipsychotic drug (whatever the drug used) * Breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies with over 2 million individuals estimated an association between antipsychotic use and breast cancer by over 30%.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://neurosciencenews.com/antipsychotic-breast-cancer-21367/\|titleAntipsychotic Use Associated With Elevated Risk of Breast Cancer\|dateSeptember 6, 2022\|authorUniversity of Hong Kong}}</ref> 'Rare/Uncommon (<1% incidence for most antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include:' * Blood dyscrasias (e.g., agranulocytosis, leukopenia, and neutropaenia), which is more common in patients on clozapine. * Metabolic syndrome and other metabolic problems such as type II diabetes mellitus — particularly common with clozapine, olanzapine and zotepine. In American studies African Americans appeared to be at a heightened risk for developing type II diabetes mellitus.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Koller EA, Doraiswamy PM \| title Olanzapine-associated diabetes mellitus \| journal Pharmacotherapy \| volume 22 \| issue 7 \| pages 841–52 \| date July 2002 \| pmid 12126218 \| doi 10.1592/phco.22.11.841.33629 \| s2cid 27314943 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1236343 }}</ref> Evidence suggests that females are more sensitive to the metabolic side effects of first-generation antipsychotic drugs than males.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Weston-Green K, Huang XF, Deng C \| s2cid 30384727 \| title Sensitivity of the female rat to olanzapine-induced weight gain—far from the clinic? \| journal Schizophrenia Research \| volume 116 \| issue 2–3 \| pages 299–300 \| date February 2010 \| pmid 19840894 \| doi 10.1016/j.schres.2009.09.034 \| url https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article2408&contextsmhpapers }}</ref> Metabolic adverse effects appear to be mediated by antagonizing the histamine H<sub>1</sub> and serotonin 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> receptors<ref name "GG" /> and perhaps by interacting with other neurochemical pathways in the central nervous system.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Weston-Green K, Huang XF, Deng C \| title Alterations to melanocortinergic, GABAergic and cannabinoid neurotransmission associated with olanzapine-induced weight gain \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 7 \| issue 3 \| pages e33548 \| year 2012 \| pmid 22438946 \| pmc 3306411 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0033548 \| veditors Chang AY \| bibcode 2012PLoSO...733548W \| doi-access free }}</ref> * Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a potentially fatal condition characterized by: Autonomic instability, which can manifest with tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, etc. Hyperthermia — elevated body temperature. Mental status change (confusion, hallucinations, coma, etc.) Muscle rigidity ** Laboratory abnormalities (e.g., elevated creatine kinase, reduced iron plasma levels, electrolyte abnormalities, etc.) * Pancreatitis<ref name"pmid14524644">{{cite journal \| vauthors Koller EA, Cross JT, Doraiswamy PM, Malozowski SN \| title Pancreatitis associated with atypical antipsychotics: from the Food and Drug Administration's MedWatch surveillance system and published reports \| journal Pharmacotherapy \| volume 23 \| issue 9 \| pages 1123–30 \| date September 2003 \| pmid 14524644 \| doi 10.1592/phco.23.10.1123.32759 \| s2cid 39945446 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1236345 }}</ref> * QT interval prolongation — more prominent in those treated with amisulpride, pimozide, sertindole, thioridazine and ziprasidone.<ref name "Maudsley" /><ref name "Leucht_2013" /> * Torsades de pointes * Seizures, particularly in people treated with chlorpromazine and clozapine. * Thromboembolism * Myocardial infarction * Stroke * Pisa syndrome Long-term effects {{see also\|List of long term side effects of antipsychotics}} Antipsychotic use has been linked to a 21x higher incidence of dementia in the United States by age 65.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Stroup \|first1T. Scott \|last2Olfson \|first2Mark \|last3Huang \|first3Cecilia \|last4Wall \|first4Melanie M. \|last5Goldberg \|first5Terry \|last6Devanand \|first6Davangere P. \|last7Gerhard \|first7Tobias \|dateJune 2021 \|titleAge-Specific Prevalence and Incidence of Dementia Diagnoses Among Older US Adults With Schizophrenia \|journalJAMA Psychiatry \|volume78 \|issue6 \|pages632–641 \|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0042 \|issn2168-622X \|pmc7948106 \|pmid33688938}}</ref> Both atypical and typical antipsychotics have a higher hazard ratio<!-- Hazard ratios are not the same as incidence rate. A 4.42 hazard ratio results in 37.2% incidence by age 65 in Singapore as compared to 10% by age 65 in the general Singapore population. --> for dementia risk.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ma \|first1Li-Yun \|last2Ou \|first2Ya-Nan \|last3Gao \|first3Pei-Yang \|last4Fu \|first4Yan \|last5Zhang \|first5Dan-Dan \|last6Yang \|first6Liu \|last7Feng \|first7Jian-Feng \|last8Cheng \|first8Wei \|last9Tan \|first9Lan \|last10Yu \|first10Jin-Tai \|date2024-03-15 \|titleAssociations between antipsychotics exposure and dementia risk: A prospective cohort study of 415,100 participants \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032724000387 \|journalJournal of Affective Disorders \|volume349 \|pages201–209 \|doi10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.029 \|pmid38199419 \|issn0165-0327}}</ref> In 2024 testable hypotheses were proposed for the mechanism<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Jonas \|first1Katherine \|last2Abi-Dargham \|first2Anissa \|last3Kotov \|first3Roman \|date2021-12-01 \|titleTwo hypotheses on the high incidence of dementia in psychotic disorders \|journalJAMA Psychiatry \|languageen \|volume78 \|issue12 \|pages1305–1306 \|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2584 \|pmid34524413 \|pmc=10805107 }}</ref> responsible for cortical thinning till dementia. Some studies have found decreased life expectancy associated with the use of antipsychotics, and argued that more studies are needed.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Weinmann S, Read J, Aderhold V \| s2cid 8143217 \| title Influence of antipsychotics on mortality in schizophrenia: systematic review \| journal Schizophrenia Research \| volume 113 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–11 \| date August 2009 \| pmid 19524406 \| doi 10.1016/j.schres.2009.05.018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Joukamaa M, Heliövaara M, Knekt P, Aromaa A, Raitasalo R, Lehtinen V \| title Schizophrenia, neuroleptic medication and mortality \| journal The British Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 188 \| issue 2 \| pages 122–7 \| date February 2006 \| pmid 16449697 \| doi 10.1192/bjp.188.2.122 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Antipsychotics may also increase the risk of early death in individuals with dementia.<ref>{{cite journal \| title American Geriatrics Society updated Beers Criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults \| journal Journal of the American Geriatrics Society \| volume 60 \| issue 4 \| pages 616–31 \| date April 2012 \| pmid 22376048 \| pmc 3571677 \| doi 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.03923.x \| author1 American Geriatrics Society 2012 Beers Criteria Update Expert Panel }}</ref> Antipsychotics typically worsen symptoms in people with depersonalisation disorder.<ref nameutdp>{{cite journal \|vauthorsMedford N, Sierra M, Baker D, David A \|year2005 \|titleUnderstanding and treating depersonalisation disorder \|journalAdvances in Psychiatric Treatment \|volume11 \|issue2 \|pages92–100 \|doi10.1192/apt.11.2.92 \|urlhttp://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/11/2/92#SEC5 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716095835/http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/11/2/92#SEC5 \|archive-date16 July 2011 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Antipsychotic polypharmacy (prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual) is a common practice but not evidence-based or recommended, and there are initiatives to curtail it.<ref name"APAfive polypharmacy"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Patrick V, Levin E, Schleifer S \| s2cid 43114395 \| title Antipsychotic polypharmacy: is there evidence for its use? \| journal Journal of Psychiatric Practice \| volume 11 \| issue 4 \| pages 248–57 \| date July 2005 \| pmid 16041235 \| doi 10.1097/00131746-200507000-00005 }}</ref> Similarly, the use of excessively high doses (often the result of polypharmacy) continues despite clinical guidelines and evidence indicating that it is usually no more effective but is usually more harmful.<ref name"APAfive polypharmacy"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ito H, Koyama A, Higuchi T \| title Polypharmacy and excessive dosing: psychiatrists' perceptions of antipsychotic drug prescription \| journal The British Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 187 \| issue 3 \| pages 243–7 \| date September 2005 \| pmid 16135861 \| doi 10.1192/bjp.187.3.243 \| doi-access free }}</ref> A meta-analysis of observational studies with over two million individuals has suggested a moderate association of antipsychotic use with breast cancer.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Leung JC, Ng DW, Chu RY, Chan EW, Huang L, Lum DH, Chan EW, Smith DJ, Wong IC, Lai FT \| display-authors 6 \| title Association of antipsychotic use with breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies with over 2 million individuals \| journal Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences \| volume 31 \| pages e61 \| date September 2022 \| pmid 36059215 \| pmc 9483823 \| doi 10.1017/S2045796022000476 }}</ref> Loss of grey matter and other brain structural changes over time are observed amongst people diagnosed with schizophrenia. Meta-analyses of the effects of antipsychotic treatment on grey matter volume and the brain's structure have reached conflicting conclusions. A 2020 study concluded that atypical antipsychotics are linked to cortical thinning and cognitive decline<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Feng \|first1Ruiqi \|last2Womer \|first2Fay Y. \|last3Edmiston \|first3E. Kale \|last4Chen \|first4Yifan \|last5Wang \|first5Yinshan \|last6Chang \|first6Miao \|last7Yin \|first7Zhiyang \|last8Wei \|first8Yange \|last9Duan \|first9Jia \|last10Ren \|first10Sihua \|last11Li \|first11Chao \|last12Liu \|first12Zhuang \|last13Jiang \|first13Xiaowei \|last14Wei \|first14Shengnan \|last15Li \|first15Songbai \|date2020-12-10 \|titleAntipsychotic Effects on Cortical Morphology in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorders \|journalFrontiers in Neuroscience \|volume14 \|pages579139 \|doi10.3389/fnins.2020.579139 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1662-4548 \|pmc7758211 \|pmid33362453}}</ref> in the mid (20 months) to long-term. A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that grey matter loss is greater in patients treated with first generation antipsychotics relative to those treated with atypicals, and hypothesized a protective effect of atypicals as one possible explanation.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vita A, De Peri L, Deste G, Sacchetti E \| title Progressive loss of cortical gray matter in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis and meta-regression of longitudinal MRI studies \| journal Translational Psychiatry \| volume 2 \| issue 11 \| pages e190 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 23168990 \| pmc 3565772 \| doi 10.1038/tp.2012.116 }}</ref> A second 2012 meta-analysis suggested that treatment with antipsychotics was associated with increased grey matter loss.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Radua J, Borgwardt S, Crescini A, Mataix-Cols D, Meyer-Lindenberg A, McGuire PK, Fusar-Poli P \| title Multimodal meta-analysis of structural and functional brain changes in first episode psychosis and the effects of antipsychotic medication \| journal Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews \| volume 36 \| issue 10 \| pages 2325–33 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 22910680 \| doi 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.012 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Animal studies found that monkeys exposed to both first- and second-generation antipsychotics experience significant reduction in brain volume, resulting in an 8-11% reduction in brain volume with preserved neuron count and decreased glial cell count over a 17–27 month period.<ref name"Nature 2005">{{cite journal \| vauthors Dorph-Petersen KA, Pierri JN, Perel JM, Sun Z, Sampson AR, Lewis DA \| title The influence of chronic exposure to antipsychotic medications on brain size before and after tissue fixation: a comparison of haloperidol and olanzapine in macaque monkeys \| journal Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 30 \| issue 9 \| pages 1649–1661 \| date September 2005 \| pmid 15756305 \| doi 10.1038/sj.npp.1300710 \| s2cid 205679212 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKonopaske \|firstGlenn T. \|last2Dorph-Petersen \|first2Karl-Anton \|last3Pierri \|first3Joseph N. \|last4Wu \|first4Qiang \|last5Sampson \|first5Allan R. \|last6Lewis \|first6David A. \|dateJune 2007 \|titleEffect of Chronic Exposure to Antipsychotic Medication on Cell Numbers in the Parietal Cortex of Macaque Monkeys \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/1301233 \|journalNeuropsychopharmacology \|languageen \|volume32 \|issue6 \|pages1216–1223 \|doi10.1038/sj.npp.1301233 \|issn1740-634X \|pmid=17063154}}</ref> The National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors said that antipsychotics are not interchangeable, and it recommends including trying at least one weight-neutral treatment for those patients with potential metabolic issues.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Parks J, Radke A, Parker G, Foti ME, Eilers R, Diamond M, Svendsen D, Tandon R \| display-authors 6 \| title Principles of antipsychotic prescribing for policy makers, circa 2008. Translating knowledge to promote individualized treatment \| journal Schizophrenia Bulletin \| volume 35 \| issue 5 \| pages 931–936 \| date September 2009 \| pmid 18385207 \| pmc 2728806 \| doi = 10.1093/schbul/sbn019 }}</ref> Subtle, long-lasting forms of akathisia are often overlooked or confused with post-psychotic depression, in particular when they lack the extrapyramidal aspect that psychiatrists have been taught to expect when looking for signs of akathisia.<ref name"pmid14609248">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hirose S \| title The causes of underdiagnosing akathisia \| journal Schizophrenia Bulletin \| volume 29 \| issue 3 \| pages 547–58 \| year 2003 \| pmid 14609248 \| doi 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007027 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.618.3326 \| df dmy-all }}</ref> Adverse effect on cognitive function<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rehse M, Bartolovic M, Baum K, Richter D, Weisbrod M, Roesch-Ely D \| title Influence of Antipsychotic and Anticholinergic Loads on Cognitive Functions in Patients with Schizophrenia \| journal Schizophrenia Research and Treatment \| volume 2016 \| pages 8213165 \| date 2016 \| pmid 27144021 \| pmc 4842070 \| doi 10.1155/2016/8213165 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tampi RR, Tampi DJ, Balachandran S, Srinivasan S \| title Antipsychotic use in dementia: a systematic review of benefits and risks from meta-analyses \| journal Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease \| volume 7 \| issue 5 \| pages 229–245 \| date September 2016 \| pmid 27583123 \| pmc 4994396 \| doi 10.1177/2040622316658463 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors MacKenzie NE, Kowalchuk C, Agarwal SM, Costa-Dookhan KA, Caravaggio F, Gerretsen P, Chintoh A, Remington GJ, Taylor VH, Müeller DJ, Graff-Guerrero A, Hahn MK \| display-authors 6 \| title Antipsychotics, Metabolic Adverse Effects, and Cognitive Function in Schizophrenia \| journal Frontiers in Psychiatry \| volume 9 \| pages 622 \| date 2018-12-05 \| pmid 30568606 \| pmc 6290646 \| doi 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00622 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and increased risk of death in people with dementia along with worsening of symptoms has been described in the literature.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mueller C, John C, Perera G, Aarsland D, Ballard C, Stewart R \| title Antipsychotic use in dementia: the relationship between neuropsychiatric symptom profiles and adverse outcomes \| journal European Journal of Epidemiology \| volume 36 \| issue 1 \| pages 89–101 \| date January 2021 \| pmid 32415541 \| pmc 7847435 \| doi 10.1007/s10654-020-00643-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Steinberg M, Lyketsos CG \| title Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 169 \| issue 9 \| pages 900–906 \| date September 2012 \| pmid 22952071 \| pmc 3516138 \| doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030342 }}</ref> Antipsychotics, due to acting as dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonists and thereby stimulating pituitary lactotrophs, may have a risk of prolactinoma with long-term use.<ref name"DurraniVasireddyArshad2023">{{cite journal \| vauthors Durrani US, Vasireddy S, Arshad MZ, Paracha A, Paracha MA, Waheed F, Abid A, Siddiqui Z, Thomure M \| title The Effect of Antipsychotics on Prolactinoma Growth: A Radiological and Serological Analysis \| journal Cureus \| volume 15 \| issue 11 \| pages e49342 \| date November 2023 \| pmid 38143631 \| pmc 10748855 \| doi 10.7759/cureus.49342 \| doi-access free \| url }}</ref><ref name"EdinoffSilverblattVervaeke2021">{{cite journal \| vauthors Edinoff AN, Silverblatt NS, Vervaeke HE, Horton CC, Girma E, Kaye AD, Kaye A, Kaye JS, Garcia AJ, Neuchat EE, Eubanks TN, Varrassi G, Viswanath O, Urits I \| title Hyperprolactinemia, Clinical Considerations, and Infertility in Women on Antipsychotic Medications \| journal Psychopharmacol Bull \| volume 51 \| issue 2 \| pages 131–148 \| date March 2021 \| pmid 34092827 \| pmc 8146565 \| doi \| url }}</ref> This is also responsible for their induction of hyperprolactinemia (high prolactin levels).<ref name"DurraniVasireddyArshad2023" /><ref name"EdinoffSilverblattVervaeke2021" />Discontinuation {{See also\|Drug withdrawal#Prescription medicine}} The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse.<ref name"Group 2009 192">{{cite book \|editor1-firstBMJ \| editor Joint Formulary Committee \| title British National Formulary \| edition 57 \| date March 2009 \|publisherRoyal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain \|locationUnited Kingdom \|isbn978-0-85369-845-6 \|page192 \|chapter4.2.1 \|quoteWithdrawal of antipsychotic drugs after long-term therapy should always be gradual and closely monitored to avoid the risk of acute withdrawal syndromes or rapid relapse.}}</ref> Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite.<ref nameHad2004>{{cite book \| vauthors Haddad P, Haddad PM, Dursun S, Deakin B \|titleAdverse Syndromes and Psychiatric Drugs: A Clinical Guide \|date2004 \|publisherOUP Oxford \|isbn978-0-19-852748-0 \|pages207–216 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCWR7DwAAQBAJ&pgPA207 \|languageen}}</ref> Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping.<ref nameHad2004/> Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains.<ref nameHad2004/> Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.<ref nameHad2004/> A randomised controlled trial compared maintenance therapy with gradual dose reduction or discontinuation among people with long-term psychosis. At 2 years, people in the reduction group were twice as likely to relapse (25%) as those in the maintenance group (13%). Moreover, those in the reduction group had no improvement in social functioning (a measure combining people’s ability to look after themselves, work, study and take part in family and social activities), side effects, quality of life, symptoms, or bodyweight.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Moncrieff \|first1Joanna \|last2Crellin \|first2Nadia \|last3Stansfeld \|first3Jacki \|last4Cooper \|first4Ruth \|last5Marston \|first5Louise \|last6Freemantle \|first6Nick \|last7Lewis \|first7Glyn \|last8Hunter \|first8Rachael \|last9Johnson \|first9Sonia \|last10Barnes \|first10Thomas \|last11Morant \|first11Nicola \|last12Pinfold \|first12Vanessa \|last13Smith \|first13Ruth \|last14Kent \|first14Lyn \|last15Darton \|first15Katherine \|date1 November 2023 \|titleAntipsychotic dose reduction and discontinuation versus maintenance treatment in people with schizophrenia and other recurrent psychotic disorders in England (the RADAR trial): an open, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(23)00258-4 \|journalThe Lancet Psychiatry \|volume10 \|issue11 \|pages848–859 \|doi10.1016/s2215-0366(23)00258-4 \|pmid37778356 \|issn2215-0366}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|date23 January 2025 \|titleWhat is the impact of a gradual reduction of antipsychotics? \|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/what-is-the-impact-of-a-gradual-reduction-of-antipsychotics/ \|journalNIHR Evidence}}</ref> There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis.<ref name"ReferenceB">{{cite journal \| vauthors Moncrieff J \| s2cid 6267180 \| title Does antipsychotic withdrawal provoke psychosis? Review of the literature on rapid onset psychosis (supersensitivity psychosis) and withdrawal-related relapse \| journal Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica \| volume 114 \| issue 1 \| pages 3–13 \| date July 2006 \| pmid 16774655 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00787.x }}</ref> It may also result in recurrence of the condition that is being treated.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Sacchetti E, Vita A, Siracusano A, Fleischhacker W \|titleAdherence to Antipsychotics in Schizophrenia \|date2013 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|isbn978-88-470-2679-7 \|page85 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idodE-AgAAQBAJ&pgPA85 \|languageen}}</ref> Rarely, tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.<ref nameHad2004/> Unexpected psychotic episodes have been observed in patients withdrawing from clozapine. This is referred to as supersensitivity psychosis, not to be equated with tardive dyskinesia.<ref name"ReferenceB"/><ref name"Nakata">{{cite journal \| vauthors Nakata Y, Kanahara N, Iyo M \| title Dopamine supersensitivity psychosis in schizophrenia: Concepts and implications in clinical practice \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 31 \| issue 12 \| pages 1511–1518 \| date December 2017 \| pmid 28925317 \| doi 10.1177/0269881117728428 \| s2cid 1957881 }}</ref> Tardive dyskinesia may abate during withdrawal from the antipsychotic agent, or it may persist.<ref name"Glazer-2000">{{cite journal \| vauthors Glazer WM \| title Expected incidence of tardive dyskinesia associated with atypical antipsychotics \| journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 61 \| issue Suppl 4 \| pages 21–6 \| year 2000 \| pmid = 10739327 }}</ref> Withdrawal effects may also occur when switching a person from one antipsychotic to another, (it is presumed due to variations of potency and receptor activity). Such withdrawal effects can include cholinergic rebound, an activation syndrome, and motor syndromes including dyskinesias. These adverse effects are more likely during rapid changes between antipsychotic agents, so making a gradual change between antipsychotics minimises these withdrawal effects.<ref name"Lambert-2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lambert TJ \| title Switching antipsychotic therapy: what to expect and clinical strategies for improving therapeutic outcomes \| journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 68 \| issue Suppl 6 \| pages 10–3 \| year 2007 \| pmid 17650054 }}</ref> The British National Formulary recommends a gradual dose reduction when discontinuing antipsychotic treatment to avoid acute withdrawal symptoms or rapid relapse.<ref>{{cite book \| author BMJ Group \| titleBritish National Formulary \|edition57\|dateMarch 2009 \|publisherRoyal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain \|locationUnited Kingdom \|page192 \|chapter4.2.1\|quoteWithdrawal of antipsychotic drugs after long-term therapy should always be gradual and closely monitored to avoid the risk of acute withdrawal syndromes or rapid relapse.}}</ref> The process of cross-titration involves gradually increasing the dose of the new medication while gradually decreasing the dose of the old medication. City and Hackney Clinical Commissioning Group found more than 1,000 patients in their area in July 2019 who had not had regular medication reviews or health checks because they were not registered as having serious mental illness. On average they had been taking these drugs for six years. If this is typical of practice in England more than 100,000 patients are probably in the same position.<ref>{{cite news \|titleUp to 100,000 on antipsychotics with no review \|urlhttps://www.hsj.co.uk/mental-health/exclusive-up-to-100000-on-antipsychotics-with-no-review/7026726.article \|access-date22 March 2020 \|publisherHealth Service Journal \|date27 January 2020}}</ref> List of agents Clinically used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses. A 2013 review has stated that the division of antipsychotics into first and second generation is perhaps not accurate.<ref name "Leucht_2013" /> <u>Notes:</u> † indicates drugs that are no longer (or were never) marketed in English-speaking countries. ‡ denotes drugs that are no longer (or were never to begin with) marketed in the United States. Some antipsychotics are not firmly placed in either first-generation or second-generation classes. # denotes drugs that have been withdrawn worldwide. First-generation (typical) {{Main\|Typical antipsychotic}} Butyrophenones {{Main\|Butyrophenones}} * Benperidol<sup>‡</sup> * Bromperidol<sup>†</sup> * Droperidol<sup>‡</sup> * Haloperidol (Haldol) * Moperone (discontinued)<sup>†</sup> * Pipamperone (discontinued)<sup>†</sup> * Timiperone <sup>†</sup> Diphenylbutylpiperidines * Fluspirilene ‡ * Penfluridol ‡ * Pimozide Phenothiazines {{Main\|Phenothiazines}} * Acepromazine <sup>†</sup> — although it is mostly used in veterinary medicine. * Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) * Cyamemazine <sup>†</sup> * Dixyrazine <sup>†</sup> * Fluphenazine * Levomepromazine<sup>‡</sup> * Mesoridazine (discontinued)<sup>†</sup> * Perazine * Pericyazine<sup>‡</sup> * Perphenazine * Pipotiazine <sup>‡</sup> * Prochlorperazine * Promazine (discontinued) * Promethazine * Prothipendyl <sup>†</sup> * Thioproperazine<sup>‡</sup> (only English-speaking country it is available in is Canada) * Thioridazine (discontinued) * Trifluoperazine * Triflupromazine (discontinued)<sup>†</sup> Thioxanthenes {{Main\|Thioxanthenes}} * Chlorprothixene <sup>†</sup> * Clopenthixol * Flupentixol <sup>‡</sup> * Thiothixene * Zuclopenthixol <sup>‡</sup> Disputed/unknown This category is for drugs that have been called both first and second-generation, depending on the literature being used. Benzamides * Sulpiride <sup>‡</sup> * Sultopride <sup>†</sup> * Veralipride <sup>†</sup> Tricyclics * Carpipramine <sup>†</sup> * Clocapramine <sup>†</sup> * Clorotepine <sup>†</sup> * Clotiapine <sup>‡</sup> * Loxapine * Mosapramine <sup>†</sup> Others * Molindone <sup>#</sup> Second-generation (atypical) {{Main\|Atypical antipsychotic}} Benzamides * Amisulpride (Socian) <sup>‡</sup> – Selective dopamine antagonist. Higher doses (greater than 400&nbsp;mg) act upon post-synaptic dopamine receptors resulting in a reduction in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as psychosis. Lower doses, however, act upon dopamine autoreceptors, resulting in increased dopamine transmission, improving the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Lower doses of amisulpride have also been shown to have antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in non-schizophrenic patients, leading to its use in dysthymia and social phobias. * Nemonapride <sup>†</sup> – Used in Japan. * Remoxipride <sup>#</sup> – Has a risk of causing aplastic anaemia and, hence, has been withdrawn from the market worldwide. It has also been found to possess relatively low (virtually absent) potential to induce hyperprolactinaemia and extrapyramidal symptoms, likely attributable to its comparatively weak binding to (and, hence, rapid dissociation from) the D<sub>2</sub> receptor.<ref nameatyp>{{cite journal \| vauthors Seeman P \|titleAtypical Antipsychotics: Mechanism of Action \|journalFocus \|dateJanuary 2004 \|volume2 \|issue1 \|pages48–58 \|doi10.1176/foc.2.1.48 \|urlhttps://focus.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/foc.2.1.48 }}</ref> * Sultopride – An atypical antipsychotic of the benzamide chemical class used in Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong for the treatment of schizophrenia. It was launched by Sanofi-Aventis in 1976. Sultopride acts as a selective D2 and D3 receptor antagonist. Benzisoxazoles/benzisothiazoles * Iloperidone (Fanapt) – Approved by the US FDA in 2009, it is fairly well tolerated, although hypotension, dizziness, and somnolence were very common side effects. Has not received regulatory approval in other countries, however. * Paliperidone (Invega) – Primary, active metabolite of risperidone that was approved in 2006. * Perospirone <sup>†</sup> – Has a higher incidence of extrapyramidal side effects than other atypical antipsychotics.<ref name "CNS Drugs">{{cite journal \| vauthors Onrust SV, McClellan K \| title Perospirone \| journal CNS Drugs \| volume 15 \| issue 4 \| pages 329–37; discussion 338 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11463136 \| doi 10.2165/00023210-200115040-00006 \| s2cid = 262520276 }}</ref> * Risperidone (Risperdal) – Divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed, at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome and anxiety disorder. * Ziprasidone (Geodon) – Approved in 2004<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nemeroff CB, Lieberman JA, Weiden PJ, Harvey PD, Newcomer JW, Schatzberg AF, Kilts CD, Daniel DG \| title From clinical research to clinical practice: a 4-year review of ziprasidone \| journal CNS Spectrums \| volume 10 \| issue 11 Suppl 17 \| pages 1–20 \| date November 2005 \| pmid 16381088 \| doi 10.1017/S1092852900019842 \| s2cid 26738197 }}</ref> to treat bipolar disorder. Side-effects include a prolonged QT interval in the heart, which can be dangerous for patients with heart disease or those taking other drugs that prolong the QT interval. * Lurasidone (Latuda) – Approved by the US FDA for schizophrenia and bipolar depression, and for use as schizophrenia treatment in Canada. Butyrophenones * Melperone <sup>†</sup> – Only used in a few European countries. No English-speaking country has licensed it to date. * Lumateperone (Caplyta) Tricyclics * Asenapine (Saphris) – Of the dibenzo-oxepino pyrrole class of atypical antipsychotics. Used for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute mania associated with bipolar disorder. * Clozapine (Clozaril) – Of the dibenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Requires routine laboratory monitoring of complete blood counts every one to four weeks due to the risk of agranulocytosis. It has unparalleled efficacy in the treatment of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. * Olanzapine (Zyprexa) – Of the theienobenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used to treat psychotic disorders including schizophrenia, acute manic episodes, and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Used as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy, either alone or in combination with fluoxetine as Symbyax. * Quetiapine (Seroquel) – Of the dibenzothiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used primarily to treat bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Also used and licensed in a few countries (including Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States) as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. It's the only antipsychotic that's demonstrated efficacy as a monotherapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder (it treats mixed mood swings alone). It indirectly serves as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor by means of its active metabolite, norquetiapine. * Zotepine – Of the dibenzothiepin class of atypical antipsychotic indicated for acute and chronic schizophrenia. It is still used in Japan and was once used in Germany but it was discontinued.<sup>†</sup> Others * Blonanserin – Approved by the PMDA in 2008. Used in Japan and South Korea. * Pimavanserin – A selective 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonist approved for the treatment of Parkinson's disease psychosis in 2016. * Sertindole <sup>‡</sup> – Developed by the Danish pharmaceutical company H. Lundbeck. Like the other atypical antipsychotics, it is believed to have antagonist activity at dopamine and serotonin receptors in the brain. Third-generation Third generation antipsychotics are recognized as demonstrating D<sub>2</sub> receptor partial agonism<ref>{{cite journal \|lastWinans \|firstElizabeth \|date2003-12-01 \|titleAripiprazole \|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/ajhp/article/60/23/2437/5143288 \|journalAmerican Journal of Health-System Pharmacy \|languageen \|volume60 \|issue23 \|pages2437–2445 \|doi10.1093/ajhp/60.23.2437 \|pmid14686220 \|issn1079-2082}}</ref> as opposed to the D<sub>2</sub> and 5HT-<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonism of second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics and D2 antagonism of first-generation (typical) antipsychotics.<ref name":0">{{cite journal \|vauthorsMailman RB, Murthy V \|date2010 \|titleThird generation antipsychotic drugs: partial agonism or receptor functional selectivity? \|journalCurrent Pharmaceutical Design \|volume16 \|issue5 \|pages488–501 \|doi10.2174/138161210790361461 \|pmc2958217 \|pmid19909227}}</ref> Butyrophenone(s) * Lumateperone (Caplyta) – In December 2019, lumateperone, a presynaptic D<sub>2</sub> receptor partial agonist and postsynaptic D<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonist, received its first global approval in the US for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCaplyta (lumateperone) FDA Approval History \|urlhttps://www.drugs.com/history/caplyta.html \|access-date2022-11-20 \|websiteDrugs.com \|languageen}}</ref> In 2020 and 2021 FDA approved for depressive episodes associated with bipolar I or II disorder in adults, as monotherapy and as adjunctive therapy with lithium or valproate. Phenylpiperazines/quinolinones/benzoxazinones * Aripiprazole (Abilify) - Partial agonist at the D<sub>2</sub> receptor. Considered the prototypical third-generation antipsychotic.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsSwainston Harrison T, Perry CM \|year2004 \|titleAripiprazole: a review of its use in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder \|journalDrugs \|volume64 \|issue15 \|pages1715–36 \|doi10.2165/00003495-200464150-00010 \|pmid15257633}}</ref> * Aripiprazole lauroxil (Abilify Maintena) – Long-acting version of aripiprazole for injection. * Brexpiprazole (Rexulti) – Partial agonist of the D<sub>2</sub> receptor. Successor of aripiprazole. * Brilaroxazine – A D<sub>2/3/4</sub> and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> partial agonist and 5-HT<sub>2A/2B/7</sub> antagonist * Cariprazine (Vraylar, Reagila) – A D<sub>3</sub>-preferring D<sub>2/3</sub> partial agonist. Muscarinic agonists * Xanomeline/trospium chloride (Cobenfy) - A fixed-dose combination of xanomeline and trospium chloride. Xanomeline is a functionally selective muscarinic M<sub>4</sub> and M<sub>1</sub> receptor agonist. Trospium chloride is a peripherally-acting non-selective muscarinic antagonist.<ref name"Cobenfy FDA label">{{cite web \| titleCobenfy- xanomeline and trospium chloride capsule, coated pellets; Cobenfy- xanomeline and trospium chloride kit \| websiteDailyMed \| date30 September 2024 \| urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid8f0e73bf-6025-44f6-ab64-0983322de0df \| access-date12 March 2025}}</ref> Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024.Mechanism of actionAntipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine tend to block dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptors in the dopaminergic pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. Decreased dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, and excess dopamine release in other pathways, are associated with psychotic episodes in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pickar D, Litman RE, Konicki PE, Wolkowitz OM, Breier A \| title Neurochemical and Neural Mechanisms of Positive and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia \| journal Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry \| volume 24 \| pages 124–151 \| year 1990 \| pmid 1970851 \| doi 10.1159/000418015 \| isbn 978-3-8055-5050-5 \| series Modern Trends in Pharmacopsychiatry }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Liemburg EJ, Knegtering H, Klein HC, Kortekaas R, Aleman A \| title Antipsychotic medication and prefrontal cortex activation: a review of neuroimaging findings \| journal European Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 22 \| issue 6 \| pages 387–400 \| date June 2012 \| pmid 22300864 \| doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.12.008 \| s2cid = 24877454 }}</ref> In addition to the antagonistic effects of dopamine, antipsychotics (in particular atypical antipsychotics) also antagonize 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors. Different alleles of the 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor have been associated with schizophrenia and other psychoses, including depression.<ref name"McDonald 41–63">{{cite journal \| vauthors McDonald C, Murphy KC \| title The new genetics of schizophrenia \| journal The Psychiatric Clinics of North America \| volume 26 \| issue 1 \| pages 41–63 \| date March 2003 \| pmid 12683259 \| doi 10.1016/S0193-953X(02)00030-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schmidt CJ, Sorensen SM, Kehne JH, Carr AA, Palfreyman MG \| title The role of 5-HT2A receptors in antipsychotic activity \| journal Life Sciences \| volume 56 \| issue 25 \| pages 2209–22 \| year 1995 \| pmid 7791509 \| doi 10.1016/0024-3205(95)00210-W }}</ref> Higher concentrations of 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors in cortical and subcortical areas, in particular in the right caudate nucleus have been historically recorded.<ref name"McDonald 41–63"/> Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block dopamine receptors in the mesocortical pathway, tuberoinfundibular pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. Blocking D<sub>2</sub> receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some unwanted side effects that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see above). They were commonly classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency referred to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug. High-potency antipsychotics such as haloperidol, in general, have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low-potency antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine, which have dosages of several hundred milligrams. The latter have a greater degree of anticholinergic and antihistaminergic activity, which can counteract dopamine-related side-effects.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tiwari P, Panik R, Bhattacharya A, Ahirwar D, Chandy A \|dateDecember 2012 \|titleEvidences of possible side effects of neuroleptic drugs: A systematic review \|journalAsian Pacific Journal of Reproduction \|volume1 \|issue4 \|pages330–336 \|doi10.1016/s2305-0500(13)60105-0 \|issn2305-0500\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D<sub>2</sub> receptors; however, most also act on serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> and 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> receptors. Both clozapine and quetiapine appear to bind just long enough to elicit antipsychotic effects but not long enough to induce extrapyramidal side effects and prolactin hypersecretion.<ref nameAtypicality>{{cite journal \| vauthors Stahl SM \|titleDescribing an Atypical Antipsychotic: Receptor Binding and Its Role in Pathophysiology \|journalPrimary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \|year2003 \|volume5 \|issueSuppl. 3 \|pages9–13 \|urlhttps://www.psychiatrist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/24453_describing-atypical-antipsychotic-receptor-binding.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.psychiatrist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/24453_describing-atypical-antipsychotic-receptor-binding.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> antagonism increases dopaminergic activity in the nigrostriatal pathway, leading to a lowered extrapyramidal side effect liability among the atypical antipsychotics.<ref name Atypicality /><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Meltzer HY \| title Current Antipsychotics \| chapter Serotonergic Mechanisms as Targets for Existing and Novel Antipsychotics \| volume 212 \| issue 212 \| pages 87–124 \| year 2012 \| pmid 23129329 \| doi 10.1007/978-3-642-25761-2_4 \| isbn 978-3-642-25760-5 \| series Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology }}</ref> Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. It was the first antipsychotic to not act on D<sub>2</sub> receptors. The mechanism of action instead relies on xanomeline's functional selectivity for the M1 and M4 muscarinic receptors, with trospium chloride, a peripherally selective antimuscarinic added to counteract xanomeline's unwanted peripheral muscarinic effects.<ref name"Cobenfy FDA label" /><ref name"FDA PR 20240926">{{cite press release \| titleFDA Approves Drug with New Mechanism of Action for Treatment of Schizophrenia \| websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) \| date26 September 2024 \| urlhttps://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-drug-new-mechanism-action-treatment-schizophrenia \| access-date27 September 2024 \| archive-date27 September 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240927004824/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-drug-new-mechanism-action-treatment-schizophrenia \| url-statuslive }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release \| titleU.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves Bristol Myers Squibb's Cobenfy (xanomeline and trospium chloride), a First-In-Class Muscarinic Agonist for the Treatment of Schizophrenia in Adults \| publisherBristol Myers Squibb \| viaBusiness Wire \| date27 September 2024 \| urlhttps://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20240925382351/en/U.S.-Food-and-Drug-Administration-Approves-Bristol-Myers-Squibb%E2%80%99s-COBENFY%E2%84%A2-xanomeline-and-trospium-chloride-a-First-In-Class-Muscarinic-Agonist-for-the-Treatment-of-Schizophrenia-in-Adults \| access-date27 September 2024}}</ref> Through the ability of most antipsychotics to antagonize 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> serotonin pathways enabling a sensitisation of postsynaptic serotonin receptors, MDMA exposure can be more intense because it has more excitatory receptors to activate. The same effect can be observed with the D<sub>2</sub> antagonizing with normal amphetamine (with this just being hypothetical as there is the fact that antipsychotics sensitize receptors,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Li M \| title Antipsychotic-induced sensitization and tolerance: Behavioral characteristics, developmental impacts, and neurobiological mechanisms \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 30 \| issue 8 \| pages 749–770 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27371498 \| pmc 4944179 \| doi 10.1177/0269881116654697 }}</ref> with exact these postsynaptic receptors (5-HT<sub>2A</sub>, D<sub>2</sub>) being flooded by the respective neurotransmitter (serotonin, dopamine) from amphetamine exposure).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nawaratne V, McLaughlin SP, Mayer FP, Gichi Z, Mastriano A, Carvelli L \| title Prolonged Amphetamine Exposures Increase the Endogenous Human Dopamine Receptors 2 at the Cellular Membrane in Cells Lacking the Dopamine Transporter \| journal Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience \| volume 15 \| pages 681539 \| year 2021 \| pmid 34512264 \| pmc 8427050 \| doi 10.3389/fncel.2021.681539 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Orejarena MJ, Lanfumey L, Maldonado R, Robledo P \| title Involvement of 5-HT2A receptors in MDMA reinforcement and cue-induced reinstatement of MDMA-seeking behaviour \| journal The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 14 \| issue 7 \| pages 927–940 \| date August 2011 \| pmid 20942998 \| doi 10.1017/S1461145710001215 \| doi-access free \| hdl 10230/25548 \| hdl-access free }}</ref> Comparison of medications <!-- Qualitative shading: - ≈ 5%, +/- ≈ 10%, + ≈ 17.5%, ++/+ ≈ 25%, ++ ≈ 37.5%, +++/++ ≈ 50%, +++ ≈ 75%. --> <!-- Shading for discontinuation odds ratio: 0% shade at OR1, 100% green shade at OR0 (shade 1-OR), 100% red shade at OR→+∞ (shade 1-1/OR). --> {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" ! colspan="7" \| Overview \|- \| {\|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="7" \|- ! Generic name !! Class !! Type !! Brand name(s) !! Launch !! Developer/Originator(s) !! Refs \|- \| Amisulpride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Solian \|\| 1986 \|\| Sanofi-Synthélabo \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"IUPACFischer2006">{{cite book \| vauthors Fischer J, Ganellin CR \| title Analogue-based Drug Discovery\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFjKfqkaKkAAC&pgPA305\|date13 December 2006\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-3-527-60749-5\|pages305–}}</ref><ref name"Lidow2000">{{cite book\| vauthors Lidow MS \|titleNeurotransmitter Receptors in Actions of Antipsychotic Medications\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHIHLBQAAQBAJ&pgPA23\|date22 June 2000\|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-1-4200-4177-4\|pages=23–}}</ref> \|- \| Aripiprazole \|\| Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone \|\| Atypical \|\| Abilify \|\| 2002 \|\| Otsuka/Bristol-Myers Squibb \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416">{{cite journal \| vauthors Silvestre JS, Prous J \| title Research on adverse drug events. I. Muscarinic M3 receptor binding affinity could predict the risk of antipsychotics to induce type 2 diabetes \| journal Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology \| volume 27 \| issue 5 \| pages 289–304 \| date June 2005 \| pmid 16082416 \| doi = 10.1358/mf.2005.27.5.908643 }}</ref> \|- \| Aripiprazole lauroxil \|\| Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone \|\| Atypical \|\| Aristada \|\| 2015 \|\| Alkermes \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Aripiprazole-Lauroxil">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800033484 \| titleAripiprazole lauroxil – Alkermes \| work AdisInsight \| publisher = Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Asenapine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzoxapinopyrrole \|\| Atypical \|\| Saphris/Sycrest \|\| 2009 \|\| Organon/Merck \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Asenapine">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800001124 \| titleAsenapine \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Benperidol \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Typical \|\| Anquil \|\| 1966 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012">{{cite book\| vauthors Sanchez M \|titleFarmacología y endocrinología del comportamiento\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoV1VVH_AE-kC&pgPA148\|dateMay 2012\|publisherEditorial UOC\|isbn978-84-9788-424-2\|pages148–149\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171125213437/https://books.google.com/books?idoV1VVH_AE-kC&pgPA148\|archive-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> \|- \| Blonanserin \|\| Pyridinylpiperazine \|\| Atypical \|\| Lonasen \|\| 2008 \|\| Sumitomo Dainippon/Mitsubishi Tanabe \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Blonanserin">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800001321 \| titleBlonanserin – Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Brexpiprazole \|\| Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone \|\| Atypical \|\| Rexulti \|\| 2015 \|\| Otsuka/Lundbeck \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Brexpiprazole">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800029282 \|titleBrexpiprazole – Lundbeck/Otsuka \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date27 September 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011194233/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800029282 \|archive-date=11 October 2016 }}</ref> \|- \| Bromperidol \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Typical \|\| Impromem \|\| 1981 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Cariprazine \|\| Phenylpiperazine \|\| Atypical \|\| Vraylar/Reagila \|\| 2015 \|\| Gedeon Richter/Actavis \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Cariprazine">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800021768 \|titleCariprazine – Gedeon Richter \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date7 May 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170818092946/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800021768 \|archive-date=18 August 2017 }}</ref> \|- \| Carpipramine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzazepine \|\| Disputed \|\| Defecton/Prazinil \|\| 1977 \|\| Pierre Fabre \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Chlorpromazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Thorazine \|\| 1952 \|\| Rhône-Poulenc/GlaxoSmithKline \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Chlorprothixene \|\| Tricyclic/Thioxanthene \|\| Disputed \|\| Truxal \|\| 1959 \|\| Roche \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /><ref name"Csernansky2012">{{cite book\| vauthors Csernansky JG \| titleAntipsychotics\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhiz6CAAAQBAJ&pgPA360\|date6 December 2012\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-3-642-61007-3\|pages360–}}</ref> \|- \| Clocapramine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzazepine \|\| Disputed \|\| Clofekton/Padrasen \|\| 1974 \|\| Yoshitomi \|\| <ref name"Publishing2013">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_J2ti4EkYpkC&pgPA1077\|date22 October 2013\|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-8155-1856-3\|pages1077–}}</ref> \|- \| Clopenthixol \|\| Tricyclic/Thioxanthene \|\| Typical \|\| Sordinol/Ciatyl \|\| 1961 \|\| Lundbeck \|\| <ref name"Publishing2013-Clopenthixol">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_J2ti4EkYpkC&pgPA1102\|date22 October 2013\|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-8155-1856-3\|pages1102–}}</ref> \|- \| Clorotepine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzothiepin \|\| Disputed \|\| Clotepin \|\| 1971 \|\| Spofa \|\| <ref name"Protiva2010">{{cite journal\| vauthors Protiva M \|titleChemInform Abstract: Fifty Years in Chemical Drug Research\|journalChemInform\|volume23\|issue9\|year2010\|pagesno\|issn0931-7597\|doi10.1002/chin.199209338}}</ref><ref name"pmid5576292">{{cite journal \| vauthors Melich H \| title [Clotepin] \| language cs \| journal Časopis lékařů českých \| volume 110 \| issue 17 \| pages 404–5 \| date April 1971 \| pmid 5576292 }}</ref> \|- \| Clotiapine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzothiazepine \|\| Disputed \|\| Etumine \|\| 1966 \|\| Sandoz/Wander \|\| <ref name"GaleResearch1991" /><ref name"pmid16126373">{{cite journal \| vauthors Geller V, Gorzaltsan I, Shleifer T, Belmaker RH, Bersudsky Y \| s2cid 22340010 \| title Clotiapine compared with chlorpromazine in chronic schizophrenia \| journal Schizophrenia Research \| volume 80 \| issue 2–3 \| pages 343–7 \| date December 2005 \| pmid 16126373 \| doi 10.1016/j.schres.2005.07.007 }}</ref> \|- \| Clozapine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzodiazepine \|\| Atypical \|\| Clozaril \|\| 1972 \|\| Sandoz-Novartis \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Cyamemazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Disputed \|\| Tercian \|\| 1972 \|\| Aventis \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid15492772">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bourin M, Dailly E, Hascöet M \| title Preclinical and clinical pharmacology of cyamemazine: anxiolytic effects and prevention of alcohol and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome \| journal CNS Drug Reviews \| volume 10 \| issue 3 \| pages 219–29 \| year 2004 \| pmid 15492772 \| pmc 6741725 \| doi 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2004.tb00023.x}}</ref> \|- \| Droperidol \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Typical \|\| Dridol/Droleptan/Inapsine \|\| 1963 \|\| Janssen-Cilag \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"LamberthDinges2012">{{cite book \| vauthors Lamberth C, Dinges J \|titleBioactive Heterocyclic Compound Classes: Pharmaceuticals\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id35uKnWKD9V8C&pgPA3\|date16 August 2012\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-3-527-66447-4\|pages=3–}}</ref> \|- \| Flupentixol \|\| Tricyclic/Thioxanthene \|\| Typical \|\| Fluanxol \|\| 1965 \|\| Lundbeck \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Pedersen1996">{{cite journal\| vauthors Pedersen V \|titleThioxanthene antipsychotics \|journalEuropean Psychiatry \|volume11 \|year1996 \|pages236s \|issn0924-9338 \|doi10.1016/0924-9338(96)88706-2\|s2cid=247414112 }}</ref> \|- \| Fluphenazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Prolixin \|\| 1959 \|\| Bristol-Myers Squibb \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Fluspirilene \|\| Diphenylbutylpiperidine \|\| Typical \|\| Imap \|\| 1970 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Haloperidol \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Typical \|\| Haldol \|\| 1959 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Iloperidone \|\| Benzisoxazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Fanapt \|\| 2010 \|\| Novartis \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Iloperidone">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800001330 \|titleIloperidone – Vanda Pharmaceuticals \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date27 September 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151211102105/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800001330 \|archive-date11 December 2015 }}</ref> \|- \| Levomepromazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Disputed \|\| Nozinan/Levoprome \|\| 1957 \|\| Rhône-Poulenc \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Csernansky2012" /><ref name"Shorter2009">{{cite book\| vauthors Shorter E \|titleBefore Prozac: The Troubled History of Mood Disorders in Psychiatry\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnCtnDAAAQBAJ&pgPR14\|year2009\|publisherOxford University Press, USA\|isbn978-0-19-536874-1\|pages14–}}</ref> \|- \| Levosulpiride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Levopraid \|\|\| 1987 \|\| Abbott \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Loxapine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzoxazepine \|\| Disputed \|\| Loxitane/Loxapac \|\| 1975 \|\| Wyeth \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /><ref name"pmid10340686">{{cite journal \| vauthors Glazer WM \| title Does loxapine have "atypical" properties? Clinical evidence \| journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 60 \| issue Suppl 10 \| pages 42–6 \| year 1999 \| pmid = 10340686 }}</ref> \|- \| Lurasidone \|\| Benzisothiazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Latuda \|\| 2010 \|\| Sumitomo Dainippon/Sunovion \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Lurasidone">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800007206 \|titleLurasidone – Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date7 May 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160510014459/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800007206 \|archive-date=10 May 2016 }}</ref> \|- \| Melperone \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Disputed \|\| Buronil \|\| 1967 \|\| Lundbeck \|\| <ref name="pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Mesoridazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Serentil \|\| 1967 \|\| Novartis-Boehringer \|\| <ref name="pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Molindone \|\| Dihydroindolone \|\| Disputed \|\| Moban \|\| 1975 \|\| Abbott \|\| <ref name="pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Mosapramine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzazepine \|\| Disputed \|\| Cremin \|\| 1991 \|\| Mitsubishi Pharma \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Nemonapride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Emilace/Emirace \|\| 1991 \|\| Yamanouchi \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Nemonapride">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800007270 \| titleNemonapride \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Olanzapine \|\| Tricyclic/Thienobenzodiazepine \|\| Atypical \|\| Zyprexa \|\| 1996 \|\| Lilly \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Paliperidone \|\| Benzisoxazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Invega \|\| 2007 \|\| Janssen-Cilag/Johnson & Johnson \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Paliperidone">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800020763 \| titlePaliperidone – Johnson & Johnson \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Paliperidone palmitate \|\| Benzisoxazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Invega Sustenna/Xeplion \|\| 2009 \|\| Janssen-Cilag/Johnson & Johnson \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Paliperidone-Palmitate">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800040526 \|titlePaliperidone palmitate – Johnson & Johnson \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date27 September 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161030135731/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800040526 \|archive-date=30 October 2016 }}</ref> \|- \| Penfluridol \|\| Diphenylbutylpiperidine \|\| Typical \|\| Semap \|\| 1973 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Vardanyan2017" /><ref name"pmid4604881">{{cite journal \| vauthors Roelofs GA \| title Penfluridol (R 16341) as a maintenance therapy in chronic psychotic patients: a double-blind clinical evaluation \| journal Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica \| volume 50 \| issue 2 \| pages 219–24 \| year 1974 \| pmid 4604881 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1974.tb08210.x \| s2cid 40524276 }}</ref> \|- \| Perazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Taxilan \|\| 1958 \|\| Promonta \|\| <ref name"pmid24425538">{{cite journal \| vauthors Leucht S, Helfer B, Hartung B \| title Perazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1\| pages CD002832 \| date Jan 2014 \| pmid 24425538\| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002832.pub3 \| pmc 11015532 }}</ref> \|- \| Periciazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Neuleptil/Neulactil \|\| 1964 \|\| Rhône-Poulenc \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid24825770">{{cite journal \| vauthors Matar HE, Almerie MQ, Makhoul S, Xia J, Humphreys P \| title Pericyazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 5 \| pages CD007479 \| date May 2014 \| pmid 24825770 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD007479.pub2 \| pmc = 11023599 }}</ref> \|- \| Perospirone \|\| Benzisothiazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Lullan \|\| 2001 \|\| Sumitomo Dainippon/Mitsubishi Tanabe \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"AdisInsight-Perospirone">{{cite web \| urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800000573 \| titlePerospirone \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG }}</ref> \|- \| Perphenazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Trilafon \|\| 1957 \|\| Schering-Plough \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Pimavanserin \|\| Dibenzylpiperidinylurea \|\| Atypical \|\| Nuplazid \|\| 2016 \|\| ACADIA Pharmaceuticals \|\| <ref name"AdisInsight-Pimavanserin">{{cite web \|urlhttp://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800014997 \|titlePimavanserin – ACADIA Pharmaceuticals \| work AdisInsight \| publisher Springer Nature Switzerland AG \|access-date27 September 2017 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170925225849/http://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800014997 \|archive-date=25 September 2017 }}</ref> \|- \| Pimozide \|\| Diphenylbutylpiperidine \|\| Typical \|\| Orap \|\| 1969 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Pipamperone \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Disputed \|\| Dipiperon \|\| 1961 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"GaleResearch1991">{{cite book\|titleDrugs Available Abroad\|year1991\|publisherGale Research\|isbn978-0-8103-7177-4\|page52,169\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2x1tAAAAMAAJ\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170722224557/https://books.google.com/books?id2x1tAAAAMAAJ\|archive-date22 July 2017}}</ref><ref name"Vardanyan2017">{{cite book\| vauthors Vardanyan R \|titlePiperidine-Based Drug Discovery\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idszxHDgAAQBAJ&pgPA195\|date12 June 2017\|publisherElsevier Science\|isbn978-0-12-813428-3\|pages158, 195–}}</ref> \|- \| Pipotiazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Piportil \|\| 1973 \|\| Rhône-Poulenc/Aventis \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Publishing2013-Pipotiazine">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_J2ti4EkYpkC&pgPA2935-IA349\|date22 October 2013\|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-8155-1856-3\|pages=2935–}}</ref> \|- \| Prochlorperazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Compazine \|\| 1956 \|\| Rhône-Poulenc/GlaxoSmithKline \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /><ref name="Shorter2009" /> \|- \| Promazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Sparine \|\| 1956 \|\| Wyeth \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Quetiapine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzothiazepine \|\| Atypical \|\| Seroquel \|\| 1997 \|\| AstraZeneca \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Remoxipride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Roxiam \|\| 1990 \|\| AstraZeneca \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Lidow2000" /><ref name="pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Risperidone \|\| Benzisoxazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Risperdal \|\| 1993 \|\| Janssen \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Sertindole \|\| Imidazolidinone \|\| Atypical \|\| Serdolect \|\| 1996 \|\| Lundbeck \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Spiperone \|\| Butyrophenone \|\| Typical \|\| Spiropitan \|\| 1969 \|\| Eisai \|\| <ref name"Publishing2007-Spiperone">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddXpUAAAAMAAJ\|year2007\|publisherWilliam Andrew Pub.\|isbn978-0-8155-1526-5\|page=3059}}</ref> \|- \| Sulpiride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Dogmatil \|\| 1968 \|\| Delagrange/Fujisawa \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Lidow2000" /><ref name="pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Sultopride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Barnetil \|\| 1976 \|\| Delagrange/Sanofi-Synthélabo \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Publishing2013-Sultopride">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_J2ti4EkYpkC&pgPA3129\|date22 October 2013\|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-8155-1856-3\|pages=3129–}}</ref> \|- \| Thioridazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Melleril \|\| 1958 \|\| Novartis \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Tiapride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Tiapridal \|\| 1975 \|\| Sanofi-Synthélabo \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Tiotixene \|\| Tricyclic/Thioxanthene \|\| Typical \|\| Navane \|\| 1967 \|\| Pfizer \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /><ref name"Publishing2013-Tiotixene">{{cite book\|authorWilliam Andrew Publishing\|titlePharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_J2ti4EkYpkC&pgPA3214\|date22 October 2013\|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-8155-1856-3\|pages3214–}}</ref> \|- \| Trifluoperazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Stelazine \|\| 1958 \|\| GlaxoSmithKline \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Triflupromazine \|\| Tricyclic/Phenothiazine \|\| Typical \|\| Vesprin \|\| 1957 \|\| Bristol-Myers Squibb \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Veralipride \|\| Benzamide \|\| Disputed \|\| Agreal \|\| 1980 \|\| Sanofi-Synthélabo \|\| <ref name="Sanchez2012" /> \|- \| Ziprasidone \|\| Benzisothiazole \|\| Atypical \|\| Geodon \|\| 2000 \|\| Pfizer \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Zotepine \|\| Tricyclic/Dibenzothiepin \|\| Atypical \|\| Zoleptil \|\| 1982 \|\| Fujisawa \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"pmid16082416" /> \|- \| Zuclopenthixol \|\| Tricyclic/Thioxanthene \|\| Typical \|\| Clopixol/Cisordinol \|\| 1978 \|\| Lundbeck \|\| <ref name"Sanchez2012" /><ref name"Publishing2013-Clopenthixol" /><ref name="Pedersen1996" /> \|} \|} {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" ! colspan=11 \| Tolerability (as propensity for adverse effects) \|- ! Generic name<br /><ref nameLancet2009/><ref name "Maudsley"/><ref name "Leucht_2013" /><ref name "AMH">{{cite book \| title Australian Medicines Handbook \| year 2013 \| publisher The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust \| isbn 978-0-9805790-9-3 \| edition 2013 \| place Adelaide \| editor Rossi, S }}</ref><ref name "BNF">{{cite book \| author Joint Formulary Committee \| title British National Formulary (BNF) \| year 2013 \| isbn 978-0-85711-084-8 \| edition 65 \| location London, UK \| publisher Pharmaceutical Press }}</ref>!! Discontinuation rate<ref name "Leucht_2013" /> (OR with 95% CI) !Anticholinergic effects !! Sedation !! EPSE !! Weight Gain !! Metabolic AEs !! QTc prolongation (ORs & 95% CIs) !PE !! Hypotension !! Notes (e.g., notable AEs) \|- \| Amisulpride \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-43}}\|{{Estimate\|0.43\|0.32\|0.57\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|66\|+++<br />{{Estimate\|0.66\|0.39\|0.91\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| Torsades de Pointes common on overdose.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Isbister GK, Balit CR, Macleod D, Duffull SB \| s2cid 205710487 \| title Amisulpride overdose is frequently associated with QT prolongation and torsades de pointes \| journal Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology \| volume 30 \| issue 4 \| pages 391–5 \| date August 2010 \| pmid 20531221 \| doi = 10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181e5c14c }}</ref> Has a comparatively low penetrability of the blood–brain barrier. \|- \| Amoxapine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| Amoxapine is also an antidepressant. Very toxic in overdose due to the potential for renal failure and seizures. \|- \| Aripiprazole \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-61}}\|{{Estimate\|0.61\|0.51\|0.72\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-<br />(akathisia mostly)}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|1\|-<br />{{Estimate\|0.01\|-0.13\|0.15\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-<br />(can reduce prolactin levels)}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| Only clinically utilised antipsychotic that does not act by antagonising the D<sub>2</sub> receptor and rather partially agonises this receptor. \|- \| Asenapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-69}}\|{{Estimate\|0.69\|0.54\|0.86\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+<br />{{Estimate\|0.30\|-0.04\|0.65\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| Oral hypoesthesia. Has a complex pharmacologic profile. \|- \| Blonanserin<ref name"Deeks, ED; Keating, GM 65–84">{{cite journal \| vauthors Deeks ED, Keating GM \| title Blonanserin: a review of its use in the management of schizophrenia \| journal CNS Drugs \| volume 24 \| issue 1 \| pages 65–84 \| date January 2010 \| pmid 20030420 \| doi 10.2165/11202620-000000000-00000 \| s2cid 23464075 }}</ref><ref name"Tenjin, T; Miyamoto, S; Ninomiya, Y; Kitajima, R; Ogino, S; Miyake, N; Yamaguchi, N 2013 587–594">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tenjin T, Miyamoto S, Ninomiya Y, Kitajima R, Ogino S, Miyake N, Yamaguchi N \| title Profile of blonanserin for the treatment of schizophrenia \| journal Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment \| volume 9 \| pages 587–94 \| year 2013 \| pmid 23766647 \| pmc 3677929 \| doi 10.2147/NDT.S34433 \| doi-access free }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|{{#expr:100-70}}\|~0.7}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| Only used in a few East Asian countries. \|- \| Chlorpromazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-65}}\|{{Estimate\|0.65\|0.5\|0.84\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| First marketed antipsychotic, sort of the prototypical low-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic. \|- \| Clozapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-46}}\|{{Estimate\|0.46\|0.32\|0.65\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| Notable AEs: Agranulocytosis, neutropaenia, leukopaenia and myocarditis. Dose-dependent seizure risk.<ref>{{cite web\|titleClozapine\|workMartindale: The Complete Drug Reference\|publisherRoyal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain\|date30 January 2013\|access-date2 November 2013\|urlhttp://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/12595-x.htm}}</ref> Overall the most effective antipsychotic, on average. Usually reserved for treatment-resistant cases or highly suicidal patients. \|- \| Droperidol \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Mostly used for postoperative nausea and vomiting. \|- \| Flupenthixol \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| Also used in lower doses for depression. \|- \| Fluphenazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-69}}\|{{Estimate\|0.69\|0.24\|1.97\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Matar HE, Almerie MQ, Sampson S \| title Fluphenazine (oral) versus placebo for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2020 \| issue 7 \| pages CD006352 \| date June 2018 \| pmid 29893410 \| pmc 3796096 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD006352.pub3 }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| High-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic. \|- \| Haloperidol \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-80}}\|{{Estimate\|0.8\|0.71\|0.90\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|11\|+<br />{{Estimate\|0.11\|0.03\|0.19\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| Prototypical high-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic. \|- \| Iloperidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-69}}\|{{Estimate\|0.69\|0.56\|0.84\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|34\|++<br />{{Estimate\|0.34\|0.22\|0.46\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| ? \|- \| Levomepromazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| Also used as an analgesic, agitation, anxiety and emesis. \|- \| Loxapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-52}}\|{{Estimate\|0.52\|0.28\|0.98\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chakrabarti A, Bagnall A, Chue P, Fenton M, Palaniswamy V, Wong W, Xia J \| title Loxapine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 4 \| pages CD001943 \| date October 2007 \| volume 2007 \| pmid 17943763 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD001943.pub2 \| pmc 7017975 \| veditors Chakrabarti A \| df dmy-all }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| ? \|- \| Lurasidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-77}}\|{{Estimate\|0.77\|0.61\|0.96\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|-10\|-<br />{{Estimate\|-0.10\|-0.21\|0.01\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| May be particularly helpful in ameloriating the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, likely due to its 5-HT<sub>7</sub> receptor.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Harvey PD, Ogasa M, Cucchiaro J, Loebel A, Keefe RS \| s2cid 8805912 \| title Performance and interview-based assessments of cognitive change in a randomized, double-blind comparison of lurasidone vs. ziprasidone \| journal Schizophrenia Research \| volume 127 \| issue 1–3 \| pages 188–94 \| date April 2011 \| pmid 21277745 \| doi = 10.1016/j.schres.2011.01.004 }}</ref> \|- \| Melperone \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| Several smaller low-quality clinical studies have reported its efficacy in the treatment of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Only approved for use in a few European countries. It is known that off-licence prescribing of melperone is occurring in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Röhricht F, Gadhia S, Alam R, Willis M \| title Auditing clinical outcomes after introducing off-licence prescribing of atypical antipsychotic melperone for patients with treatment refractory schizophrenia \| journal TheScientificWorldJournal \| volume 2012 \| pages 1–5 \| year 2012 \| pmid 22566771 \| pmc 3330679 \| doi 10.1100/2012/512047 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Is a butyrophenone, low-potency atypical antipsychotic that has been tried as a treatment for Parkinson's disease psychosis, although with negative results. \|- \| Molindone<ref name MD>{{cite book \|chapter Molindone Hydrochloride\|date30 January 2013\|access-date5 November 2013\| title Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference\|publisherThe Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain\|urlhttp://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/7072-k.htm}}</ref> \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| Withdrawn from the market. Seems to promote weight loss (which is rather unusual for an antipsychotic seeing how they tend to promote weight gain).<ref name MD/> \|- \| Olanzapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-46}}\|{{Estimate\|0.46\|0.41\|0.52\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|22\|+<br />{{Estimate\|0.22\|0.11\|0.31\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| ? \|- \| Paliperidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-48}}\|{{Estimate\|0.48\|0.39\|0.58\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+<br />(dose dependent)}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|–<br />{{Estimate\|0.05\|-0.18\|0.26\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| Active metabolite of risperidone. \|- \| Perazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-62}}\|{{Estimate\|0.62\|0.4\|1.10\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Leucht S, Helfer B, Hartung B \| title Perazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD002832 \| date January 2014 \| pmid 24425538 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002832.pub3 \| pmc = 11015532 }}</ref>\|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Limited data available on adverse effects. \|- \| Periciazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| Also used to treat severe anxiety. Not licensed for use in the US. \|- \| Perospirone<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Onrust SV, McClellan K \| title Perospirone \| journal CNS Drugs \| volume 15 \| issue 4 \| pages 329–37; discussion 338 \| date April 2001 \| pmid 11463136 \| doi 10.2165/00023210-200115040-00006\| s2cid 262520276 }}</ref> \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}}<ref name Mart>{{cite book \| veditors Brayfield A \| chapter Perospirone\| title Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference\|publisherPharmaceutical Press\|locationLondon, UK\|date23 September 2011\|access-date3 November 2013\| chapter-url http://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/15232-k.htm}}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| Usually grouped with the atypical antipsychotics despite its relatively high propensity for causing extrapyramidal side effects.<ref name Mart/> \|- \| Perphenazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-30}}\|{{Estimate\|0.30\|0.04\|2.33\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hartung B, Sampson S, Leucht S \| title Perphenazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 3 \| pages CD003443 \| date March 2015 \| volume 2015 \| pmid 25749632 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003443.pub3 \| pmc 7173727 }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| Has additional antiemetic effects. \|- \| Pimozide \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-100/1.01 round 0}}\|{{Estimate\|1.01\|0.30\|3.39\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mothi M, Sampson S \| title Pimozide for schizophrenia or related psychoses \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 11 \| pages CD001949 \| date November 2013 \| pmid 24194433 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD001949.pub3 }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| High potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic. \|- \| Pipotiazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| Only available in the UK. \|- \| Prochlorperazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Primarily used in medicine as an antiemetic. \|- \| Quetiapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-61}}\|{{Estimate\|0.61\|0.52\|0.71\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|17\|+<br />{{Estimate\|0.17\|0.06\|0.29\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| Binds to the D<sub>2</sub> receptor in a hit and run fashion. That is it rapidly dissociates from said receptor and hence produces antipsychotic effects but does not bind to the receptor long enough to produce extrapyramidal side effects and hyperprolactinaemia. \|- \| Remoxipride \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| Removed from the market amidst concerns about an alarmingly high rate of aplastic anaemia. \|- \| Risperidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-53}}\|{{Estimate\|0.53\|0.46\|0.60\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+<br />(dose-dependent)}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++<br />{{Estimate\|0.25\|0.15\|0.36\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| ? \|- \| Sertindole \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-78}}\|{{Estimate\|0.78\|0.61\|0.98\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|90\|+++<br />{{Estimate\|0.90\|0.76\|1.02\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| Not licensed for use in the US. \|- \| Sulpiride \|\| {{shade\|0\|{{Estimate\|1.00\|0.25\|4.00\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wang J, Sampson S \| title Sulpiride versus placebo for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 4 \| pages CD007811 \| date April 2014 \| pmid 24729184 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD007811.pub2 \| pmc 11195628 }}</ref>\|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| Not licensed for use in the US. \|- \| Thioridazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-67}}\|{{Estimate\|0.67\|0.32\|1.40\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fenton M, Rathbone J, Reilly J, Sultana A \| title Thioridazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 3 \| pages CD001944 \| date July 2007 \| volume 2007 \| pmid 17636691 \| pmc 6718212 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD001944.pub2 \| veditors Reilly J \| df dmy-all }}</ref>\|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| Dose-dependent risk for degenerative retinopathies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fornaro P, Calabria G, Corallo G, Picotti GB \| s2cid 23618581 \| title Pathogenesis of degenerative retinopathies induced by thioridazine and other antipsychotics: a dopamine hypothesis \| journal Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology \| volume 105 \| issue 1 \| pages 41–9 \| date July 2002 \| pmid 12152801 \| doi 10.1023/A:1015768114192 }}</ref> Found utility in reducing the resistance of multidrug and even extensively resistant strains of tuberculosis to antibiotics. \|- \| Tiotixene \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| ? \|- \| Trifluoperazine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-94}}\|{{Estimate\|0.94\|0.59\|1.48\|miniyes}}}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Marques LO, Lima MS, Soares BG \| title Trifluoperazine for schizophrenia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD003545 \| year 2004 \| volume 2004 \| pmid 14974020 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003545.pub2 \| pmc 7003674 \| veditors de Oliveira Marques L \| df dmy-all }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|10\|+/-}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| ? \|- \| Ziprasidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-72}}\|{{Estimate\|0.72\|0.59\|0.86\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|41\|++<br />{{Estimate\|0.41\|0.31\|0.51\|mini=yes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| ? \|- \| Zotepine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|{{#expr:100-69}}\|{{Estimate\|0.69\|0.41\|1.07\|miniyes}}}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| Dose-dependent risk of seizures.<ref>{{cite web\|titleZotepine\|workMartindale: The Complete Drug Reference\|publisherRoyal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain\|date16 August 2013\|access-date2 November 2013\|urlhttp://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/2479-d.htm}}</ref> Not licensed for use in the US. \|- \| Zuclopenthixol \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|18\|+}} \|\| Not licensed for use in the US. \|- \| colspan11 style"font-size:88%;" \| Note: "Notable" is to mean side-effects that are particularly unique to the antipsychotic drug in question. For example, clozapine is notorious for its ability to cause agranulocytosis. If data on the propensity of a particular drug to cause a particular AE is unavailable an estimation is substituted based on the pharmacologic profile of the drug. {{col-begin\|width=auto}} {{col-break}} Acronyms used: :AE – Adverse effect :OR – Odds ratio :CI – Confidence Interval :EPSE – Extrapyramidal Side Effect :QTc – Corrected QT interval :PE – Prolactin elevation {{col-break\|gap=5em}} Legend:<br /> :- very low propensity for this AE :+ low propensity/severity for this AE :++ moderate propensity/severity for this AE :+++ high propensity/severity for this AE {{col-end}} \|} {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" ! colspan=6 \| Efficacy \|- ! Generic drug name !! Schizophrenia<ref nameLancet2009/><ref name "Leucht_2013" /> !! Mania<ref name "Lancet 11">{{cite journal \| vauthors Cipriani A, Barbui C, Salanti G, Rendell J, Brown R, Stockton S, Purgato M, Spineli LM, Goodwin GM, Geddes JR \| display-authors 6 \| title Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs in acute mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis \| journal Lancet \| volume 378 \| issue 9799 \| pages 1306–1315 \| date October 2011 \| pmid 21851976 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60873-8 \| s2cid 25512763 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Citrome L \| title Addressing the need for rapid treatment of agitation in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: focus on inhaled loxapine as an alternative to injectable agents \| journal Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management \| volume 9 \| pages 235–245 \| year 2013 \| pmid 23723707 \| pmc 3665578 \| doi 10.2147/TCRM.S31484 \| doi-access free }}</ref>!! Bipolar depression<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cruz N, Sanchez-Moreno J, Torres F, Goikolea JM, Valentí M, Vieta E \| title Efficacy of modern antipsychotics in placebo-controlled trials in bipolar depression: a meta-analysis \| journal The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 13 \| issue 1 \| pages 5–14 \| date February 2010 \| pmid 19638254 \| doi 10.1017/S1461145709990344 \| doi-access free \| hdl 2445/53243 \| hdl-access free }}</ref>!! Bipolar maintenance<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Popovic D, Reinares M, Goikolea JM, Bonnin CM, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Vieta E \| title Polarity index of pharmacological agents used for maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder \| journal European Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 22 \| issue 5 \| pages 339–346 \| date May 2012 \| pmid 22000157 \| doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.09.008 \| s2cid 8067809 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vieta E, Günther O, Locklear J, Ekman M, Miltenburger C, Chatterton ML, Åström M, Paulsson B \| display-authors 6 \| title Effectiveness of psychotropic medications in the maintenance phase of bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials \| journal The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 14 \| issue 8 \| pages 1029–1049 \| date September 2011 \| pmid 21733231 \| doi 10.1017/S1461145711000885 \| hdl-access free \| hdl 2445/51726 }}</ref>!! Adjunct in major depression<ref name"MDD">{{cite journal \| vauthors Komossa K, Depping AM, Gaudchau A, Kissling W, Leucht S \| title Second-generation antipsychotics for major depressive disorder and dysthymia \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 12 \| pages CD008121 \| date December 2010 \| pmid 21154393 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD008121.pub2 \| df dmy-all }}</ref> \|- \| Amisulpride \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno\|? (+++ in dysthymia)}} \|- \| Aripiprazole \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++ (prevents manic and mixed but not depressive episodes)}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|75\|+++}} \|- \| Asenapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Chlorpromazine \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Clozapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Arafat SM, Rahman SM, Haque MM, Shah MA, Algin S, Nahar JS \| title Clozapine Can Be the Good Option in Resistant Mania \| journal Case Reports in Psychiatry \| volume 2016 \| pages 3081704 \| date 2016 \| pmid 27525148 \| pmc 4976188 \| doi 10.1155/2016/3081704 \| doi-access free }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}}<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wilkowska A, Cubała WJ \| title Clozapine As Transformative Treatment In Bipolar Patients \| journal Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment \| volume 15 \| pages 2901–2905 \| date 9 October 2019 \| pmid 31632038 \| pmc 6790347 \| doi 10.2147/NDT.S227196 \| doi-access free }}</ref> \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}}<ref>https://www.has-sante.fr/upload/docs/application/pdf/2012-04/anti_psychotiques_rapport.pdf{{full citation needed\|dateJune 2021}}</ref> \|- \| Haloperidol \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Iloperidone \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Loxapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++ (only in the treatment of agitation)}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Lurasidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Melperone \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Olanzapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++\|(most effective at preventing manic/mixed relapse)}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|- \| Paliperidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|50\|+++/++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Perospirone<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kishi T, Iwata N \| s2cid 11543666 \| title Efficacy and tolerability of perospirone in schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials \| journal CNS Drugs \| volume 27 \| issue 9 \| pages 731–41 \| date September 2013 \| pmid 23812802 \| doi 10.1007/s40263-013-0085-7 }}</ref>\|\| {{shade\|color=green\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Quetiapine \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|- \| Risperidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|75\|+++}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|5\|-}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|38\|++}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|75\|+++}} \|- \| Sertindole \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Ziprasidone \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|25\|++/+}} \|\| {{shade\|colorgreen\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|18\|+}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|- \| Zotepine \|\| {{shade\|color=green\|38\|++}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|} {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:80%; text-align:center; width:100%;" ! colspan"19" style"font-size:120%;" \| Binding affinity \|- \| {\|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="19" \|- ! colspan"19" \| K<sub>i</sub> [nM] toward cloned human receptors (unless otherwise specified)<ref group Note>Bolded drug names indicate drugs that are metabolites of clinically-marketed antipsychotics.</ref> \|- ! Drug name<ref name "GG">{{cite book \| veditors Brunton LL, Chabner B, Knollmann BC \|titleGoodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics \|edition12th \|locationNew York \|publisherMcGraw-Hill \|year2011 \|isbn978-0-07-162442-8\|title-linkGoodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titlePDSP K<sub>i</sub> Database \|workPsychoactive Drug Screening Program (PDSP)\|author1-linkBryan Roth \| vauthors Roth BL, Driscol J \| url http://pdsp.med.unc.edu/pdsp.php \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the United States National Institute of Mental Health \|access-date11 November 2013 \|date12 January 2011 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131108013656/http://pdsp.med.unc.edu/pdsp.php \|archive-date8 November 2013 }}</ref>!! SERT !! 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>6</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>7</sub> !! α<sub>1A</sub> !! α<sub>2A</sub> !! α<sub>2C</sub> !! NET !! D<sub>1</sub> !! D<sub>2</sub> !! D<sub>3</sub> !! D<sub>4</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2A</sub>/D<sub>2</sub> !!H<sub>1</sub> !! M<sub>1</sub> !! M<sub>3</sub> \|- \| Amisulpride \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 8,304 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 4,154 \|\| 73.5 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 1,114 \|\| 1,540 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 2,370 \|\| 3774.5 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Aripiprazole \|\| 1,081 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 8.7 \|\| 22.4 \|\| 642.4 \|\| 9.97 \|\| 25.85 \|\| 74.1 \|\| 37.63 \|\| 2091.5 \|\| 1,173.5 \|\| 1.64 \|\| 5.35 \|\| 514 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 27.93 \|\| 6,778 \|\| 4,678 \|- \| Asenapine<ref name"pmid18308814">{{cite journal \| vauthors Shahid M, Walker GB, Zorn SH, Wong EH \| s2cid 206489515 \| title Asenapine: a novel psychopharmacologic agent with a unique human receptor signature \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 23 \| issue 1 \| pages 65–73 \| date January 2009 \| pmid 18308814 \| doi = 10.1177/0269881107082944 }}</ref> \|\| ND \|\| 2.5 \|\| 0.06 \|\| 0.03 \|\| 0.25 \|\| 0.13 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.2 \|\| ND \|\| 1.4 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 0.42 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 0.0462 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 8,128 \|\| 8,128 \|- \| Blonanserin<ref name"Ishiyama_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ishiyama T, Tokuda K, Ishibashi T, Ito A, Toma S, Ohno Y \| title Lurasidone (SM-13496), a novel atypical antipsychotic drug, reverses MK-801-induced impairment of learning and memory in the rat passive-avoidance test \| journal European Journal of Pharmacology \| volume 572 \| issue 2–3 \| pages 160–70 \| date October 2007 \| pmid 17662268 \| doi 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.06.058 }}</ref> \|\| ND \|\| 804 \|\| 0.812 \|\| 26.4 \|\| 41.9 \|\| 183 \|\| 26.7 (RB) \|\| 530 (RC) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 1,070 \|\| 0.142 \|\| 0.494 \|\| 150 \|\| 5.72 \|\| 765 \|\| 100 \|\|ND \|- \| Brexpiprazole \|\| ND \|\| 0.12 \|\| 0.47 \|\| ND \|\| 58 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 15 \|\| 0.59 \|\| ND \|\| 160 \|\| 0.3 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 6.3 \|\| 1.567 \|\| 19 \|\| ND \|\| >10,000 \|- \| N-DEBN<ref name="Deeks, ED; Keating, GM 65–84"/> \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 1.28 \|\| 4.50 \|\| 5.03 \|\| 206 (RC) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 1,020 \|\| 1.38 \|\| 0.23 \|\| ND \|\| 0.93 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|- \| Chlorpromazine \|\| 1,296 \|\| 2,115.5 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 15.6 \|\| 17.0 \|\| 28.4 \|\| 0.28 \|\| 184 \|\| 46 \|\| 2,443 \|\| 76.3 \|\| 1.40 \|\| 4.65 \|\| 5.33 \|\| 3.21 \|\| 3.09 \|\| 32.3 \|\|57.0 \|- \| Clozapine \|\| 1,624 \|\| 123.7 \|\| 5.35 \|\| 9.44 \|\| 13.5 \|\| 17.95 \|\| 1.62 \|\| 37 \|\| 6.0 \|\| 3,168 \|\| 266.3 \|\| 157 \|\| 269.1 \|\| 26.4 \|\| 0.0341 \|\| 1.13 \|\| 6.17 \|\|19.25 \|- \| Norclozapine \|\| 316.6 \|\| 13.9 \|\| 10.9 \|\| 11.9 (RC) \|\| 11.6 \|\| 60.1 \|\| 104.8 \|\| 137.6 \|\| 117.7 \|\| 493.9 \|\| 14.3 \|\| 94.5 \|\| 153 \|\| 63.94 \|\| 0.115 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 67.6 \|\|95.7 \|- \| cis-Flupenthixol \|\| ND \|\| 8,028 \|\| 87.5 (HFC) \|\| 102.2 (RC) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 3.5 \|\| 0.35 \|\| 1.75 \|\| 66.3 \|\| 250 \|\| 0.86 \|\| ND \|\|ND \|- \| Fluphenazine \|\| 5,950 \|\| 1,039.9 \|\| 37.93 \|\| 982.5 \|\| 34.67 \|\| 8.00 \|\| 6.45 \|\| 314.1 \|\| 28.9 \|\| 3,076 \|\| 17.33 \|\| 0.30 \|\| 1.75 \|\| 40.0 \|\| 126.4 \|\| 14.15 \|\| 1,095 \|\| 1,441 \|- \| Haloperidol \|\| 3,256 \|\| 2,066.83 \|\| 56.81 \|\| 4,801 \|\| 5,133 \|\| 377.6 \|\| 12.0 \|\| 801.5 \|\| 403 \|\| 2,112 \|\| 121.8 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 3.96 \|\| 2.71 \|\| 81.2 \|\| 1698 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Iloperidone \|\| ND \|\| 93.21 \|\| 1.94 \|\| 147 \|\| 63.09 \|\| 112 \|\| 0.3 \|\| 160 \|\| 16.2 \|\| 1479 \|\| 129.32 \|\| 10.86 \|\| 10.55 \|\| 13.75 \|\| 0.179 \|\| 12 \|\| 4,898 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Loxapine \|\| >10,000 \|\| 2,456 \|\| 6.63 \|\| 13.25 \|\| 31.0 \|\| 87.6 \|\| 31.0 \|\| 150.9 \|\| 80.0 \|\| 5,698 \|\| 54 \|\| 28.1 \|\| 19.33 \|\| 7.80 \|\| 0.236 \|\| 4.90 \|\| 119.45 \|\| 211.33 \|- \| Amoxapine \|\| 58 \|\| ND \|\| 0.5 \|\| 2.0 (RC) \|\| 50 \|\| 40.21 \|\| 50 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 16 \|\| ND \|\| 20.8 \|\| 21.0 \|\| 21.0 \|\| 0.0240 \|\| 25 \|\| 1,000 \|\| 1,000 \|- \| Lurasidone<ref name"Ishiyama_2007"/><ref name"pmid20404009">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ishibashi T, Horisawa T, Tokuda K, Ishiyama T, Ogasa M, Tagashira R, Matsumoto K, Nishikawa H, Ueda Y, Toma S, Oki H, Tanno N, Saji I, Ito A, Ohno Y, Nakamura M \| s2cid 12893717 \| title Pharmacological profile of lurasidone, a novel antipsychotic agent with potent 5-hydroxytryptamine 7 (5-HT7) and 5-HT1A receptor activity \| journal The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics \| volume 334 \| issue 1 \| pages 171–81 \| date July 2010 \| pmid 20404009 \| doi 10.1124/jpet.110.167346 }}</ref> \|\| ND \|\| 6.8 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 415 \|\| ND \|\| 0.5 \|\| 48 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 10.8 \|\| ND \|\| 262 \|\| 1.7 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 1.18 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Melperone \|\| ND \|\| 2,200 (HB) \|\| 230 \|\| 2,100 (HB) \|\| 1,254 (RC) \|\| 578 (HB) \|\| 180 (HB) \|\| 150 (HB) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 194 \|\| 8.95 \|\| 555 \|\| 1.186 \|\| 580 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Molindone \|\| ND \|\| 3,797 \|\| 3773 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 1,008 \|\| 3,053 \|\| 2,612 \|\| 1,097 \|\| 172.6 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 6.0 \|\| 72.5 \|\| 2,950 \|\| 628.83 \|\| 2,130 \|\| ND \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Olanzapine \|\| 3,676 \|\| 2282 \|\| 3.73 \|\| 10.2 \|\| 8.07 \|\| 105.2 \|\| 112 \|\| 314 \|\| 28.9 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 70.33 \|\| 34.23 \|\| 47.0 \|\| 14.33 \|\| 0.109 \|\| 2.19 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 56.33 \|- \| Paliperidone \|\| 3,717 \|\| 616.6 \|\| 0.71 \|\| 48 \|\| 2,414 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 17.35 \|\| 7.35 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 41.04 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 0.5 \|\| 54.3 \|\| 1.104 \|\| 18.8 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Perphenazine \|\| ND \|\| 421 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 132 \|\| 17 \|\| 23 \|\| 10 \|\| 810.5 \|\| 85.2 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 0.14 \|\| 0.13 \|\| 17 \|\| 40 \|\| 8 \|\| 1,500 \|\| 1,848 \|- \| Pimozide \|\| ND \|\| 650 \|\| 48.35 \|\| 2,112 \|\| 71 \|\| 0.5 \|\| 197.7 \|\| 1,593 \|\| 376.5 \|\| ND \|\| >10,000 \|\| 1.45 \|\| 0.25 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 33.34 \|\| 692.2 \|\| 800 (HB) \|\| 1,955 \|- \| Prochlorperazine \|\| ND \|\| 5,900 (HC) \|\| 15 (HC) \|\| 122 \|\| 148 (RC) \|\| 196 (RC) \|\| 23.8 (HB) \|\| 1,694.91 (HB) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 0.65 \|\| 2.90 \|\| 5.40 \|\| 23.1 \|\| 18.86 (HB) \|\| 555.55 (HB) \|\| ND \|- \| Quetiapine \|\| >10,000 \|\| 394.2 \|\| 912 \|\| 1,843 \|\| 948.75 \|\| 307.6 \|\| 22 \|\| 3,630 \|\| 28.85 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 994.5 \|\| 379 \|\| 340 \|\| 2,019 \|\| 2.41 \|\| 6.90 \|\| 489 \|\| 1631.5 \|- \| Norquetiapine<ref name"pmid24062697">{{cite journal \| vauthors López-Muñoz F, Alamo C \| title Active metabolites as antidepressant drugs: the role of norquetiapine in the mechanism of action of quetiapine in the treatment of mood disorders \| journal Frontiers in Psychiatry \| volume 4 \| pages 102 \| date September 2013 \| pmid 24062697 \| pmc 3770982 \| doi 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00102 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> \|\| ND \|\| 45 \|\| 48 \|\| 107 \|\| ND \|\| 76 \|\| 144 \|\| 237 \|\| ND \|\| 12 \|\| 99.8 (RC) \|\| 196 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 0.245 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 38.3 (RC) \|\| ND \|- \| Risperidone \|\| >10,000 \|\| 422.88 \|\| 0.17 \|\| 12 \|\| 2057.17 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 5 \|\| 16.5 \|\| 1.3 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 243.53 \|\| 3.57 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 4.66 \|\| 0.0476 \|\| 20.05 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Sertindole \|\| ND \|\| 280 \|\| 0.39 \|\| 0.9 \|\| 5.4 \|\| 28 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 640 \|\| 450 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 2.35 \|\| 2.30 \|\| 4.92 \|\| 0.166 \|\| 130 \|\| >5,000 \|\| 2,692 \|- \| Sulpiride \|\| ND \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 (RC) \|\| >10,000 (RC) \|\| 5,000 (RC) \|\| 4,000 (RC) \|\| >10,000 (RB) \|\| 4,893 (RB) \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| >10,000 \|\| 9.80 \|\| 8.05 \|\| 54 \|\| >1,000 \|\| >10,000 (RB) \|\| >10,000 (RB) \|\| >10,000 (RB) \|- \| Thioridazine \|\| 1,259 \|\| 144.35 \|\| 27.67 \|\| 53 \|\| 57.05 \|\| 99 \|\| 3.15 \|\| 134.15 \|\| 74.9 \|\| 842 \|\| 94.5 \|\| 2.20 \|\| 1.50 \|\| 6.00 \|\| 12.58 \|\| 16.5 \|\| 12.8 \|\| 29 \|- \| Tiotixene \|\| 3,878\|\| 410.2 \|\| 50 \|\| 1355.5 \|\| 245.47 \|\| 15.25 \|\| 11.5 \|\| 79.95 \|\| 51.95 \|\| >10,000 \|\| 51 \|\| 0.12 \|\| 0.40 \|\| 203 \|\| 416.7 \|\| 8 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Trifluoperazine \|\| ND \|\| 950 \|\| 74 \|\| 378 \|\| 144 \|\| 290.8 \|\| 24 \|\| 653.7 \|\| 391.5 \|\| ND \|\| ND \|\| 1.12 \|\| ND \|\| 38.1 \|\| 66.07 \|\| 63 \|\| ND \|\| 1,001 \|- \| Ziprasidone \|\| 112 \|\| 54.67 \|\| 0.73 \|\| 13 \|\| 60.95 \|\| 6.31 \|\| 18 \|\| 160 \|\| 68 \|\| 44 \|\| 30 \|\| 4.35 \|\| 7.85 \|\| 52.9 \|\| 0.1678 \|\| 62.67 \|\| >10,000 \|\| >10,000 \|- \| Zotepine \|\| 151 \|\| 470.5 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 6 \|\| 12 \|\| 7 \|\| 208 \|\| 106 \|\| 530 \|\| 71 \|\| 25 \|\| 6.4 \|\| 18 \|\| 0.108 \|\| 3.21 \|\| 18 \|\| 73 \|- \| colspan19 style"font-size:88%;" \| Acronyms used: {{col-begin\|width=auto}} {{col-break}} :HFC – Human frontal cortex receptor :RB – Rat brain receptor :RC – Cloned rat receptor :ND – No data {{col-break\|gap=2em}} :HB – Human brain receptor :HC – Human cortex receptor :N-DEBN – N-desethylblonanserin {{col-end}} \|} \|} {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:85%; width:100%;" ! colspan11 style"font-size:small;" \| Pharmacokinetics \|- \| {\|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="11" \|- ! Drug<ref>{{cite web\|titleMedscape home page\|publisherWebMD\|websiteMedscape\|urlhttp://reference.medscape.com/medscapetoday\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113205740/http://reference.medscape.com/medscapetoday\|archive-date13 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleTherapeutic Goods Administration home page\|workTherapeutic Goods Administration\|publisherDepartment of Health (Australia)\|urlhttps://www.ebs.tga.gov.au/\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130421054308/https://www.ebs.tga.gov.au/\|archive-date21 April 2013}}</ref><ref nameDM>{{cite web\|titleDaily Med home page\|workDaily Med\|publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine\|urlhttp://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/index.cfm\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130618062135/http://www.dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/index.cfm\|archive-date18 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleelectronic Medicines Compendium (eMC) home page\|workelectronic Medicines Compendium\|publisherDatapharm\|urlhttp://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/\|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131127215911/http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/\|archive-date27 November 2013}}</ref>!! Bioavailability !! t<sub>1/2</sub> parent drug <br />(active metabolite) !! Protein binding !! t<sub>max</sub> !!C<sub>max</sub> !! V<sub>d</sub> !! Excretion !! Routes !! Metabolism enzymes<ref name GG/> !! Active metabolites \|- \| Amisulpride \|\| 48% \|\| 12&nbsp;h \|\| 16% \|\| 3–4&nbsp;h \|\| {{nowrap\|54 ± 4 ng/mL}} \|\| 5.8&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Faeces (20%), urine (50%, when given IV) \|\| Oral \|\| {{dunno}} \|\|None \|- \| Aripiprazole \|\| 87% (Oral), 100% (IM) \|\| 75&nbsp;h (94&nbsp;h) \|\| 99% \|\| 3–5&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 4.9&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Faeces (55%), urine (25%) \|\| Oral, IM (including depot) \|\| CYP2D6, CYP3A4 \|\| Dehydroaripiprazole \|- \| Asenapine \|\| 35% (sublingual) \|\| 24&nbsp;h \|\| 95% \|\| 0.5–1.5&nbsp;h \|\| 4&nbsp;ng/mL \|\| 20–25&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (50%), faeces (40%) \|\| Sublingual \|\|CYP1A2, UGT1A4, CYP2D6 \|\| None \|- \| Blonanserin<ref name"Deeks, ED; Keating, GM 65–84"/><ref name"Tenjin, T; Miyamoto, S; Ninomiya, Y; Kitajima, R; Ogino, S; Miyake, N; Yamaguchi, N 2013 587–594"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wen YG, Shang DW, Xie HZ, Wang XP, Ni XJ, Zhang M, Lu W, Qiu C, Liu X, Li FF, Li X, Luo FT \| title Population pharmacokinetics of blonanserin in Chinese healthy volunteers and the effect of the food intake \| journal Human Psychopharmacology \| volume 28 \| issue 2 \| pages 134–41 \| date March 2013 \| pmid 23417765 \| doi 10.1002/hup.2290 \| s2cid 12623938 }}</ref> \|\| 55% \|\| 10.7–16.2&nbsp;h (single dosing), 67.9&nbsp;h (repeated dosing) \|\| ≥&nbsp;99.7% \|\| 1.5–2&nbsp;h \|\| 0.14–0.76&nbsp;ng/mL (0.57&nbsp;ng/mL for repeated dosing) \|\| 8560–9500 L \|\| Urine (59%), faeces (30%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP3A4 \|\| N-desethylblonanserin \|- \| Chlorpromazine \|\| 20% \|\| 30&nbsp;h \|\| 92–97% \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 20&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine \|\| Oral, IM, IV \|\|CYP2D6 \|\| Several active metabolites \|- \| Clozapine \|\| 50–60% \|\| 12&nbsp;h \|\| 97% \|\| 1.5–2.5&nbsp;h \|\| 102–771&nbsp;ng/mL \|\| 4.67&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (50%), faeces (30%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A4 \|\| Norclozapine \|- \| Droperidol \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 2&nbsp;h (8–12&nbsp;h) \|\| Extensive \|\| 60 min (IM) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 2&nbsp;L/kg (adults), 0.58&nbsp;L/kg (children) \|\| Urine (75%), faeces (22%) \|\| IM, IV \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Flupentixol \|\| 40–55% (Oral) \|\| 35&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 7 days (depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 12–14&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine \|\| Oral, IM (including depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Fluphenazine \|\| 2.7% (Oral) \|\| 14–16&nbsp;h, 14 days (depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 2&nbsp;h (Oral), 8–10&nbsp;h (depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine, faeces \|\| Oral, IM (including depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Haloperidol \|\| 60–70% (Oral) \|\| 10–20&nbsp;h (short-acting IM), 3 weeks (depot) \|\| 92% \|\| 2–6&nbsp;h (Oral), 10–20 min (short-acting IM), 6–7 days (depot) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 8–18&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (30%), faeces (15%) \|\| Oral, IM, IV \|\| CYP3A4 \|\| None \|- \| Iloperidone \|\| 96% \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 95% \|\| 2–4&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 1340–2800 L \|\| Urine (45–58%), faeces (20–22%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP3A4, CYP2D6\|\| None notable. \|- \| Levomepromazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 30&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 2–3&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine, faeces \|\| IM, IV \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Methotrimeprazine sulfoxide \|- \| Loxapine \|\| High \|\| 6–8&nbsp;h (Inhaled), 4–12&nbsp;h (Oral) \|\| 96.6% \|\| 2 min (inhaled), 2&nbsp;h (oral), 5&nbsp;h (IM) \|\| 257&nbsp;ng/mL (inhaled), 6–13&nbsp;ng/mL (Oral) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine (56–70%), faeces [Only oral data available] \|\| Oral, IM, Inhalation \|\| CYP1A2, CYP3A4, CYP2D6\|\| Amoxapine (a tricyclic antidepressant), 7-OH loxapine, 8-OH loxapine \|- \| Lurasidone \|\| 9–19% \|\| 18&nbsp;h \|\| 99% \|\| 1–3&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 6173 L \|\| Urine (9%), faeces (80%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP3A4 \|\| 2 active \|- \| Melperone<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Borgström L, Larsson H, Molander L \| s2cid 36697288 \| title Pharmacokinetics of parenteral and oral melperone in man \| journal European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology \| volume 23 \| issue 2 \| pages 173–6 \| year 1982 \| pmid 7140807 \| doi 10.1007/BF00545974 }}</ref> \|\| 54% (Oral via syrup), 65% (Oral via tablets), 87% (IM) \|\| 2.1–6.4&nbsp;h (Oral), {{nowrap\|6.6 ± 3.7 h}} (IM) \|\| 50% \|\| 1.6–2.4&nbsp;h (Oral, tablets), 1&nbsp;h (Oral, syrup) \|\| {{nowrap\|1132 ± 814 ng/mL}} (25&nbsp;mg, orally), 2228–3416&nbsp;ng/mL (50&nbsp;mg, orally), {{nowrap\|89539 ± 37001 ng/mL}} (100&nbsp;mg, orally) \|\| {{nowrap\|9.9 ± 3.7 L/kg}} (10&nbsp;mg), {{nowrap\|7 ± 1.61 L/kg}} (20&nbsp;mg) \|\| Urine (70% as metabolites, 5.5–10.4% as parent drug) \|\| Oral, IM \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Olanzapine \|\| 87% (Oral) \|\| 30&nbsp;h \|\| 93% \|\| 6&nbsp;h (Oral), 15–45 min (short-acting IM), 7 days (depot) \|\| 4–20.4&nbsp;mg/mL<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Callaghan JT, Bergstrom RF, Ptak LR, Beasley CM \| title Olanzapine. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile \| journal Clinical Pharmacokinetics \| volume 37 \| issue 3 \| pages 177–93 \| date September 1999 \| pmid 10511917 \| doi = 10.2165/00003088-199937030-00001 }}</ref> \|\| 1000 L \|\| Urine (57%), faeces (30%) \|\| Oral, IM (including depot) \|\| CYP1A2 \|\| None \|- \| Paliperidone \|\| 28% (Oral) \|\| 23&nbsp;h (Oral), 25–49 days (IM) \|\| 74% \|\| 24&nbsp;h (Oral), 13 days (IM) \|\| 8.85–11.7&nbsp;ng/mL<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vermeir M, Naessens I, Remmerie B, Mannens G, Hendrickx J, Sterkens P, Talluri K, Boom S, Eerdekens M, van Osselaer N, Cleton A \| s2cid 41656 \| title Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of paliperidone, a new monoaminergic antagonist, in humans \| journal Drug Metabolism and Disposition \| volume 36 \| issue 4 \| pages 769–79 \| date April 2008 \| pmid 18227146 \| doi 10.1124/dmd.107.018275 \| df = dmy-all }}</ref> \|\| 390–487 L \|\| Urine (80%), faeces (11%) \|\| Oral, IM (depot) \|\|CYP3A4, CYP2D6 \|\| None \|- \| Periciazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 12&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 2&nbsp;h \|\| 150&nbsp;ng/mL \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine \|\| Oral \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| ? \|- \| Perospirone<ref name="CNS Drugs" /> \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 1.9–2.5&nbsp;h \|\| 92% \|\| 1.5&nbsp;h \|\| 5.7&nbsp;ng/mL \|\| {{dunno}} \|\|Urine (0.4% as unchanged drug) \|\| Oral \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Perphenazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 9–12&nbsp;h (10–19&nbsp;h) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 1–3&nbsp;h; 2–4&nbsp;h (metabolite) \|\| 0.984&nbsp;ng/mL; 0.509&nbsp;ng/mL \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine, faeces \|\|Oral \|\| CYP2D6 \|\| 7-OH perphenazine \|- \| Pimozide \|\| 40–50% \|\| 55&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 6–8&nbsp;h \|\| 4–19&nbsp;ng/mL (dose-dependent) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Urine \|\| Oral \|\| CYP3A4, CYP2D6 \|\| None \|- \| Prochlorperazine \|\| 12.5% \|\| 6.8–9&nbsp;h \|\| High \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 12.9–17.7 L/h \|\| Urine, bile \|\| Oral, IM, IV \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| N-desmethylprochlorperazine \|- \| Quetiapine \|\| 100% \|\| 6&nbsp;h (IR), 7&nbsp;h (XR); active metabolite: 12&nbsp;h \|\| 83% \|\| 1.5&nbsp;h (IR), 6&nbsp;h (XR) \|\| @ 250&nbsp;mg q8hr 778&nbsp;ng/mL (male), 879&nbsp;ng/mL (female)<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors DeVane CL, Nemeroff CB \| s2cid 33802262 \| title Clinical pharmacokinetics of quetiapine: an atypical antipsychotic \| journal Clinical Pharmacokinetics \| volume 40 \| issue 7 \| pages 509–22 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11510628 \| doi 10.2165/00003088-200140070-00003 }}</ref> \|\| 6–14&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (73%), faeces (20%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP3A4 \|\| Norquetiapine (a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonist) \|- \| Risperidone \|\| 70% \|\| 3–17&nbsp;h (24&nbsp;h) \|\| 90% (active metabolite: 77%) \|\| 3–17&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 1–2&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (70%), faeces (14%) \|\|Oral, IM (including depot) \|\| CYP2D6 \|\| Paliperidone \|- \| Sertindole \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 3 days \|\| 99.5% \|\| 10&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 20&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (4%), faeces (46–56%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP2D6 \|\| None \|- \| Sulpiride<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wiesel FA, Alfredsson G, Ehrnebo M, Sedvall G \| s2cid 28141135 \| title The pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral sulpiride in healthy human subjects \| journal European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology \| volume 17 \| issue 5 \| pages 385–91 \| date May 1980 \| pmid 7418717 \| doi 10.1007/BF00558453 }}</ref> \|\| 27 ± 9% \|\| 8&nbsp;h \|\| 40% \|\| 3-6&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{nowrap\|2.72 ± 0.66 L/kg}} \|\| Urine, faeces \|\| Oral \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Thioridazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 24&nbsp;h \|\| 95% \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Oral \|\| CYP2D6 \|\| None \|- \| Tiotixene \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 24&nbsp;h \|\| 90% \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Oral \|\| CYP1A2 \|\| None \|- \| Trifluoperazine \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 24&nbsp;h \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| Oral \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| None \|- \| Ziprasidone \|\| 60% (Oral), 100% (IM) \|\| 7&nbsp;h (Oral), 2–5&nbsp;h (IM) \|\| 99% \|\| 6–8&nbsp;h (Oral), ≤ 60 min (IM) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 1.5&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Faeces (66%), urine (20%) \|\| Oral, IM \|\| CYP3A4, CYP1A2 \|\| None \|- \| Zotepine<ref>{{cite journal\|titleZotepine: A Review of its Pharmacodynamic and Pharmacokinetic Properties and Therapeutic Efficacy in the Management of Schizophrenia\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume9\|issue2\|pages153–175\|doi10.2165/00023210-199809020-00006\|dateJanuary 1998\| vauthors Prakash A, Lamb HM }}</ref><ref>Product Information: Nipolept(R), zotepine. Klinge Pharma GmbH, Munich, 1996.</ref> \|\| 7–13%\|\| 13.7–15.9&nbsp;h (12&nbsp;h) \|\| 97% \|\| 1-4&nbsp;h \|\| 31–240 \|\| 10&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Urine (17%) \|\| Oral \|\| CYP1A2, CYP3A4 \|\| Norzotepine (a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) \|- \| Zuclopenthixol \|\| 49% \|\| 20&nbsp;h \|\| 98% \|\| 2–12&nbsp;h (mean: 4&nbsp;h) \|\| {{dunno}} \|\| 20&nbsp;L/kg \|\| Faeces, urine (10%) \|\| Oral, IM (including depot)\|\| CYP2D6 \|\| None \|} \|} {{Pharmacokinetics of long-acting injectable antipsychotics}} History ) from the 1950s, reflecting the perceptions of psychosis, including the now-discredited perception of a tendency towards violence, from the time when antipsychotics were discovered<ref>The text reads: "When the patient lashes out against 'them' – THORAZINE (brand of chlorpromazine) quickly puts an end to his violent outburst. 'Thorazine' is especially effective when the psychotic episode is triggered by delusions or hallucinations. At the outset of treatment, Thorazine's combination of antipsychotic and sedative effects provides both emotional and physical calming. Assaultive or destructive behavior is rapidly controlled. As therapy continues, the initial sedative effect gradually disappears. But the antipsychotic effect continues, helping to dispel or modify delusions, hallucinations and confusion, while keeping the patient calm and approachable. SMITH KLINE AND FRENCH LABORATORIES leaders in psychopharmaceutical research."</ref>]] The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a non-permanent "pharmacological lobotomy".<ref namepieters>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pieters T, Majerus B \| title The introduction of chlorpromazine in Belgium and the Netherlands (1951–1968); tango between old and new treatment features \| journal Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences \| volume 42 \| issue 4 \| pages 443–452 \| date December 2011 \| pmid 22035718 \| doi 10.1016/j.shpsc.2011.05.003 \| url http://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/2251 \| access-date 26 February 2017 \| archive-date 9 July 2017 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170709194021/http://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/2251 \| url-status = dead }}</ref> Lobotomy at the time was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its effect was to markedly reduce behavior and mental functioning of all types. However, chlorpromazine proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than lobotomy, even though it was known to be capable of causing severe sedation. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent antipsychotic drugs have been developed by rational drug design. The discovery of chlorpromazine's psychoactive effects in 1952 led to further research that resulted in the development of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and the majority of other drugs now used in the management of psychiatric conditions. In 1952, Henri Laborit described chlorpromazine only as inducing indifference towards what was happening around them in nonpsychotic, nonmanic patients, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker described it as controlling manic or psychotic agitation. The former claimed to have discovered a treatment for agitation in anyone, and the latter team claimed to have discovered a treatment for psychotic illness.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Healy D \| date 2005 \| title Psychiatric Drugs Explained. \| edition 4th \| location Britain \| publisher Elsevier Limited \| pages = 8, 17 }}</ref> Until the 1970s there was considerable debate within psychiatry on the most appropriate term to use to describe the new drugs.<ref name"king">{{cite journal \| vauthors King C, Voruganti LN \| title What's in a name? The evolution of the nomenclature of antipsychotic drugs \| journal Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience \| volume 27 \| issue 3 \| pages 168–175 \| date May 2002 \| pmid 12066446 \| pmc 161646 }}</ref> In the late 1950s the most widely used term was "neuroleptic", followed by "major tranquilizer" and then "ataraxic".<ref name"king"/> The first recorded use of the term tranquilizer dates from the early nineteenth century.<ref>{{cite web\| title tranquillizer, n\| work Oxford English Dictionary\| access-date 9 August 2011\| year 1989\| urlhttp://www.oed.com/view/Entry/204569}}</ref> In 1953 Frederik F. Yonkman, a chemist at the Swiss-based Cibapharmaceutical company, first used the term tranquilizer to differentiate reserpine from the older sedatives.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Healy D \|chapterThe Intersection of Psychopharmacology and Psychiatry in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century \|titleHistory of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology\|year2008\|publisherSpringer US\|locationBoston, MA\|isbn978-0-387-34707-3\| veditors Wallace ER, Gach J \|page421\|doi10.1007/978-0-387-34708-0_13}}</ref> The word neuroleptic was coined in 1955 by Delay and Deniker after their discovery (1952) of the antipsychotic effects of chlorpromazine.<ref name"king"/> It is derived from the {{langx\|el\|"νεῦρον"}} (neuron, originally meaning "sinew" but today referring to the nerves) and "λαμβάνω" (lambanō, meaning "take hold of"). Thus, the word means ''taking hold of one's nerves. It was often taken to refer also to common side effects such as reduced activity in general, as well as lethargy and impaired motor control. Although these effects are unpleasant and in some cases harmful, they were at one time, along with akathisia, considered a reliable sign that the drug was working.<ref namepieters /> The term "ataraxy" was coined by the neurologist Howard Fabing and the classicist Alister Cameron to describe the observed effect of psychic indifference and detachment in patients treated with chlorpromazine.<ref>{{cite book\| publisher Cambridge University Press\| isbn 978-0-521-63353-6\| vauthors Owens DG \| title A guide to the extrapyramidal side-effects of antipsychotic drugs\| date 13 April 1999\| url https://books.google.com/books?idRwRSahg71GkC&pgPA12\| page 12\|url-status live\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160318004651/https://books.google.com/books?idRwRSahg71GkC&pgPA12\| archive-date 18 March 2016\| df dmy-all}}</ref> This term derived from the Greek adjective "ἀτάρακτος" (ataraktos''), which means "not disturbed, not excited, without confusion, steady, calm".<ref name"king"/> In the use of the terms "tranquilizer" and "ataractic", medical practitioners distinguished between the "major tranquilizers" or "major ataractics", which referred to drugs used to treat psychoses, and the "minor tranquilizers" or "minor ataractics", which referred to drugs used to treat neuroses.<ref name"king"/> While popular during the 1950s, these terms are infrequently used today. They are being abandoned in favor of "antipsychotic", which refers to the drug's desired effects.<ref name"king"/> Today, "minor tranquilizer" can refer to anxiolytic and/or hypnotic drugs such as the benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines, which are useful as generally short-term management for insomnia together with cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wilson S, Anderson K, Baldwin D, Dijk DJ, Espie A, Espie C, Gringras P, Krystal A, Nutt D, Selsick H, Sharpley A \| display-authors 6 \| title British Association for Psychopharmacology consensus statement on evidence-based treatment of insomnia, parasomnias and circadian rhythm disorders: An update \| journal Journal of Psychopharmacology \| volume 33 \| issue 8 \| pages 923–947 \| date August 2019 \| pmid 31271339 \| doi 10.1177/0269881119855343 \| s2cid 195797603 \| url https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/433092/1/BAP_sleep_consensus_update_DSB_19032019.docx }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| publisher Saunders\| isbn 978-0-7216-5257-3 \| vauthors Tasman A \| title Psychiatry Volume 2\| page 956\| year 1997}}</ref> They are potentially addictive sedatives. Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two groups, the typical or first-generation antipsychotics and the atypical or second-generation antipsychotics. The difference between first- and second-generation antipsychotics is a subject of debate. The second-generation antipsychotics are generally distinguishable by the presence of 5HT2A receptor antagonism and a corresponding lower propensity for extrapyramidal side effects compared to first-generation antipsychotics.<ref name"king" />Society and cultureTerminologyThe term major tranquilizer was used for older antipsychotic drugs. The term neuroleptic is often used as a synonym for antipsychotic, even though – strictly speaking – the two terms are not interchangeable. Antipsychotic drugs are a subgroup of neuroleptic drugs, because the latter have a wider range of effects.<ref name":1">{{cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idea_QVG2BFy8C&pgPA675\|titleLexicon of Psychiatry, Neurology, and the Neurosciences\| vauthors Ayd FJ \|date2000\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|isbn978-0-7817-2468-5\|page675\|languageen\|chapter=neuroleptic}}</ref><ref>R. Elliott Ingersoll, Carl F. Rak (2015): Psychopharmacology for Mental Health Professionals: An Integrative Approach, Cengage Learning, Boston, pp. 150-186 and 342-349, {{ISBN\|9781305537231}}.</ref> Antipsychotics are a type of psychoactive or psychotropic medication.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Patel SC, Jakopac KA \|titleManual of Psychiatric Nursing Skills\|date2011\|publisherJones & Bartlett Publishers\|isbn978-1-4496-1356-3\|page317\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfN9932sGu1kC\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleDrug Policy and the Public Good\|date2010\|publisherOUP Oxford\|isbn978-0-19-955712-7\|page329\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idByur1yIJBaUC&pgPA329\|languageen}}</ref> Sales Antipsychotics were once among the biggest selling and most profitable of all drugs, generating $22&nbsp;billion in global sales in 2008.<ref name"healthcarefinancenews.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120218005726/http://www.healthcarefinancenews.com/press-release/pipeline-antipsychotic-drugs-drive-next-market-evolution Pipelineantipsychotic drugs to drive next market evolution (2009)]. Healthcarefinancenews.com (7 August 2009).</ref> By 2003 in the US, an estimated 3.21&nbsp;million patients received antipsychotics, worth an estimated $2.82&nbsp;billion. Over 2/3 of prescriptions were for the newer, more expensive atypicals, each costing on average $164 per year, compared to $40 for the older types.<ref name"pmid17158480">{{cite journal \| vauthors Aparasu RR, Bhatara V \| title Antipsychotic use and expenditure in the United States \| journal Psychiatric Services \| volume 57 \| issue 12 \| pages 1693 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17158480 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ps.57.12.1693 }}</ref> By 2008, sales in the US reached $14.6&nbsp;billion, the biggest selling drugs in the US by therapeutic class.<ref>[http://www.imshealth.com/portal/site/imshealth/menuitem.a46c6d4df3db4b3d88f611019418c22a/?vgnextoid85f4a56216a10210VgnVCM100000ed152ca2RCRD&cpsextcurrchannel1 2008 U.S. Sales and Prescription Information: Top Therapeutic Classes by U.S. Sales (PDF)] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100416162222/http://www.imshealth.com/portal/site/imshealth/menuitem.a46c6d4df3db4b3d88f611019418c22a/?vgnextoid85f4a56216a10210VgnVCM100000ed152ca2RCRD&cpsextcurrchannel1 \|date=16 April 2010 }}. Imshealth.com.</ref> In the five years since July 2017 the number of antipsychotic medicines dispensed in the community in the United Kingdom has increased by 11.2%. There have also been substantial price rises. Risperidone 6&nbsp;mg tablets, the largest, increased from £3.09 in July 2017 to £41.16 in June 2022. The NHS is spending an additional £33 million annually on antipsychotics. Haloperidol 500 microgram tablets constituted £14.3 million of this.<ref>{{cite news \|titleData show 'spiralling' antipsychotic price increases of up to 1,200% in past five years \|urlhttps://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/data-show-spiralling-antipsychotic-price-increases-of-up-to-1200-in-past-five-years \|access-date29 September 2022 \|publisherPharmaceutical Journal \|date24 August 2022}}</ref> Overprescription Antipsychotics in the nursing home population are often overprescribed, often for the purposes of making it easier to handle dementia patients. Federal efforts to reduce the use of antipsychotics in US nursing homes has led to a nationwide decrease in their usage in 2012.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gustafsson M, Karlsson S, Lövheim H \| title Inappropriate long-term use of antipsychotic drugs is common among people with dementia living in specialized care units \| journal BMC Pharmacology & Toxicology \| volume 14 \| issue 1 \| pages 10 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 23391323 \| pmc 3575309 \| doi 10.1186/2050-6511-14-10 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>Risky Antipsychotic Drugs Still Overprescribed In Nursing Homes, https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/02/05/583435517/risky-antipsychotic-drugs-still-overprescribed-in-nursing-homes</ref><ref>Atypical antipsychotics: overrated and overprescribed, Glen Spielsman, https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/opinion/atypical-antipsychotics-overrated-and-overprescribed</ref> Legal Antipsychotics are sometimes administered as part of compulsory psychiatric treatment via inpatient (hospital) commitment or outpatient commitment. Formulations They may be administered orally or, in some cases, through long-acting (depot) injections administered in the dorsgluteal, ventrogluteal or deltoid muscle. Short-acting parenteral formulations also exist, which are generally reserved for emergencies or when oral administration is otherwise impossible. The oral formulations include immediate release, extended release, and orally disintegrating products (which are not sublingual, and can help ensure that medications are swallowed instead of "cheeked"). Sublingual products (e.g., asenapine) also exist, which must be held under the tongue for absorption. The first transdermal formulation of an antipsychotic (transdermal asenapine, marketed as Secuado), was FDA-approved in 2019.<ref name"Carrithers 2020">{{cite journal \| vauthors Carrithers B, El-Mallakh RS \| title Transdermal Asenapine in Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review \| journal Patient Preference and Adherence \| volume 14 \| pages 1541–1551 \| date 18 March 2020 \| pmid 32943849 \| pmc 7468370 \| doi 10.2147/PPA.S235104 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Recreational use {{Main\|Antipsychotics abuse}} Certain second-generation antipsychotics are misused or abused for their sedative, tranquilizing, and (paradoxically) "hallucinogenic" effects.<ref name"Bogart 2011">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bogart G \|titleAbuse of second-generation antipsychotics: What prescribers need to know \|journalCurrent Psychiatry \|date2011 \|volume10 \|issue5 \|pages77–79 \|urlhttps://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64323/addiction-medicine/abuse-second-generation-antipsychotics-what-prescribers}}</ref> The most commonly implicated second-generation antipsychotic is quetiapine.<ref name"Bogart 2011" /> In case reports, quetiapine has been abused in doses taken by mouth (which is how the drug is available from the manufacturer), but also crushed and insufflated or mixed with water for injection into a vein.<ref name"Bogart 2011" /> Olanzapine, another sedating second-generation antipsychotic, has also been misused for similar reasons.<ref name"Bogart 2011" /> There is no standard treatment for antipsychotic abuse, though switching to a second-generation antipsychotic with less abuse potential (e.g., aripiprazole) has been used.<ref name"Bogart 2011" />ControversyJoanna Moncrieff has argued that antipsychotic drug treatment is often undertaken as a means of control rather than to treat specific symptoms experienced by the patient.<ref name"guard 1">{{cite news \| vauthors James A \|titleMyth of the antipsychotic \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/mar/02/mythoftheantipsychotic \|workThe Guardian \|date=2 March 2008 }}</ref> Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff.<ref>{{cite web \|titleGPs under 'pressure' to issue neuroleptics, claims professor \|urlhttps://www.chemistanddruggist.co.uk/cpd-article/gps-under-pressure-issue-neuroleptics-claims-professor \|websiteChemist+Druggist \|access-date1 May 2020 \|archive-date20 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201020094759/https://www.chemistanddruggist.co.uk/cpd-article/gps-under-pressure-issue-neuroleptics-claims-professor \|url-statusdead }}{{unreliable source?\|dateMay 2020}}</ref> In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year.<ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Triggle N \|titleDementia drug use 'killing many' \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8356423.stm \|date12 November 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleUK study warns against anti-psychotics for dementia \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/dementia-drugs/uk-study-warns-against-anti-psychotics-for-dementia-idUSLC44347420091112 \|workReuters \|date12 November 2009 }}</ref> In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson for allegedly paying kickbacks to Omnicare to promote its antipsychotic risperidone (Risperdal) in nursing homes.<ref nameHilzenrath>{{cite news \| vauthors Hilzenrath DS \|titleJustice suit accuses Johnson & Johnson of paying kickbacks \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/15/AR2010011503903.html \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|date16 January 2010 }}</ref> There has also been controversy about the role of pharmaceutical companies in marketing and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations.<ref namebied2010>{{cite news \| vauthors Wilson D \|titleSide Effects May Include Lawsuits \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/business/03psych.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101005023740/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/business/03psych.html \|archive-date2010-10-05 \|url-accesslimited \|workThe New York Times \|date2 October 2010 }}</ref> One case involved Eli Lilly and Company's antipsychotic Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra. In the Bextra case, the government also charged Pfizer with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, Geodon.<ref namebied2010/> In addition, AstraZeneca faces numerous personal-injury lawsuits from former users of Seroquel (quetiapine), amidst federal{{clarify\|dateJanuary 2022}} investigations of its marketing practices.<ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Wilson D \|titleDrug Maker's E-Mail Released in Seroquel Lawsuit \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/28/business/28drug.html \|workThe New York Times \|date27 February 2009 }}</ref> By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $5.5&nbsp;billion and $5.4&nbsp;billion respectively.<ref name="healthcarefinancenews.com"/> Harvard University medical professor Joseph Biederman conducted research on bipolar disorder in children that led to an increase in such diagnoses. A 2008 Senate{{which\|dateJanuary 2022}} investigation found that Biederman also received $1.6 million in speaking and consulting fees between 2000 and 2007, some of them undisclosed to Harvard, from companies including makers of antipsychotic drugs prescribed for children with bipolar disorder. Johnson & Johnson gave more than $700,000 to a research center that was headed by Biederman from 2002 to 2005, where research was conducted, in part, on Risperdal, the company's antipsychotic drug. Biederman has responded saying that the money did not influence him and that he did not promote a specific diagnosis or treatment.<ref namebied2010/> Pharmaceutical companies have also been accused of attempting to set the mental health agenda through activities such as funding consumer advocacy groups.<ref name"pmid15278977">{{cite journal \| vauthors Gosden R, Beder S \| title Pharmaceutical industry agenda setting in mental health policies \| journal Ethical Human Sciences and Services \| volume 3 \| issue 3 \| pages 147–159 \| date 1 January 2001 \| pmid 15278977 \| doi 10.1891/1523-150X.3.3.147 \| doi-broken-date 1 November 2024 }}</ref>Special populationsIt is recommended that persons with dementia who exhibit behavioral and psychological symptoms should not be given antipsychotics before trying other treatments.<ref name"APAfive dementia">{{Citation \|author1 American Psychiatric Association \|author1-link American Psychiatric Association \|date September 2013 \|title Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question \|publisher American Psychiatric Association \|work Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation \|url http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/ \|access-date 30 December 2013 \|url-status live\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131203174206/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-psychiatric-association/ \|archive-date 3 December 2013 \|df dmy-all }}, which cites {{cite book\|volume1\|year2006\|doi10.1176/appi.books.9780890423967.152139\|title APA Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: Comprehensive Guidelines and Guideline Watches\|isbn 978-0-89042-336-3 \| author American Psychiatric Association \|chapterPractice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias \|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association \|locationArlington, VA \| edition Second \|doi-broken-date=4 December 2024 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Aparasu RR, Bhatara V \| title Antipsychotic use and expenditure in the United States \| journal Psychiatric Services \| volume 57 \| issue 12 \| pages 1693 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17158480 \| doi = 10.1176/appi.ps.57.12.1693 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Gitlin LN, Kales HC, Lyketsos CG \| title Nonpharmacologic management of behavioral symptoms in dementia \| journal JAMA \| volume 308 \| issue 19 \| pages 2020–9 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 23168825 \| pmc 3711645 \| doi 10.1001/jama.2012.36918 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Maglione M, Maher AR, Hu J, Wang Z, Shanman R, Shekelle PG, Roth B, Hilton L, Suttorp MJ, Ewing BA, Motala A, Perry T \| title Off-Label Use of Atypical Antipsychotics: An Update \| journal AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews \| date Sep 2011 \| pmid = 22132426 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Richter T, Meyer G, Möhler R, Köpke S \| s2cid 42099598 \| title Psychosocial interventions for reducing antipsychotic medication in care home residents \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 12 \| pages CD008634 \| date December 2012 \| issue 12 \| pmid 23235663 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.cd008634.pub2 \| pmc6492452}}</ref>{{Update inline\|reasonUpdated version https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37650479\|date September 2023}} When taking antipsychotics this population has increased risk of cerebrovascular effects, parkinsonism or extrapyramidal symptoms, sedation, confusion and other cognitive adverse effects, weight gain, and increased mortality.<ref name"APAfive dementia"/> Physicians and caretakers of persons with dementia should try to address symptoms including agitation, aggression, apathy, anxiety, depression, irritability, and psychosis with alternative treatments whenever antipsychotic use can be replaced or reduced.<ref name"APAfive dementia"/> Elderly persons often have their dementia treated first with antipsychotics and this is not the best management strategy.<ref name"AGSfive">{{Citation \|author1 American Geriatrics Society \|author1-link American Geriatrics Society \|title Ten Things Physicians and Patients Should Question \|publisher American Geriatrics Society \|work Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation \|url http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-geriatrics-society/ \|access-date 1 August 2013 \|url-status live\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130901100140/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-geriatrics-society/ \|archive-date 1 September 2013 \|df = dmy-all }}, which cites * {{cite journal \| title American Geriatrics Society updated Beers Criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults \| journal Journal of the American Geriatrics Society \| volume 60 \| issue 4 \| pages 616–31 \| date April 2012 \| pmid 22376048 \| pmc 3571677 \| doi 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.03923.x \| author1 American Geriatrics Society 2012 Beers Criteria Update Expert Panel }} * {{Citation \|authorNICE \|date8 May 2013 \|titleDementia: Supporting people with dementia and their carers in health and social care Clinical guidelines, CG42 \|publisherNICE \|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/CG042 \|access-date23 October 2013 \|url-status live\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130627220803/http://www.nice.org.uk/CG042 \|archive-date27 June 2013 \|author-linkNational Institute for Health and Care Excellence }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Maher AR, Maglione M, Bagley S, Suttorp M, Hu JH, Ewing B, Wang Z, Timmer M, Sultzer D, Shekelle PG \| title Efficacy and comparative effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic medications for off-label uses in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis \| journal JAMA \| volume 306 \| issue 12 \| pages 1359–69 \| date September 2011 \| pmid 21954480 \| doi 10.1001/jama.2011.1360 \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, Davis SM, Hsiao JK, Ismail MS, Lebowitz BD, Lyketsos CG, Ryan JM, Stroup TS, Sultzer DL, Weintraub D, Lieberman JA \| s2cid 5861676 \| title Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer's disease \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 355 \| issue 15 \| pages 1525–38 \| date October 2006 \| pmid 17035647 \| doi 10.1056/nejmoa061240 \| url https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/h989rc48f \| doi-access free }}</ref> See also * List of investigational antipsychotics * Antipsychotic switching * Conditioned avoidance response test Notes {{Reflist\|groupNote}} References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Fallon P, Dursun S, Deakin B \| title Drug-induced supersensitivity psychosis revisited: characteristics of relapse in treatment-compliant patients \| journal Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology \| volume 2 \| issue 1 \| pages 13–22 \| date February 2012 \| pmid 23983951 \| pmc 3736929 \| doi 10.1177/2045125311431105 }} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category\|Antipsychotic drugs}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140613015650/http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/evidence/psychosis/q1/en/ Recommendations for the use of antipsychotics for treating psychosis], World Health Organization 2012 * {{usurped\|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20091216100740/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/27/6/146/9 Are atypical antipsychotics advantageous? – the case for]}}, Australian Prescriber 2005 (note: pharmaceutical company conflict of interest statement at the end) * {{usurped\|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100527054436/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/27/6/149/51/ Are atypical antipsychotics advantageous? – the case against]}}, Australian Prescriber 2005 * [http://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/antipsychotics/first-generation-antipsychotics/ First Generation Antipsychotics: An Introduction], Psychopharmacology Institute, 2012 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060218075500/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01350.html FDA Public Health Advisory] – Public Health Advisory for Antipsychotic Drugs used for Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Elderly Patients, fda.gov * [http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinfo/treatments/antipsychoticmedication.aspx Antipsychotic Medication] – information from mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists * {{in lang\|pt}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20061012215858/http://www.medicina.ufrj.br/cursos/FROTA%20LIVRO%20I%20%26%20II.pdf FROTA LH. Fifty Years of Antipsychotic Drugs in Psychiatry. "Cinqüenta Anos de Medicamentos Antipsicóticos em Psiquiatria."] 1st ed; Ebook: CD-Rom/On-Line Portuguese, {{ISBN\|85-903827-1-0}}, File .pdf (Adobe Acrobat) 6Mb, Informática, Rio de Janeiro, August 2003, 486pp., medicina.ufrj.br {{Antipsychotics}} {{Major Drug Groups}} {{Dopamine receptor modulators}} {{Mood disorders}} {{Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs}} {{Authority control}} Category:Psychiatry controversies Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects Category:Dopamine antagonists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotic	2025-04-05T18:26:11.472577
2871	Akita	is a Japanese name and may refer to: Places Akita Prefecture, region in northeastern Japan Akita (city), capital city of the prefecture Akita Station, railway station in the city of Akita Port of Akita, seaport on the Sea of Japan coast in the city of Akita Akita Domain, also known as Kubota Domain, feudal domain in Edo period Japan Akita, Kumamoto, former town in southwestern Japan 8182 Akita, main-belt asteroid People Akita clan, Japanese samurai clan of northern Honshū Akita (surname), people with the surname Art, entertainment, and media Akita (Ninjago), character in the animated series Ninjago Other uses Akita (dog), large spitz breed from the mountainous regions of northern Japan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akita	2025-04-05T18:26:11.481008
2875	Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen	{{Short description\|Austrian archduke and general; third son of Leopold II}} {{redirect\|Archduke Charles of Austria}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2024}}{{stack \|{{Infobox royalty \| name = Archduke Charles \| title = Duke of Teschen \| image = Anton Einsle - Erherzog Carl von Österreich.jpg \| caption = Portrait by Anton Einsle \|module = {{Infobox royalty \| embed = yes \| birth_name = Charles Louis John Joseph Lawrence \| birth_date = 5 September 1771 \| birth_place = Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1847\|4\|30\|1771\|9\|5\|dfy}} \| death_place = Vienna, Austrian Empire \| burial_date \| burial_place Imperial Crypt, Vienna \| spouse {{marriage\|Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg\|17 September 1815\|29 December 1829\|endd.}} \| issue = {{plainlist\| * Maria Theresa, Queen of the Two Sicilies * Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen * Archduke Karl Ferdinand * Archduke Frederick Ferdinand * Archduchess Maria Karoline * Archduke Wilhelm Franz }} \| issue-link = #Issue \| full name = Karl Ludwig Johann Josef Lorenz \| house = Habsburg-Lorraine \| father = Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor \| mother = Maria Luisa of Spain \| signature = Signatur Karl von Österreich-Teschen.PNG \| religion = Roman Catholicism }}<!-- end of infobox royalty --> {{Infobox officeholder \| embed = yes \| allegiance = {{flag\|Holy Roman Empire}}<br />{{flag\|Austrian Empire}} \| branch = Imperial Army<br />Imperial and Royal Army \| serviceyears = 1792–1809 \| rank = Lieutenant Field Marshal \| commands = Imperial and Royal Army \| battles = {{tree list}} * French Revolutionary Wars War of the First Coalition * Battle of Jemappes * Battle of Aldenhoven * Battle of Neerwinden * Battle of Fleurus * Battle of Wetzlar (1796) * Battle of Kehl (1796) * Battle of Ettlingen * Battle of Neresheim * Battle of Theiningen * Battle of Amberg * Battle of Würzburg * Battle of Limburg (1796) * Battle of Emmendingen * Battle of Schliengen * Battle of Valvasone * Battle of Tarvis (1797) War of the Second Coalition * Battle of Ostrach * Battle of Stockach * First Battle of Zurich * Battle of Mannheim (1799) * Napoleonic Wars War of the Third Coalition * Battle of Verona (1805) * Battle of Caldiero War of the Fifth Coalition * Battle of Teugen-Hausen * Battle of Abensberg * Battle of Eckmühl * Battle of Ratisbon * Battle of Aspern-Essling * Battle of Wagram *** Battle of Znaim {{tree list/end}} }}<!-- end of infobox officeholder --> }}<!-- end of infobox person --> {{Infobox emblem \|name = Coat of Arms of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen \|image = Coat of Arms of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen.svg \|image_width = 150 \|caption = Coat of Arms of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen, showing the batons of a field marshal of the Austrian Army and the black cross of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order (1801-1804) \|middle \|middle_width \|middle_caption \|lesser \|lesser_width \|lesser_caption \|armiger \|year_adopted \|shield \|crest \|supporters \|motto \|orders \|other_elements \|earlier_versions \|use }}<!-- end of infobox emblem --> }} Archduke Charles Louis John Joseph Lawrence of Austria, Duke of Teschen ({{langx\|de\|link=no\|Erzherzog Karl Ludwig Johann Josef Lorenz von Österreich, Herzog von Teschen}}; 5 September 1771{{snd}}30 April 1847) was an Austrian field-marshal, the third son of Emperor Leopold II and his wife, Maria Luisa of Spain. He was also the younger brother of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. He was epileptic, but achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of the Austrian army. He was considered one of Napoleon's most formidable opponents and one of the greatest generals of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He began his career fighting the revolutionary armies of France. Early in the wars of the First Coalition, he saw victory at Neerwinden in 1793, before being defeated at Wattignies in 1793 and Fleurus in 1794. In 1796, as chief of all Austrian forces on the Rhine, Charles defeated Jean-Baptiste Jourdan at Amberg, Würzburg and Limburg, and then won victories at Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen that forced Jean Victor Marie Moreau to withdraw across the Rhine. He also defeated opponents at Zürich, Ostrach, Stockach, and Mannheim in 1799. He reformed Austria's armies to adopt the nation-at-arms principle. In 1809, he entered the War of the Fifth Coalition and inflicted Napoleon's first major setback at Aspern-Essling, before suffering a defeat at the bloody Battle of Wagram. After Wagram, Charles saw no more significant action in the Napoleonic Wars. As a military strategist, Charles was able to successfully execute complex and risky manoeuvres of troops. However, his contemporary Carl von Clausewitz criticised his rigidity and adherence to "geographic" strategy. Many Austrians nevertheless remember Charles as a hero of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Youth and early career '' by Thomas Lawrence, 1819]] Charles was born in Florence, Tuscany. His father, then Grand Duke of Tuscany, generously permitted Charles's childless aunt Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria and her husband Albert of Saxe-Teschen to adopt and raise the boy in Vienna. Charles spent his youth in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the wars of the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Jemappes (1792), and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the Action of Aldenhoven and the Battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, an office he lost with the occupation of the Low Countries by the French revolutionaries in 1794. The year he became Governor he also received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal. Shortly thereafter another promotion saw him made Feldzeugmeister (equivalent of Lieutenant General). In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and was present at the Battle of Fleurus (1794).{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=935}} In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year, he was entrusted with chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first, falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan, he beat him in the battles of Amberg (August), Würzburg and Limburg (September), and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany after the battles of Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p935}}Napoleonic Wars {{See also\|Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic Wars}} In 1797 he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he once more opposed Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Ostrach and Stockach, following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna in the First Battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine after winning at Mannheim in 1799.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p935}}<ref>{{cite book \|author-linkGunther E. Rothenberg \|firstGunther E. \|lastRothenberg \|title=Napoleon's Great Adversaries: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1914 \|publisherSpellmount, Stroud \|locationGloucester \|year=2007}}</ref> {{stack\| (21–22 May 1809).]]}} Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to Bohemia, but he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the Battle of Hohenlinden had, however, doomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of Steyr. His popularity was now such that the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=935}} In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations; Austria sustained defeat on the Danube, and the archduke was defeated by Massena in the Battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace he began his active work of army reorganisation, which was first tested on the field in 1809.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=935}} In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles, already a field marshal, as Commander in Chief of the Austrian army and Head of the Council of War.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2017}} Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th century. The chief characteristics of the new order were the adoption of the nation in arms principle and the adoption of French war organization and tactics. The army reforms were not yet completed by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old and was only defeated after a desperate struggle involving Austrian victories and large loss of life on both sides.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p935}} Its initial successes were neutralised by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmühl but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won a strong victory at the Battle of Aspern-Essling but soon afterwards lost at the Battle of Wagram after heavy casualties on both sides. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=935}} In 1808, when Napoleon had crowned his brother Joseph king of Spain, Archduke Charles had said to his brother, Emperor Francis II, "Now we know what Napoleon wants &ndash; he wants everything".<ref>The Habsburg monarchy, 1618-1815 Ingrao, Charles W.</ref> Later life When Austria joined the ranks of the allies during the War of the Sixth Coalition, Charles was not given a command and the post of commander-in-chief of the allied Army of Bohemia went to the Prince of Schwarzenberg.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2017}} Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was military governor of the Fortress Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p935}} In 1830 Charles was a candidate for the throne of Belgium.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idG9YiXzULaD8C&pgPA24\|page24\|titleThe Politics of Belgium\|publisherHurst\|year1996\|authorJohn Fitzmaurice}}</ref> On 15 September/17 September 1815 in Weilburg, Charles married Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (1797–1829). She was a daughter of Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg (1768–1816) and his wife Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg. Charles died at Vienna on 30 April 1847. He is buried in tomb 122 in the New Vault of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna.<ref>[http://www.napoleon-empire.com/personalities/archiduc_charles.php Archduke Charles' short biography] in Napoleon & Empire website, displaying a photograph of his tomb in Vienna</ref> An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the Heldenplatz in Vienna in 1860. Assessment of his achievements The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategic works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, although his education certainly prejudiced him in favor of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of most leaders of his time, with only a few exceptions.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p935}} Arthur Wellesley named Charles as the greatest general of his time.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQPw7jMo1UrcC&pgPA249\|titleAnnals of the Wars of the Nineteenth Century, compiled from the most authentic histories of the period\|year1862\|publisherThe British Library\|authorSir Edward Cust\|page249}}</ref> Charles was arguably the best commander ever produced by the House of Habsburg,<ref>{{cite book \|lastRothenberg \|firstGunther E. \|author-linkGunther E. Rothenberg \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/napoleonsgreatad0000roth \|titleNapoleon's Great Adversaries: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1914 \|publisherSpellmount, Stroud \|year2007 \|locationGloucester \|pages13 \|isbn978-1-885119-21-6 \|languageen}}</ref> and undoubtedly the most able Habsburg general of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Wilson \|first1Peter H. \|author-linkPeter H. Wilson \|titleIron and Blood: A Military History of the German-Speaking Peoples since 1500 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year2023 \|isbn978-0-674-98762-3 \|edition1st \|pages284 \|languageen}}</ref> Archduke Charles is credited with handing Napoleon his first major defeat.<ref>{{cite book \|lastRothenberg \|firstGunther E. \|author-linkGunther E. Rothenberg \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/napoleonsgreatad0000roth \|titleNapoleon's Great Adversaries: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1914 \|publisherSpellmount, Stroud \|year2007 \|locationGloucester \|pages9 \|isbn978-1-885119-21-6 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Wilson \|first1Peter H. \|author-linkPeter H. Wilson \|titleIron and Blood: A Military History of the German-Speaking Peoples since 1500 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year2023 \|isbn978-0-674-98762-3 \|edition1st \|pages274 \|languageen}}</ref> He has been described as the best general Republican France ever fought, with the exception of Alexander Suvorov.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastClodfelter \|firstMicheal \|titleWarfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 \|publisherMcFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers \|year2017 \|isbn978-0-7864-7470-7 \|edition4th \|locationJefferson, North Carolina \|pages108 \|language=en}}</ref> According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, his campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavorable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless, they cannot but be considered antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that "this principle is never to be departed from."{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=935}} Again and again he repeated the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says, not the defeat of the enemy's army, decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main concern, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defense against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to "cover a retreat."{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp=935-936}} in Vienna]] The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgrätz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies, and in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible Battle of Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p=936}} He was the 831st Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria. Creation of the Austrian staff by Johann Peter Krafft, 1820]] When Karl Mack von Leiberich became chief of staff of the army under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in the Netherlands, he issued the Instruktionspunkte fur die gesamte Herren Generals, the last of 19 points setting out the roles of staff officers, dealing with offensive and defensive operations, while helping the Commander-in-chief. In 1796, Archduke Charles augmented these with his own Observationspunkte'', writing of the Chief of Staff: "he is duty bound to consider all possibilities related to operations and not view himself as merely carrying out those instructions".<ref>Osterreichische Militärische Zeitschrift (Streffleur, Vienna) 1860 III, 229-233</ref> On 20 March 1801, Feldmarschalleutnant Duka became the world's first peacetime Generalquartiermeister at the head of the staff and the wartime role of the Chief of Staff was now focused on planning and operations to assist the Commander. Archduke Charles produced a new Dienstvorschrift on 1 September 1805,<ref>Regele, O.: Generalstabschefs aus vier Jahrhunderten (Vienna) 1966, p.55</ref> which divided the staff into three: 1) Political Correspondence; 2) the Operations Directorate, dealing with planning and intelligence; 3) the Service Directorate, dealing with administration, supply and military justice. The Archduke set out the position of a modern Chief of Staff: "The Chief of Staff stands at the side of the Commander-in-Chief and is completely at his disposal. His sphere of work connects him with no specific unit". "The Commander-in-Chief decides what should happen and how; his chief assistant works out these decisions, so that each subordinate understands his allotted task". With the creation of the Korps in 1809, each had a staff, whose chief was responsible for directing operations and executing the overall headquarters plan. Issue {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="250" \| Name ! width="125" \| Birth ! width="125" \| Death ! class="unsortable" \| Notes \|- \| Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria \|\| 31 July 1816 \|\| 8 August 1867\|\| Married Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, had issue. \|- \| Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen \|\| 3 August 1817 \|\| 2 February 1895 \|\| Married Princess Hildegard of Bavaria, had issue. \|- \| Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria \|\| 29 July 1818 \|\| 20 November 1874 \|\| Married Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria, had issue. \|- \| Archduke Friedrich of Austria \|\| 14 May 1821 \|\| 5 October 1847 \|\| Died unmarried. \|- \| Archduke Rudolph of Austria \|\| 25 September 1822 \|\| 11 October 1822 \|\| Died in childhood. \|- \|Archduchess Maria Karoline of Austria \|\| 10 September 1825 \|\| 17 July 1915 \|\| Married her first cousin Archduke Rainer of Austria, third son of Archduke Rainer of Austria and Princess Elisabeth of Savoy-Carignano. \|- \| Archduke Wilhelm Franz of Austria \|\| 21 April 1827 \|\| 29 July 1894 \|\| Died unmarried. \|} Honours {{columns-list\|colwidth=25em\| * {{flag\|Austrian Empire}}:<ref name"Handbuch1847">{{citation\|chapter-urlhttp://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1847&page3&size45\|chapterGenealogie des Allerhöchsten Herrscherhauses\|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch des Österreichischen Kaiserthumes\|date1847\|access-date28 July 2020\|pages[http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1847&page9&size=45 VII]}}</ref> Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1790<ref name"Handbuch1847i">{{citation\|chapter-urlhttp://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1847&size45&page141\|chapterRitter-Orden\|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch des Österreichischen Kaiserthumes\|date1847\|access-date28 July 2020\|pages7, [http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1847&page144&size=45 10]}}</ref> Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, in Diamonds, 1793<ref name="Handbuch1847i"/> * {{flag\|Kingdom of Bavaria}}: Knight of St. Hubert, 1844<ref name"Bayern1847">{{cite book\|authorBayern\|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1847\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVzBRAAAAcAAJ&pgPP5\|year1847\|publisherLandesamt\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idVzBRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA9 9]}}</ref> * {{flag\|Empire of Brazil}}: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> * {{flagicon image\|Pavillon royal de France.svg}} Kingdom of France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> * {{flagicon image\|Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg}} Kingdom of Prussia:<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> Knight of the Black Eagle, 4 October 1835<ref>Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm III. ernannte Ritter" [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10362193?page=27 p. 17]</ref> Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class * {{flag\|Russian Empire}}:<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> Knight of St. Andrew Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky Knight of the White Eagle Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class * {{flagicon\|Tuscany\|habsburg}} Grand Duchy of Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> * {{flag\|Two Sicilies}}:<ref name="Handbuch1847"/> Knight of St. Januarius Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit * {{flagcountry\|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 23 May 1834<ref>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n277/mode/2up p. 187]</ref> }} Ancestry {{ahnentafel \|collapsedyes \|aligncenter \|ref<ref>{{cite book\|titleGenealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans\| trans-titleGenealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAINPAAAAcAAJ&pgPA109\|year1768\|publisherFrederic Guillaume Birnstiel\|locationBourdeaux\|languagefr\|page=109}}</ref> \|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; \|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; \|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; \|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; \|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; \|1= 1. Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen \|2= 2. Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor \|3= 3. Maria Louisa of Spain \|4= 4. Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor \|5= 5. Maria Theresa of Austria \|6= 6. Charles III of Spain \|7= 7. Maria Amalia of Saxony \|8= 8. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine \|9= 9. Élisabeth Charlotte of Orléans \|10= 10. Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor \|11= 11. Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick \|12= 12. Philip V of Spain \|13= 13. Elisabeth Farnese \|14= 14. Augustus III of Poland \|15= 15. Maria Josepha of Austria }} Works * Grundsätze der Kriegskunst für die Generale (1806) * Grundsätze der Strategie erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs 1796 (1814) * Geschichte des Feldzugs von 1799 in Deutschland und in der Schweiz (1819) References {{reflist\|30em}} * {{EB1911\|wstitleCharles (Archduke of Austria)\|display<nowiki>Charles [Karl Ludwig]</nowiki>\|volume5\|pages935–936}} Further reading * Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. {{ISBN\|978-0-7006-3025-7}} * Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. {{ISBN\|978-0-7006-3034-9}} * Criste, Oscar "Erzherzog Carl" (3 vols) (Vienna 1912) * Eysturlid, Lee "The Formative Influences, Theories, and Campaigns of the Archduke Carl of Austria" (2000) * Hertenberger, H & Wiltschek, F "Erzherzog Karl: der Sieger von Aspern" (1983) * Rothenberg, Gunther E. ''Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792-1814''. Staplehurst: Spellmount, 1995. {{ISBN\|1-873376-40-5}} External links {{Commons category\|Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen}} * {{Cite AmCyc\|wstitleCharles (Archduke)\|displayCharles, archduke of Austria \|short=x}} {{Clear}}<!-- spacer --> {{s-start}} {{s-hou\|House of Habsburg-Lorraine\|5 September\|1771\|30 April\|1847\|House of Lorraine}} {{S-reg}} {{S-bef\|before=Albert Casimir}} {{S-ttl\|titleDuke of Teschen\|years1822–1847}} {{S-aft\|after=Albert}} {{s-gov}} {{s-bef \|beforeMaria Christina of Austria\|before2Albert Casimir of Saxony }} {{s-ttl \|titleGovernor of the Austrian Netherlands \|years1793–1794 }} {{s-non\|reason=Office abolished }} {{s-hon}} {{S-bef\|before=Archduke Maximilian Franz of Austria}} {{S-ttl\|titleGrand Master of the Teutonic Order\|years1801–1804}} {{S-aft\|after=Archduke Anton Victor of Austria}} {{S-end}} {{Napoleonic Wars}} {{French Revolution navbox}} {{Austrian archdukes}} {{Tuscan princes}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Charles, Duke of Teschen, Archduke}} Category:Field marshals of Austria Category:Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands Category:House of Habsburg-Lorraine Category:Nobility from Florence Category:Dukes of Teschen Category:1771 births Category:1847 deaths Category:Austrian Empire commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Category:Austrian military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Austrian generals Category:Austrian princes Category:Burials at the Imperial Crypt Category:Children of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Expatriates from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in France Category:Generals of the Holy Roman Empire Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria Category:Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Military personnel from Florence Category:Military writers Category:Royalty and nobility with epilepsy Category:Austrian royalty and nobility with disabilities Category:Sons of emperors Category:Writers from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany Category:Sons of kings Category:Sons of counts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen	2025-04-05T18:26:11.522006
2877	Augustine of Canterbury	{{Short description\|6th-century missionary, archbishop, and saint}} {{bots\|deny=InternetArchiveBot}} {{Distinguish\|Augustine of Hippo}} {{Featured article}} {{Use British English\|date=June 2013}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2024}} {{Infobox Christian leader \| honorific-prefix = Saint \| name = Augustine \| title = Archbishop of Canterbury \| image = Leningrad bede.jpg \| alt = Illuminated manuscript with a forward-facing man in the middle of the large H. Man is carrying a crozier and his head is surrounded by a halo. \| caption = Portrait labelled "AUGUSTINUS" from the mid-8th century Saint Petersburg Bede, though perhaps intended as Gregory the Great.{{efn\|The name is in the halo, in a later hand. The figure is identified as a saint, rather than Christ, by his clerical tonsure.<ref>Schapiro "Decoration of the Leningrad Manuscript of Bede" Selected Papers: Volume 3 pp. 199, 212–214</ref> The view that it represents Gregory is set out by Douglas Michaels in a recent article.<ref>Dales "Apostle of the English" ''L'eredità spirituale di Gregorio Magno tra Occidente e Oriente p. 299</ref>}} \| diocese = Canterbury \| see = Canterbury \| appointed = Before 601 \| ended = Probably 26 May 604 \| predecessor = None'' \| successor = Laurence of Canterbury \| other_post = Prior of Abbey of St Andrew's \| consecration {{circa\|597\|lkyes}} \| birth_date = early 6th century, probably in Italy \| death_date = probably 26 May 604 \| death_place = Canterbury, Kingdom of Kent \| buried = St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury \| feast_day {{plainlist \|26 May <small>(Anglican,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleThe Calendar\|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar\|access-date27 March 2021\|websiteThe Church of England\|languageen}}</ref> Eastern Orthodox, and Catholic Extraordinary Form calendar in Great Britain)</small> <br /> 27 May <small>(Catholic Ordinary Form calendar)</small> <br /> 28 May <small>(Catholic Extraordinary Form calendar outside Great Britain)</small> }} \| venerated = {{plainlist\| Anglicanism <br />Catholic Church <br />Eastern Orthodox Church}} \| canonized_date = Pre-congregation \| shrine = {{plainlist\| St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury <small>(destroyed)</small> <br />St Augustine's, Ramsgate }} }} Augustine of Canterbury (early 6th century&nbsp;– most likely 26 May 604) was a Christian monk who became the first archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English". Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was likely chosen because Æthelberht commanded major influence over neighbouring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in addition to his marriage to Bertha, a Frankish princess, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint. Background to the mission After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius.<ref nameHindley3/><ref nameMayr78/> Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters.<ref nameFrend80>Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North pp. 80–81</ref> Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360.<ref nameFrend82>Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North pp. 82–86</ref> After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland<ref nameHindley3>Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 3–9</ref><ref nameMayr78/> and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics. Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore.<ref nameMayr78>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 78–93</ref><ref nameYorke115>Yorke Conversion of Britain pp. 115–118 discusses the issue of the "Celtic Church" and what exactly it was.</ref> Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning "church".<ref nameYorke121>Yorke Conversion of Britain p. 121</ref> There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons.<ref nameASE102>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 102</ref><ref nameHarting32>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 32–33</ref> The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures.<ref nameKirby23>Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 23</ref> It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595.<ref nameASE104>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 104–105</ref><ref nameJones>Jones "Gregorian Mission" Speculum</ref> The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588,<ref nameASE105>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 105–106</ref> and perhaps earlier than 560.<ref nameKirby24>Kirby Earliest English Kings pp. 24–25</ref> Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage, she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent.<ref nameDNBBertha>Nelson "Bertha" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</ref> Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman times<ref nameHindley33>Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 33–36</ref>{{snd}}possibly the current St Martin's Church. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife's influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries.<ref nameDNBBertha/> The historian Ian N. Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen.<ref nameWood10>Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum pp. 9–10</ref> Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people.{{efn\|Supposedly Gregory inquired about who the slaves were. He was told they were Angles from the island of Great Britain. Gregory replied that they were not Angles, but Angels.<ref>Bede History of the English Church and People pp. 99–100</ref>}}<ref nameHarting57>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 57–59</ref> More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved.<ref nameHindley33/> The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards who, as pagans and Arian Christians, were not on good relations with the Catholic church in Rome.<ref name=DNB>Mayr-Harting "Augustine" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</ref> Aside from Æthelberht's granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the bretwalda, or leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht's kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area.<ref nameBrooks7>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 6–7</ref> There is some evidence, including Gregory's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Bertha's Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well.<ref nameKirby27>Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 27</ref> In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent.<ref nameASE104/> The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters, of which some copies survive in Rome. He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia, as well as their grandmother Brunhild, seeking aid for the mission. Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine. Besides hospitality, the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission.<ref nameBrooks4>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 4–5</ref> By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife's relatives and people.<ref nameBrooks6>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 6</ref> Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings.<ref nameWood9>Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 9</ref> Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine's knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior.<ref nameFletcher116>Fletcher Barbarian Conversion pp. 116–117</ref> Arrival and first efforts Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks.<ref nameASE105/> Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return. Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere.<ref nameBlair116>Blair Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England pp. 116–117</ref> In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent.<ref nameASE105/> They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival:<ref nameDNB/><ref name"Fletcher116" /> Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin's for services.<ref nameBrooks8/> Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht's conversion,<ref nameWoods11>Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 11</ref> but it probably took place in 597.<ref nameBrooks8/>{{efn\|However, Bede's chronology may be a bit off, as he gives the king's death as occurring in February 616, and says the king died 21 years after his conversion, which would date the conversion to 595. This would be before Augustine's mission, and directly contradicts Bede's statement that the king's conversion was due to Augustine's mission.<ref name"Kirby24" /> However, as Gregory in his letter of 601 to the king and queen strongly implies that the queen was unable to effect the conversion of her husband, the problem of the dating is likely a chronological error on Bede's part.<ref nameKirby28/>}} In the early medieval period, large-scale conversions required the ruler's conversion first, and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent.<ref nameBrooks8/> Also, by 601, Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha, calling the king his son and referring to his baptism.{{efn\|The letter, as translated in Brooks' Early History of the Church of Canterbury, p. 8, says "preserve the grace he had received". Grace in this context meant the grace of baptism.}} A late medieval tradition, recorded by the 15th-century chronicler Thomas Elmham, gives the date of the king's conversion as Whit Sunday, or 2 June 597; there is no reason to doubt this date, although there is no other evidence for it.<ref nameBrooks8>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 8–9</ref> Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted.<ref nameKirby28>Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 28</ref> His baptism likely took place at Canterbury.<ref name=Convert56>Higham Convert Kings p. 56</ref> Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury.<ref nameDNB/> It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop. Bede, writing about a century later, states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles, Gaul (France) after the conversion of Æthelberht. Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory, however, refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England. A letter of Gregory's from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop, and one dated ten months later says Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory's command by bishops of the German lands.<ref nameBrooks5>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 5</ref> The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place.<ref name=Markus24>Markus "Chronology of the Gregorian Mission" Journal of Ecclesiastical History pp. 24–29</ref> Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine's Abbey,<ref nameDNB/> on land donated by the king.<ref nameBlair61>Blair Church in Anglo-Saxon Society pp. 61–62</ref> In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place.<ref nameASE105/><ref nameFletcher116/> However, there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived, remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire.<ref name"Harting32" /> Little literary traces remain of them, however.<ref nameFrend79>Frend "Roman Britain" Cross Goes North p. 79</ref> One other effect of the king's conversion by Augustine's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased.<ref name=Kirby29>Kirby Earliest English Kings p. 29</ref> After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success, along with questions about the mission.<ref nameASE106>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 106</ref> Bede records the letter and Gregory's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum.<ref nameLaurentius>Lapidge "Laurentius" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England</ref><ref nameBede71/> Augustine asked for Gregory's advice on a number of issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and the consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass.<ref nameBede71>Bede History of the English Church and People pp. 71–83</ref> Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books.{{efn\|What happened to these items in later years is unknown. Thomas Elmham, a 15th-century chronicler at Canterbury, gave a number of theories of how most of these objects were lost, including being hidden and never recovered during the Danish attacks in the 9th and 10th centuries, hidden and lost after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, or used for the ransom of King Richard I of England in the 1190s.<ref nameDodwell10>Dodwell Anglo-Saxon Art p. 10</ref> The surviving St Augustine Gospels, (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge manuscript (MS) 286) which is a 6th-century Italian-illuminated Gospel Book, may be one of the works sent to Augustine. Traditionally, it has been associated with the Gregorian mission.<ref nameDodwell96>Dodwell Anglo-Saxon Art pp. 96 and 276 footnote 66</ref> Another possible survival is a Gospel, in an Italian hand, and closely related to the Augustine Gospels, now MS Oxford Bodelian Auctarium D.2.14, which shows evidence of being held in Anglo-Saxon hands during the right time frame. Lastly, a fragment of a work by Gregory the Great, now held by the British Library as part of MS Cotton Titus C may have arrived with the missionaries.<ref nameLibrary24>Lapidge Anglo-Saxon Library pp. 24–25</ref>}} The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. This move never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason,<ref nameBrooks9>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 9–11</ref> but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht's domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht's nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604.<ref nameHindley33/><ref nameFletcher453>Fletcher Barbarian Conversion p. 453</ref> The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede's version of events, however.<ref nameBrooks11>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 11–14</ref> Additional work imagined in a statue at Canterbury Cathedral\|altStone statue of a crowned man holding a sceptre.]] In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester.<ref nameHindley33/><ref nameBEASE267>Hayward "St Justus" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 267–268</ref><ref nameBEASE305>Lapidge "St Mellitus" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 305–306</ref> Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, "recovered" a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury.<ref nameBrooks50/>{{efn\|The actual Latin is from Chapter 33, Book 1 of Bede, and an online version is [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede1.shtml#33 here]. The sentence in question is "AT Augustinus, ubi in regia ciuitate sedem episcopalem, ut praediximus, accepit, recuperauit in ea, regio fultus adminiculo, ecclesiam, quam inibi antiquo Romanorum fidelium opere factam fuisse didicerat, et eam in nomine sancti Saluatoris Dei et Domini nostri Iesu Christi sacrauit, atque ibidem sibi habitationem statuit et cunctis successoribus suis."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede1.shtml#33\|title Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum: Liber Primus \|access-date1 April 2008\|work The Latin Library \|publisherAd Fontes Academy \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080317064020/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede1.shtml\| archive-date17 March 2008 \| url-status live}}</ref> The Latin word recuperauit could be translated either "repaired" or "recovered". Leo Sherley-Price translates the sentence as "Having been granted his episcopal see in the royal capital, as already recorded, Augustine proceeded with the king's help to repair a church he was informed had been built long ago by Roman Christians."<ref>Bede History of the English Church and People p. 91</ref>}} It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral.<ref nameBrooks50>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury p. 50</ref> The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity.<ref nameWood170>Wood "Augustine and Aidan" ''L'Église et la Mission p. 170</ref> Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him,<ref nameHarting70>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 70–72</ref> apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case.<ref nameConversion118>Yorke Conversion of Britain'' p. 118</ref> According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine's part.<ref nameASE110>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 110–111</ref> In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn. These guests retired early to confer with their people,<ref nameHindley8/> who, according to Bede, advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting. When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops,<ref nameBede100>Bede History of the English Church and People pp. 100–103</ref> they refused to recognise him as their archbishop.<ref nameHindley8>Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons pp. 8–9</ref><ref nameHarting72/> There were, however, deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement. At issue were the tonsure, the observance of Easter, and practical and deep-rooted differences in approach to asceticism, missionary endeavours, and how the church itself was organised.<ref nameASE110/> Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church, damaging his relations with their bishops.<ref nameHarting72>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 72–73</ref> Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons.<ref nameConversion119>Yorke Conversion of Britain p. 119</ref> Further success Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use,<ref nameThomson8>Thomson Western Church p. 8</ref> and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr's life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus.<ref nameBlair24>Blair Church in Anglo-Saxon Society p. 24</ref> Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries' conduct.<ref name=ASE107>Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 107–108</ref> The King's School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world's oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kings-school.co.uk/document_1.aspx?id1:31887&id1:31658&id1:31637 \|title597 and all that: A Brief History of the King's School, Canterbury \|access-date31 March 2008 \|publisherThe King's School, Canterbury \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110928010901/http://www.kings-school.co.uk/document_1.aspx?id1%3A31887&id1%3A31658&id1%3A31637 \|archive-date28 September 2011 }}</ref> Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission.<ref nameBrooks94>Brooks Early History of the Church of Canterbury pp. 94–95</ref> Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome.<ref nameHarting173>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 173–174</ref> Death and legacy Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office.<ref nameHindley43>Hindley Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons p. 43</ref> Although at the time of Augustine's death, 26 May 604,<ref nameDNB/> the mission barely extended beyond Kent, his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles. Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales, no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders. Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders, and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in most of the British Isles.<ref nameASE110/><ref nameCollins185>Collins Early Medieval Europe p. 185</ref> Much of his success came about because of Augustine's close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself.<ref nameHarting249>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity p. 249</ref> Augustine's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church.<ref nameHarting264>Mayr-Harting Coming of Christianity pp. 265–266</ref><ref nameWood8>Wood "Mission of Augustine of Canterbury" Speculum p. 8</ref> Augustine's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine's, Canterbury,<ref name"Blair61" /> but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church, which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration. After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted.<ref nameDNB/> After the Conquest, his shrine in St Augustine's Abbey held a central position in one of the axial chapels, flanked by the shrines of his successors Laurence and Mellitus.<ref nameNilson67>Nilson Cathedral Shrines p. 67</ref> King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine's Abbey a six-day fair around the date on which Augustine's relics were translated to his new shrine, from 8 September through 13 September.<ref nameShrines>Nilson Cathedral Shrines p. 93</ref> A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life portrays Augustine in a different light, compared to Bede's account. Goscelin's account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches.<ref nameGameson17>Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons pp. 17–20</ref> Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine's life, often quite fanciful.<ref nameGameson19>Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 19</ref> These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey,<ref nameGameson20>Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 20</ref> the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine,<ref nameGameson24>Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons p. 24</ref> and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances.<ref nameGameson22>Gameson and Gameson "From Augustine to Parker" Anglo-Saxons pp. 22–31</ref> Another problem with investigating Augustine's saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo, a fourth-century saint. Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often, however.<ref nameBlair513>Blair "Handlist of Anglo-Saxon Saints" Local Saints and Local Churches p. 513</ref> During the English Reformation, Augustine's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost. Augustine's shrine was re-established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, Kent, very close to the mission's landing site.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.catholic-ew.org.uk/Home/News-Releases/Pugin-s-Church-becomes-Official-Shrine-of-St-Augustine<!--http://www.rcsouthwark.co.uk/ramsgate_shrine_press_release.pdf--> \|titlePugin's Church becomes Official Shrine of St Augustine\|date14 March 2012 \|access-date12 April 2012 \|publisherCatholic Church in England and Wales \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923200901/http://www.catholic-ew.org.uk/Home/News/2012/January-March/Pugin-s-Church-becomes-Official-Shrine-of-St-Augustine\|archive-date23 September 2015}}</ref> St Augustine's Cross, a Celtic cross erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where the newly arrived Augustine is said to have first met and preached to the awaiting King Ethelbert.<ref nameCross>{{cite web\|authorEnglish Heritage \|publisherNational Monuments Records \|urlhttp://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id469595&sort4&searchall&criteriast%20augustines%20cross&rationalq&recordsperpage10 \|year2007 \|access-date15 January 2011 \|titleSt Augustine's Cross \|workPastscape \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120325002312/http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id469595&sort4&searchall&criteriast%20augustines%20cross&rationalq&recordsperpage10 \|archive-date25 March 2012 }}</ref> See also * List of members of the Gregorian mission Notes {{Notelist\|60em}} Citations {{Reflist\|40em}} References {{Refbegin\|colwidth=60em}} * {{cite book \|authorBede \|titleA History of the English Church and People \|author-linkBede \|translatorLeo Sherley-Price \|locationNew York \|publisherPenguin Classics \|year1988 \|isbn978-0-14-044042-3 }} * {{cite book \|authorBlair, John P. \|titleThe Church in Anglo-Saxon Society \|author-linkJohn Blair (historian) \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford, UK \|year2005 \|isbn=978-0-19-921117-3 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorBlair, John \|titleA Handlist of Anglo-Saxon Saints \|encyclopediaLocal Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West \|author-linkJohn Blair (historian) \|editor1Thacker, Alan \|editor2Sharpe, Richard \|editor2-linkRichard Sharpe (historian) \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford, UK \|year2002 \|pages495–565 \|isbn978-0-19-820394-0 }} * {{cite book \|authorBlair, Peter Hunter \|author2Blair, Peter D. \|titleAn Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England \|author-linkPeter Hunter Blair \|editionThird \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationCambridge, UK \|year2003 \|isbn=978-0-521-53777-3 }} * {{cite book \|authorBrooks, Nicholas \|titleThe Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 \|author-linkNicholas Brooks (historian) \|publisherLeicester University Press \|locationLondon \|year1984 \|isbn=978-0-7185-0041-2 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorColgrave, Bertram \|titleIntroduction \|encyclopediaThe Earliest Life of Gregory the Great \|author-linkBertram Colgrave \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationCambridge, UK \|editionPaperback reissue \|orig-year1968 \|year2007 \|isbn978-0-521-31384-1 }} * {{cite book \|authorCollins, Roger \|titleEarly Medieval Europe: 300–1000 \|author-linkRoger Collins \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|locationNew York \|year1999 \|isbn978-0-312-21886-7 \|editionSecond }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorDales, Douglas \|title"Apostles of the English": Anglo-Saxon Perceptions \|encyclopediaL'eredità spirituale di Gregorio Magno tra Occidente e Oriente \|publisherIl Segno Gabrielli Editori \|locationVerona \|year2005 \|isbn=978-88-88163-54-3 }} * {{cite book \|authorDelaney, John P. \|titleDictionary of Saints \|editionSecond \|publisherDoubleday \|locationGarden City, NY \|year1980 \|isbn=978-0-385-13594-8 }} * {{cite book \|authorDodwell, C. R. \|titleAnglo-Saxon Art: A New Perspective \|author-linkCharles Reginald Dodwell \|publisherCornell University Press \|locationIthaca, NY \|year1985 \|editionCornell University Press 1985 \|isbn978-0-8014-9300-3 }} * {{cite book \|authorFletcher, R. A. \|titleThe Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity \|author-linkRichard A. Fletcher \|publisherH. Holt and Co \|locationNew York \|year1998 \|isbn=978-0-8050-2763-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorFrend, William H. C. \|titleRoman Britain, a Failed Promise \|author-linkWilliam Hugh Clifford Frend \|encyclopediaThe Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe AD 300–1300 \|publisherBoydell Press \|locationWoodbridge, UK \|editorCarver, Martin \|editor-linkMartin Carver \|year2003 \|isbn978-1-84383-125-9 \|pages=79–92 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorGameson, Richard and Fiona \|titleFrom Augustine to Parker: The Changing Face of the First Archbishop of Canterbury \|editor1Smyth, Alfred P. \|editor2Keynes, Simon \|editor2-linkSimon Keynes \|encyclopediaAnglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Cyril Roy Hart \|publisherFour Courts Press \|locationDublin \|year2006 \|pages13–38 \|isbn=978-1-85182-932-3 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorHayward, Paul Anthony \|titleSt Justus \|encyclopediaBlackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England \|pages 267–268 \|editor1Lapidge, Michael \|editor1-linkMichael Lapidge \|editor2Blair, John \|editor2-linkJohn Blair (historian) \|editor3Keynes, Simon \|editor-link3Simon Keynes \|editor4Scragg, Donald \|year2001 \|publisherBlackwell Publishing \|locationMalden, MA \|isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite book \|authorHigham, N. J. \|titleThe Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England \|author-linkNicholas Higham \|publisherManchester University Press \|locationManchester, UK \|year1997 \|isbn=978-0-7190-4827-2 }} * {{cite book \|authorHindley, Geoffrey \|titleA Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation \|year2006 \|publisherCarroll & Graf Publishers \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite book \|authorKirby, D. P. \|titleThe Earliest English Kings \|publisherRoutledge \|locationNew York \|year2000 \|isbn978-0-415-24211-0 }} * {{cite journal \|authorJones, Putnam Fennell \|titleThe Gregorian Mission and English Education \|journalSpeculum \|volume3 \|pages335–348 \|dateJuly 1928 \|doi10.2307/2847433 \|issue3 \|jstor2847433 \|s2cid162352366 }} * {{cite book \|authorLapidge, Michael \|titleThe Anglo-Saxon Library \|author-linkMichael Lapidge \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford, UK \|year2006 \|isbn=978-0-19-926722-4 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorLapidge, Michael \|titleLaurentius \|author-linkMichael Lapidge \|encyclopediaThe Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England \|page279 \|editor1Lapidge, Michael \|editor1-linkMichael Lapidge \|editor2Blair, John \|editor2-linkJohn Blair (historian) \|editor3Keynes, Simon \|editor-link3Simon Keynes \|editor4Scragg, Donald \|year2001 \|publisherBlackwell Publishing \|locationMalden, MA \|isbn978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorLapidge, Michael \|title Mellitus \|author-linkMichael Lapidge \|encyclopediaThe Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England \|pages305–306 \|editor1Lapidge, Michael \|editor1-linkMichael Lapidge \|editor2Blair, John \|editor2-linkJohn Blair (historian) \|editor3Keynes, Simon \|editor-link3Simon Keynes \|editor4Scragg, Donald \|year2001 \|publisherBlackwell Publishing \|locationMalden, MA \|isbn978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite book \|authorLawrence, C. H. \|titleMedieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages \|publisherLongman \|locationNew York \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-582-40427-4 }} * {{cite journal \|authorMarkus, R. A. \|titleThe Chronology of the Gregorian Mission to England: Bede's Narrative and Gregory's Correspondence \|journalJournal of Ecclesiastical History \|volume14 \|issue1 \|pages16–30 \|dateApril 1963 \|doi10.1017/S0022046900064356 \|s2cid=162545648 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorMayr-Harting, Henry \|titleAugustine (St Augustine) (d. 604) \|encyclopediaOxford Dictionary of National Biography \|author-linkHenry Mayr-Harting \|urlhttp://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/899 \|access-date30 March 2008 \|year2004 \|publisher Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/899 }} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite book \|authorMayr-Harting, Henry \|titleThe Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England \|author-linkHenry Mayr-Harting \|publisherPennsylvania State University Press \|locationUniversity Park, PA \|year1991 \|isbn=978-0-271-00769-4 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorNelson, Janet L. \|titleBertha (b. c.565, d. in or after 601) \|encyclopediaOxford Dictionary of National Biography \|author-linkJanet Nelson \|urlhttp://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2269 \|access-date30 March 2008 \|year2006 \|publisherOxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/2269 }} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite book \|authorNilson, Ben \|titleCathedral Shrines of Medieval England \|publisherBoydell Press \|year1998 \|locationWoodbridge, UK \|isbn978-0-85115-540-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorSchapiro, Meyer \|titleThe Decoration of the Leningrad Manuscript of Bede \|encyclopediaSelected Papers: Volume 3: Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art \|author-linkMeyer Schapiro \|pages199, 212–214 \|year1980 \|publisherChatto & Windus \|locationLondon \|isbn=978-0-7011-2514-1 }} * {{cite journal \|authorSmith, Adam \|titleSt Augustine of Canterbury in History and Tradition \|year1978 \|journalFolklore \|volume89 \|issue1 \|pages23–28 \|jstor1260091 \|doi10.1080/0015587X.1978.9716085 \|s2cid161812684 }} * {{cite book \|authorStenton, F. M. \|titleAnglo-Saxon England \|author-linkFrank Stenton \|year1971 \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford, UK \|editionThird \|isbn978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite book \|authorThomson, John A. F. \|titleThe Western Church in the Middle Ages \|publisherArnold \|locationLondon \|year1998 \|isbn978-0-340-60118-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorWood, Ian \|titleAugustine and Aidan: Bureaucrat and Charismatic? \|encyclopediaL'Église et la Mission au VIe Siècle: La Mission d'Augustin de Cantorbéry et les Églises de Gaule sous L'Impulsion de Grégoire le Grand Actes du Colloque d'Arles de 1998 \|author-linkIan N. Wood \|editorDreuille, Christophe de \|publisherLes Éditions du Cerf \|locationParis \|year2000 \|isbn=978-2-204-06412-5 }} * {{cite journal \|authorWood, Ian \|titleThe Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English \|journalSpeculum \|author-linkIan N. Wood \|volume69 \|issue1 \|pages1–17 \|dateJanuary 1994 \|doi10.2307/2864782 \|jstor2864782 \|s2cid=161652367 }} * {{cite book \|authorYorke, Barbara \|titleThe Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 \|author-linkBarbara Yorke \|publisherPearson/Longman \|locationLondon \|year2006 \|isbn=978-0-582-77292-2 }} {{Refend}} Further reading {{Refbegin }} * {{cite journal \|authorChaplais, P. \|titleWho Introduced Charters into England? The Case for Augustine \|journalJournal of the Society of Archivists \|volume3 \|date1965–1969 \|pages526–542 \|doi10.1080/00379816509513917 \|issue10 \|s2cid=110824989 }} * {{cite book \|authorDeanesly, Margaret \|titleAugustine of Canterbury \|date1964 \|author-linkMargaret Deanesly \|locationStanford, CA \|publisherStanford University Press \|oclc1244215331 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/augustineofcante0000dean_c5a8 \|url-access=registration }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|authorSharpe, R. \|titleThe Setting to St Augustine's Translation, 1091 \|encyclopediaCanterbury and the Norman Conquest \|author-linkRichard Sharpe (historian) \|editor1Eales, R. \|editor2Sharpe, R. \|editor2-linkRichard Sharpe (historian) \|year1995 \|pages1–13 \|publisherHambledon Press \|locationLondon \|isbn978-1-85285-068-5 }} {{Refend}} External links * {{PASE\|13620\|Augustine 1}} {{s-start}} {{s-rel\| Christian titles}} {{s-new}} {{s-ttl \| title Archbishop of Canterbury \| years 597–604 }} {{s-aft \| after = Laurence }} {{s-end}} {{Archbishops of Canterbury}} {{Gregorian mission}} {{Anglo-Saxon saints}} {{Catholic saints}} {{Subject bar\|portal1Biography\|portal2Saints\|portal3Middle Ages\|portal4Christianity \|portal5England\|commonsy \|commons-search= Saint Augustine of Canterbury}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Augustine Of Canterbury}} Category:6th-century births Category:604 deaths Category:6th-century archbishops Category:6th-century Byzantine bishops Category:6th-century Italo-Roman people Category:7th-century Christian saints Category:Abbots of St Augustine's Category:Archbishops of Canterbury Category:English people of Italian descent Category:Founders of English schools and colleges Category:Gregorian mission Category:History of Kent Category:Roman Catholic missionaries in England Category:Kentish saints Category:Medieval Italian saints Category:Year of birth missing Category:6th-century English clergy Category:7th-century English clergy Category:7th-century Christian clergy Category:7th-century English bishops Category:Anglican saints	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury	2025-04-05T18:26:11.584440
2881	Alexander of Hales	{{short description\|English Franciscan theologian and philosopher (c.1185-1245)}} {{distinguish\|Alex Hales\|Alexander Ales}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox philosopher \| region = Western philosophy \| era = Medieval philosophy \| name = Alexander of Hales \| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals\|post-nomsOFM}} \| image = Alexanderofhales.png \| caption = Doctor Alexander of (H)ales by George Glover. Line engraving, mid 17th century. \| birth_date = {{circa\|1185}} \| birth_place = Hales, Shropshire, England \| death_date = 21 August 1245 \| death_place = Paris, France (aged 59-60) \| alma_mater = University of Paris \| institutions \| school_tradition Scholasticism \| main_interests = Metaphysics, theology \| notable_works \| notable_ideas }} Alexander of Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius {{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|l\|iː\|s\|i\|ə\|s}}; {{circa\|1185}}{{spaced ndash}}21 August 1245)—known also as {{lang\|la\|Doctor Irrefragibilis}}, or "Irrefutable Teacher" (so-called by Pope Alexander IV in the bull {{lang\|la\|De Fontibus Paradisi}}), and as {{lang\|la\|Theologorum Monarcha}} (or "King of Theologians")—was a Franciscan friar, theologian, and philosopher instrumental to the development of scholasticism. Life Alexander was born at Hales, Shropshire (today Halesowen, West Midlands), England, between 1180 and 1186. He came from a rather wealthy country family, studied at the University of Paris, and became a master of arts sometime before 1210.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p=105}} He began to read theology in 1212 or 1213, and became a regent master in 1220 or 1221. He introduced the Sentences of Peter Lombard as the basic textbook for the study of theology. During the University strike of 1229, Alexander participated in an embassy to Rome to discuss the place of Aristotle in the curriculum. Having held a prebend at Holborn (prior to 1229) and a canonry of St. Paul's in London (1226–1229), he visited England in 1230 and received a canonry and an archdeaconry in Coventry and Lichfield, his native diocese. He taught at Paris in the academic year 1232–33, but was appointed to a delegation by Henry III of England in 1235, along with Simon Langton and Fulk Basset, to negotiate the renewal of the peace between England and France. In 1236 or 1237, aged about 50, Alexander entered the Franciscan Order after considering both the Cistercians and the Dominicans.<ref>Arnald of Sarrant, Chronicle of the Twenty-Four Generals of the Order of Friars Minor, [https://www.academia.edu/41595097 trans. Noel Muscat, OFM] (TAU Franciscan Communications, 2010).</ref> He thus became the first Franciscan friar to hold a university chair. His doctrinal positions became the starting point of the Franciscan school of theology. He continued to teach and to represent the university, and participated in the First Council of Lyon in the winter of 1245. After returning to Paris, Alexander fell ill, possibly due to an epidemic then sweeping the city. He passed his chair on to John of La Rochelle, setting the precedent for that chair to be held by a Franciscan,{{sfn\|Principe\|1967\|p=14}} and soon after died in Paris on 21 August 1245. As the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris, Alexander had many significant disciples. He was called Doctor Irrefragibilis (Irrefutable Teacher) and Doctor Doctorum (Teacher of Teachers).{{sfn\|Brown\|Flores\|2007\|p10}} The latter title is especially suggestive of his role in educating several Franciscans who later became influential thinkers in the faculty, among them Bonaventure, John of La Rochelle, Odo Rigaldus, William of Middleton, and Richard Rufus of Cornwall.{{sfn\|Brown\|Flores\|2007\|p10}} Bonaventure, who may not have studied under Alexander directly, nevertheless referred to him as his "father and master" and wished to "follow in his footsteps."{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p105}}Works {{Catholic philosophy}} Alexander is known for reflecting the works of several other Middle Age thinkers, especially those of Anselm of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo. He was also known to quote thinkers such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Richard of Saint-Victor. He differs from those in his genre as he is known to reflect his own interests and those of his generation. When using the works of his authorities, Alexander does not only review their reasoning but also gives conclusions, expands on them, and offers his agreements and disagreement with them. He also differed in that he appealed to pre-Lombardian figures, and by referencing Anselm of Canterbury and Bernard of Clairvaux, whose works were not cited as frequently by other 12th-century scholastics. Aristotle is also quite frequently quoted in Alexander's works. Alexander was fascinated by the Pseudo-Dionysian hierarchy of angels and in how their nature can be understood, given Aristotelian metaphysics.{{sfn\|Colish\|2006}} Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are the thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum (treasury of supererogatory merits) and the character indelibilis (sacramental character) of baptism, confirmation, and ordination. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by Augustine and was eventually defined a dogma by the Council of Trent. He also posed an important question about the cause of the Incarnation: would Christ have been incarnated if humanity had never sinned? The question eventually became the focal point for a philosophical issue (the theory of possible worlds) and a theological topic on the distinction between God's absolute power (potentia absoluta) and His ordained power (potentia ordinata). Summa Universae Theologiae Alexander wrote a summary and commentary of Peter Lombard's four books of the Sentences. It had exposed the trinitarian theology of the Greeks.{{sfn\|Backus\|1997\|p301}} This had been the most important writing that Alexander had claimed, and it had been the earliest in the genre. While it is common for scholars to state that Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is not quite accurate. Authorship is more contentious for this work; although he started this work, he died before it could be finished, and it most likely was more a product of people other than Alexander.{{sfn\|Beiting\|1999\|p5}} There were a number of "commentaries" on the Sentences, but Alexander's appears to have been the first magisterial commentary. Although it was Alexander's most significant writing, it had not been completed, therefore leaving historians with many questions on the reliability and quality of the writing. This was taken into consideration when the Summa had been examined by Victorin Doucet for different editions of them. The sources has seem to be the resulting problem of the Summa, "counted there were 4814 explicit quotations and 1372 implicit quotations from Augustine, more than one quarter of texts were cited in the body of the Summa.{{sfn\|Backus\|1997\|p303}}{{Incomprehensible inline\|dateMarch 2016}} Of Alexander's Summa, which was on one occasion proclaimed by an assembly of seventy doctors to be infallible, Roger Bacon declared that, though it was as heavy as the weight of a horse, it was full of errors and displayed ignorance of physics, of metaphysics, and even of logic.<ref>Francis Seymour Stevenson, Robert Grosseteste: Bishop of Lincoln (1899) citing Roger Bacon's Opus Minus ed. Brewer pp. 325-327 & Opus Tertium p. 30</ref> Other historical works Alexander also influenced and sometimes is confused with Alexander Carpenter, Latinized as Fabricius (fl. 1429), who was the author of the Destructorium viciorum, a religious work popular in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>Gerald Robert Owst: The Destructorium viciorum of Alexander Carpenter, Church Historical Society, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1952, 40 pp.</ref> Carpenter also authored other works, such as Homiliae eruditae ("Learned Sermons").<ref>{{cite DNB\|wstitleCarpenter, Alexander \|volume9\|page153}}</ref><ref>George Watson (ed.): The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, Volume 1, 600-1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, p. 803.</ref>Historiographical contributionAlexander was said to have been among the earliest scholastics to engage with Aristotle's newly translated writings.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p104}} Between 1220 and 1227, he wrote Glossa in quatuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (A Gloss on the Four Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard) (composed in the mid-12th century), which was particularly important because it was the first time that a book other than the Bible was used as a basic text for theological study.{{sfn\|Brown\|Flores\|2007\|p10}} This steered the development of scholasticism in a more systematic direction,{{sfn\|Brown\|Flores\|2007\|p10}} inaugurating an important tradition of writing commentaries on the Sentences as a fundamental step in the training of master theologians. A medieval scholastic In doing so, he elevated Lombard's work from a mere theological resource to the basic framework of questions and problems from which masters could teach. The commentary (or more correctly titled a Gloss) survived in student reports from Alexander's teaching in the classroom and so it provides a major insight into the way theologians taught their discipline in the 1220s. As is the case with Glossa and Quaestiones Disputatae, much of his work is probably written in the form of notes on his oral teachings by students, though the content is definitely his.{{sfn\|Principe\|1967\|p=20}} For his contemporaries, however, Alexander's fame was his inexhaustible interest in disputation. His disputations prior to his becoming a Franciscan cover over 1,600 pages in their modern edition. His disputed questions after 1236 remain unpublished. Alexander was also one of the first scholastics to participate in the Quodlibeta, a university event in which a master had to respond to any question posed by any student or master over a period of three days. Alexander's Quodlibetal Questions also remain unedited. Theologian At the beginning of 1236, he entered the Franciscan order (he was at least 50) and was the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p104}} He held this post until shortly before his death in Paris in 1245.{{sfn\|Principe\|1967\|p14}} When he became a Franciscan and thus created a formal Franciscan school of theology at Paris, it was soon clear that his students lacked some of the basic tools for the discipline. Alexander responded by beginning a Summa theologiae that is now known as the Summa fratris Alexandri. Alexander drew mainly from his own disputations, but also selected ideas, arguments and sources from his contemporaries. It treats in its first part the doctrines of God and his attributes; in its second, those of creation and sin; in its third, those of redemption and atonement; and, in its fourth and last, those of the sacraments. This massive text, which Roger Bacon would later sarcastically describe as weighing as much as a horse, was unfinished at his death; his students, William of Middleton and John of Rupella, were charged with its completion. It was certainly read by the Franciscans at Paris, including Bonaventure. Alexander was an innovative theologian. He was part of the generation that first grappled with the writings of Aristotle. While there was a ban on using Aristotle's works as teaching texts, theologians like Alexander continued to exploit his ideas in their theology. Two other uncommon sources were promoted by Alexander: Anselm of Canterbury, whose writings had been ignored for almost a century, gained an important advocate in Alexander and he used Anselm's works extensively in his teaching on Christology and soteriology; and, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whom Alexander used in his examination of the theology of Orders and ecclesiastical structures. Though he also continued the tradition of Aristotle- and Augustine-focused thought in the Franciscan school, he did so through an Anselm-directed lens.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p104}} In fact, Alexander was one of the major influences for the advancement of Anselmian thought in the 13th century.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2006\|p104}} One such example is the idea of original sin as a lack of justice. Alexander believed that original sin is both a punishment as well as a cause for punishment.{{sfn\|Beiting\|1999\|p13}} That is to say, the body is corrupt, but the soul is clean. Alexander advances the idea that it would not be God's fault to create a being that would bind the ‘corrupt’ with the ‘clean’.{{sfn\|Beiting\|1999\|p7}} He advanced a highly original response that the soul naturally desires the body.{{sfn\|Beiting\|1999\|p8}} Consequently, God is both merciful in giving the soul what it wants, as well as just in punishing the soul for binding with the corrupt flesh. Either the soul knew that the body was corrupt, or it did not (in which case it would be “laboring under ignorance”); both of these considerations are cause for divine punishment.{{sfn\|Beiting\|1999\|p8}} Alexander is also known for rejecting the idea that there are many things in God's mind, instead claiming that it is more perfect to know just one thing.{{sfn\|Wood\|1993\|p8}} He did not start off with this view, though. In the Glossa, he openly suggests the idea of the multiplicity of divine ideas.{{sfn\|Wood\|1993\|p8}} In his later work, Quaestio disputata antequam erat Frater 46, he finally rejects the plurality of divine ideas, and this theme continues through the rest of his works.{{sfn\|Wood\|1993\|p9}} Specifically, in one of his last works, De scientia divina, he concludes that the idea of plurality itself is strictly temporal, a human notion.{{sfn\|Wood\|1993\|p13}} One of his more famous works, the Summa, is important because of its system for determining if a war is just.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014\|p602}} There are six requirements for determining this: authority and attitude (in reference to who declares the war), intention and condition (in reference to the soldiers), merit (of the enemy) and just cause.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014\|p602}} Just cause becomes the overarching moral principle for declaring war in three ways: the relief of good people, coercion of the wicked, and peace for all.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014\|p603}} It is important to note that Alexander put ‘peace for all’ at the end of the list to amplify its importance.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014\|p603}} Writings ]] Alexander of Hales. Glossa in quatuor libros sententiarum Petri Lombardi. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 12–15. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1951–1957. Alexander of Hales. Quaestiones disputatae antequam esset frater. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 19–21. Quaracchi: Collegii S. Bonaventurae,1960. Alexander of Hales (attributed). Summa universis theologiae, (Summa fratris Alexandri), edited by Bernardini Klumper and the Quaracchi Fathers, 4 vols. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1924–1948. Notes {{Reflist\|20em}} Further reading {{refbegin\|40em}} {{cite book \|lastBackus \|firstIrena D. \|titleThe Reception of the Church Fathers in the West: From the Carolingians to the Maurists \|publisherBrill \|year1997 \|isbn978-90-04-09722-3 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvPC8m0_cz5wC \|pages=301–303}} * {{cite journal \|lastBeiting \|firstChristopher \|titleThe Idea of Limbo in Alexander of Hales and Bonaventure \|journalFranciscan Studies \|volume57 \|date1999 \|pages4–8 \|doi10.1353/frc.1999.0010 \|jstor41975253 \|s2cid170682454 }} * Boehner, Philotheus. The History of the Franciscan School, I. Alexander of Hales; II. John of Rupella&nbsp;– Saint Bonaventure; III. Duns Scotus; Pt. IV. William Ockham, St. Bonaventure, N.Y. : St. Bonaventure University, 1943–1946. * Brady, Ignatius. C. “Sacred Scripture in the early franciscan school', in La Sacra Scrittura e i francescani. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Rome, 1973, 65-82. * {{cite book \|last1Brown \|first1S. F. \|last2Flores \|first2J. C. \|titleHistorical Dictionary of Medieval Philosophy and Theology \|publisherScarecrow Press \|seriesHistorical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series \|year2007 \|isbn978-0-8108-6453-5 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZeQlAAAAQBAJ&pgPA10 }} * Coolman, Boyd Taylor. “Alexander of Hales,” in The Spiritual Senses: Perceiving God in Western Christianity, edited by Paul L. Gavrilyuk and Sarah Coakley. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011, 121–139. * {{anchor \|{{sfnref\|Cullen\|2006}}}}Cullen, Christopher M. “Alexander of Hales,” in Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, edited by Jorge J.E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, 104–109. * {{cite book \|lastColish \|firstM.L. \|titleStudies in Scholasticism \|publisherAshgate Variorum \|seriesCollected studies \|year2006 \|isbn978-0-86078-982-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9t9rdBheMO8C \|pages132–133}} * Fornaro, Italo. ''La teologia dell'immagine nella Glossa di Alessandro di Hales Vicenza, 1985. * Osborne, Kenan B. “Alexander of Hales,” in The History of Franciscan Theology edited by idem. St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994. * Peter Lombard. Sententiarum libri quattuor. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Spicilegium Bonaventurianum 4, 5. Grottaferrata: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1971–1981. English translation by Giulio Silano, The Sentences''. 4 vols. Toronto: PIMS, 2007–2010. * {{cite book \|lastPrincipe \|firstWalter H. \|titleAlexander of Hales' Theology of the Hypostatic Union \|volume2 \|seriesThe Theology of the Hypostatic Union in the Early Thirteenth Century \|locationToronto \|publisherPIMS \|date1967 }} * {{cite book \|lastRussell \|firstFrederick H. \|date2014 \|chapterJust war \|editor-lastPasnau \|editor-firstRobert \|editor2-lastvan Dyke \|editor2-firstChristina \|titleThe Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy \|publisherCambridge University Press \|publication-placeCambridge \|isbn978-1-107-44695-3 \|doi10.1017/cho9781107446953.052 \|pages602–603}} * {{cite journal \|lastWood \|firstRega \|titleDistinct Ideas and Perfect Solicitude: Alexander of Hales, Richard Rufus, and Odo Rigaldus \|journalFranciscan Studies \|volume53 \|date1993 \|pages8–13 \|doi10.1353/frc.1993.0000 \|jstor41975164 \|s2cid176669227 }} Young, Abigail A. “Accessus ad Alexandrum: the Prefatio to the Postilla in Iohannis Euangelium of Alexander of Hales (1186?-1245).” Mediaeval Studies 52 (1990), 1-23. {{refend}} External links {{wikisource author-inline}} * {{commons category-inline}} {{Medieval Philosophy}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alexander Of Hales}} Category:1180s births Category:1245 deaths Category:People from Halesowen Category:13th-century English Roman Catholic priests Category:Catholic philosophers Category:English Roman Catholic theologians Category:English Friars Minor Category:Scholastic philosophers Category:13th-century English philosophers Category:13th-century English Roman Catholic theologians Category:Writers from Shropshire Category:Scholasticism Category:Clergy from Shropshire Category:Systematic theologians Category:University of Paris alumni	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales	2025-04-05T18:26:11.619920
2883	Active Server Pages	{{short description\|Server-side java script engine}} {{ multiple issues\| {{primary sources\|date=February 2015}} {{more citations needed\|date=February 2015}} }} {{Infobox software \| name = Active Server Pages (ASP) \| logo \| developer Microsoft \| latest_release_version = 3.0 \| latest_release_date = {{Start date and age\|2000\|2\|17}} \| genre = Web application framework \| license = Proprietary software \| website = }} {{Infobox file format \| name = Active Server Pages \| logo \| extension .asp \| mime \| type code \| uniform type \| magic \| owner = Microsoft \| genre \| container for \| contained by \| extended from \| extended to \| standard \| free \| url }} Active Server Pages (ASP) is Microsoft's first server-side scripting language and engine for dynamic web pages. It was first released in December 1996, before being superseded in January 2002 by ASP.NET. History Initially released as an add-on to Internet Information Services (IIS) via the Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack (1996), it is included as a component of Windows Server (since the initial release of Windows 2000 Server). There have been three versions of ASP, each introduced with different versions of IIS: * ASP 1.0 was released in December 1996 as part of IIS 3.0 * ASP 2.0 was released in September 1997 as part of IIS 4.0 * ASP 3.0 was released in November 2000 as part of IIS 5.0 ASP 2.0 provides six built-in objects: Application, ASPError, Request, Response, Server, and Session. A <code>Session</code> object, for example, represents a session that maintains the state of variables from page to page.<ref>The session data is kept server-side, the ID is saved as a HTTP Cookie. Source: [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms972338.aspx ASP and Web Session Management], Microsoft</ref> The Active Scripting engine's support of the Component Object Model enables ASP websites to access functionality in compiled libraries such as dynamic-link libraries. ASP 3.0 does not differ greatly from ASP 2.0 but it does offer some additional enhancements such as Server.Transfer method, Server.Execute method, and an enhanced ASPError object. ASP 3.0 also enables buffering by default and optimized the engine for better performance. ASP was supported until 14 January 2020 on Windows 7.<ref name":0">{{cite web\|titleActive Server Pages (ASP) support in Windows\|urlhttps://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/2669020\|websiteSupport\|publisherMicrosoft\|access-date11 August 2015\|date30 January 2012\|edition4.0}}</ref> The use of ASP pages will be supported on Windows 8 for a minimum of 10 years from the Windows 8 release date.<ref name":0" /> ASP is supported in all available versions of IIS as of 2024.<ref>Source: [https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/help/2669020/active-server-pages-asp-support-in-windows], Microsoft</ref> Architecture ASP uses scripting on the server to generate content that is sent to the client's web browser via HTTP response. The ASP interpreter reads and executes all script code between <% and %> tags, the result of which is content generation. These scripts were written using VBScript, JScript, or PerlScript. The <code>@Language</code> directive, the {{tag\|script\|s\|paramslanguage"language" runat"server"}} syntax or server configuration can be used to select the language. In the example below, Response.Write Now() is in an HTML page; it would be dynamically replaced by the current time of the server. {\| ! Server side !! Client Side \|- style="vertical-align:top" \|<syntaxhighlight lang="aspx-vb">The server's current time: <% Response.Write Now() %> </syntaxhighlight> \|<syntaxhighlight lang="output">The server's current time: 8/11/2015 6:24:45 PM</syntaxhighlight> \|} Web pages with the .asp filename extension use ASP, although some web sites disguise their choice of scripting language for security purposes by using the more common .htm or .html extensions. Pages with the .aspx extension use compiled ASP.NET; however, ASP.NET pages may still include some ASP scripting. The introduction of ASP.NET led to use of the term Classic ASP for the original technology. Sun Java System ASP (formerly ChiliSoft ASP) was a popular and reportedly complete emulator,<ref name"Weissinger2009">{{cite book\|lastWeissinger\|firstKeyton \|titleASP in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtUHeRwhGKcgC\|access-date9 October 2013\|date6 October 2009\|publisherO'Reilly Media, Inc.\|isbn978-1-4493-7959-9}}</ref> but it has been discontinued. The Server object The server object allows connections to databases (ADO), filesystem, and use of components installed on the server. <syntaxhighlight lang="vbscript"> <% Dim oAdoCon, oAdoRec, oAdoStm, oCdoCon, oCdoMsg, oSciDic, oSciFsm, oMswAdr Set oAdoCon = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Connection") Set oAdoRec = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Recordset") Set oAdoStm = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Stream") Set oCdoCon = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Configuration") Set oCdoMsg = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Message") Set oSciDic = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.Dictionary") Set oSciFsm = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.FileSystemObject") Set oMswAdr = Server.CreateObject("MSWC.Swingbridge") %> </syntaxhighlight> The Application object This object stores global variables, which are variables accessible to all users. <syntaxhighlight lang="aspx-vb"> <% Application("Ali") = "My ASP Application" Response.Write "Welcome to " & Server.HTMLEncode(Application("Ali")) & "!" %> </syntaxhighlight> The Session object Stores variables accessible only to a single visitor, which are local variables. <syntaxhighlight lang="vbscript"> <% If Len(Request.QueryString("name")) > 0 Then Session("name") = Request.QueryString("name") End If Response.Write "Welcome " & Server.HTMLEncode(Session("name")) & "!" %> </syntaxhighlight> The session object is file based and multiple concurrent read and/or write requests will be blocked and processed in turn. The Err object Allows the management and fixing of non-fatal errors. <syntaxhighlight Lang="vbscript"> <% On Error Resume Next Response.Write 1 / 0 ' Division by zero If Err.Number <> 0 Then Response.Write "Error Code: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Number) & "<br />" Response.Write "Error Source: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Source) & "<br />" Response.Write "Error Description: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Description) & "<br />" Err.Clear End If %> </syntaxhighlight> See also * ASP.NET * Template processor * Comparison of web template engines * Jakarta Server Pages * PHP * Common Gateway Interface References {{Reflist}} External links <!--({{NoMoreLinks}}) \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS \| \| NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| replacements on this article's discussion page. Or submit your link \| \| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)\| \| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. \| ({{NoMoreLinks}})--> {{wikibooks\|Active Server Pages}} * [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa286483.aspx ASP on MSDN] * [http://support.microsoft.com/kb/2669020 Microsoft Support for ASP on Windows] * [http://www.iis.net/learn/application-frameworks/running-classic-asp-applications-on-iis-7-and-iis-8/classic-asp-applications-on-iis-overview Classic ASP Applications on IIS 7.0 and IIS 7.5 Overview] * [http://www.classicasp.org/ Primitive Classic ASP Framework (XML, JSON, BENCODE)] {{Web interfaces}} Category:Microsoft server technology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Server_Pages	2025-04-05T18:26:11.628477
2885	Amoxicillin	{{Short description\|Beta-lactam antibiotic}} {{distinguish\|Ampicillin}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}} {{cs1 config\|modecs1 \|name-list-stylevanc \|display-authors=6}} {{Infobox drug \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 455343638 \| image = Amoxicillin.svg \| image_class = skin-invert-image \| width \| alt \| caption \| image2 Amoxicillin-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png \| image_class2 = bg-transparent \| width2 \| alt2 \| AAN = Amoxycillin <!-- Clinical data --> \| pronounce = {{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˌ\|m\|ɒ\|k\|s\|ᵻ\|ˈ\|s\|ɪ\|l\|ᵻ\|n}} \| tradename Amoxil, Trimox, others<ref namebrands/> \| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com\|monograph\|amoxicillin}} \| MedlinePlus = a685001 \| DailyMedID = Amoxicillin \| pregnancy_AU = A \| pregnancy_AU_comment \| pregnancy_category \| routes_of_administration = By mouth, IV (bolus), intramuscular injection \| class = β-Lactam antibiotic; Aminopenicillin \| ATC_prefix = J01 \| ATC_suffix = CA04 \| ATC_supplemental = {{ATCvet\|G51\|AA03}} <!-- Legal status --> \| legal_AU = S4 \| legal_AU_comment \| legal_BR <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F --> \| legal_BR_comment \| legal_CA Rx-only \| legal_CA_comment \| legal_DE <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> \| legal_DE_comment \| legal_NZ <!-- Class A, B, C --> \| legal_NZ_comment \| legal_UK POM \| legal_UK_comment <ref name"Amoxil SmPC">{{cite web \| titleAmoxil Vials for Injection 500mg - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) \| website(emc) \| date4 November 2021 \| urlhttps://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/94/smpc \| access-date8 October 2022 \| archive-date10 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221010025443/https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/94/smpc \| url-statusdead }}</ref> \| legal_US = Rx-only \| legal_US_comment <ref name"Amoxil FDA label">{{cite web \| titleAmoxil (amoxicillin) Capsules, Tablets, Chewable Tablets, and Powder for Oral Suspension \| websiteDailyMed \| urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid49302 \| access-date8 October 2022 \| archive-date9 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221009035635/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid49302 \| url-statuslive \| quoteCentral Nervous System: Reversible hyperactivity, agitation, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, convulsions, behavioral changes, and/or dizziness have been reported rarely.}}</ref><ref name"Amoxil FDA approval">{{cite web \| titleAmoxil: FDA-Approved Drugs \| websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) \| urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?eventoverview.process&ApplNo050459 \| access-date8 October 2022 \| archive-date9 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221009035630/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?eventoverview.process&ApplNo050459 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Trimox FDA approval">{{cite web \| titleTrimox: FDA-Approved Drugs \| websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) \| urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?eventoverview.process&ApplNo061885 \| access-date8 October 2022 \| archive-date9 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221009035630/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?eventoverview.process&ApplNo061885 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Moxatag FDA label">{{cite web \| titleMoxatag (amoxicillin extended-release) Tablets Initial U.S. Approval: 1974 \| websiteDailyMed \| urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid364489 \| access-date8 October 2022 \| archive-date9 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221009035633/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid364489 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> \| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV --> \| legal_UN_comment \| legal_status Rx-only <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> \| bioavailability Oral: 60%<ref name"DrugBank">{{cite web \| titleAmoxicillin: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action \| websiteDrugBank Online \| date18 January 1974 \| urlhttps://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB01060 \| access-date=5 November 2024}}</ref> \| protein_bound 17%<ref name"DrugBank" /> \| metabolism Hydroxylation, oxidative deamination, aliphatic chain oxidation, decarboxylation, glucuronidation<ref name"DrugBank" /> \| metabolites Seven<ref name"DrugBank" /> \| onset ≤1.3–1.5{{nbsp}}hours ({{Abbrlink\|T<sub>max</sub>\|time to peak concentrations}})<ref name"DrugBank" /> \| elimination_half-life 61.3{{nbsp}}minutes (~1{{nbsp}}hour)<ref name"DrugBank" /> \| duration_of_action \| excretion Urine: 70–78% (after 6{{nbsp}}hours)<ref name="DrugBank" /> <!-- Identifiers --> \| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite\|correct\|??}} \| CAS_number = 26787-78-0 \| CAS_supplemental \| PubChem 33613 \| IUPHAR_ligand \| DrugBank_Ref {{drugbankcite\|correct\|drugbank}} \| DrugBank = DB01060 \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| ChemSpiderID = 31006 \| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite\|correct\|FDA}} \| UNII = 9EM05410Q9 \| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite\|correct\|kegg}} \| KEGG = D07452 \| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite\|correct\|EBI}} \| ChEBI = 2676 \| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite\|correct\|EBI}} \| ChEMBL = 1082 \| NIAID_ChemDB \| PDB_ligand \| synonyms = Amoxycillin, amox <!-- Chemical and physical data --> \| IUPAC_name = (2S,5R,6R<nowiki>)-6-{[(2</nowiki>R)-2-Amino-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetyl]amino}-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-2-carboxylic acid \| C = 16 \| H = 19 \| N = 3 \| O = 5 \| S = 1 \| SMILES OC(O)[C@@H]2N3C(O)[C@@H](NC(O)[C@@H](c1ccc(O)cc1)N)[C@H]3SC2(C)C \| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| StdInChI = 1S/C16H19N3O5S/c1-16(2)11(15(23)24)19-13(22)10(14(19)25-16)18-12(21)9(17)7-3-5-8(20)6-4-7/h3-6,9-11,14,20H,17H2,1-2H3,(H,18,21)(H,23,24)/t9-,10-,11+,14-/m1/s1 \| StdInChI_comment \| StdInChIKey_Ref {{stdinchicite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| StdInChIKey = LSQZJLSUYDQPKJ-NJBDSQKTSA-N \| density 1.6±0.1 <ref name"chemsrc">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.chemsrc.com/en/cas/26787-78-0_946616.html\|titleAmoxicillin\|websitewww.chemsrc.com\|access-date8 May 2018\|archive-date19 May 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170519221150/http://www.chemsrc.com/en/cas/26787-78-0_946616.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> \| density_notes \| melting_point \| melting_high \| melting_notes \| boiling_point \| boiling_notes \| solubility \| sol_units \| specific_rotation = }} <!-- Definition and uses --> Amoxicillin is an antibiotic medication belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to treat bacterial infections<ref name"AHFS2015" /> such as middle ear infection, strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, odontogenic infections, and urinary tract infections.<ref nameAHFS2015/> It is taken orally (swallowed by mouth), or less commonly by either intramuscular injection or by an IV bolus injection, which is a relatively quick intravenous injection lasting from a couple of seconds to a few minutes.<ref nameAHFS2015>{{cite web\|titleAmoxicillin\|urlhttps://www.drugs.com/amoxicillin.html\|publisherDrugs.com, The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists\|access-date24 November 2022\|date3 January 2022\|archive-date24 November 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221124204119/https://www.drugs.com/amoxicillin.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameforinjection>{{cite web\|titleAmoxicillin Sodium for Injection\|urlhttps://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/5359\|websiteEMC\|access-date26 October 2016\|date10 February 2016\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161027054630/https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/5359\|archive-date27 October 2016}}</ref> <!-- Adverse effects and mechanism --> Common adverse effects include nausea and rash.<ref nameAHFS2015/> It may also increase the risk of yeast infections and, when used in combination with clavulanic acid, diarrhea.<ref name"Common harms from amoxicillin: a sy">{{cite journal \| vauthors Gillies M, Ranakusuma A, Hoffmann T, Thorning S, McGuire T, Glasziou P, Del Mar C \| title Common harms from amoxicillin: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials for any indication \| journal CMAJ \| volume 187 \| issue 1 \| pages E21–E31 \| date January 2016\| pmid 25404399 \| pmc 4284189 \| doi 10.1503/cmaj.140848 }}</ref> It should not be used in those who are allergic to penicillin.<ref nameAHFS2015/> While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased.<ref nameAHFS2015/> Its use in pregnancy and breastfeeding does not appear to be harmful.<ref nameAHFS2015/> Amoxicillin is in the β-lactam family of antibiotics.<ref nameAHFS2015/> <!-- Society and culture --> Amoxicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into medical use in 1972.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Fischer J, Ganellin CR \|titleAnalogue-based Drug Discovery\|date2006\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-3-527-60749-5\|page490\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFjKfqkaKkAAC&pgPA490\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://books.google.com/books?idFjKfqkaKkAAC&pgPA490\|archive-date8 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Roy J \|titleAn introduction to pharmaceutical sciences production, chemistry, techniques and technology\|date2012\|publisherWoodhead Pub.\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-1-908818-04-1\|page239\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0IdmAgAAQBAJ&pgPA239\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://books.google.com/books?id0IdmAgAAQBAJ&pgPA239\|archive-date8 September 2017}}</ref> Amoxil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1974,<ref name"Amoxil FDA approval" /><ref name"Trimox FDA approval" /> and in the United Kingdom in 1977.<ref name"Amoxil SmPC" /> It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.<ref name"WHO23rd">{{cite book \| vauthors ((World Health Organization)) \| title The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023) \| year 2023 \| hdl 10665/371090 \| author-link World Health Organization \| publisher World Health Organization \| location Geneva \| id WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02 \| hdl-accessfree }}</ref> It is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics in children.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Kelly D \|titleDiseases of the liver and biliary system in children\|date2008\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\|locationChichester, UK\|isbn978-1-4443-0054-3\|page217\|edition3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz7nO3OrNXckC&pgPA217\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://books.google.com/books?idz7nO3OrNXckC&pgPA217\|archive-date8 September 2017}}</ref> Amoxicillin is available as a generic medication.<ref nameAHFS2015/> In 2022, it was the 26th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 20{{nbsp}}million prescriptions.<ref>{{cite web \| titleThe Top 300 of 2022 \| urlhttps://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx \| websiteClinCalc \| access-date30 August 2024 \| archive-date30 August 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240830202410/https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| title Amoxicillin Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2013 - 2022 \| website ClinCalc \| url https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Amoxicillin \| access-date 30 August 2024 }}</ref> Medical uses ]] Amoxicillin is used in the treatment of a number of infections, including acute otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, skin infections, urinary tract infections, Salmonella infections, Lyme disease, and chlamydia infections.<ref nameAHFS2015/><ref nameDavisamox>{{cite web \| url http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/amoxicillin.pdf \| access-date 22 March 2017 \| publisher Davis \| title Amoxicillin \| date 2017 \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170908135951/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/amoxicillin.pdf \| archive-date 8 September 2017 }}</ref> Acute otitis media Children with acute otitis media who are younger than six months of age are generally treated with amoxicillin or other antibiotics. Although most children with acute otitis media who are older than two years old do not benefit from treatment with amoxicillin or other antibiotics, such treatment may be helpful in children younger than two years old with acute otitis media that is bilateral or accompanied by ear drainage.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Venekamp RP, Sanders SL, Glasziou PP, Rovers MM \| title Antibiotics for acute otitis media in children \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 11 \| issue 11 \| pages CD000219 \| date November 2023 \| pmid 37965923 \| pmc 10646935 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD000219.pub5 }}</ref> In the past, amoxicillin was dosed three times daily when used to treat acute otitis media, which resulted in missed doses in routine ambulatory practice. There is now evidence that two-times daily dosing or once-daily dosing has similar effectiveness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Thanaviratananich S, Laopaiboon M, Vatanasapt P \| title Once or twice daily versus three times daily amoxicillin with or without clavulanate for the treatment of acute otitis media \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 12 \| pages CD004975 \| date December 2013 \| volume 2014 \| pmid 24338106 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD004975.pub3 \| pmc 10960641 }}</ref> Respiratory infections Most sinusitis infections are caused by viruses, for which amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate are ineffective,<ref name"AAAAIfive">{{cite journal \|title Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question \|publisher American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology \|journal Choosing Wisely: An Initiative of the ABIM Foundation \|url http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf \|access-date 14 August 2012 \|url-status live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121103151124/http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf \|archive-date 3 November 2012 }}</ref> and the small benefit gained by amoxicillin may be overridden by the adverse effects.<ref name"antibioticssinusitis">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ahovuo-Saloranta A, Rautakorpi UM, Borisenko OV, Liira H, Williams JW, Mäkelä M \| title Antibiotics for acute maxillary sinusitis in adults \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 2 \| pages CD000243 \| date February 2014 \| pmid 24515610 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD000243.pub3 \| veditors = Ahovuo-Saloranta A }}</ref> Amoxicillin is considered the first-line empirical treatment for most cases of uncomplicated bacterial sinusitis in children and adults when culture data is unavailable.<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Patel ZM, Peter HH \|titleUncomplicated acute sinusitis and rhinosinusitis in adults: Treatment \|urlhttps://www.uptodate.com/contents/uncomplicated-acute-sinusitis-and-rhinosinusitis-in-adults-treatment \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230313015138/https://www.uptodate.com/contents/uncomplicated-acute-sinusitis-and-rhinosinusitis-in-adults-treatment \|archive-date13 March 2023 \|access-date13 November 2023 \|websiteUpToDate}}</ref><ref>{{cite Q\|Q38897648}}</ref><ref>{{cite Q\|Q104102440}}</ref> Amoxicillin is recommended as the preferred first-line treatment for community-acquired pneumonia in adults by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, either alone (mild to moderate severity disease) or in combination with a macrolide.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0071334/\|titlePneumonia: Diagnosis and Management of Community– and Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults \|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0071334/\|archive-date8 September 2017\|publisherNational Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK)\|year2014\|seriesNational Institute for Health and Care Excellence: Clinical Guidelines, No. 191 \|pmid25520986 \|author1National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK) }}</ref> Research suggests that is as effective as co-amoxiclav (a broad-spectrum antibiotic) for people admitted to hospital with pneumonia, regardless of its severity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wei J, Uppal A, Nganjimi C, Warr H, Ibrahim Y, Gu Q, Yuan H, Rahman NM, Jones N, Walker AS, Eyre DW \| title No evidence of difference in mortality with amoxicillin versus co-amoxiclav for hospital treatment of community-acquired pneumonia \| language English \| journal The Journal of Infection \| volume 88 \| issue 6 \| pages 106161 \| date June 2024 \| pmid 38663754 \| doi 10.1016/j.jinf.2024.106161 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|date22 November 2024 \|titleAmoxicillin is effective for many people hospitalised with pneumonia \|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/amoxicillin-is-effective-for-many-people-hospitalised-with-pneumonia/ \|journalNIHR Evidence}}</ref> The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends amoxicillin as first-line treatment for pneumonia that is not "severe".<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK264162/\|titleRevised WHO Classification and Treatment of Pneumonia in Children at Health Facilities - NCBI Bookshelf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK264162/\|archive-date8 September 2017\|isbn978-92-4-150781-3\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|year2014\|seriesWHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee\|pmid25535631 }}</ref> Amoxicillin is used in post-exposure inhalation of anthrax to prevent disease progression and for prophylaxis.<ref name Davisamox/>H. pyloriIt is effective as one part of a multi-drug regimen for the treatment of stomach infections of Helicobacter pylori. It is typically combined with a proton-pump inhibitor (such as omeprazole) and a macrolide antibiotic (such as clarithromycin); other drug combinations are also effective.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chey WD, Leontiadis GI, Howden CW, Moss SF \| title ACG Clinical Guideline: Treatment of Helicobacter pylori Infection \| journal The American Journal of Gastroenterology \| volume 112 \| issue 2 \| pages 212–239 \| date February 2017 \| pmid 28071659 \| doi 10.1038/ajg.2016.563 \| s2cid 9390953 }}</ref>Lyme borreliosisAmoxicillin is effective for the treatment of early cutaneous Lyme borreliosis; the effectiveness and safety of oral amoxicillin is neither better nor worse than common alternatively-used antibiotics.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Torbahn G, Hofmann H, Rücker G, Bischoff K, Freitag MH, Dersch R, Fingerle V, Motschall E, Meerpohl JJ, Schmucker C \| title Efficacy and Safety of Antibiotic Therapy in Early Cutaneous Lyme Borreliosis: A Network Meta-analysis \| journal JAMA Dermatology \| volume 154 \| issue 11 \| pages 1292–1303 \| date November 2018 \| pmid 30285069 \| pmc 6248135 \| doi 10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.3186 }}</ref>Odontogenic infectionsAmoxicillin is used to treat odontogenic infections, infections of the tongue, lips, and other oral tissues. It may be prescribed following a tooth extraction, particularly in those with compromised immune systems.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tancawan AL, Pato MN, Abidin KZ, Asari AS, Thong TX, Kochhar P, Muganurmath C, Twynholm M, Barker K \| title Amoxicillin/Clavulanic Acid for the Treatment of Odontogenic Infections: A Randomised Study Comparing Efficacy and Tolerability versus Clindamycin \| journal International Journal of Dentistry \| volume 2015 \| pages 472470 \| date 2015 \| pmid 26300919 \| pmc 4537712 \| doi 10.1155/2015/472470 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Skin infectionsAmoxicillin is occasionally used for the treatment of skin infections,<ref name Davisamox/> such as acne vulgaris.<ref>{{cite web \| title Adolescent Acne: Management \| url http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/430534_5 \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101222205124/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/430534_5 \| archive-date 22 December 2010 }}</ref> It is often an effective treatment for cases of acne vulgaris that have responded poorly to other antibiotics, such as doxycycline and minocycline.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://scienceofacne.com/amoxicillin/ \|titleAmoxicillin and Acne Vulgaris \|publisherscienceofacne.com \|date5 September 2012 \|access-date17 August 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120721002339/http://scienceofacne.com/amoxicillin/ \|archive-date21 July 2012 }}</ref>Infections in infants in resource-limited settingsAmoxicillin is recommended by the World Health Organization for the treatment of infants with signs and symptoms of pneumonia in resource-limited situations when the parents are unable or unwilling to accept hospitalization of the child. Amoxicillin in combination with gentamicin is recommended for the treatment of infants with signs of other severe infections when hospitalization is not an option.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK321136/\|titleGuideline: Managing Possible Serious Bacterial Infection in Young Infants When Referral Is Not Feasible - NCBI Bookshelf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908135935/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK321136/\|archive-date8 September 2017\|isbn978-92-4-150926-8\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|year2015\|seriesWHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee\|pmid26447263 }}</ref>Prevention of bacterial endocarditisIt is also used to prevent bacterial endocarditis and as a pain-reliever in high-risk people having dental work done, to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae and other encapsulated bacterial infections in those without spleens, such as people with sickle-cell disease, and for both the prevention and the treatment of anthrax.<ref nameAHFS2015/> The United Kingdom recommends against its use for infectious endocarditis prophylaxis.<ref>{{cite web\|titleCG64 Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis: Full guidance \|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/11938/40039/40039.pdf \|workNICE \|access-date8 June 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111112000314/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/11938/40039/40039.pdf \|archive-date12 November 2011 }}</ref> These recommendations do not appear to have changed the rates of infection for infectious endocarditis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Thornhill MH, Dayer MJ, Forde JM, Corey GR, Chu VH, Couper DJ, Lockhart PB \| title Impact of the NICE guideline recommending cessation of antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of infective endocarditis: before and after study \| journal BMJ \| volume 342 \| pages d2392 \| date May 2011 \| pmid 21540258 \| pmc 3086390 \| doi 10.1136/bmj.d2392 }}</ref> Combination treatment {{Main\|Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid}} Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by β-lactamase-producing bacteria, which are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin. For this reason, it may be combined with clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor. This drug combination is commonly called co-amoxiclav.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAmoxicillin Susceptibility and Resistance Data\|urlhttp://www.toku-e.com/Assets/MIC/AmoxicillinClavulanate%20augmentin.pdf\|access-date20 July 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190713141750/http://www.toku-e.com/Assets/MIC/AmoxicillinClavulanate%20augmentin.pdf\|archive-date13 July 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Spectrum of activity It is a moderate-spectrum, bacteriolytic, β-lactam antibiotic in the aminopenicillin family used to treat susceptible Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is usually the drug of choice within the class because it is better absorbed, following oral administration, than other β-lactam antibiotics. In general, Streptococcus, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus, Haemophilus, Helicobacter, and Moraxella are susceptible to amoxicillin, whereas Citrobacter, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are resistant to it.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAmoxicillin spectrum of bacterial susceptibility and Resistance\|urlhttp://www.toku-e.com/Assets/MIC/Amoxicillin%20sodium%20salt.pdf\|access-date8 April 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181222141136/http://www.toku-e.com/Assets/MIC/Amoxicillin%20sodium%20salt.pdf\|archive-date22 December 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Some E. coli and most clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus have developed resistance to amoxicillin to varying degrees.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tadesse BT, Ashley EA, Ongarello S, Havumaki J, Wijegoonewardena M, González IJ, Dittrich S \| title Antimicrobial resistance in Africa: a systematic review \| journal BMC Infectious Diseases \| volume 17 \| issue 1 \| pages 616 \| date September 2017 \| pmid 28893183 \| pmc 5594539 \| doi 10.1186/s12879-017-2713-1 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Adverse effects Adverse effects are similar to those for other β-lactam antibiotics, including nausea, vomiting, rashes, and antibiotic-associated colitis. Diarrhea (loose bowel movements) may also occur. Rarer adverse effects include mental and behavioral changes, lightheadedness, insomnia, hyperactivity, agitation, confusion, anxiety, sensitivity to lights and sounds, and unclear thinking.<ref name"Amoxil FDA label" /><ref name"EspositoCaneviniPrincipi2017">{{cite journal \| vauthors Esposito S, Canevini MP, Principi N \| title Complications associated with antibiotic administration: neurological adverse events and interference with antiepileptic drugs \| journal Int J Antimicrob Agents \| volume 50 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–8 \| date July 2017 \| pmid 28414069 \| doi 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.01.027 \| url \| quote Benzylpenicillin, the most neurotoxic among the penicillins, has often been associated with the development of encephalopathy and seizures both in animals and humans [21], [22]. However, some neurological adverse effects (anxiety, hyperactivity, confusion, convulsions, and behavioural changes) have also been reported for amoxicillin and ampicillin, the two penicillins with the lowest risk of neurotoxicity [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27]. Moreover, ampicillin may cause seizures when administered to very low-birth-weight neonates [28].}}</ref><ref name"JangLeeJang2018">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jang HM, Lee HJ, Jang SE, Han MJ, Kim DH \| title Evidence for interplay among antibacterial-induced gut microbiota disturbance, neuro-inflammation, and anxiety in mice \| journal Mucosal Immunol \| volume 11 \| issue 5 \| pages 1386–1397 \| date September 2018 \| pmid 29867078 \| doi 10.1038/s41385-018-0042-3 \| url \| quote However, treatment with amoxicillin has been reported to cause adverse neurological effects such as anxiety, hyperactivity, confusion, and behavioral changes as side effects in children.21}}</ref> Immediate medical care is required upon the first signs of these adverse effects.<ref name"AHFS2015" /> Similarly to other penicillins, amoxicillin has been associated with an increased risk of seizures.<ref name"Amoxil FDA label" /><ref name"EspositoCaneviniPrincipi2017" /><ref name"NestorRyanCook2010">{{cite journal \| vauthors Nestor MA, Ryan M, Cook AM \| title Catching the seizure culprit: drugs on the differential \| journal Orthopedics \| volume 33 \| issue 9 \| pages 679–682 \| date September 2010 \| pmid 20839747 \| doi 10.3928/01477447-20100722-16 \| url \| quote }}</ref><ref name"AtliDemir-OzkayIlgin2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Atli O, Demir-Ozkay U, Ilgin S, Aydin TH, Akbulut EN, Sener E \| title Evidence for neurotoxicity associated with amoxicillin in juvenile rats \| journal Hum Exp Toxicol \| volume 35 \| issue 8 \| pages 866–876 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 26429924 \| doi 10.1177/0960327115607948 \| bibcode 2016HETox..35..866A \| url \| quote Till date, limited number of acute psychiatric adverse events (including seizure, encephalopathy, and tremor) related to AMX treatment have been reported in patients with no underlying psychiatric disorders.11–15 Furthermore, the Food and Drug Administration has published a report that when AMX was coadministered with cephalosporin, this combination therapy might cause death by inducing seizures in a patient.16}}</ref> Amoxicillin-induced neurotoxicity has been especially associated with concentrations of greater than 110{{nbsp}}mg/L.<ref name"LalanneBouzilléTron2023">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lalanne S, Bouzillé G, Tron C, Revest M, Polard E, Bellissant E, Verdier MC, Lemaitre F \| title Amoxicillin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Contribution of a Healthcare Data Warehouse to the Determination of a Toxic Concentration Threshold \| journal Antibiotics \| volume 12 \| issue 4 \| date March 2023 \| page 680 \| pmid 37107042 \| pmc 10135267 \| doi 10.3390/antibiotics12040680 \| doi-access free \| url }}</ref> The onset of an allergic reaction to amoxicillin can be very sudden and intense; emergency medical attention must be sought as quickly as possible. The initial phase of such a reaction often starts with a change in mental state, skin rash with intense itching (often beginning in the fingertips and around the groin area and rapidly spreading), and sensations of fever, nausea, and vomiting. Any other symptoms that seem even remotely suspicious must be taken very seriously. However, more mild allergy symptoms, such as a rash, can occur at any time during treatment, even up to a week after treatment has ceased. For some people allergic to amoxicillin, the adverse effects can be fatal due to anaphylaxis.<ref name="AHFS2015" /> Use of the amoxicillin/clavulanic acid combination for more than one week has caused a drug-induced immunoallergic-type hepatitis in some patients. Young children having ingested acute overdoses of amoxicillin manifested lethargy, vomiting, and renal dysfunction.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cundiff J, Joe S \| title Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid-induced hepatitis \| journal American Journal of Otolaryngology \| volume 28 \| issue 1 \| pages 28–30 \| date January 2007 \| pmid 17162128 \| doi 10.1016/j.amjoto.2006.06.007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Baselt R \| title Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man \| edition 8th \| publisher Biomedical Publications \| location Foster City, CA \| year 2008 \| pages 81–83}}</ref> There is poor reporting of adverse effects of amoxicillin from clinical trials. For this reason, the severity and frequency of adverse effects from amoxicillin are probably higher than reported in clinical trials.<ref name"Common harms from amoxicillin: a sy"/>Nonallergic rashBetween 3 and 10% of children taking amoxicillin (or ampicillin) show a late-developing (>72 hours after beginning medication and having never taken penicillin-like medication previously) rash, which is sometimes referred to as the "amoxicillin rash". The rash can also occur in adults and may rarely be a component of the DRESS syndrome.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAmoxicillin Rash \|urlhttps://hhma.org/healthadvisor/pa-ampirash-hhg/ \|websiteTufts Medical Center \|publisherTufts Medicine MelroseWakefield Hospital \|access-date24 June 2023 \|archive-date25 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230625145658/https://hhma.org/healthadvisor/pa-ampirash-hhg/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The rash is described as maculopapular or morbilliform (measles-like; therefore, in medical literature, it is called "amoxicillin-induced morbilliform rash".<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barbaud AM, Béné MC, Schmutz JL, Ehlinger A, Weber M, Faure GC \| title Role of delayed cellular hypersensitivity and adhesion molecules in amoxicillin-induced morbilliform rashes \| journal Archives of Dermatology \| volume 133 \| issue 4 \| pages 481–6 \| date April 1997 \| pmid 9126012 \| doi 10.1001/archderm.1997.03890400081011 \| id {{INIST\|2654598}} }}</ref>). It starts on the trunk and can spread from there. This rash is unlikely to be a true allergic reaction and is not a contraindication for future amoxicillin usage, nor should the current regimen necessarily be stopped. However, this common amoxicillin rash and a dangerous allergic reaction cannot easily be distinguished by inexperienced persons, so a healthcare professional is often required to distinguish between the two.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pichichero ME \| title A review of evidence supporting the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation for prescribing cephalosporin antibiotics for penicillin-allergic patients \| journal Pediatrics \| volume 115 \| issue 4 \| pages 1048–57 \| date April 2005 \| pmid 15805383 \| doi 10.1542/peds.2004-1276 \| s2cid 21246804 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Schmitt BD \|titleYour child's health: the parents' one-stop reference guide to symptoms, emergencies, common illnesses, behavior problems, healthy development \|edition2nd \|publisherBantam Books \|locationNew York \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-553-38369-0 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/yourchildshealth00bart }}</ref> A nonallergic amoxicillin rash may also be an indicator of infectious mononucleosis. Some studies indicate about 80–90% of patients with acute Epstein–Barr virus infection treated with amoxicillin or ampicillin develop such a rash.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kagan BM \| title Ampicillin rash \| journal The Western Journal of Medicine \| volume 126 \| issue 4 \| pages 333–5 \| date April 1977 \| pmid 855325 \| pmc = 1237570 }}</ref> <gallery mode"packed" widths"360px" heights="220"> Image:Amoxicillin rash 3 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|Nonallergic amoxicillin rash eight days after first dose: This photo was taken 24 hours after the rash began. Image:Amoxicillin rash 11 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|Eight hours after the first photo, individual spots have grown and begun to merge. Image:Amoxicillin rash 26 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|At 23 hours after the first photo, the color appears to be fading, and much of rash has spread to confluence. </gallery> Interactions Amoxicillin may interact with these drugs: * Anticoagulants (dabigatran, warfarin).<ref name"Davisamox" /><ref name"bnf57">British National Formulary 57 March 2009</ref><ref name":0" /><ref name":1">{{Citation \| vauthors Reis W, Gaio J, Trang T, Reis H, Tang J, Juma H, Ramos F, Santos HD, Reis C \|titleAntibiotics \|date2020 \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3591-8_10 \| veditors Prabhakar H, Mahajan C, Kapoor I \|workPharmacology in Clinical Neurosciences: A Quick Guide \|pages265–497 \|access-date9 April 2023 \|placeSingapore \|publisherSpringer \|doi10.1007/978-981-15-3591-8_10 \|isbn978-981-15-3591-8 }}</ref> * Methotrexate (chemotherapy and immunosuppressant).<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /> * Typhoid, Cholera and BCG vaccines.<ref name":0">{{cite book \| vauthors Arcangelo VP, Peterson AM, Wilbur V, Reinhold JA \| date17 August 2016 \| publisherLWW \| titlePharmacotherapeutics for Advanced Practice: A Practical Approach \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFBJRDAAAQBAJ&pgPT770 \| isbn978-1-496-31996-8}}</ref><ref name":1" /> * Probenecid reduces renal excretion and increases blood levels of amoxicillin.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /> * Oral contraceptives potentially become less effective.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zhanel GG, Siemens S, Slayter K, Mandell L \| title Antibiotic and oral contraceptive drug interactions: Is there a need for concern? \| journal The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases \| volume 10 \| issue 6 \| pages 429–433 \| date November 1999 \| pmid 22346401 \| pmc 3250726 \| doi 10.1155/1999/539376 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> * Allopurinol (gout treatment).<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /><ref>{{Citation \| vauthors Comeau D, Heaton K, Gordon A \|titleChapter 32 - Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Problems \|dateJanuary 2012 \| veditors Rakel RE, Rakel DP \|workTextbook of Family Medicine \| edition Eighth \|pages648–689 \|placePhiladelphia \|publisherW.B. Saunders \|doi10.1016/b978-1-4377-1160-8.10032-6 \|isbn=978-1-4377-1160-8 }}</ref> * Mycophenolate (immunosuppressant)<ref name=":1" /> <!-- {{Main\|Beta-lactam antibiotic}} --> When given intravenously or intramuscularly:<ref name=forinjection/> * It should not be mixed with blood products, or proteinaceous fluids (including protein hydrolysates) or with intravenous lipid emulsions * aminoglycoside should be injected at a separate site from amoxicillin if the patient is prescribed both medications at the same time. Neither drug should be mixed in a syringe. Neither should they be mixed in an intravenous fluid container or giving set because of loss of activity of the aminoglycoside under these conditions. * ciprofloxacin should not be mixed with amoxicillin. * Infusions containing dextran or bicarbonate should not be mixed with amoxicillin solutions. Pharmacology Amoxicillin (α-amino-p-hydroxybenzyl penicillin) is a semisynthetic derivative of penicillin with a structure similar to ampicillin but with better absorption when taken by mouth, thus yielding higher concentrations in blood and in urine.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Handsfield HH, Clark H, Wallace JF, Holmes KK, Turck M \| title Amoxicillin, a new penicillin antibiotic \| journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy \| volume 3 \| issue 2 \| pages 262–5 \| date February 1973 \| pmid 4208282 \| pmc 444397 \| doi 10.1128/AAC.3.2.262 }}</ref> Amoxicillin diffuses easily into tissues and body fluids. It will cross the placenta and is excreted into breastmilk in small quantities. It is metabolized by the liver and excreted into the urine. It has an onset of 30 minutes and a half-life of 3.7 hours in newborns and 1.4 hours in adults.<ref name = Davisamox/> Amoxicillin attaches to the cell wall of susceptible bacteria and results in their death. It is effective against streptococci, pneumococci, enterococci, Haemophilus influenzae, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Shigella, Chlamydia trachomatis, Salmonella, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Helicobacter pylori.<ref name Davisamox/> As a derivative of ampicillin, amoxicillin is a member of the penicillin family and, like penicillins, is a β-lactam antibiotic.<ref name"Alcamo2003">{{cite book \| vauthors Alcamo IE \|year2003 \|titleMicrobes and Society: An Introduction to Microbiology \|publisherJones & Bartlett Learning \|page198 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoRAZd3AlTlkC&pgPA198 \|isbn978-0-7637-1430-7 }}</ref> It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the bacterial cell wall. It has two ionizable groups in the physiological range (the amino group in alpha-position to the amide carbonyl group and the carboxyl group).<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXiShDwAAQBAJ&pgPA423\|veditorsSezer AD\|publisherINTECH\|isbn978-953-51-1628-8\|titleApplication of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery\|date2016\|page423\|access-date24 July 2019\|archive-date12 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112005951/https://books.google.com/books?idXiShDwAAQBAJ&pgPA423\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Chemistry Amoxicillin is a β-lactam and aminopenicillin antibiotic in terms of chemical structure.<ref name"Wright1999">{{cite journal \| vauthors Wright AJ \| title The penicillins \| journal Mayo Clin Proc \| volume 74 \| issue 3 \| pages 290–307 \| date March 1999 \| pmid 10090000 \| doi 10.4065/74.3.290 \| url }}</ref><ref name"JafariOzumcheloueiHamidianZhang2020" /> It is structurally related to ampicillin.<ref name"Wright1999" /><ref name"JafariOzumcheloueiHamidianZhang2020" /> The experimental log P of amoxicillin is 0.87.<ref name"JafariOzumcheloueiHamidianZhang2020">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jafari Ozumchelouei E, Hamidian AH, Zhang Y, Yang M \| title Physicochemical properties of antibiotics: A review with an emphasis on detection in the aquatic environment \| journal Water Environ Res \| volume 92 \| issue 2 \| pages 177–188 \| date February 2020 \| pmid 31505071 \| doi 10.1002/wer.1237 \| bibcode 2020WaEnR..92..177J \| url }}</ref><ref name"PubChem">{{cite web \| titleAmoxicillin \| websitePubChem \| urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/33613 \| access-date15 October 2024}}</ref> It is described as an "ambiphilic"—between hydrophilic and lipophilic—antibiotic.<ref name"NguyenLeDinh2022">{{cite journal \| vauthors Nguyen PT, Le NV, Dinh HM, Nguyen BQ, Nguyen TV \| title Lung penetration and pneumococcal target binding of antibiotics in lower respiratory tract infection \| journal Curr Med Res Opin \| volume 38 \| issue 12 \| pages 2085–2095 \| date December 2022 \| pmid 36189961 \| doi 10.1080/03007995.2022.2131304 \| url }}</ref> History {{See also\|Timeline of antibiotics}} Amoxicillin was one of several semisynthetic derivatives of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) developed by the Beecham Group in the 1960s. It was invented by Anthony Alfred Walter Long and John Herbert Charles Nayler, two British scientists.<ref>{{cite patent \|countryGB \|number978178 \|statuspatent \|titlePenicillins \|pubdate1964-12-16 \|fdate1962-11-02 \|pridate1962-11-02 \| inventor Nayler JH, Smith H \|assign1Beecham Research Laboratories Ltd \|urlhttps://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CCGB&NR978178A&KCA&FTD&ND&date19641216&DB&localeen_EP}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent \|countryGB \|number1241844 \|statuspatent \|titlePenicillins \|pubdate1971-08-04 \|fdate1968-08-23 \|pridate1968-08-23 \|inventor Long AA, Nayler JH \|assign1Beecham Group LTD \|urlhttps://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CCGB&NR1241844&KC&FTE&localeen_EP}}</ref> It became available in 1972 and was the second aminopenicillin to reach the market (after ampicillin in 1961).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Geddes AM, Klugman KP, Rolinson GN \| title Introduction: historical perspective and development of amoxicillin/clavulanate \| journal International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents \| volume 30 \| issue Suppl 2 \| pages S109-12 \| date December 2007 \| pmid 17900874 \| doi 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.07.015 }}</ref><ref nameRavina>{{cite book \| vauthors Raviña E \|titleThe Evolution of Drug Discovery \|publisherWiley-VCH \|locationWeinheim \|year2014 \|page262 \|isbn978-3-527-32669-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Bruggink A \|titleSynthesis of β-lactam antibiotics \|publisherSpringer \|year2001 \|page17 \|isbn978-0-7923-7060-4}}</ref> Co-amoxiclav became available in 1981.<ref nameRavina/> Society and culture EconomicsAmoxicillin is relatively inexpensive.<ref>{{cite book \|vauthorsHanno PM, Guzzo TJ, Malkowicz SB, Wein AJ \|titlePenn Clinical Manual of Urology E-Book \|date2014 \|publisherElsevier Health Sciences \|isbn978-0-323-24466-4 \|page122 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOQTbAgAAQBAJ&pgPA122 \|access-date18 March 2023 \|archive-date14 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230414211301/https://books.google.com/books?idOQTbAgAAQBAJ&pgPA122 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2022, a survey of eight generic antibiotics commonly prescribed in the United States found their average cost to be about $42.67, while amoxicillin was sold for $12.14 on average.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.talktomira.com/post/how-much-antibiotics-cost-without-insurance \| titleHow Much Do Antibiotics Cost Without Insurance in 2021? \| access-date4 December 2022 \| archive-date4 December 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221204114959/https://www.talktomira.com/post/how-much-antibiotics-cost-without-insurance \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Modes of delivery Pharmaceutical manufacturers make amoxicillin in trihydrate form, for oral use available as capsules, regular, chewable and dispersible tablets, syrup and pediatric suspension for oral use, and as the sodium salt for intravenous administration.{{medical citation needed\|date=September 2022}} An extended-release is available.<ref name"Moxatag FDA label" /><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2008/050813_moxatag_toc.cfm \| titleDrug Approval Package: Moxatag (amoxicillin extended-release) NDA #050813 \| access-date25 December 2018 \| archive-date3 December 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191203114048/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2008/050813_moxatag_toc.cfm \| url-statuslive }}</ref> The intravenous form of amoxicillin is not sold in the United States.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Marek CL, Timmons SR \|titlePediatric Dentistry: Infancy Through Adolescence\| veditors Nowak A \|date2018\|isbn978-0-323-60826-8\|publisherSaunders}}</ref> When an intravenous aminopenicillin is required in the United States, ampicillin is typically used. When there is an adequate response to ampicillin, the course of antibiotic therapy may often be completed with oral amoxicillin.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/4.3-A-Quick-Guide-to-Switch_Southern-Health.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/4.3-A-Quick-Guide-to-Switch_Southern-Health.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleA Quick Guide to Switch : Antibiotics: IV to Oral\|websiteSafetyandquality.gov.au\|access-date1 March 2022}}</ref> Research with mice indicated successful delivery using intraperitoneally injected amoxicillin-bearing microparticles.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Farazuddin M, Chauhan A, Khan RM, Owais M \| title Amoxicillin-bearing microparticles: potential in the treatment of Listeria monocytogenes infection in Swiss albino mice \| journal Bioscience Reports \| volume 31 \| issue 4 \| pages 265–72 \| date August 2011 \| pmid 20687896 \| doi 10.1042/BSR20100027 }}</ref>Names <!-- DO NOT ADD DRUG NAMES HERE. THERE ARE TOO MANY TO LIST IN WIKIPEDIA --> Amoxicillin is the international nonproprietary name (INN),<ref>{{cite web \|titleAmoxicillin [INN] \|urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/substance/134997708 \|websitepubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov \|access-date3 June 2024 }}</ref> British Approved Name (BAN), and United States Adopted Name (USAN), while amoxycillin is the Australian Approved Name (AAN).{{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} Amoxicillin is one of the semisynthetic penicillins discovered by the former pharmaceutical company Beecham Group. The patent for amoxicillin has expired, thus amoxicillin and co-amoxiclav preparations are marketed under various brand names across the world.<ref namebrands>{{cite web\|titleInternational brand names for amoxicillin\|urlhttps://www.drugs.com/international/amoxicillin.html\|websiteDrugs.com\|access-date15 November 2016\|url-statusdeviated \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160529051432/http://www.drugs.com/international/amoxicillin.html\|archive-date29 May 2016}}</ref> <!-- DO NOT ADD DRUG NAMES HERE. THERE ARE TOO MANY TO LIST IN WIKIPEDIA --> Veterinary uses Amoxicillin is also sometimes used as an antibiotic for animals. The use of amoxicillin for animals intended for human consumption (chickens, cattle, and swine for example) has been approved.<ref name"Amoxicillin- FAO">{{cite web \| vauthors Ramos F, Boison J, Friedlander LG \|titleAmoxicillin \|urlhttp://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/vetdrug/docs/12-2012-amoxicillin.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/vetdrug/docs/12-2012-amoxicillin.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|websitefao.org \|publisherFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations \|access-date8 November 2019}}</ref> References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book \| vauthors Neal MJ \|year2002 \|titleMedical Pharmacology at a Glance \|edition4th \|locationOxford \|publisherBlackwell Science \|isbn=978-0-632-05244-8 }} {{PenicillinAntiBiotics}} {{GlaxoSmithKline}} {{Phenethylamines}} {{Portal bar \| Medicine}} {{Authority control}} Category:Carboxylic acids Category:Enantiopure drugs Category:Drugs developed by GSK plc Category:Lyme disease Category:Penicillins Category:Phenethylamines Category:4-Hydroxyphenyl compounds Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:World Health Organization essential medicines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoxicillin	2025-04-05T18:26:11.671192
2889	Amorphous solid	{{Short description\|Non-crystalline solid}} {{Redirect\|Amorphous}} In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is a characteristic of a crystal. The terms "glass" and "glassy solid" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition.<ref name":6">{{Cite book \|last1Thorpe. \|first1M.F. \|titleProperties and Applications of Amorphous Materials \|last2Tichy \|first2L. \|publisherSpringer Dordrecht \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-7923-6811-3 \|edition1st \|pages1–11}}</ref> Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ponçot \|first1M. \|last2Addiego \|first2F. \|last3Dahoun \|first3A. \|date2013-01-01 \|titleTrue intrinsic mechanical behaviour of semi-crystalline and amorphous polymers: Influences of volume deformation and cavities shape \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749641912001155 \|journalInternational Journal of Plasticity \|languageen \|volume40 \|pages126–139 \|doi10.1016/j.ijplas.2012.07.007 \|issn0749-6419}}</ref><ref name":Z">{{Cite book \|last1Zaccone \|first1A. \|titleTheory of Disordered Solids \|seriesLecture Notes in Physics \|publisherSpringer \|year2023 \|volume1015 \|doi10.1007/978-3-031-24706-4\|isbn978-3-031-24705-7 \|s2cid259299183 \|edition1st}}</ref> Etymology The term "Amorphous" comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form"). Structure Amorphous materials have an internal structure of molecular-scale structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units in the crystalline phase of the same compound.<ref>{{cite journal \| first1 Juraj\| last1 Mavračić\| first2 Felix C.\| last2 Mocanu\| first3 Volker L.\| last3 Deringer\| first4 Gábor\| last4 Csányi\| first5 Stephen R.\| last5 Elliott\| title Similarity Between Amorphous and Crystalline Phases: The Case of TiO<sub>2</sub>\|journal J. Phys. Chem. Lett.\| volume 9\| issue 11\| pages 2985–2990\| year 2018\| doi 10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b01067\| pmid 29763315\| url https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/283145\| doi-access free}}</ref> Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range regularity exists: amorphous materials cannot be described by the repetition of a finite unit cell. Statistical measures, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids.<ref name":6" /><ref name":Z" /> is a commonly encountered example of amorphous solids.]] Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales.<ref name":6" /> By convention, short range order extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal \|last1Cheng \|first1Y. Q. \|last2Ma \|first2E. \|date2011-05-01 \|titleAtomic-level structure and structure–property relationship in metallic glasses \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079642510000691 \|journalProgress in Materials Science \|languageen \|volume56 \|issue4 \|pages379–473 \|doi10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.12.002 \|issn0079-6425}}</ref> Medium range order may extend beyond the short range order by 1-2&nbsp;nm.<ref name":0" /> Fundamental properties of amorphous solids Glass transition at high temperatures The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics. Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), a large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties. Although there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor low-temperature properties of glassy solids are well understood on the fundamental physics level. Amorphous solids is an important area of condensed matter physics aiming to understand these substances at high temperatures of glass transition and at low temperatures towards absolute zero. From the 1970s, low-temperature properties of amorphous solids were studied experimentally in great detail.<ref name"Stephens2021">{{Cite book \|last1Stephens \|first1Robert B. \|first2Xiao \|last2Liu \|titleLow-Energy Excitations in Disordered Solids. A Story of the 'Universal' Phenomena of Structural Tunneling \|year2021 \|doi10.1142/11746\|isbn978-981-12-1724-1 \|s2cid224844997 }}</ref><ref name"Ramos2022">{{Cite book \|editor-last1Ramos \|editor-first1M. \|titleLow-Temperature Thermal and Vibrational Properties of Disordered Solids. A Half-Century of Universal "Anomalies" of Glasses \|year2022 \|doi10.1142/q0371\|arxiv2010.02851 \|isbn978-1-80061-257-0 \|s2cid222140882 \|last1Grushin \|first1=Adolfo G. }}</ref> For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids. On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunnelling two-level systems.<ref name"AHV1972">{{Cite journal \|last1Anderson \|first1P.W. \|last2Halperin \|first2B.I. \|last3Varma \|first3C.M \|titleAnomalous low-temperature thermal properties of glasses and spin glasses \|year1972 \|journalPhilosophical Magazine\|volume25 \|issue1 \|pages1–9\|doi10.1080/14786437208229210\|bibcode1972PMag...25....1A }}</ref><ref name"Phillips1972">{{Cite journal \|last1Phillips \|first1W.A. \|titleTunneling states in amorphous solids \|year1972 \|journalJ. Low Temp. Phys., Pp 751 \|volume7 \|issue3–4 \|pages351–360 \|doi10.1007/BF00660072\|bibcode1972JLTP....7..351P \|s2cid119873202 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research.<ref name"Esquinazi1998">{{Cite book \|editor-last1Esquinazi \|editor-first1Pablo \|titleTunneling Systems in Amorphous and Crystalline Solids \|year1998 \|doi10.1007/978-3-662-03695-2\|isbn978-3-642-08371-6 }}</ref> Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials.<ref name"Pohl2002">{{Cite journal \|last1Pohl \|first1R.O. \|last2etc \|first2etc \|titleLow-temperature thermal conductivity and acoustic attenuation in amorphous solids \|year2002 \|journalRevs. Mod Phys. \|volume74 \|issue1 \|pages991\|doi10.1080/14786437208229210\|bibcode1972PMag...25....1A }}</ref> This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunnelling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett.<ref name"Leggett1991">{{Cite journal \|last1Leggett \|first1A.J. \|titleAmorphous materials at low temperatures: why are they so similar?\|year1991 \|journalPhysica B \|volume169 \|issue1–4 \|pages322–327 \|doi10.1016/0921-4526(91)90246-B\|bibcode1991PhyB..169..322L }}</ref> Nano-structured materials Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding.{{efn\|See the structure of liquids and glasses for more information on non-crystalline material structure.}} Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short-size scales.<ref>{{cite book \| last1Goldstein \|first1Joseph I. \|last2Newbury \|first2Dale E. \|last3Michael \|first3Joseph R. \|last4Ritchie \|first4Nicholas W. M. \|last5Scott \|first5John Henry J. \|last6Joy \|first6David C. \|titleScanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis \|date2018 \|locationNew York, NY \|isbn978-1493966745 \|editionFourth}}</ref> Characterization of amorphous solids Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids.<ref name":1">{{Cite journal \|last1Yang \|first1Yao \|last2Zhou \|first2Jihan \|last3Zhu \|first3Fan \|last4Yuan \|first4Yakun \|last5Chang \|first5Dillan J. \|last6Kim \|first6Dennis S. \|last7Pham \|first7Minh \|last8Rana \|first8Arjun \|last9Tian \|first9Xuezeng \|last10Yao \|first10Yonggang \|last11Osher \|first11Stanley J. \|last12Schmid \|first12Andreas K. \|last13Hu \|first13Liangbing \|last14Ercius \|first14Peter \|last15Miao \|first15Jianwei \|dateMarch 31, 2021 \|titleDetermining the three-dimensional atomic structure of an amorphous solid \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03354-0 \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume592 \|issue7852 \|pages60–64 \|doi10.1038/s41586-021-03354-0 \|pmid33790443 \|arxiv2004.02266 \|bibcode2021Natur.592...60Y \|s2cid214802235 \|issn1476-4687}}</ref> A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials. X-ray and neutron diffraction Unlike crystalline materials, which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks.<ref name":2">{{Cite journal \|lastBillinge \|firstSimon J. L. \|date2019-06-17 \|titleThe rise of the X-ray atomic pair distribution function method: a series of fortunate events \|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences \|volume377 \|issue2147 \|pages20180413 \|doi10.1098/rsta.2018.0413 \|pmc6501893 \|pmid31030657\|bibcode2019RSPTA.37780413B }}</ref> As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ren \|first1Yang \|last2Zuo \|first2Xiaobing \|date2018-06-13 \|titleSynchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction, Total Scattering, and Small-Angle Scattering Techniques for Rechargeable Battery Research \|journalSmall Methods \|volume2 \|issue8 \|pages1800064 \|doi10.1002/smtd.201800064 \|osti1558997 \|s2cid139693137 \|issn2366-9608\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance.<ref name":2" /> Another type of analysis that is done with diffraction data of amorphous materials is radial distribution function analysis, which measures the number of atoms found at varying radial distances away from an arbitrary reference atom.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Senjaya \|first1Deriyan \|last2Supardi \|first2Adri \|last3Zaidan \|first3Andi \|date2020-12-09 \|titleTheoretical formulation of amorphous radial distribution function based on wavelet transformation \|journalAIP Conference Proceedings \|volume2314 \|issue1 \|pages020001 \|doi10.1063/5.0034410 \|bibcode2020AIPC.2314b0001S \|s2cid234542087 \|issn0094-243X\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated. X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long-range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNewville \|firstMatthew \|dateJuly 22, 2004 \|titleFundamentals of XAFS \|urlhttps://www.lehigh.edu/imi/teched/GlassCSC/SuppReading/Tutorials.pdf}}</ref> Atomic electron tomography The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question and then used to reconstruct a 3D image.<ref name":3">{{Cite journal \|last1Zhou \|first1Jihan \|last2Yang \|first2Yongsoo \|last3Ercius \|first3Peter \|last4Miao \|first4Jianwei \|dateApril 9, 2020 \|titleAtomic electron tomography in three and four dimensions \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mrs-bulletin/article/abs/atomic-electron-tomography-in-three-and-four-dimensions/9E63846C2526CAD956ABECA5AD5F54BB \|journalMRS Bulletin \|languageen \|volume45 \|issue4 \|pages290–297 \|doi10.1557/mrs.2020.88 \|bibcode2020MRSBu..45..290Z \|s2cid216408488 \|issn0883-7694}}</ref> After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion.<ref name":3" /> High-quality analysis and processing using atomic electron tomography results in a 3D reconstruction of an amorphous material detailing the atomic positions of the different species that are present. Fluctuation electron microscopy Fluctuation electron microscopy is another transmission electron microscopy-based technique that is sensitive to the medium-range order of amorphous materials. Structural fluctuations arising from different forms of medium-range order can be detected with this method.<ref name":4">{{Citation \|last1Voyles \|first1Paul \|titleFluctuation Electron Microscopy \|date2012-10-12 \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471266965.com138 \|workCharacterization of Materials \|pagescom138 \|editor-lastKaufmann \|editor-firstElton N. \|placeHoboken, NJ, USA \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. \|languageen \|doi10.1002/0471266965.com138 \|isbn978-0-471-26696-9 \|access-date2022-12-07 \|last2Hwang \|first2Jinwoo}}</ref> Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode.<ref name":4" /> Computational techniques Simulation and modeling techniques are often combined with experimental methods to characterize structures of amorphous materials. Commonly used computational techniques include density functional theory, molecular dynamics, and reverse Monte Carlo.<ref name":1" /> Uses and observations Amorphous thin films Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films. Thin films are solid layers of a few nanometres to tens of micrometres thickness that are deposited onto a substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure of thin films as a function of the homologous temperature (T<sub>h</sub>), which is the ratio of deposition temperature to melting temperature.<ref name"MoDe1969">{{cite journal \| first1 B. A.\| last1 Movchan\| first2 A. V.\| last2 Demchishin\| titleStudy of the Structure and Properties of Thick Vacuum Condensates of Nickel, Titanium, Tungsten, Aluminium Oxide and Zirconium Dioxide\| journal Phys. Met. Metallogr.\| volume 28\| pages 83–90\| year 1969}}<br />Russian-language version: Fiz. Metal Metalloved (1969) 28: 653-660.</ref><ref name"Thor1974">{{citation \| first John A.\| last Thornton\| title Influence of Apparatus Geometry and Deposition Conditions on the Structure and Topography of Thick Sputtered Coatings\| journal Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology\| volume 11\| issue 4\| pages 666–670\| year 1974\| doi 10.1116/1.1312732\| bibcode 1974JVST...11..666T}}</ref> According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (T<sub>h</sub>) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature.{{efn\|For higher values, the surface diffusion of deposited atomic species would allow for the formation of crystallites with long-range atomic order.}}{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} Superconductivity s have low toughness, but high strength]] Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch.<ref name"Buck1956">{{cite journal \| first1 W.\|last1 Buckel \| first2 R.\| last2 Hilsch \| title Supraleitung und elektrischer Widerstand neuartiger Zinn-Wismut-Legierungen \|journal Z. Phys. \|volume146 \|pages 27–38 \| year1956\|issue 1 \| doi10.1007/BF01326000\|bibcode 1956ZPhy..146...27B \|s2cid 119405703 }}</ref><ref name"Buck1961">{{cite conference\|lastBuckel\|firstW.\|titleThe influence of crystal bonds on film growth\|book-titleElektrische en Magnetische Eigenschappen van dunne Metallaagies\|placeLeuven, Belgium\|date1961}}</ref> The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity.<ref name"Baggioli">{{cite journal \| first1 Matteo \|last1 Baggioli\| first2 Chandan \|last2 Setty\| first3 Alessio \|last3 Zaccone\| title Effective Theory of Superconductivity in Strongly Coupled Amorphous Materials\| journal Physical Review B\| volume 101\| pages 214502\| year 2020\| issue21 \|doi 10.1103/PhysRevB.101.214502\|arxiv 2001.00404\| bibcode2020PhRvB.101u4502B \| hdl10486/703598 \| s2cid209531947 }}</ref> Thermal protection Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity.<ref name":5">{{Cite journal \|last1Zhou \|first1Wu-Xing \|last2Cheng \|first2Yuan \|last3Chen \|first3Ke-Qiu \|last4Xie \|first4Guofeng \|last5Wang \|first5Tian \|last6Zhang \|first6Gang \|dateSeptember 9, 2019 \|titleThermal Conductivity of Amorphous Materials \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.201903829 \|journalAdvanced Functional Materials \|languageen \|volume30 \|issue8 \|pages1903829 \|doi10.1002/adfm.201903829 \|s2cid203143442 \|issn1616-301X}}</ref> Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity.<ref name":5" /> Technological uses Today, optical coatings made from TiO<sub>2</sub>, SiO<sub>2</sub>, Ta<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> etc. (and combinations of these) in most cases consist of amorphous phases of these compounds. Much research is carried out into thin amorphous films as a gas-separating membrane layer.<ref name"Vos1998">{{cite journal\|first1 Renate M.\|last1 de Vos\|first2 Henk\|last2 Verweij\|title High-Selectivity, High-Flux Silica Membranes for Gas Separation\|journal Science\|volume 279\|issue 5357\|pages 1710–1711\|year 1998\|pmid 9497287\|doi 10.1126/science.279.5357.1710\|bibcode 1998Sci...279.1710D}}</ref> The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO<sub>2</sub> layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells.{{efn\|In the case of hydrogenated amorphous silicon, the missing long-range order between silicon atoms is partly induced by the presence of hydrogen in the per cent range.}}<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHydrogenated Amorphous Silicon - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrogenated-amorphous-silicon \|access-date2023-10-17 \|websitewww.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Pharmaceutical use In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hsieh \|first1Yi-Ling \|last2Ilevbare \|first2Grace A. \|last3Van Eerdenbrugh \|first3Bernard \|last4Box \|first4Karl J. \|last5Sanchez-Felix \|first5Manuel Vincente \|last6Taylor \|first6Lynne S. \|date2012-05-12 \|titlepH-Induced Precipitation Behavior of Weakly Basic Compounds: Determination of Extent and Duration of Supersaturation Using Potentiometric Titration and Correlation to Solid State Properties \|journalPharmaceutical Research \|languageen \|volume29 \|issue10 \|pages2738–2753 \|doi10.1007/s11095-012-0759-8 \|issn0724-8741 \|pmid22580905 \|s2cid15502736}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Dengale \|first1Swapnil Jayant \|last2Grohganz \|first2Holger \|last3Rades \|first3Thomas \|last4Löbmann \|first4Korbinian \|dateMay 2016 \|titleRecent Advances in Co-amorphous Drug Formulations \|journalAdvanced Drug Delivery Reviews \|volume100 \|pages116–125 \|doi10.1016/j.addr.2015.12.009 \|issn0169-409X \|pmid26805787}}</ref> Studies of GDC-0810 ASDs show a strong interrelationship between microstructure, physical properties and dissolution performance.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastJia \|firstWei \|last2Yawman \|first2Phillip D. \|last3Pandya \|first3Keyur M. \|last4Sluga \|first4Kellie \|last5Ng \|first5Tania \|last6Kou \|first6Dawen \|last7Nagapudi \|first7Karthik \|last8Luner \|first8Paul E. \|last9Zhu \|first9Aiden \|last10Zhang \|first10Shawn \|last11Hou \|first11Hao Helen \|date2022-12-01 \|titleAssessing the Interrelationship of Microstructure, Properties, Drug Release Performance, and Preparation Process for Amorphous Solid Dispersions Via Noninvasive Imaging Analytics and Material Characterization \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11095-022-03308-9 \|journalPharmaceutical Research \|languageen \|volume39 \|issue12 \|pages3137–3154 \|doi10.1007/s11095-022-03308-9 \|issn1573-904X}}</ref> In soils Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials.<ref>{{cite book \|titleEncyclopedia of Soil Science \|publisherMarcel Dekker \|pages93–94}}</ref> Phase Amorphous phases were a phenomenon of particular interest for the study of thin-film growth.<ref>{{cite journal \| title Electronic Structure and Chemical Bonding of Amorphous Chromium Carbide Thin Films\| first1 Martin\| last1 Magnuson\| first2 Matilda\| last2 Andersson\| first3 Jun\| last3 Lu\| first4 Lars\| last4 Hultman\| first5 Ulf\| last5 Jansson\| year 2012\| journal J. Phys. Condens. Matter\| volume 24\| issue 22\| page 225004\| doi 10.1088/0953-8984/24/22/225004\| pmid 22553115\| arxiv 1205.0678 \| bibcode 2012JPCM...24v5004M \| s2cid13135386 }}</ref> The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films.{{efn\|An initial amorphous layer was observed in many studies of thin polycrystalline silicon films.}}<ref nameBirk2001>{{cite journal \| first1 M.\| last1 Birkholz\| first2 B.\| last2 Selle\| first3 W.\| last3 Fuhs\| first4 S.\| last4 Christiansen\| first5 H. P.\| last5 Strunk\| first6 R.\| last6 Reich\| title Amorphous-crystalline phase transition during the growth of thin films: The case of microcrystalline silicon\| journal Phys. Rev. B\| volume 64\| issue 8\| pages 085402\| year 2001\| doi 10.1103/PhysRevB.64.085402\| bibcode 2001PhRvB..64h5402B\| url http://www.mariobirkholz.de/PRB2001.pdf\| url-status live\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100331052038/http://www.mariobirkholz.de/PRB2001.pdf\| archive-date 2010-03-31}}</ref> Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald's rule of stages<ref nameOstw1897>{{cite journal \| first Wilhelm\|last Ostwald\|author-link Wilhelm Ostwald\|title Studien über die Bildung und Umwandlung fester Körper\|language de\|journal Z. Phys. Chem.\|volume 22\|pages 289–330\|year 1897\| doi 10.1515/zpch-1897-2233\| s2cid100328323 \|url https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Ostwald_-_Studien_%C3%BCber_die_Bildung_und_Umwandlung_fester_K%C3%B6rper.pdf\| url-status live\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170308043723/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Ostwald_-_Studien_%C3%BCber_die_Bildung_und_Umwandlung_fester_K%C3%B6rper.pdf\| archive-date 2017-03-08}}</ref> that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability.<ref name"Buck1961"/><ref name"Birk2001"/>{{efn\|Experimental studies of the phenomenon require a clearly defined state of the substrate surface—and its contaminant density, etc.—upon which the thin film is deposited.}} Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book \|authorR. Zallen \|titleThe Physics of Amorphous Solids \|publisherWiley Interscience \|date1969}} * {{cite book \|authorS.R. Elliot \|titleThe Physics of Amorphous Materials \|edition2nd \|publisherLongman \|date=1990}} * {{cite book \|authorA. Zaccone \|titleTheory of Disordered Solids \|publisherSpringer \|date2023}} * {{cite book \|authorN. Cusack \|titleThe Physics of Structurally Disordered Matter: An Introduction \|publisherIOP Publishing \|date1969}} * {{cite book \|editorN.H. March \|editor2R.A. Street \|editor3M.P. Tosi \|titleAmorphous Solids and the Liquid State \|publisherSpringer \|date1969}} * {{cite book \|editorD.A. Adler \|editor2B.B. Schwartz \|editor3M.C. Steele \|titlePhysical Properties of Amorphous Materials \|publisherSpringer \|date1969}} * {{cite book \|editorA. Inoue \|editor2K. Hasimoto \|titleAmorphous and Nanocrystalline Materials \|publisherSpringer \|date=1969}} {{Solid objects}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Solid, Amorphous}} Category:Phases of matter Category:Unsolved problems in physics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solid	2025-04-05T18:26:11.712480
2890	A Wizard of Earthsea	{{short description\|1968 fantasy novel by Ursula K. Le Guin}} {{featured article}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=July 2017}} {{Infobox book \| name = A Wizard of Earthsea \| image = AWizardOfEarthsea(1stEd).jpg \| border = yes \| alt = Book cover featuring Ged \| caption = Robbins cover of first edition \| author = Ursula K. Le Guin \| illustrator Ruth Robbins{{sfn\|Le Guin\|1968\|pTitle page}} \| country = United States \| language = English \| series = Earthsea \| genre = Fantasy, Bildungsroman \| published = 1968 \| publisher Parnassus Press{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|p59}} \| pages 205 (first edition){{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|p59}} \| oclc = 1210 \| congress = PZ7.L5215 Wi \| preceded_by_quotation_marks = The Rule of Names \| followed_by = The Tombs of Atuan }} A Wizard of Earthsea is a fantasy novel written by American author Ursula K. Le Guin and first published by the small press Parnassus in 1968. It is regarded as a classic of children's literature and of fantasy, within which it is widely influential. The story is set in the fictional archipelago of Earthsea and centers on a young mage named Ged, born in a village on the island of Gont. He displays great power while still a boy and joins a school of wizardry, where his prickly nature drives him into conflict with a fellow student. During a magical duel, Ged's spell goes awry and releases a shadow creature that attacks him. The novel follows Ged's journey as he seeks to be free of the creature. The book has often been described as a bildungsroman, or coming-of-age story, as it explores Ged's process of learning to cope with power and come to terms with death. The novel also carries Taoist themes about a fundamental balance in the universe of Earthsea, which wizards are supposed to maintain, closely tied to the idea that language and names have power to affect the material world and alter this balance. The structure of the story is similar to that of a traditional epic, although critics have also described it as subverting this genre in many ways, such as by making the protagonist dark-skinned in contrast to more typical white-skinned heroes. A Wizard of Earthsea received highly positive reviews, initially as a work for children and later among a general audience. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969 and was one of the final recipients of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1979. Margaret Atwood called it one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014}} Le Guin wrote five subsequent books that are collectively referred to as the Earthsea Cycle, together with A Wizard of Earthsea: The Tombs of Atuan (1971), The Farthest Shore (1972), Tehanu (1990), The Other Wind (2001), and Tales from Earthsea (2001). George Slusser described the series as a "work of high style and imagination",{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} while Amanda Craig said that A Wizard of Earthsea was "the most thrilling, wise, and beautiful children's novel ever".{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} Background Early concepts for the Earthsea setting were developed in two short stories, "The Rule of Names" (1964) and "The Word of Unbinding" (1964), both published in Fantastic.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp80–81}} The stories were later collected in {{nowrap\|Le Guin's}} anthology ''The Wind's Twelve Quarters (1975).{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p96}} Earthsea was also used as the setting for a story she wrote in 1965 or 1966, which was never published.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p25}} In 1967, Herman Schein (the publisher of Parnassus Press and the husband of Ruth Robbins, the illustrator of the book)<ref>{{cite journal\|titleHerman Schein\|journalThe Horn Book Magazine\|volume38–39\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVn82AAAAIAAJ\|page562\|date1962}} <!-- This might serve as a starting point to find a better source for this title: {{oclc\|44394875}} Also, here is a link to the index which mentions Schein: https://books.google.com/books?idVn82AAAAIAAJ&qschein --></ref> asked Le Guin to try writing a book "for older kids", giving her complete freedom over the subject and the approach.{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pxi}} She had no previous experience specifically with the genre of young adult literature, which rose in prominence during the late 1960s.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp9–11}} Drawing from her short stories, she began work on A Wizard of Earthsea''. She has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to wondering where they come from.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|Wood\|1980\|p41}} She later said that she chose the medium of fantasy, and the theme of coming of age, with her intended adolescent audience in mind.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p=22}} The short stories published in 1964 introduced the world of Earthsea and important concepts in it, such as Le Guin's treatment of magic. "The Rule of Names" also introduced Yevaud, a dragon who features briefly in A Wizard of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}} Her depiction of Earthsea was influenced by her familiarity with Native American legends as well as Norse mythology.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}}{{sfn\|Spivack\|1984a\|p2}} Her knowledge of myths and legends, as well as her familial interest in anthropology, have been described by scholar Donna White as allowing her to create "entire cultures" for the islands of Earthsea.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp9–11}} The influence of Norse lore in particular can be seen in the characters of the Kargs, who are blonde and blue-eyed, and worship two gods who are brothers.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} The influence of Taoist thought on Le Guin's writing is also visible in the idea of a cosmic "balance".{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} Book Setting ]] Earthsea itself is an archipelago, or group of islands. In the fictional history of this world, the islands were raised from the ocean by a being called Segoy. The world is inhabited by both humans and dragons, and most or all humans have some innate magical gift, some are more gifted sorcerers or wizards.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p8}} The world is shown as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp9–10}} Earthsea is pre-industrial and has diverse cultures within the widespread archipelago. Most of the characters are of the Hardic peoples, who are dark-skinned, and who populate most of the islands.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}} Four large eastern islands are inhabited by the white-skinned Kargish people, who despise magic and see the Hardic folk as evil sorcerers: the Kargs, in turn, are viewed by the Hardic people as barbarians. The far western regions of the archipelago are the realm of the dragons.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}} Plot summary {{Quote box \| quote= "Only in silence the word, <br/> only in dark the light, <br/> only in dying life: <br/> bright the hawk's flight <br/> on the empty sky." \| sourceFrom the Creation of Éa, with which A Wizard of Earthsea begins.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2012}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p87}} \| align=right \| width=14em }} The novel follows a young boy called Duny, nicknamed "Sparrowhawk", born on the island of Gont. Discovering that the boy has great innate power, his aunt, a witch, teaches him the little magic she knows.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}} When his village is attacked by Kargish raiders, Duny summons a fog to conceal the village and its inhabitants, enabling the residents to drive off the Kargs.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} Hearing of this, the powerful mage Ogion takes him as an apprentice, and later gives him his "true name"—Ged.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}} Ogion tries to teach Ged about the "equilibrium", the concept that magic can upset the natural order of the world if used improperly. In an attempt to impress a girl, however, Ged searches Ogion's spell books and inadvertently summons a strange shadow, which has to be banished by Ogion. Sensing Ged's eagerness to act and impatience with his slow teaching methods, Ogion asks if he would rather go to the renowned school for wizards on the island of Roke. Ged loves Ogion, but decides to go to the school. At the school, Ged meets Jasper, and is immediately on bad terms with him. He is befriended by an older student named Vetch, but generally remains aloof from anyone else. Ged's skills inspire admiration from teachers and students alike. He finds a small creature—an otak, named Hoeg, and keeps it as a pet. During a festival, Jasper acts condescendingly towards Ged, provoking the latter's proud nature. Ged challenges him to a duel of magic,{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} and casts a powerful spell intended to raise the spirit of a legendary dead woman. The spell goes awry and instead releases a shadow creature, which attacks him and scars his face. The Archmage Nemmerle drives the shadow away, but at the cost of his life.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}} Ged spends many months healing before resuming his studies. The new Archmage, Gensher, describes the shadow as an ancient evil that wishes to possess Ged, and warns him that the creature has no name. Ged eventually graduates and receives his wizard's staff.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} He then takes up residence in the Ninety Isles, providing the poor villagers protection from the dragons that have seized and taken up residence on the nearby island of Pendor, but discovers that he is still being sought by the shadow. Knowing that he cannot guard against both threats at the same time, he sails to Pendor and gambles his life on a guess of the adult dragon's true name. When he is proved right, the dragon offers to tell him the name of the shadow, but Ged instead extracts a promise that the dragon and his offspring will never threaten the archipelago. Chased by the shadow, Ged flees to Osskil, having heard of the stone of the Terrenon. He is attacked by the shadow, and barely escapes into the Court of Terrenon. Serret, the lady of the castle, and the same girl that Ged had tried to impress, shows him the stone, and urges Ged to speak to it, claiming it can give him limitless knowledge and power. Recognizing that the stone harbors one of the Old Powers—ancient, powerful, malevolent beings—Ged refuses. He flees and is pursued by the stone's minions, but transforms into a swift falcon and escapes as Serret, having taken the form of a gull, is killed. Ged also loses his otak to the shadow. Ged flies back to Ogion on Gont. Unlike Gensher, Ogion insists that all creatures have a name and advises Ged to confront the shadow.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} Ogion is proved right; when Ged seeks out the shadow, it flees from him. Ged pursues it in a small sailboat, until it lures him into a fog where the boat is wrecked on a reef. Ged recovers with the help of an elderly couple marooned on a small island since they were children; the woman gives Ged part of a broken bracelet as a gift. Ged patches his boat and resumes his pursuit of the creature into the East Reach. On the island of Iffish, he meets his friend Vetch, who insists on joining him.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}} They journey east far beyond the last known lands before they finally come upon the shadow. Naming it with his own name, Ged merges with it and joyfully tells Vetch he is healed and whole.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|pp98–99}} Illustrations The first edition of the book, published in 1968, was illustrated by Ruth Robbins. The cover illustration was in color, and the interior of the book contained a map of the archipelago of Earthsea. In addition, each chapter had a black-and-white illustration by Robbins, similar to a woodcut image. The images represented topics from each chapter; for instance, the very first image depicted the island of Gont, while the illustration for the chapter "The Dragon of Pendor" pictured a flying dragon. The image shown here depicts Ged sailing in his boat Lookfar, and was used in the 10th chapter, "The Open Sea", in which Ged and Vetch travel from Iffish eastward past all known lands to confront the shadow creature.PublicationA Wizard of Earthsea was first published in 1968 by Parnassus Press in Berkeley,{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|p59}} a year before The Left Hand of Darkness, Le Guin's watershed work.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–33}} It was a personal landmark for Le Guin, as it represented her first attempt at writing for children; she had written only a handful of other novels and short stories prior to its publication.{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} The book was also her first attempt at writing fantasy, rather than science fiction.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pxi}}{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} A Wizard of Earthsea was the first of {{nowrap\|Le Guin's}} books to receive widespread critical attention,{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p5}} and has been described as her best known work, as part of the Earthsea series.{{sfn\|Clute\|Grant\|1997\|p573}} The book has been released in numerous editions, including an illustrated Folio Society edition released in 2015.{{sfn\|Mitchell\|2015}} It was also translated into a number of other languages.<ref>{{cite web\|titleA Wizard of Earthsea\|websiteBuffalo and Erie County Public Library \|urlhttps://www.buffalolib.org/vufind/Record/906657/Reviews\|access-dateSeptember 12, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160920164152/https://www.buffalolib.org/vufind/Record/906657/Reviews \|archive-dateSeptember 20, 2016\|url-status=dead}}</ref> An omnibus edition of all of Le Guin's Earthsea works was released on the 50th anniversary of the publication of A Wizard of Earthsea in 2018.{{sfn\|Flood\|2016}} Le Guin originally intended for A Wizard of Earthsea to be a standalone novel, but decided to write a sequel after considering the loose ends in the first book, and The Tombs of Atuan was released in 1971. The Farthest Shore was written as a third volume after further consideration, and was published in 1972.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp80–81}}{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p9, 24}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p95}} The Tombs of Atuan tells of the story of Ged's attempt to make whole the ring of Erreth Akbe, half of which is buried in the tombs of Atuan in the Kargish lands, from where he must steal it. There, he meets the child priestess Tenar, on whom the book focuses.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp80–81}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p95}} In The Farthest Shore, Ged, who has become Archmage, tries to combat a dwindling of magic across Earthsea, accompanied by Arren, a young prince.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp80–81}} The first three books are together seen as the "original trilogy";{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp80–81}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p95}}{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p9}} in each of these, Ged is shown as trying to heal some imbalance in the world.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p95}} They were followed by Tehanu (1990), Tales from Earthsea (2001), and The Other Wind (2001), which are sometimes referred to as the "second trilogy".{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p95}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp6, 7, 89, 96}} Reception As children's literature Initial recognition for the book was from children's-book critics, among whom it garnered acclaim.{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p81}} A Wizard of Earthsea received an even more positive response in the United Kingdom when it was released there in 1971, which, according to White, reflected the greater admiration of British critics for children's fantasy.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p11}} In her 1975 annotated collection Fantasy for Children, British critic Naomi Lewis described it in the following terms: "[It is not] the easiest book for casual browsing, but readers who take the step will find themselves in one of the most important works of fantasy of our time."{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} Similarly, literary scholar Margaret Esmonde wrote in 1981 that "Le Guin has&nbsp;... enriched children's literature with what may be its finest high fantasy",{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} while a review in The Guardian by author and journalist Amanda Craig said it was "The most thrilling, wise and beautiful children's novel ever, [written] in prose as taut and clean as a ship's sail."{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} In discussing the book for a gathering of children's librarians, Eleanor Cameron praised the world building in the story, saying "it is as if [Le Guin] herself has lived on the archipelago."{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p12}} Author David Mitchell called the titular character Ged a "superb creation", and argued that he was a more relatable wizard than those featured in prominent works of fantasy at the time. According to him, characters such as Gandalf were "variants on the archetype of Merlin, a Caucasian scholarly aristocrat amongst sorcerers" with little room to grow, whereas Ged developed as a character through his story.{{sfn\|Mitchell\|2015}} Mitchell also praised the other characters in the story, who he said seemed to have a "fully thought-out inner life" despite being fleeting presences.{{sfn\|Mitchell\|2015}} The 1995 Encyclopedia of Science Fiction said that the Earthsea books had been considered the finest science fiction books for children in the post-World War II period.{{sfn\|Nicholls\|1995a}}As fantasy {{further\|Tolkien's impact on fantasy#Le Guin}} Commentators have noted that the Earthsea novels in general received less critical attention because they were considered children's books. Le Guin herself took exception to this treatment of children's literature, describing it as "adult chauvinist piggery".{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} In 1976, literary scholar George Slusser criticized the "silly publication classification designating the original series as 'children's literature{{'"}}.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p96}} Barbara Bucknall stated that "Le Guin was not writing for young children when she wrote these fantasies, nor yet for adults. She was writing for 'older kids.' But in fact she can be read, like Tolkien, by ten-year-olds and by adults. These stories are ageless because they deal with problems that confront us at any age."{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p96}} Only in later years did A Wizard of Earthsea receive attention from a more general audience.{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} Literary scholar Tom Shippey was among the first to treat A Wizard of Earthsea as serious literature, assuming in his analysis of the volume that it belonged alongside works by C. S. Lewis and Fyodor Dostoevsky, among others.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p=23}} Margaret Atwood said that she saw the book as "a fantasy book for adults",{{sfn\|Russell\|2014}} and added that the book could be categorized as either young adult fiction or as fantasy, but since it dealt with themes such as "life and mortality and who are we as human beings", it could be read and enjoyed by anybody older than twelve.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014}} The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction echoed this view, saying the series's appeal went "far beyond" the young adults for whom it was written.{{sfn\|Nicholls\|1995a}} It went on to praise the book as "austere but vivid", and said the series was more thoughtful than the Narnia books by C. S. Lewis.{{sfn\|Nicholls\|1995b}} In his 1980 history of fantasy, Brian Attebery called the Earthsea trilogy "the most challenging and richest American fantasy to date".{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p37}} Slusser described the Earthsea cycle as a "work of high style and imagination",{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} and the original trilogy of books a product of "genuine epic vision".{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p86}} In 1974, critic Robert Scholes compared Le Guin's work favorably to that of C. S. Lewis, saying, "Where C. S. Lewis worked out a specifically Christian set of values, Ursula LeGuin works not with a theology but with an ecology, a cosmology, a reverence for the universe as a self-regulating structure."{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} He added that Le Guin's three Earthsea novels were themselves a sufficient legacy for anybody to leave.{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}} In 2014, David Pringle called it "a beautiful story—poetic, thrilling, and profound".{{sfn\|Pringle\|2014\|locchpt. 39}} Accolades A Wizard of Earthsea won or contributed to several awards for Le Guin. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969,{{sfn\|Esmonde\|1981}}<ref>{{cite web\|websiteThe Horn Book\|titleBoston Globe–Horn Book Awards – Winners and Honor Books 1967 to 2011 \|urlhttp://archive.hbook.com/bghb/past/past.asp \|access-dateNovember 10, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111019092012/http://archive.hbook.com/bghb/past/past.asp \|archive-dateOctober 19, 2011 \|url-status dead}}</ref> and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award ten years later.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p5}} In 1984 it won the {{Interlanguage link\|Złota Sepulka\|pl}} or the "Golden Sepulka" in Poland.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Amenta \|first1Alessandro \|titleThe Polish Translation of A Wizard of Earthsea by Ursula K. Le Guin \|journalKwartalnik Neofilologiczny \|dateFebruary 2023 \|volumeLXX \|doi10.24425/kn.2023.146546}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://sfif.republika.pl/awards/Zlota_Sepulka_win.html \|titleGold Sepulka \|websitesfif.republika\|access-dateSeptember 12, 2016}}{{deadlink\|dateFebruary 2020}}</ref> In 2000 Le Guin was given the Margaret A. Edwards Award by the American Library Association for young adult literature. The award cited six of her works, including the first four Earthsea volumes, The Left Hand of Darkness, and The Beginning Place.<ref>{{cite web \|titleUrsula K. Le Guin Named a Grand Master in 2002\|urlhttp://nebulas.sfwa.org/grand-masters/ursula-k-le-guin/\|websiteNebula Awards \|publisherScience Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America\|access-dateJuly 25, 2017}}</ref> A 1987 poll in Locus ranked A Wizard of Earthsea third among "All-Time Best Fantasy Novels", while in 2014 Pringle listed it at number 39 in his list of the 100 best novels in modern fantasy.{{sfn\|Pringle\|2014\|loc39}} Influence The book has been seen as widely influential within the genre of fantasy. Margaret Atwood has called A Wizard of Earthsea one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature.{{sfn\|Russell\|2014}} The book has been compared to major works of high fantasy such as J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}}{{sfn\|Kuznets\|1985}} and L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The notion that names can exert power is also present in Hayao Miyazaki's 2001 film Spirited Away; critics have suggested that that idea originated with Le Guin's Earthsea series.{{sfn\|Reider\|2005}} Novelist David Mitchell, author of books such as Cloud Atlas, described A Wizard of Earthsea as having a strong influence on him, and said that he felt a desire to "wield words with the same power as Ursula Le Guin".{{sfn\|Kerridge\|2015}} Modern writers have credited A Wizard of Earthsea for introducing the idea of a "wizard school", which would later be made famous by the Harry Potter series of books,{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} and with popularizing the trope of a boy wizard, also present in Harry Potter.{{sfn\|Power\|2016}} Reviewers have also commented that the basic premise of A Wizard of Earthsea, that of a talented boy going to a wizard's school and making an enemy with whom he has a close connection, is also the premise of Harry Potter.{{sfn\|Power\|2016}} Ged also receives a facial scar from the shadow, as Harry Potter does from Voldemort. Commenting on the similarity, Le Guin said that she did not feel that J. K. Rowling "ripped her off", but that Rowling's books received too much praise for supposed originality, and that Rowling "could have been more gracious about her predecessors. My incredulity was at the critics who found the first book wonderfully original. She has many virtues, but originality isn't one of them. That hurt."{{sfn\|Jaggi\|2005}} Themes Coming of age A Wizard of Earthsea focuses on Ged's adolescence and coming of age,{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p80}} and along with the other two works of the original Earthsea trilogy forms a part of Le Guin's dynamic portrayal of the process of growing old.{{sfn\|Spivack\|1984b}} The three novels together follow Ged from youth to old age, and each of them also follow the coming of age of a different character.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p9}} The novel is frequently described as a Bildungsroman.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p91}} Scholar Mike Cadden stated that the book is a convincing tale "to a reader as young and possibly as headstrong as Ged, and therefore sympathetic to him".{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p91}} Ged's coming of age is also intertwined with the physical journey he undertakes through the novel.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p99}} Ged is depicted as proud and yet unsure of himself in multiple situations: early in his apprenticeship he believes Ogion to be mocking him, and later, at Roke, feels put upon by Jasper. In both cases, he believes that others do not appreciate his greatness, and Le Guin's sympathetic narration does not immediately contradict this belief.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp92–93}} Cadden writes that Le Guin allows young readers to sympathize with Ged, and only gradually realize that there is a price to be paid for his actions,{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp92–93}} as he learns to discipline his magical powers.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p30}} Similarly, as Ged begins his apprenticeship with Ogion, he imagines that he will be taught mysterious aspects of wizardry, and has visions of transforming himself into other creatures, but gradually comes to see that Ogion's important lessons are those about his own self.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p97}}{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp=31–32}} The passage at the end of the novel, wherein Ged finally accepts the shadow as a part of himself and is thus released from its terror, has been pointed to by reviewers as a rite of passage. Jeanne Walker, for example, wrote that the rite of passage at the end was an analogue for the entire plot of A Wizard of Earthsea, and that the plot itself plays the role of a rite of passage for an adolescent reader.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp99–100}}{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp34–35}} Walker goes on to say, "The entire action of A Wizard of Earthsea&nbsp;... portrays the hero's slow realization of what it means to be an individual in society and a self in relation to higher powers."{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp99–100}} Many readers and critics have commented on similarities between Ged's process of growing up and ideas in Jungian psychology. The young Ged has a scary encounter with a shadow creature, which he later realizes is the dark side of himself. It is only after he recognizes and merges with the shadow that he becomes a whole person.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp28–29}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p100}} Le Guin said that she had never read Jung before writing the Earthsea novels.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp28–29}}{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p=17}} Le Guin described coming of age as the main theme of the book, and wrote in a 1973 essay that she chose that theme since she was writing for an adolescent audience. She stated that "Coming of age&nbsp;... is a process that took me many years; I finished it, so far as I ever will, at about age thirty-one; and so I feel rather deeply about it. So do most adolescents. It's their main occupation, in fact."{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p22}} She also said that fantasy was best suited as a medium for describing coming of age, because exploring the subconscious was difficult using the language of "rational daily life".{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p22}} The coming of age that Le Guin focused on included not just psychological development, but moral changes as well.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p24}} Ged needs to recognize the balance between his power and his responsibility to use it well, a recognition which comes as he travels to the stone of Terrenon and sees the temptation that that power represents.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p99}} Equilibrium and Taoist themes The world of Earthsea is depicted as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. This includes an equilibrium between land and sea (implicit in the name Earthsea), and between people and their natural environment.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp9–10}} In addition to physical equilibrium, there is a larger cosmic equilibrium, which everybody is aware of, and which wizards are tasked with maintaining.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp25–26}} Describing this aspect of Earthsea, Elizabeth Cummins wrote, "The principle of balanced powers, the recognition that every act affects self, society, world, and cosmos, is both a physical and a moral principle of Le Guin's fantasy world."{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p26}} The concept of balance is related to the novel's other major theme of coming of age, as Ged's knowledge of the consequences of his own actions for good or ill is necessary for him to understand how the balance is maintained.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|pp28–29}} While at the school of Roke, the Master Hand tells him: {{Blockquote\|But you must not change one thing, one pebble, one grain of sand, until you know what good and evil will follow on that act. The world is in balance, in Equilibrium. A wizard's power of Changing and of Summoning can shake the balance of the world. It is dangerous, that power. It is most perilous. It must follow knowledge, and serve need. To light a candle is to cast a shadow.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}}{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2012\|p51}}{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p32}}}} The influence of Taoism on Le Guin's writing is evident through much of the book, especially in her depiction of the "balance". At the end of the novel, Ged may be seen to embody the Taoist way of life, as he has learned not to act unless absolutely necessary.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} He has also learned that seeming opposites, like light and dark or good and evil, are actually interdependent.{{sfn\|Griffin\|1996}} Light and dark themselves are recurring images within the story.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p37}} Reviewers have identified this belief as evidence of a conservative ideology within the story, shared with much of fantasy. In emphasizing concerns over balance and equilibrium, scholars have argued, Le Guin essentially justifies the status quo, which wizards strive to maintain.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p36}} This tendency is in contrast to Le Guin's science fiction writing, in which change is shown to have value.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p=36}} The nature of human evil forms a significant related theme through A Wizard of Earthsea as well as the other Earthsea novels.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} As with other works by Le Guin, evil is shown as a misunderstanding of the balance of life. Ged is born with great power in him, but the pride that he takes in his power leads to his downfall; he tries to demonstrate his strength by bringing a spirit back from the dead, and in performing this act against the laws of nature, releases the shadow that attacks him.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–36}} Slusser suggests that although he is provoked into performing dangerous spells first by the girl on Gont and then by Jasper, this provocation exists in Ged's mind. He is shown as unwilling to look within himself and see the pride that drives him to do what he does.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–36}} When he accepts the shadow into himself, he also finally accepts responsibility for his own actions,{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–36}} and by accepting his own mortality he is able to free himself.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|p37}} His companion Vetch describes the moment by saying {{Blockquote\|that Ged had neither lost nor won but, naming the shadow of his death with his own name, had made himself whole: a man: who, knowing his whole true self, cannot be used or possessed by any power other than himself, and whose life therefore is lived for life's sake and never in the service of ruin, or pain, or hatred, or the dark.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2012\|p214}}{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p=37}}}} Thus, although there are several dark powers in Earthsea (like the stone of Terrenon and the Nameless Ones of Atuan), the true evil was not one of these powers, or even death, but Ged's actions that went against the balance of nature.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp37–38}} This is contrary to conventional Western and Christian storytelling, in which light and darkness are often considered opposites, and are seen as symbolizing good and evil, which are constantly in conflict.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p34}}{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p18}} On two different occasions, Ged is tempted to try to defy death and evil, but eventually learns that neither can be eliminated: instead, he chooses not to serve evil, and stops denying death.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p36}} True names In Le Guin's fictional universe, to know the true name of an object or a person is to have power over it.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p96}}{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|p37}} Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p27}} Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p96}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp108–109}} In A Wizard of Earthsea, however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp108–109}} Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin's depiction of a cosmic balance. According to Cummins, this is Le Guin's way of demonstrating the power of language in shaping reality. Since language is the tool we use for communicating about the environment, she argues that it also allows humans to affect the environment, and the wizards' power to use names symbolizes this.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p11}} Cummins went on to draw an analogy between the wizards' use of names to change things with the creative use of words in fictional writing.{{sfn\|Cummins\|1990\|p27}} Shippey wrote that Earthsea magic seems to work through what he called the "Rumpelstiltskin theory", in which names have power. He argued that this portrayal was part of Le Guin's effort to emphasize the power of words over objects, which, according to Shippey, was in contrast to the ideology of other writers, such as James Frazer in The Golden Bough.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp21–22}} Esmonde argued that each of the first three Earthsea books hinged on an act of trust. In A Wizard of Earthsea, Vetch trusts Ged with his true name when the latter is at his lowest ebb emotionally, thus giving Ged complete power over him. Ged later offers Tenar the same gift in The Tombs of Atuan, thereby allowing her to learn trust.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp28–29}} Style and structure Language and mood A Wizard of Earthsea and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin's early Hainish cycle works, although they were written at a similar time.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the "excessive pessimism" of the Hainish novels.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as "Vaster than Empires and More Slow".{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction said the book was pervaded by a "grave joyfulness".{{sfn\|Nicholls\|1995b}} In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be clear and direct with language, because there is no known framework for the reader's mind to rest upon.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp32–35}} The story often appears to assume that readers are familiar with the geography and history of Earthsea, a technique which allowed Le Guin to avoid exposition:{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp86–88}} a reviewer wrote that this method "gives Le Guin's world the mysterious depths of Tolkien's, but without his tiresome back-stories and versifying".{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} In keeping with the notion of an epic, the narration switches from looking ahead into Ged's future and looking back into the past of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp86–88}} At the same time, Slusser described the mood of the novel as "strange and dreamlike", fluctuating between objective reality and the thoughts in Ged's mind; some of Ged's adversaries are real, while others are phantoms.{{sfn\|Slusser\|1976\|pp35–38}} This narrative technique, which Cadden characterizes as "free indirect discourse", makes the narrator of the book seem sympathetic to the protagonist, and does not distance his thoughts from the reader.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp91–93}} Myth and epic A Wizard of Earthsea has strong elements of an epic; for instance, Ged's place in Earthsea history is described at the very beginning of the book in the following terms: "some say the greatest, and surely the greatest voyager, was the man called Sparrowhawk, who in his day became both dragonlord and Archmage."{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp86–88}} The story also begins with words from the Earthsea song "The Creation of Éa", which forms a ritualistic beginning to the book.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp86–88}} The teller of the story then goes on to say that it is from Ged's youth, thereby establishing context for the rest of the book.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|pp86–88}} In comparison with the protagonists of many of Le Guin's other works, Ged is superficially a typical hero, a mage who sets out on a quest.{{sfn\|Rochelle\|2001\|p48}} Reviewers have compared A Wizard of Earthsea to epics such as Beowulf.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p24}} Scholar Virginia White argued that the story followed a structure common to epics in which the protagonist begins an adventure, faces trials along the way, and eventually returns in triumph. White went on to suggest that this structure can be seen in the series as a whole, as well as in the individual volumes.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp32–33}} Le Guin subverted many of the tropes typical to such "monomyths"; the protagonists of her story were all dark-skinned, in comparison to the white-skinned heroes more traditionally used; the Kargish antagonists, in contrast, were white-skinned, a switching of race roles that has been remarked upon by multiple critics.{{sfn\|Kuznets\|1985}}{{sfn\|Rochelle\|2001\|pp48, 53}}{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p92}} Critics have also cited her use of characters from multiple class backgrounds as a choice subversive to conventional Western fantasy.{{sfn\|Bernardo\|Murphy\|2006\|p92}} At the same time, reviewers questioned Le Guin's treatment of gender in A Wizard of Earthsea, and the original trilogy as a whole. Le Guin, who later became known as a feminist, chose to restrict the use of magic to men and boys in the first volume of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Craig\|2003}} Initial critical reactions to A Wizard of Earthsea saw Ged's gender as incidental.{{sfn\|Nodelman\|1995\|p182}} In contrast, The Tombs of Atuan saw Le Guin intentionally tell a female coming-of-age story, which was nonetheless described as perpetuating a male-dominated model of Earthsea.{{sfn\|Butler\|2012}} Tehanu (1990), published as the fourth volume of Earthsea 18 years after the third, has been described both by Le Guin and her commentators as a feminist re-imagining of the series, in which the power and status of the chief characters are reversed, and the patriarchal social structure questioned.{{sfn\|Hollindale\|2003}}{{sfn\|Hatfield\|1993\|p43}}{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p98}} Commenting in 1993, Le Guin wrote that she could not continue [Earthsea after 1972] until she had "wrestled with the angels of the feminist consciousness".{{sfn\|Hollindale\|2003}} Several critics have argued that by combining elements of epic, Bildungsroman, and young adult fiction, Le Guin succeeded in blurring the boundaries of conventional genres.{{sfn\|Cadden\|2005\|p99}} In a 1975 commentary Francis Molson argued that the series should be referred to as "ethical fantasy", a term which acknowledged that the story did not always follow the tropes of heroic fantasy, and the moral questions that it raised. The term did not become popular.{{sfn\|White\|1999\|pp25–27}} A similar argument was made by children's literature critic Cordelia Sherman in 1985; she argued that A Wizard of Earthsea and the rest of the series sought "to teach children by dramatic example what it means to be a good adult".{{sfn\|White\|1999\|p38}} Adaptations A condensed, illustrated version of the first chapter was printed by World Book in the third volume of Childcraft in 1989.<ref>{{cite book\|titleChildcraft: Stories and poems\|year1989\|publisherWorld Book, Inc.\|pages176–187\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyzkKAAAAIAAJ&qEarthsea\|chapterThe Boy Who Became A Wizard\|isbn9780716601890}}</ref> Multiple audio versions of the book have been released. BBC Radio produced a radioplay version in 1996 narrated by Judi Dench,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00pfpcm \|titleA Wizard of Earthsea \|websiteBBC\|dateJanuary 5, 2011\|publisherBBC Player Radio\|access-dateJuly 10, 2011}}</ref> and a six-part series adapting the Earthsea novels in 2015, broadcast on Radio 4 Extra.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05pktp7\|titleEarthsea\|websiteBBC\|publisherBBC Player Radio\|access-dateJuly 29, 2015\|dateMay 6, 2015}}</ref> In 2011, the work was produced as an unabridged recording performed by Robert Inglis.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2011}}{{sfn\|Le Guin\|1992}} Two screen adaptations of the story have also been produced. An original mini-series titled Legend of Earthsea was broadcast in 2004 on the Sci Fi Channel. It is based very loosely on A Wizard of Earthsea and The Tombs of Atuan. In an article published in Salon, Le Guin expressed strong displeasure at the result. She stated that by casting a "petulant white kid" as Ged (who has red-brown skin in the book) the series "whitewashed Earthsea", and had ignored her choice to write the story of a non-white character, a choice she said was central to the book.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2004}} This sentiment was shared by a review in The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy, which said that Legend of Earthsea "totally missed the point" of Le Guin's novels, "ripping out all the subtlety, nuance and beauty of the books and inserting boring cliches, painful stereotypes and a very unwelcome 'epic' war in their place".{{sfn\|Pringle\|2006\|p=145}} Studio Ghibli released an adaptation of the series in 2006 titled Tales from Earthsea.{{sfn\|Hairston\|2010\|p183}} The film very loosely combines elements of the first, third, and fourth books into a new story. Le Guin commented with displeasure on the film-making process, saying that she had acquiesced to the adaptation believing Hayao Miyazaki would be producing the film himself, which was eventually not the case. Le Guin praised the imagery of the film, but disliked the use of violence. She also expressed dissatisfaction with the portrayal of morality, and in particular the use of a villain who could be slain as a means of resolving conflict, which she said was antithetical to the message of the book.{{sfn\|Le Guin\|2006}} The film received generally mixed responses.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gedo_senki_tales_from_earthsea\|titleGedo Senki (Tales From Earthsea) \|websiteRotten Tomatoes\|dateAugust 13, 2010 \|access-dateJuly 7, 2017}}</ref> References {{reflist\|20em}} Bibliography {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \| titleUrsula K. Le Guin: A Critical Companion\| last1Bernardo \| first1Susan M. \| last2Murphy \| first2 Graham J. \| publisherGreenwood Press\| locationWestport, Connecticut, US \| year2006 \| isbn = 0-313-33225-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia \|last1Butler \|first1Catherine \|titleModern Children's Fantasy \|date2012 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|pages224–235 \|encyclopediaThe Cambridge Companion to Fantasy Literature \|editor1-lastJames \|editor1-firstEdward \|editor2-firstFarah \|editor2-lastMendlesohn \|doi10.1017/CCOL9780521429597.021 \|isbn978-0521429597 \|locationCambridge, UK \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvR71BRGgLzIC }} * {{cite book \|titleUrsula K. Le Guin Beyond Genre: Fiction for Children and Adults\|lastCadden\|firstMike\| publisherRoutledge\|locationNew York City, New York, US\|year2005 \|isbn = 0-415-99527-2}} * {{cite book\|last1Clute\|first1John\|last2Grant\|first2John\|titleThe Encyclopedia of Fantasy\|locationLondon, UK\|publisherOrbit Books\|year1997\|isbn978-1-85723-368-1\|urlhttp://sf-encyclopedia.uk/fe.php?id0&nmintroduction_to_the_online_text\|access-dateJuly 28, 2017\|archive-dateAugust 25, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170825202359/http://sf-encyclopedia.uk/fe.php?id0&nmintroduction_to_the_online_text\|url-statusdead}} * {{cite news\|lastCraig\|firstAmanda\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/sep/24/buildingachildrenslibrary.booksforchildrenandteenagers\|titleClassic of the month: A Wizard of Earthsea\|workThe Guardian\|dateSeptember 24, 2003\|access-date=November 10, 2014}} * {{cite book\|lastCummins\|firstElizabeth\|titleUnderstanding Ursula K. Le Guin\|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press\|year1990\|isbn978-0-87249-687-3\|locationColumbia, South Carolina, US\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/understandingurs0000cumm}} * {{cite journal\|lastEsmonde\|firstMargaret P.\|titleThe Good Witch of the West\|journalChildren's Literature\|year1981\|volume9\|pages185–190\|publisherThe Johns Hopkins University Press\|doi10.1353/chl.0.0112\|s2cid144926089 }} * {{cite news\|titleUrsula K Le Guin to publish Earthsea story in print for first time\|workThe Guardian\|lastFlood\|firstAlison\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jul/15/ursula-k-le-guin-to-publish-earthsea-story-in-print-for-first-time\|dateJuly 15, 2016\|access-date=September 13, 2016}} * {{cite journal\|lastGriffin\|firstJan M.\|titleUrsula LeGuin's Magical World of Earthsea\|journalThe ALAN Review\|doi10.21061/alan.v23i3.a.5\|volume23\|issue3\|dateSpring 1996}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|titleThe Reluctant Messiah: Miyazaki Hayao's Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind Manga\|pages173–185\|encyclopediaManga: An Anthology of Global and Cultural Perspectives\|lastHairston\|firstMarc\|editor-lastJohnson-Woods\|editor-firstToni\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idisqoAwAAQBAJ\|publisherBloomsbury Publishing\|year2010\|isbn978-1441107879\|location=London, UK}} * {{cite journal \|last1Hatfield \|first1Len \|titleFrom Master to Brother: Shifting the Balance of Authority in Ursula K. Le Guin's Farthest Shore and Tehanu \|journalChildren's Literature \|date1993 \|volume21 \|issue1 \|pages43–65 \|doi10.1353/chl.0.0516 \|viaProject MUSE \|hdl10919/25443 \|s2cid144166026 \|urlhttp://hdl.handle.net/10919/25443 \|hdl-accessfree }} * {{cite journal\|last1Hollindale\|first1Peter\|titleThe Last Dragon of Earthsea\|journalChildren's Literature in Education\|dateSeptember 2003\|volume34\|issue3\|pages183–193\|doi10.1023/A:1025390102089\|s2cid160303057}} * {{cite news\|lastJaggi\|firstMaya\|author-linkMaya Jaggi\|titleThe magician\|workGuardian Unlimited\|urlhttp://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/childrenandteens/story/0,6000,1669112,00.html\|access-dateOctober 10, 2006\|locationLondon, UK\|date=December 17, 2005}} * {{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/classic-childrens-books/david-mitchells-favourite-book/\|access-dateSeptember 13, 2016\|titleThe fantasy that inspired David Mitchell\|lastKerridge\|firstJake\|workThe Telegraph\|date=November 17, 2015}} * {{cite journal\|lastKuznets\|firstLois R.\|title'High Fantasy' in America: A Study of Lloyd Alexander, Ursula Le Guin, and Susan Cooper\|journalThe Lion and the Unicorn\|volume9\|pages19–35\|year1985\|doi10.1353/uni.0.0075\|s2cid=143248850}} * {{cite book\|lastLe Guin\|firstUrsula K.\|titleA Wizard of Earthsea\|publisherParnassus Press\|year1968\|locationBerkeley, California, US\|isbn9780395276532\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2RfhAAAAMAAJ\|oclc1210}} * {{cite book\|lastLe Guin \|firstUrsula K. \|othersNarrator: Inglis, Rob \|titleA wizard of Earthsea \|placePrince Frederick, MD\|publisherRecorded Books\|date1992 \|typeaudiobook on cassette\|isbn978-0553262506 \|oclc26816513}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.slate.com/id/2111107/ \|titleA Whitewashed Earthsea – How the Sci Fi Channel wrecked my books \|lastLe Guin \|firstUrsula \|author-linkUrsula K. Le Guin \|workSlate.com \|dateDecember 16, 2004 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2011 }} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ursulakleguin.com/GedoSenkiResponse.html \|titleA First Response to Gedo Senki \|lastLe Guin \|firstUrsula \|year2006 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717214649/http://www.ursulakleguin.com/GedoSenkiResponse.html \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2011 \|websiteursulakleguin.com \|url-statusdead }} * {{cite book\|lastLe Guin \|firstUrsula K. \|othersNarrator: Inglis, Rob \|titleA wizard of Earthsea \|placePrince Frederick, MD\|publisherRecorded Books\|date2011<!-- per the website this is the date TPL 'viewed' the source --> \|typeaudiobook \|isbn978-1449881948\|oclc827683597 \|urlhttp://www.torontopubliclibrary.ca/detail.jsp?EnttRDM3059585&R3059585 \|access-dateFebruary 19, 2020 \|via=Toronto Public Library }}<!--Suggest using {{OCLC\|799120142}}--> * {{cite book\|lastLe Guin\|firstUrsula K.\|titleA Wizard of Earthsea\|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt\|locationNew York City, New York, US\|year2012\|isbn978-0-544-08437-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=hDtjOj5FL8MC}} * {{cite book\|last1Le Guin\|first1Ursula K.\|last2Wood\|first2Susan\|titleThe Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction\|publisherUltramarine publishing\|year1980\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idksOjjuy3issC\|locationLondon, UK\|isbn=9780399504822}} * {{cite news\|lastMitchell\|firstDavid\|titleDavid Mitchell on Earthsea – a rival to Tolkien and George RR Martin\|workThe Guardian\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/david-mitchell-wizard-of-earthsea-tolkien-george-rr-martin\|access-dateJuly 25, 2017\|date=October 23, 2015}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastNicholls\|firstPeter\|editor1-lastClute\|editor1-firstJohn\|editor2-lastNicholls\|editor2-firstPeter\|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\|titleChildren's SF\|pages195–198\|isbn9780312134860\|year1995\|locationNew York City, New York, US\|publisherSt. Martin's Griffin\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNcwnQAAACAAJ\|ref{{harvid\|Nicholls\|1995a}}}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastNicholls\|firstPeter\|editor1-lastClute\|editor1-firstJohn\|editor2-lastNicholls\|editor2-firstPeter\|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\|titleLe Guin, Ursula (Kroeber)\|pages630–634\|isbn9780312134860\|year1995\|locationNew York City, New York, US\|publisherSt. Martin's Griffin\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNcwnQAAACAAJ\|ref{{harvid\|Nicholls\|1995b}}}} * {{cite journal\|firstPerry\|lastNodelman\|titleReinventing the Past: Gender in Ursula K. Le Guin's Tehanu and the Earthsea 'Trilogy'\|journalChildren's Literature\|doi10.1353/chl.0.0246\|volume23\|pages179–201\|year1995\|s2cid145657862 \|viaProject MUSE\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/556760}} * {{cite book\|editor-linkDavid Pringle\|editor-firstDavid\|editor-lastPringle\|titleThe Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy\|locationLondon, UK\|publisherCarlton\|year2006\|isbn1-84442-110-4\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZdfKGgAACAAJ}} * {{cite book\|lastPringle\|firstDavid\|titleModern Fantasy: The 100 Best Novels\|dateSeptember 30, 2014\|publisherHatchette\|locationLondon, UK\|isbn978-1473208063\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=EvhlBAAAQBAJ}} * {{cite news\|lastPower\|firstEd\|titleHarry Potter and the boy wizard tradition\|dateJuly 31, 2016\|urlhttp://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/harry-potter-and-the-boy-wizard-tradition-1.2738955\|access-dateSeptember 13, 2016\|work=Irish Times}} * {{cite journal\|lastReider\|firstNoriko T\|titleSpirited Away: Film of the fantastic and evolving Japanese folk symbols\|journalFilm Criticism\|volume29\|issue3\|year2005\|page4}} * {{cite book\|lastRochelle\|firstWarren G.\|titleCommunities of the Heart\|publisherLiverpool University Press\|locationLiverpool, UK\|year2001\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/communitiesofhea0000roch\|url-accessregistration\|isbn=978-0853238867}} * {{cite news\|lastRussell\|firstAnna\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/wsj-book-club-margaret-atwood-chooses-a-wizard-of-earthsea-1413493430\|titleMargaret Atwood Chooses 'A Wizard of Earthsea'\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|dateOctober 16, 2014\|access-date=November 10, 2014}} * {{cite book\|lastSlusser\|firstGeorge Edgar\|titleThe Farthest Shores of Ursula K. Le Guin\|year1976\|publisherWildside Press\|isbn978-0-89370-205-2\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhsKSNtNpLbcC}} * {{cite book \|titleUrsula K. Le Guin \|lastSpivack \|firstCharlotte \|publisherTwayne Publishers \|locationBoston, Massachusetts, US \|edition1st \|year1984 \|isbn0-8057-7393-2 \|ref{{harvid\|Spivack\|1984a}} \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ursulakleguin00char }} * {{cite journal\|title'Only in Dying, Life': The Dynamics of Old Age in the Fiction of Ursula Le Guin\|lastSpivack\|firstCharlotte\|journalModern Language Studies\|year1984\|volume14\|issue3\|pages43–53 \|jstor3194540 \|doi10.2307/3194540\|ref={{harvid\|Spivack\|1984b}}}} * {{cite book\|lastWhite\|firstDonna\|titleDancing with Dragons: Ursula K. Le Guin and the Critics\|publisherCamden House\|locationColumbia, South Carolina, US\|year1999\|isbn=1-57113-034-9}} {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \| titleUrsula K. Le Guin's A Wizard of Earthsea: A Critical Companion \| lastMiller \| firstTimothy S. \| seriesPalgrave Science Fiction and Fantasy: A New Canon \| publisherPalgrave Macmillan \| locationCham, Switzerland \| edition1st \| year2023 \| doi10.1007/978-3-031-24640-1 \| isbn978-3-031-24639-5 \| s2cid257293086 \| url-accessregistration \| url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24640-1 }} * {{cite book \|titleUrsula K. Le Guin (Modern Critical Views) \|editor-firstHarold \|editor-lastBloom \|publisherChelsea House \|locationNew York City, New York, US \|year1986 \|isbn0-87754-659-2 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ursulakleguin00bloo }} * {{cite book \| titleOf Sorcerers and Men: Tolkien and the Roots of Modern Fantasy Literature \| lastDrout \| author-linkMichael D. C. Drout \| firstMichael \| publisherBarnes & Noble\| locationChina \| edition1st \| year2006 \| isbn=978-0-7607-8523-2}} * {{cite book \| titleA Guide to Fantasy Literature: Thoughts on Stories of Wonder & Enchantment \| lastMartin \| firstPhilip \| publisherCrickhollow Books \| locationMilwaukee, Wisconsin, US \| edition1st \| year2009 \| isbn978-1-933987-04-0 \| url-accessregistration \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/guidetofantasyli0000mart }} * {{cite book \| titleFantasy: The Liberation of Imagination \| lastMathews \| firstRichard \| publisherRoutledge \| locationNew York City, New York, US\| year2002 \| isbn=0-415-93890-2}} {{refend}} External links * {{isfdb title\|7653}} {{Ursula K. Le Guin}} {{portal bar\|Children's literature\|Novels\|Speculative fiction/Fantasy}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Wizard Of Earthsea, A}} Category:Earthsea novels Category:1968 American novels Category:1968 children's books Category:1968 fantasy novels Category:American young adult novels Category:American bildungsromans Category:Books illustrated by Anne Yvonne Gilbert Category:Books illustrated by Ruth Robbins Category:Young adult fantasy novels Category:Novels set on islands Category:Novels set in schools Category:American fantasy novels adapted into films Category:American novels adapted into television shows sv:Övärlden#Trollkarlen från Övärlden	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wizard_of_Earthsea	2025-04-05T18:26:11.746993
2893	Alex Lifeson	{{Short description\|Canadian guitarist (born 1953)}} {{Use Canadian English\|date=May 2016}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = Alex Lifeson \| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals\|countryCAN\|OC\|size=100%}} \| image = TaylorHawkTributeWemb030922 (174 of 281) (52334835950) (cropped).jpg \| caption = Lifeson performing in 2022 \| birth_name = Aleksandar Živojinović \| alias = Lerxst \| birth_date {{Birth date and age\|1953\|08\|27\|dfy}} \| birth_place = Fernie, British Columbia, Canada \| origin = Toronto, Ontario, Canada \| genre = {{flatlist\| * Progressive rock * hard rock * heavy metal }} \| occupations = {{flatlist\| * Musician * songwriter }} \| instruments = Guitar \| years_active = 1963–present \| label = {{flatlist\| * Mercury * Anthem * Atlantic }} \| current_member_of = Envy of None \| past_member_of = {{flatlist\| * Rush * Big Dirty Band }} \| website = {{URL\|alexlifeson.com}} \| spouse = {{married\|Charlene McNicol\|1975}} }} Aleksandar Živojinović (born 27 August 1953), known professionally as Alex Lifeson ({{IPAc-en\|'\|l\|aɪ\|f\|s\|ən}}), is a Canadian musician, best known as the guitarist for the rock band Rush. In 1968, Lifeson co-founded a band that would later become Rush, with drummer John Rutsey and bassist and lead vocalist Jeff Jones. Jones was replaced by Geddy Lee a month later, and Rutsey was replaced by Neil Peart in 1974, after which the lineup remained unchanged until the band's dissolution in 2018. Lifeson was the only member of Rush who stayed in the band throughout its entire existence, and he and Lee were the only members to appear on all of the band's albums. With Rush, Lifeson played electric and acoustic guitar, as well as other various string instruments such as mandola, mandolin, and bouzouki. He also performed backing vocals in live performances and select studio recordings, and occasionally played keyboards and bass pedal synthesizers. Like the other members of Rush, Lifeson performed real-time on-stage triggering of sampled instruments.<ref name"onstagemag.com">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.onstagemag.com/ar/performance_rush_rolls_again/index.htm \|titleRush Rolls Again \|publisherOnstagemag.com \|access-date15 July 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021018005414/http://onstagemag.com/ar/performance_rush_rolls_again/index.htm \|archive-date18 October 2002 }}</ref> Along with his bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart, Lifeson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on 9 May 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured as a group.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.maplemusic.com/artists/rus/bio.asp \|titleRUSH Biography \|publisherMaplemusic.com \|access-date15 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100715180526/http://www.maplemusic.com/artists/rus/bio.asp \|archive-date15 July 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2013, he was inducted with Rush into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.<ref>{{cite magazine\|authorAndy Greene \|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/rush-public-enemy-deep-purple-nominated-for-rock-and-roll-hall-of-fame-100269/ \|titleRush, Public Enemy, Deep Purple Nominated for Rock and Roll Hall of Fame \|magazineRolling Stone \|date4 October 2012 \|access-date30 July 2018}}</ref> Lifeson was ranked 98th on Rolling Stone's list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time<ref name"RollingStonePoll">{{cite magazine\|titleAlex Lifeson - 100 Greatest Guitarists\|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/100-greatest-guitarists-153675/alex-lifeson-39913/\|magazineRolling Stone\|date18 December 2015 \|access-date6 December 2021}}</ref> and third (after Eddie Van Halen and Brian May) in a Guitar World readers' poll listing the 100 greatest guitarists.<ref name"GuitarWorldPoll">{{cite web\|titleReaders Poll Results: The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\|urlhttp://www.guitarworld.com/features-news/readers-poll-results-100-greatest-guitarists-all-time/%0916495\|websiteGuitar World\|access-date2 January 2017\|archive-urlhttp://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522140237/http://www.guitarworld.com/features-news/readers-poll-results-100-greatest-guitarists-all-time/%0916495\|archive-date22 May 2016\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The bulk of Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush, although Lifeson has contributed to a body of work outside the band as well, including a solo album titled Victor (1996). Aside from music, Lifeson has been a painter,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 21, 2020 \|titleAlex Lifeson New Painting For Kidney Foundation Auction \|urlhttps://www.rush.com/alex-lifeson-new-painting-for-kidney-foundation-auction/ \|access-dateSeptember 27, 2022 \|websiteRush.com}}</ref> a licensed aircraft pilot, an actor, and the former part-owner of a Toronto bar and a restaurant called The Orbit Room, which closed in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2021-03-18 \|titleToronto's Orbit Room closed last year after 25 years. Now its owner is calling on everyone who loved the venue to help it reopen \|urlhttps://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2021/03/09/torontos-orbit-room-closed-last-year-after-25-years-now-its-owner-is-calling-on-everyone-who-loved-the-venue-to-help-it-reopen.html \|access-date2022-10-12 \|websitethestar.com \|languageen}}</ref><ref name "vdtsgn">{{cite web \|titleAlex Lifeson Biography \|urlhttp://www.2112.net/xanadu/ \|publisher2112.net \|access-date20 September 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012161412/http://2112.net/xanadu/\| archive-date 12 October 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref>{{bsn\|dateJuly 2022\|reasonSelf-published site, not updated in two decades}}Biography{{Moresources\|section\|dateFebruary 2024}} Early life Lifeson was born Aleksandar Živojinović<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rush.com/band/alex-lifeson/\|titleAlex Lifeson\|publisherRush.com\|access-date3 January 2021}}</ref> (Serbian: Александар Живојиновић) in Fernie, British Columbia. His parents, Nenad and Melanija Živojinović, were Serb immigrants from Yugoslavia. He was raised in Toronto.<ref name "vdtsgn" />{{bsn\|dateJuly 2022\|reasonSelf-published site, not updated in two decades}} His stage surname of "Lifeson" is a calque of his birth surname Živojinović, which can be literally translated into English as "son of life".<ref>Horizon to Horizon [http://rush.robpagano.com/index.php?calex Rob Pagano's Rush Music Tribute] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016132306/http://rush.robpagano.com/index.php?calex \|date=16 October 2007 }} Accessed 7 October 2007</ref> His formal musical education began on the viola, but he abandoned it in favor of the guitar at the age of 12. Lifeson recalls what inspired him to play guitar in a 2008 interview: {{quote\|My brother-in-law played flamenco guitar. He lent his guitar to me and I grew to like it. When you're a kid, you don't want to play an accordion because it would be too boring. But your parents might want you to play one, especially if you're from a Yugoslavian family like me.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleInquirer with Alex Lifeson\|authorJoe Lalaina \|year2008\|journalGuitar Legends}}</ref>}} His first guitar was a Christmas gift from his father, a six-string Kent classical acoustic which was later replaced by an electric Japanese model. During his adolescent years, he was influenced primarily by the likes of Jimi Hendrix, Pete Townshend, Tony Iommi, Jeff Beck, Ritchie Blackmore, Hank Marvin, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Jimmy Page,<ref>Alex Lifeson profile [http://www.epiphone.com/news.asp?NewsID137 Epiphone] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110928151801/http://www.epiphone.com/news.asp?NewsID137 \|date28 September 2011 }} Accessed 31 March 2006</ref> Steve Hackett, Denny Laine, and Allan Holdsworth;<ref>Guitar World Staff (12 January 2012). "[http://www.guitarworld.com/60-minutes-alex-lifeson-and-geddy-lee-rush?page0,10 60 Minutes with Alex Lifeson and Geddy Lee of Rush] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170807072822/http://www.guitarworld.com/60-minutes-alex-lifeson-and-geddy-lee-rush?page0,10 \|date7 August 2017 }}". Guitar Player. New Bay Media. Retrieved 4 February 2012.</ref> he explained in 2011 that "Clapton's solos seemed a little easier and more approachable. I remember sitting at my record player and moving the needle back and forth to get the solo in 'Spoonful.' But there was nothing I could do with Hendrix."<ref namecohen>{{cite news \|titleAlex Lifeson: Rush Keeps Rollin' \|lastCohen \|firstElliot Stephen \|dateSeptember 2011 \|workVintage Guitar \|pages42–44 \|access-date28 August 2013 \|url=http://www.2112.net/powerwindows/transcripts/20110900vintageguitar.htm}}</ref> In 1963, Lifeson met future Rush drummer John Rutsey in school. Both interested in music, they decided to form a band. Lifeson was primarily a self-taught guitarist with the only formal instruction coming from a high school friend in 1971 who taught classical guitar lessons. This training lasted for roughly a year and a half. When Lifeson was 17, he had an argument with his parents about his future; he wanted to drop out of high school to pursue his dream of becoming a professional guitarist. A video of the argument was part of a 1973 Canadian documentary, Come on Children, about the struggles of 10 adolescents. The argument was also included in two documentaries about Rush, Beyond the Lighted Stage (2010) and Time Stand Still (2016).<ref>{{Citation \|titleRush Alex Lifeson and His Parents Argue About His Future \| date17 April 2018 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vM977GFRWDmY \|access-date2023-12-22 \|languageen}}</ref> Lifeson's first girlfriend, Charlene, gave birth to their eldest son, Justin, in October 1970. The couple married in 1975; their second son, Adrian, was born two years later. Adrian is also involved in music, and performed on "At the End" and "The Big Dance" from Lifeson's 1996 solo project, Victor.<ref>{{Cite web \|date12 October 2022 \|titleAlex Lifeson \|urlhttps://taddlr.com/celebrity/alex-lifeson/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180809040943/https://taddlr.com/celebrity/alex-lifeson/ \|archive-date9 August 2018 \|access-date12 October 2022 \|websitetaddlr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date12 October 2022 \|titleVictor \|urlhttps://alexlifeson.com/playlist/victor/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220516083056/https://alexlifeson.com/playlist/victor/ \|archive-date16 May 2022 \|access-date12 October 2022 \|websitealexlifeson}}</ref> Rush , Ahoy, Rotterdam, the Netherlands (27 May 2011).]] Lifeson's neighbour John Rutsey began experimenting on a rented drum kit. In 1968, Lifeson and Rutsey formed The Projection, which disbanded a few months later. In August 1968, following the recruitment of original bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones, Lifeson and Rutsey founded Rush. Geddy Lee, a high school friend of Lifeson, assumed Jones's role soon after.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBanasiewicz \|firstBill \|titleRush Visions: The Official Biography \|publisherOmnibus Press \|year1990 \|isbn 0-7119-1162-2}}</ref> Instrumentally, Lifeson is renowned for his signature riffing, electronic effects and processing, unorthodox chord structures, and the copious arsenal of equipment he has used over the years.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlex Lifeson \|urlhttps://www.dinosaurrockguitar.com/node/32 \|websiteDinosaur Rock Guitar \|access-date24 January 2025}}</ref> Rush was on hiatus for several years starting in 1997 owing to personal tragedies in Neil Peart's life, and Lifeson had not picked up a guitar for at least a year following those events.<ref nameHammond>{{cite journal \|lastHammond \|firstShawn \|titleBack in the limelight: Alex Lifeson and Rush reignite after a five-year hiatus \|journalGuitar Player \|volume38 \|issue8 \|dateAugust 2002 \|publisherNew Bay Media}}</ref> However, after some work in his home studio and on various side projects, Lifeson returned to the studio with Rush to begin work on 2002's Vapor Trails. Vapor Trails is the first Rush album since the 1970s to lack keyboards—as such, Lifeson used over 50 different guitars in what Shawn Hammond of Guitar Player called "his most rabid and experimental playing ever." Geddy Lee was amenable to leaving keyboards off the album due in part to Lifeson's ongoing concern about their use. Lifeson's approach to the guitar tracks for the album eschewed traditional riffs and solos in favour of "tonality and harmonic quality."<ref nameHammond/> During live performances, he used foot pedals to cue various synthesizer, guitar, and backing vocal effects as he played. Victor While the bulk of&nbsp;Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush, his first major outside work was his solo project, Victor, released in 1996. Victor was attributed as a self-titled work (i.e. Victor is attributed as the artist as well as the album title). This was done deliberately as an alternative to issuing the album explicitly under Lifeson's name (although the rerelease on vinyl attributes the album to his name). The title track is from the W.&nbsp;H. Auden poem, also entitled "Victor". Both son Adrian and wife Charlene also contributed to the album. Side projects {{main article\|List of songs recorded by Rush#Alex Lifeson}} Lifeson has also contributed to a body of work outside his involvement with the band in the form of instrumental contributions to other musical outfits. He made a guest appearance on the 1985 Platinum Blonde album Alien Shores performing guitar solos on the songs "Crying Over You" and "Holy Water". Later, in 1990, he appeared on Lawrence Gowan's album Lost Brotherhood to play guitar. In 1995, he guested on two tracks on Tom Cochrane's Ragged Ass Road album and then in 1996 on I Mother Earth's "Like a Girl" from the Scenery and Fish album. In 1997, he appeared on the Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas album. Lifeson played "The Little Drummer Boy" which was released as track 9 on the album.<ref name"Merry Axemas at Allmusic, overview">{{allMusic \| classalbum \| idmw0000463676 \| taboverview \| access-date=23 May 2013 }}</ref> In 2006, Lifeson founded the Big Dirty Band, which he created for the purpose of providing original soundtrack material for Trailer Park Boys: The Movie. Lifeson jammed regularly with the Dexters (the Orbit Room house band from 1994 to 2004). Lifeson made a guest appearance on the 2007 album Fear of a Blank Planet by UK progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, contributing a solo during the song "Anesthetize". He also appeared on the 2008 album Fly Paper by Detroit progressive rockers Tiles. He plays on the track "Sacred and Mundane". Outside band related endeavours, Lifeson composed the theme for the first season of the science-fiction TV series Andromeda. He also produced three songs from the album Away from the Sun by 3 Doors Down. He was executive producer and contributor to the 2014 album "Come to Life" by Keram Malicki-Sanchez - playing guitar on the songs "Mary Magdalene", "Moving Dark Circles" and "The Devil Knows Me Well," and later on Keram's subsequent singles "Artificial Intelligence," (2019), "That Light," (2020) and "Rukh." (2021). Alex Lifeson is featured on Marco Minnemann's 2017 release Borrego, on which he played guitars on three songs and co-wrote the track "On That Note". In 2018, he played lead guitar on Fu Manchu's 18-minute mostly instrumental track "Il Mostro Atomico" from the group's Clone of the Universe album.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.metalinjection.net/av/new-music/fu-manchus-18-minute-psychedelic-stoner-epic-features-rush-guitarist-alex-lifeson\|lastKennelty\|firstGreg\|date9 February 2018\|access-date6 January 2019\|titleFU MANCHU's 18-Minute Psychedelic Stoner Epic Features RUSH Guitarist Alex Lifeson\|workMetal Injection}}</ref> In 2019 he was featured on the song "Charmed" from the Don Felder solo album American Rock 'n' Roll.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDon Felder: American Rock 'n' Roll review \|urlhttps://www.musicwaves.org/frmReview.aspx?ID18049 \|websiteMusic Waves \|access-date7 April 2022}}</ref> On 15 June 2021, Lifeson released two new instrumental songs, "Kabul Blues" and "Spy House" on his website alexlifeson.com.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAlex Lifeson by Alex Lifeson\|urlhttp://alexlifeson.com/playlist/alex-lifeson/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210615153309/http://alexlifeson.com/playlist/alex-lifeson/ \|archive-date15 June 2021 }}</ref> The songs were released as a self titled project. Andy Curran played bass on both songs, and drums on "Spy House" were done by David Quinton Steinberg.Envy of NoneThe first single, "Liar", from Envy of None's debut album was released on 12 January 2022. Envy of None consists of Lifeson, Curran, singer Maiah Wynne, and producer and engineer Alfio Annibalini. Envy of None's self-titled debut album, which includes "Liar," "Kabul Blues," and "Spy House," was released on 8 April.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.guitarworld.com/news/alex-lifeson-envy-of-none-debut-album\|titleAlex Lifeson launches new band Envy of None with industrial debut single, Liar\|lastRoche\|firstSam\|date12 January 2022\|publisherGuitar World\|accessdate13 January 2022}}</ref> Television and film appearances Lifeson made his film debut as himself under his birth name in the 1973 Canadian documentary film Come on Children.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/come_on_children\|titleCome on Children\|websiteRotten Tomatoes\|access-date22 January 2020}}</ref> He has appeared in several installments of the Canadian mockumentary franchise Trailer Park Boys. In 2003, he was featured in an episode titled "Closer to the Heart", playing a partly fictional version of himself. In the episode, he is kidnapped by Ricky and held as punishment for his inability (or refusal) to provide the main characters with free tickets to a Rush concert. In the end of the episode, Alex reconciles with the characters, and performs a duet of "Closer to the Heart" with Bubbles at the trailer park. In 2006, Lifeson appeared in Trailer Park Boys: The Movie as a traffic cop in the opening scene and in 2009 he appeared in their follow up movie, Trailer Park Boys: Countdown to Liquor Day, as an undercover vice cop in drag. In 2017, Lifeson appeared in an episode of the spin-off series Trailer Park Boys: Out of the Park: USA titled "Memphis." He also voiced Big Chunk in the first season of Trailer Park Boys: The Animated Series. In 2008, Lifeson and the rest of Rush played "Tom Sawyer" at the end of an episode of The Colbert Report. According to Colbert, this was their first appearance on American television as a band in 33 years.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cc.com/video/nxgrjc/the-colbert-report-rush-is-here \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125052317/https://www.cc.com/video/nxgrjc/the-colbert-report-rush-is-here \|url-statusdead \|archive-date25 January 2021 \|titleRush is Here - The Colbert Report \|publisherComedy Central \|date16 July 2008 \|access-date6 December 2021 }}</ref> In 2009, he and the rest of the band appeared as themselves in the comedy I Love You, Man.<ref>Manohla Dargis, [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/20/movies/20love.html Best Man Wanted. Must Be Rush Fan], The New York Times, 20 March 2009. Accessed 6 December 2021.</ref> Lifeson appears as the border guard in the 2009 movie Suck.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt1323605/fullcredits?ref_tt_ov_st_sm\|titleSuck (2009)\|websiteIMDb }}</ref> Lifeson and bandmate Geddy Lee appeared in the series Chicago Fire, season 4, episode 6, called "2112", which first aired on 17 November 2015. The role of Dr. Funtime in The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Funtime Hour was originally written with Lifeson in mind, but due to scheduling conflicts the role was given to Maury Chaykin instead.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vql-zaG2JLd8\|titleDrunk and on Drugs Happy Funtime Hour: Behind the Scenes with Maury Chaykin\|websiteYouTube\|date15 November 2011 }}</ref>Book forewordsLifeson has penned forewords to four books: Behind the Stage Door by Rich Engler in 2013;<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 20 January 2020 \| url https://www.rushisaband.com/blog/2013/12/08/3874/New-book-Behind-the-Stage-Door-from-concert-promoter-Rich-Engler-features-foreword-by-Alex-Lifeson \| title New book Behind the Stage Door from concert promoter Rich Engler features foreword by Alex Lifeson \| date 8 December 2013 \| website rushisaband.com}}</ref> Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More) by Greg Prato in 2017;<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 20 January 2020 \| url https://www.rushisaband.com/blog/2017/03/16/4878/Greg-Patos-new-book-Shredders-The-Oral-History-Of-Speed-Guitar-featuring-a-foreword-by-Alex-Lifeson-now-available \| title Greg Prato's new book Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar featuring a foreword by Alex Lifeson now available \| date 16 March 2017 \| website rushisaband.com}}</ref> ''Geddy Lee's Big Beautiful Book of Bass'' by Geddy Lee in 2018;<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 22 January 2020 \| url https://www.harpercollins.ca/9780062747839/geddy-lees-big-beautiful-book-of-bass/ \| title Geddy Lee's Big Beautiful Book of Bass \| date 18 December 2018 \| website harpercollins.ca}}</ref> and Domenic Troiano: His Life and Music by Mark Doble and Frank Troiano in 2021.<ref>{{ Cite book \| access-date 8 February 2022 \| url https://books.friesenpress.com/store/title/119734000185054289/Mark-Doble-and-Frank-Troiano-Domenic-Troiano \| title Domenic Troiano: His Life and Music \| publisher books.friesenpress.com\| date 24 August 2021 \| isbn 9781039106178 }}</ref> Personal life Lifeson disclosed that he had surgery on his stomach in 2023, and as an aftereffect, he suffers from gastroparesis, and that a visit to a wellness clinic in Austria that focuses on digestive system in January 2025 helped. In an interview with AllMusic, he said, "I was miserable for pretty much a year and a half...until I went to Vivamayr, and they just taught me how to take control of how I'm eating, what to eat, when to eat. And it's just remarkable."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/blog/post/alex-lifeson-discusses-envy-of-nones-new-album-rushs-music-andtaylor-swift\|titleAlex Lifeson Discusses Envy of None's New Album, Rush's Music, and…Taylor Swift\|websiteAllMusic\|access-date28 March 2025}}</ref> Guitar equipment in the 'Heritage Cherry Sunburst'. This guitar has been modified to incorporate a Floyd Rose tremolo.]] Early Rush (1970s) In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a Gibson ES-335 for the first tour. In 1976, Lifeson bought a 1974 Gibson Les Paul. He used both guitars until the late 1970s. He had a Fender Stratocaster with a Bill Lawrence humbucker and Floyd Rose vibrato bridge as backup "and for a different sound."<ref name"cohen"/> For the A Farewell to Kings sessions, Lifeson began using a Gibson EDS-1275 for the song "Xanadu"<ref>{{cite web\|titleAlex Lifeson Double Neck\|urlhttp://www.gibson.com/Products/Electric-Guitars/2015/Custom/Alex-Lifeson-Double-Neck.aspx\|access-date31 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107055332/http://www.gibson.com/Products/Electric-Guitars/2015/Custom/Alex-Lifeson-Double-Neck.aspx\|archive-date7 November 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and his main guitar became a white Gibson ES-355.<ref namecohen/> During this period Lifeson used Hiwatt amplifiers.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.guitarworld.com/prime-cuts-rush \|titlePrime Cuts: Rush \|magazineGuitar World \|date5 November 2009 \|access-date15 July 2014}}</ref> He played a twelve-string Gibson B-45 on songs like "Closer to the Heart."<ref namecohen/> 1980s and 1990s From 1980 to 1986, Lifeson used four identically modified Stratocasters, all of them equipped with the Floyd Rose bridge. As a joke, he called these Hentor Sportscasters – a made-up name inspired by Peter Henderson's name, who was the producer of Grace Under Pressure.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Grace Under Pressure Tourbook \|urlhttp://www.2112.net/powerwindows/GUPtourbook.htm \|websitePower Windows \|access-date10 November 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081224014536/http://www.2112.net/powerwindows/GUPtourbook.htm \|archive-date24 December 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> He would start using them again twenty years later.<ref nameWesInterview>{{cite web \|last1Prasad \|first1Anil \|titleJohn Wesley - Dose of Reality \|urlhttps://www.innerviews.org/inner/wesley.html \|websiteInnerviews \|publication-date2015\| access-date18 July 2018}}</ref> He also played a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion and an Ovation Adamas acoustic/electric guitar.<ref namecohen/> By 1987, Lifeson switched to Signature guitar despite describing them as "awful to play—very uncomfortable--...had a particular sound I liked."<ref namecohen/> Lifeson primarily used PRS guitars in the later-half of the 1990 Presto tour, and again during the recording of Roll The Bones in 1990/1991.<ref>{{Cite web\|title Interview: Alex Lifeson\|url http://www.premierguitar.com/articles/Interview_Alex_Lifeson?page2\|website www.premierguitar.com\| date17 March 2009 \|access-date 15 February 2016}}</ref> He would continue to play PRS for the next sixteen years through the recording and touring of Counterparts, Test for Echo and Vapor Trails as well as the R30 tour. During this period, he also played several Fender Telecasters.2000s onward: Return to Gibson guitarsIn 2011, Lifeson said that for the past few years he "used Gibson almost exclusively. There's nothing like having a low-slung Les Paul over my shoulder."Gibson "Alex Lifeson Axcess"In early 2011, Gibson introduced the "Alex Lifeson Axcess", a guitar specially designed for him. These are custom made Les Pauls with Floyd Rose tremolo systems and piezoacoustic pick-ups. He used these two custom Les Pauls on the Time Machine Tour. These guitars are also available through Gibson, in a viceroy Brown or Crimson colour. Lifeson used these two guitars heavily on the tour.<ref namecohen/> For the 2012-13 "Clockwork Angels" tour, Gibson built an Alex Lifeson Axcess model in black which became Lifeson's primary guitar for much of the show. For all acoustic work, he played one of his Axcess guitars using the piezo pick-ups; no acoustic guitars were used at all in the Clockwork Angels show.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.premierguitar.com/articles/GALLERY_Rushs_Clockwork_Angels_Tour_Gear\|titleGALLERY: Rush's Clockwork Angels Tour Gear\|lastSettle\|firstKen\|date12 October 2012\|websitepremierguitar.\|access-date20 July 2019}}</ref>Gibson R40 Signature Les Paul AxcessGibson introduced an Alex Lifeson R40 Les Paul Axcess signature guitar in June 2015.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rush.com/alex-lifeson-r40-les-paul-axcess/\|titleIntroducing the Alex Lifeson R40 Les Paul Axcess - Rush.com\|websitewww.rush.com}}</ref> This is a limited edition with 50 guitars signed and played by Lifeson, and another 250 available without the signature. Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow At the 2017 Winter NAMM Show, Gibson representative Mike Voltz introduced an Antique White Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow guitar, a hybrid of a Les Paul Custom & an ES 335, with only 200 made. Voltz also introduced the Antique White as a new color from Gibson for this Custom (note: Gibson names this color as 'Classic White' on their web site which may be an error due to other Gibson reps labeling it as Antique White). Alex played this Custom on the last Rush tour. Amplification In 2005, Hughes & Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; Lifeson donates his royalties from the sale of these signature models to UNICEF.<ref>{{cite web\|titleTriAmp MKII Alex Lifeson \|urlhttp://www.hughes-and-kettner.com/products.php5?id97&prodTriAmp%20MKII%20Alex%20Lifeson \|publisherHughes-and-kettner.com \|access-date14 June 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120825202747/http://www.hughes-and-kettner.com/products.php5?id97&prodTriAmp%20MKII%20Alex%20Lifeson \|archive-date25 August 2012}}</ref>EffectsFor effects, Lifeson is known to use chorus, phase shifting, delay and flanging. Throughout his career, he has used well-known pedals such as the Echoplex delay pedal, Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress flanger, the BOSS CE-1 chorus and the Dunlop crybaby wah, among others.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dinosaurrockguitar.com/new/node/32 \|titleAlex Lifeson \|publisherDinosaur Rock Guitar \|date28 May 2008 \|access-date15 July 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140620051157/http://www.dinosaurrockguitar.com/new/node/32 \|archive-date20 June 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Gill \|first1Chris \|titleAlex Lifeson reveals his tone and playing secrets behind 11 landmark Rush tracks \|urlhttps://www.guitarworld.com/features/alex-lifeson-11-rush-tracks \|access-date10 February 2021 \|workGuitar World \|date27 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleAlex Lifeson's Maestro Echoplex \|urlhttps://equipboard.com/pros/alex-lifeson/maestro-echoplex \|access-date10 February 2021 \|workEquipBoard}}</ref> Lifeson and his guitar technician Scott Appleton have discussed in interviews Lifeson's use of Fractal Audio's Axe-FX, Apple Inc.'s MainStage, and Native Instruments' Guitar Rig.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://lerxstamps.com/premierguitar-com-interview-with-alex-lifeson/\|titlePremier Guitar Interview: Rush's Alex Lifeson\|date19 February 2013\|workLERXST Amplification\|access-date3 October 2017\|languageen-US}}</ref> Other instruments played Stringed instruments In addition to acoustic and electric guitars, Lifeson has also played mandola, mandolin and bouzouki on some Rush studio albums, including Test for Echo, Vapor Trails and Snakes & Arrows. For his Victor project and Little Drummer Boy for the Merry Axemas album, he also played bass and programmed synthesizers. Electronic instruments During live Rush performances, Lifeson used MIDI controllers that enabled him to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds from digital samplers and synthesizers, without taking his hands off his guitar. (Prior to this, Lifeson used Moog Taurus Bass Pedals before they were replaced by Korg MIDI pedals in the 1980s.) Lifeson and his bandmates shared a desire to accurately depict songs from their albums when playing live performances. Toward this goal, beginning in the late 1980s the band equipped their live performances with a capacious rack of samplers. The band members used these samplers in real-time to recreate the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound "events" that are familiarly heard on the studio versions of the songs. In live performances, the band members shared duties throughout most songs, with each member triggering certain sounds with his available limbs, while playing his primary instrument(s).<ref name"onstagemag.com" />InfluenceMany guitarists have cited Lifeson as an influence, such as Paul Gilbert of Mr. Big,<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 28 February 2017 \| url http://www.metal-rules.com/interviews/paulgilbert-May2004.htm \| title Interview With Paul Gilbert \| first Keith \| last McDonald \| quote Q: Who were your guitar influences?<br />Paul Gilbert: Jimmy Page, Eddie Van Halen, Alex Lifeson [...] \| date May 2004 \| website Metal Rules}}</ref> John Petrucci of Dream Theater,<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 4 April 2017 \| quote [...] When they played the song 'La Villa Strangiato,' the solo that Alex [Lifeson] played really had a huge influence on me. I think I remember every note to this day. [...] \| url http://loudwire.com/dream-theater-john-petrucci-new-album-2014-tour/ \| title Dream Theater's John Petrucci Discusses Early Success of New Album, 2014 Tour Plans + More \| publication-date 8 October 2013 \| first Chris \| last Epting \| magazine Loudwire }}</ref> Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree,<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 28 February 2017 \| url http://www.innerviews.org/inner/ptree3.html \| first Anil \| last Prasad \| author-link Anil Prasad \| website www.innerviews.org \| date 2010 \| title Porcupine Tree - Dream logic }}</ref> Jim Martin of Faith No More,<ref>{{cite web\|access-date10 November 2020\|urlhttps://therockfather.com/exclusive-faith-no-more-the-lost-interviews-1992-cable-access/\|publication-date6 December 2021 \|date22 September 1992\|firstJames \|lastZahn\|locationDavenport, Iowa \|publisherZTV \|title Exclusive - FAITH NO MORE: THE LOST INTERVIEWS (1992, Cable Access) \|websiteThe Rockfather\|time3:57-4:10 in the eleventh/last video on the playlist\|typevideo}}</ref> Denis "Piggy" D'Amour of Voivod,<ref>{{ Cite news \| access-date 28 February 2017 \| quote [...] They are very Voivodian and we can tell the influences of Piggy more than (his work for) Voivod. He was an Alex Lifeson fan [...] \| title Metal legends still soldiering on four years after guitarist's death \| first Rob \| last Williams \| url https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-and-life/entertainment/music/metal-legends-still-soldiering-on-four-years-after-guitarists-death-52061687.html \| date 29 July 2009 \| newspaper Winnipeg Free Press \| location Barcelona, Spain }}</ref> Parris Mayhew formerly of Cro-Mags,<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 18 February 2022 \| url https://www.guitarworld.com/features/the-aggros-parris-mayhew \| title The Aggros' Parris Mayhew: "I can tell a musical story without a singer – I let the instruments tell it instead" \| first Greg \| last Prato \| quote Q: People may be surprised that a prog band like Rush was a major influence on you.<br />Parris Mayhew: "[...]The song Signs of the Times. On [Rush's 1976 live album] ''All the World's a Stage, on the song Anthem'', there's this 'restart riff' that is so cool, but he's just playing an A chord. I was like, 'That is such a cool riff… but so simple. What can I do to make a riff like that? I'll play it backwards! \| date February 2022 \| website Guitar World}}</ref> and John Wesley.<ref name=WesInterview/> James Hetfield from Metallica named Lifeson one of the best rhythm guitarists of all time.<ref>{{ cite web \| access-date 20 January 2020 \| url https://www.guitarplayer.com/players/welcome-home-metallica-revisits-the-past-cranks-the-mids-and-humbles-all \| title Welcome Home: Metallica Revisits The Past, Cranks The MIDS, And Humbles All \| first Matt \| last Blackett \| quote Q: The name James Hetfield is frequently mentioned on a short list of the greatest rhythm guitarists of all time, alongside people like Keith Richards, Pete Townshend, and Malcolm Young. How do you feel about that?<br />James Hetfield: It's awesome. I would include Alex Lifeson in there, because he's an amazing rhythm player—although some people don't notice. \| date 1 February 2009 \| website Guitar Player}}</ref> Marillion guitarist Steve Rothery has expressed his admiration for Lifeson's "dexterity" as a live performer; he also described Rush as a "fantastic live band".<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.vintageguitar.com/30070/steve-rothery/ \| title Steve Rothery \| workVintage Guitar \|firstGreg \| lastPrato \| dateFebruary 2017}}</ref> Jazz guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, after citing him as an influence, praised his "incredible sound and imagination".<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.jazz.com/features-and-interviews/2008/10/17/in-conversation-with-kurt-rosenwinkel\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081020011744/http://www.jazz.com/features-and-interviews/2008/10/17/in-conversation-with-kurt-rosenwinkel\|url-statusdead\|archive-date20 October 2008\|titleIn Conversation with Kurt Rosenwinkel \|websiteJazz.com\|publisherWKCR \|firstTed \|lastPanken\|author-linkTed Panken\|date15 August 2008\|publication-date17 October 2008\|access-date24 January 2020}}</ref> Awards and honours * "Best Rock Talent" by Guitar for the Practicing Musician in 1983 * "Best Rock Guitarist" by Guitar Player Magazine in 1984 and May 2008 * Runner-up for "Best Rock Guitarist" in Guitar Player in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 * Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame, 1991 * 1996 &ndash; Officer of the Order of Canada, along with bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart * 2007 &ndash; Main belt asteroid "(19155) Lifeson" named after Alex Lifeson<ref>[http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/rocknroll/0019155.html (19155) Lifeson], Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, Harvard University</ref> * "Best Article" for "Different Strings" in Guitar Player (September 2007 issue). * Most Ferociously Brilliant Guitar Album (Snakes & Arrows) &ndash; Guitar Player Magazine, May 2008 * 2013 &ndash; With Rush, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee<ref>[http://www.rockhall.com/inductees/rush/ Rush]. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</ref> Discography With Rush {{See\|Rush discography}} Solo {\| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Alias \|- \|1996 \|Victor \|Victor \|} With Envy of None Following Rush's dissolution in 2018 and Neil Peart's death in 2020, Lifeson formed the supergroup Envy of None with himself on guitar, mandola and banjo, Alfio Annibalini on guitar and keyboards, Andy Curran on bass, guitar and backing vocals and Maiah Wynne on lead vocals and keyboards. {\| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Type \|- \| rowspan="3" \|2022 \|Envy of None \|Album \|- \|Liar \| rowspan="2" \|Single \|- \|Enemy/You'll Be Sorry \|} Collaborations {\| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Collaborator !Notes \|- \|2002 \|''Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda \|Matthew McCauley \|Released on GNP Crescendo \|- \|2019 \|Lovers Calling (single) \|Marco Minnemann \|Featuring Lifeson on guitar, Minnemann on drums, Mohini Dey on bass and Maiah Wynne on vocals \|} Appearances {\| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Artist !Notes \|- \|1980 \|Universal Juveniles \|Max Webster \|On the track Battle Scar, Lifeson along with fellow Rush band members,<ref>{{Citation \|titleMax Webster - Universal Juveniles \|date1980 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/198609-Max-Webster-Universal-Juveniles \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> Geddy Lee and Neil Peart play their respective instruments with Lee performing co-lead vocals.<ref>{{Citation \|titleMax Webster - Universal Juveniles \|date1980 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1077053-Max-Webster-Universal-Juveniles \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|1985 \|Alien Shores'' \|Platinum Blonde \|Features Lifeson's guitar solos on two tracks<ref>{{Citation \|titlePlatinum Blonde - Alien Shores \|date25 July 1985 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1133475-Platinum-Blonde-Alien-Shores \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> including "Crying Over You" single.<ref>{{Citation \|titlePlatinum Blonde - Crying Over You \|date1985 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/184699-Platinum-Blonde-Crying-Over-You \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|1988 \|Serious Business \|Greenway \|Album by fellow Canadian Brian Greenway (of bands April Wine, Mashmakhan and the Dudes), featuring Lifeson on guitar on the first track and single "In The Danger Zone"<ref>{{Citation \|titleGreenway - Serious Business \|date1988 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/2042844-Greenway-Serious-Business \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|titleGreenway - In The Danger Zone \|date1988 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/813085-Greenway-In-The-Danger-Zone \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|1989/1990 \|Smoke On The Water \|Rock Aid Armenia \|Charity single re-recording song by British rock band Deep Purple organised by frontman Ian Gillan, Lifeson played alongside many other musicians including members of Deep Purple, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Iron Maiden, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin and ELP.<ref>{{Citation \|titleRock Aid Armenia - Smoke On The Water \|date1989 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1955987-Rock-Aid-Armenia-Smoke-On-The-Water \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|1990 \|Lost Brotherhood \|Gowan \|Lifeson plays guitar on this album<ref>{{Citation \|titleGowan - Lost Brotherhood \|date1990 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/286056-Gowan-Lost-Brotherhood \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> by fellow Canadian Lawrence Gowan of Styx and also on the albums self titled single.<ref>{{Citation \|titleGowan - Lost Brotherhood \|date1990 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/14927491-Gowan-Lost-Brotherhood \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \| rowspan="2" \|1995 \|Hip To The Tip - Live At The Orbit Room \|The Dexters \|Album by Canadian band The Dexters (house band of The Orbit Room, a bar in Toronto), the band featured Lifeson<ref>{{Citation \|titleThe Dexters - Hip To The Tip - Live At The Orbit Room \|date1995 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/23065658-The-Dexters-Hip-To-The-Tip-Live-At-The-Orbit-Room \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> (under the pseudonym "Alex Dexter") and other members where called Lou, on Hammond B3, Peter on bass, Bernie on guitar and Mike on drums (all members were under the surname "Dexter.")<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Dexters \|urlhttp://almarecords.com/artists/the-dexters/ \|access-date2022-08-09 \|website=Alma Records}}</ref> \|- \|Ragged Ass Road \|Tom Cochrane \|Lifeson is credited with guitar and guitar solo on this album by fellow Canadian musician, Tom Cochrane.<ref>{{Citation \|titleTom Cochrane - Ragged Ass Road \|date1995 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/973703-Tom-Cochrane-Ragged-Ass-Road \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> A frequent collaborator with Cochrane is early Rush bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJeff Jones (4) \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/artist/1220150-Jeff-Jones-4 \|access-date2022-08-09 \|websiteDiscogs \|languageen}}</ref> \|- \|1996 \|Scenery And Fish \|I Mother Earth \|Lifeson played additional guitars on one track on this album by Canadian rock band I Mother Earth.<ref>{{Citation \|titleI Mother Earth - Scenery And Fish \|date1996 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/527306-I-Mother-Earth-Scenery-And-Fish \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|1997 \|Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas \|Various \|Lifeson played a version of "The Little Drummer Boy"<ref name":0">{{Citation \|titleVarious - Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas \|date1997 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/595652-Various-Merry-Axemas-A-Guitar-Christmas \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> on this Christmas oriented tribute album organised by fellow guitarist Steve Vai,<ref>{{Citation \|titler/rush - Alex Lifeson - "The Little Drummer Boy" \|date16 December 2021 \|urlhttps://www.reddit.com/r/rush/comments/rht667/alex_lifeson_the_little_drummer_boy/ \|languageen-US \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> also featured guitarists Joe Satriani, Joe Perry, Steve Morse, Jeff Beck and Eric Johnson.<ref name":0" /> \|- \| rowspan="3" \|2006 \|Born4 \|Jakalope \|Lifeson (credited as Alex Liefson under Jakalope 2) is credited as a performer on this album by Canadian group Jakalope and also co-wrote one track.<ref>{{Citation \|titleJakalope - Born4 \|date9 October 2006 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1082487-Jakalope-Born4 \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|Have You Seen Lucky? \|John Kastner \|Lifeson is credited on this album by fellow Canadian John Kastner,<ref>{{Citation \|titleJohn Kastner - Have You Seen Lucky? \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/3990366-John-Kastner-Have-You-Seen-Lucky \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> Kastner is most famous for being a former member of hardcore punk band Asexuals.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJohn Kastner \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/artist/267391-John-Kastner \|access-date2022-08-09 \|websiteDiscogs \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|Better Days \|Edwin \|Lifeson plays guitar on two track on this album by alternative rock singer Edwin,<ref>{{Citation \|titleEdwin - Better Days \|date10 October 2006 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1887568-Edwin-Better-Days \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> who also participated in Lifeson's solo project Victor 10 years prior.<ref>{{Citation \|titleVictor - Victor \|date1996 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/33621-Victor-Victor \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|2007 \|Fear Of A Blank Planet \|Porcupine Tree \|Lifeson plays a guitar solo on the first movement of one track of this album by English progressive rock band Porcupine Tree.<ref name":1">{{Citation \|titlePorcupine Tree - Fear Of A Blank Planet \|date16 April 2007 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/951362-Porcupine-Tree-Fear-Of-A-Blank-Planet \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> His solo would later be re-imagined and performed by touring guitarist John Wesley in live shows.<ref>{{Citation \|titlePorcupine Tree - Anesthetize (from Anesthetize Live in Tilburg) \| date6 May 2021 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vkgwgtERCVI4 \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> The album also features a contribution by King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp.<ref name=":1" /> \|- \|2008 \|Fly Paper \|Tiles \|Lifeson plays various guitars on one track on this album by American prog rock band Tiles, including assorted textures, lead guitar, rhythm guitar and 12-string acoustic guitar.<ref>{{Citation \|titleTiles - Fly Paper \|dateJanuary 2008 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1606231-Tiles-Fly-Paper \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> The album also features artwork and design from frequent Rush collaborator Hugh Syme.<ref>{{Citation \|titleTiles - Fly Paper \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/master/648157-Tiles-Fly-Paper \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2014 \|Disconnect \|John Wesley \|Lifeson plays guitar on one track on this album by American guitarist John Wesley,<ref>{{Citation \|titleJohn Wesley - Disconnect \|dateMarch 2014 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/5558673-John-Wesley-Disconnect \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> Wesley had performed with Lifeson on the previously mentioned song by Porcupine tree (when Lifeson contributed guitar and Wesley contributed backing vocals). \|- \|Come to Life \|Keram \|Lifeson is credited, alongside 4 other guitarists, with electric guitar on this album<ref>{{Citation \|titleKeram - Come to Life \|date22 May 2014 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/15940101-Keram-Come-to-Life \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> by Keram (full name Keram Malicki-Sánchez), who is a member of band Blue Dog Pict.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKeram \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/artist/3824418-Keram \|access-date2022-08-09 \|websiteDiscogs \|languageen}}</ref> \|- \|2016 \|RES 9 \|Rik Emmett & RESolution9 \|Lifeson is features on two tracks on this album by Rk Emmett of the Canadian rock band Triumph, one track on his own and on another with Dream Theatre frontman and fellow Canadian James LaBrie. \|- \|2017 \|Borrego \|Marco Minnemann \|Lifeson is featured on guitars on this album by German rock drummer and musician Marco Minnemann, who has performed with Steven Wilson, U.K. and Jordan Rudess, Lifeson plays guitars on 3 tracks (including one bonus track), as well as writing one, Lifeson is credited with acoustic guitar, guitar reverse and FX and guitar solos.<ref>{{Citation \|titleMarco Minnemann - Borrego \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/10875960-Marco-Minnemann-Borrego \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \| rowspan="3" \|2018 \|Clone Of The Universe \|Fu Manchu \|Lifeson is credited with additional guitars on one track on this album by America stoner rock band Fu Manchu.<ref>{{Citation \|titleFu Manchu - Clone Of The Universe \|date9 February 2018 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/11529114-Fu-Manchu-Clone-Of-The-Universe \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|Walking In The Wild Land \|Jim McCarty \|Lifeson is credited with lead guitar on one track on Yardbirds member Jim McCarty. The album also features keyboards from Rush collaborator Hugh Syme.<ref>{{Citation \|titleJim McCarty - Walking In The Wild Land \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/12464537-Jim-McCarty-Walking-In-The-Wild-Land \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|A Holiday Greeting From West End Phoenix \|Various \|Christmas release featuring vocals from Lifeson and Lee.<ref>{{Citation \|titleVarious - A Holiday Greeting From West End Phoenix \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/13714563-Various-A-Holiday-Greeting-From-West-End-Phoenix \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \| rowspan="4" \|2019 \|My Sister \|Marco Minnemann \|Lifeson is credited as a special guest on this album by German drummer Marco Minnemann, he is credited with writing and with electric and acoustic guitars on two tracks and additional guitars on one.<ref>{{Citation \|titleMarco Minnemann - My Sister \|date31 August 2019 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/14227611-Marco-Minnemann-My-Sister \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|Nobody Told Me \|John Mayall \|Lifeson is credited (along with a variety on other guitarist, including, Joe Bonamassa, Todd Rundgren and Steven Van Zandt) on this album by legendary blues and rock singer and musician John Mayall. He plays guitar on one track.<ref>{{Citation \|titleJohn Mayall - Nobody Told Me \|date22 February 2019 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/13244722-John-Mayall-Nobody-Told-Me \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|''American Rock 'N' Roll'' \|Don Felder \|Lifeson is credited with rhythm acoustic and solo electric on one track on this album by former Eagles lead guitarist Don Felder. The album also features Chad Smith, Slash, Mick Fleetwood and Joe Satriani.<ref>{{Citation \|titleDon Felder - American Rock 'N' Roll \|date5 April 2019 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/13475072-Don-Felder-American-Rock-N-Roll \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|Atheists And Believers \|The Mute Gods \|Lifeson is credited with 12-string guitar, ambient guitar and mandolin on this album by The Mute Gods,<ref>{{Citation \|titleThe Mute Gods - Atheists And Believers \|date22 March 2019 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/13379375-The-Mute-Gods-Atheists-And-Believers \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> a progressive rock project formed of Nick Beggs (bass, chapman stick, guitar keyboads and vocals known for performing with Steve Hackett and Steven Wilson), Roger King (keyboards and guitar, known for performing with Steve Hackett) and Marco Minnemann (drums and guitar) \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2020 \|II \|McStine & Minnemann \|Lifeson performs on this album by musicians Randy McStine (guitar, bass, keyboards, vocals) and Marco Minnemann (drums, perucussion, guitar, keyboards and bass). He performs guitar on the final track.<ref>{{Citation \|titleMcStine & Minnemann - II \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/17035416-McStine-Minnemann-II \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|Eternity Now \|Big Sugar \|Lifeson performs guitar on the first and self titled track on this album by Canadian rock band Big Sugar.<ref>{{Citation \|titleBig Sugar - Eternity Now \|date8 May 2020 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/15284354-Big-Sugar-Eternity-Now \|languageen \|access-date=2022-08-09}}</ref> \|- \|2021 \|The Atlas Underground Flood \|Tom Morello \|Lifeson plays guitar as well as writing (alongside Kirk Hammett of Metallica) on one track on this album by Rage Against the Machine member Tom Morello.<ref>{{Citation \|titleTom Morello - The Atlas Underground Flood \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/21658186-Tom-Morello-The-Atlas-Underground-Flood \|languageen \|access-date2022-08-09}}</ref> \|} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} [https://alexlifeson.com Official website] [http://www.audio-technica.com/cms/happenings/ae60b79aa073a3be/index.html Audio-Technica interview with Alex] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705045834/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/Music/05/27/lifeson.transcript/index.html Read 2002 CNN interview with Alex] {{YouTube\|B5T46iU1Evs\|Alex Lifeson interview at home, Drink Bravely TV}} [http://archive.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?lange&TypeIDorc&id=3595 Order of Canada citation] [http://Lerxstamps.com Lerxst Amplification] * {{Discogs artist\|Aleksandar Živojinović}} * {{IMDb name\|id=0509820}} {{Rush}} {{2013 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lifeson, Alex}} Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:People from the Regional District of East Kootenay Category:Musicians from British Columbia Category:Canadian people of Serbian descent Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Canadian atheists Category:Canadian male film actors Category:Canadian male television actors Category:Canadian male voice actors Category:Canadian rock guitarists Category:Canadian male guitarists Category:Canadian heavy metal guitarists Category:Canadian lead guitarists Category:Progressive rock guitarists Category:Rush (band) members Category:Anthem Records artists Category:Anthem Records Category:Big Dirty Band members Category:Envy of None members Category:20th-century Canadian guitarists Category:21st-century Canadian guitarists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Lifeson	2025-04-05T18:26:11.823819
2894	AZ	AZ or az may refer to: Arts and entertainment Authority Zero, an Arizona punk rock band AZ (record label), a French record label Abendzeitung, a newspaper based in Munich, Germany Assignment Zero, a crowdsourced journalism project Companies and organizations Alkmaar Zaanstreek, formerly AZ '67, a Dutch Eredivisie football club AZ (women), the affiliated women's football club (2007–2011) AstraZeneca, a UK-based pharmaceutical company Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine (AZ), their COVID-19 vaccine ITA Airways (IATA code: AZ), the national airline of Italy Alitalia (former IATA code: AZ), a former Italian airline Ministry of General Affairs (), a Dutch Government ministry People Az people, Turkophone people from present-day Russia AZ (rapper) (born 1972), rapper from Brooklyn, New York, US Azie Faison (born 1964; known as AZ), former drug dealer from New York, US Places Arizona (postal abbreviation: AZ), a US state Azerbaijan (ISO 3166-1 country code: AZ), a Eurasian country Science and technology .az, the country code top level domain for the nation of Azerbaijan AlphaZero, game-playing artificial intelligence Azimuth, the horizontal component of a compass direction Toyota AZ engine, an engine family Other uses Azerbaijani language (ISO 639-1 code: az) Lighter-than-air aircraft tender (AZ), a US Navy hull classification symbol Az, the acrophonic name of the letter A (Cyrillic) in the old Russian alphabet See also A–Z (disambiguation) AZ1 (disambiguation) ZA (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZ	2025-04-05T18:26:11.833390
2899	ArgoUML	{{Infobox software \| name = ArgoUML \| logo \| screenshot ArgoUML.png \| caption \| developer \| released = April 1999 \| latest release version = {{wikidata\|property\|preferred\|references\|edit\|Q647784\|P348}} \| latest release date = {{wikidata\|property\|preferred\|references\|edit\|Q647784\|P577}} \| latest preview version \| latest preview date {{Start date and age\|2011\|12\|15}} \| programming language = Java \| platform = Java SE \| genre = Software development, UML Tool \| license = Eclipse Public License 1.0 \| website = {{URL\|argouml.org}} }} ArgoUML is an UML diagramming application written in Java and released under the open source Eclipse Public License. By virtue of being a Java application, it is available on any platform supported by Java SE. History ArgoUML was originally developed at UC Irvine by Jason E. Robbins, leading to his Ph.D. It was an open source project hosted by Tigris.org and moved in 2019 to GitHub.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://github.com/argouml-tigris-org/argouml/wiki\|title Home · argouml-tigris-org/Argouml Wiki\|website GitHub}}</ref> The ArgoUML project included more than 19,000 registered users and over 150 developers.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.isr.uci.edu/tech-transition.html \|titleTech Transitions at ISR UCI \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120128012458/http://www.isr.uci.edu/tech-transition.html \|archive-date2012-01-28 }}</ref> In 2003, ArgoUML won the Software Development Magazine's annual Readers' Choice Award in the “Design and Analysis Tools” category.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.ddj.com/architect/184414997#designtools \| title Dr. Dobb's Readers' Choice Awards, 2003 }}</ref> ArgoUML development has suffered from lack of manpower. For example, Undo has been a perpetually requested feature since 2003 but has not been implemented yet.<ref>Issue 1834 (May 5th, 2003): Implement undo. http://argouml.tigris.org/issues/show_bug.cgi?id1834 {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171120111837/http://argouml.tigris.org/issues/show_bug.cgi?id1834 \|date2017-11-20 }}</ref> Features According to the official feature list,<ref>{{cite web \| url https://argouml-tigris-org.github.io/tigris/argouml/features.html \| title ArgoUML Features }}</ref> ArgoUML is capable of the following: All 9 UML 1.4 diagrams are supported. Closely follows the UML standard. Platform independent – Java 1.5+ and C++. Click and Go! with Java Web Start (no setup required, starts from your web browser). Standard UML 1.4 Metamodel. XMI support. Export diagrams as GIF, PNG, PS, EPS, PGML and SVG. Available in ten languages: EN, EN-GB, DE, ES, IT, RU, FR, NB, PT, ZH. Advanced diagram editing and zoom. Built-in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements. Extensible modules interface. OCL support. Forward engineering (code generation supports C++ and C#, Java, PHP&nbsp;4, PHP&nbsp;5, Ruby and, with less mature modules, Ada, Delphi and SQL). Reverse engineering / JAR/class file import. Weaknesses ArgoUML does not yet completely implement the UML standard.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://argouml.tigris.org/documentation/umlsupport/index.html \| work ArgoUML documentation \| title UML Specification Incompatibility list \| access-date 2006-04-28 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110213073541/http://argouml.tigris.org/documentation/umlsupport/index.html \| archive-date 2011-02-13 \| url-status = dead }}</ref> Partial undo feature (working for graphics edits <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://argouml.tigris.org/servlets/NewsItemView?newsItemID1228 \|title=ArgoUML 0.19.3 released \|access-date=2008-12-15 \|archive-date=2020-07-01 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200701142413/http://argouml.tigris.org/servlets/NewsItemView?newsItemID1228 \|url-status=dead }} Undo working for graphics edits (this is mostly a GEF addition).</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://argouml.tigris.org/issues/show_bug.cgi?id1834 \|title=Issue 1834. Implement undo \|access-date=2008-12-15 \|archive-date=2017-11-20 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171120111837/http://argouml.tigris.org/issues/show_bug.cgi?id1834 \|url-status=dead }} Undo working for graphics edits (this is mostly a GEF addition).</ref>) * Java Web Start launching may no longer work reliably. See Java Web Start. See also List of UML tools MetaCASE tool References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|ArgoUML}} *{{Official website\|argouml.org}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Argouml}} Category:Java platform software Category:Free UML tools Category:1999 software Category:Software using the Eclipse Public License	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArgoUML	2025-04-05T18:26:11.873306
2900	File archiver	In computing, a file archiver is utility software that combines files into a single archive file or in less common cases, multiple files. A minimally designed archiver might concatenate the content of files along with file name and length. A more advanced archiver stores additional metadata, such as the timestamps, file attributes and access control information. An archiver might compress input file content to reduce the size of the resulting archive. The process of making an archive file is called archiving or packing. Reconstructing the original files from an archive is called unarchiving, unpacking or extracting. Multics In the early days of computing, Multics provided the command a basic archiver without compression that descended from the CTSS command of the same name. Multics also provided a magnetic tape archiver command, , which was perhaps the forerunner of the Unix command . Unix As the Unix archive tools ar, tar, and cpio do not provide compression, other tools, such as gzip, bzip2, or xz, are used to compress an archive file after it is created and to decompress before extracting. Not only does separating archiving from compressing follow the Unix philosophy that each tool should provide a single capability; not attempt to accomplish everything with one tool, it has the following advantages: As compression technology progresses, users may use a different compression tool without having to change how they use the archiver Solid compression allows the compressor can exploit redundancy across multiple archived files to achieve better compression than compressing each file individually Disadvantages include: Extracting a single file requires decompressing the entire file, which can be costly in terms of time and storage space; adding a file to an existing archive requires both decompression and recompression The archive becomes damage-prone; corruption in any part of the file might cause all files to be lost A challenge: Compression cannot take advantage of redundancy between files unless the compression window is larger than the size of an individual file; for example, gzip uses DEFLATE, which typically operates with a 32768-byte window, whereas bzip2 uses a Burrows–Wheeler transform roughly 27 times bigger; xz defaults to 8 MiB but supports significantly larger windows Generally, extensions are successively added to the file name to indicate the operations performed and therefore required to read a file. For example, archiving with command and then compressing with command might be indicated with the .tar.gz extension. Windows Archiving tools on Windows tend to have a graphical user interface (GUI) and to include compression including the built-in Windows feature as well as commonly used, third-party tools such as WinRAR and 7-Zip. Unlike the built-in feature, WinRAR and 7-zip also provide a command-line interface (CLI) and solid compression. See also Comparison of file archivers Archive format List of archive formats Comparison of archive formats References Category:Computer storage systems Category:Computer file systems Category:Computer archives Category:Utility software types	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_archiver	2025-04-05T18:26:11.879243
2905	Artemis	{{Short description\|Goddess of the hunt and the wild in ancient Greek religion and mythology}} {{Other uses}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2022}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2022}} {{Infobox deity \| type = Greek \| name = Artemis \| image = Diane de Versailles - Musée du Louvre AGER Ma 589.jpg \| alt \| caption The Diana of Versailles, a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by Leochares<br />(Louvre Museum) \| god_of = Goddess of nature, childbirth, wildlife, healing, the hunt, sudden death, animals, virginity, young women, and archery \| member_of = the Twelve Olympians \| abode = Mount Olympus \| symbol = bow and arrows, crescent moon, animal pelts, spear, knives, torch, lyre, amaranth \| planet = Moon \| consort \| birth_place Island of Delos, Greece \| parents = Zeus and Leto \| siblings = Apollo (twin), many paternal half-siblings \| children \| mount A golden chariot driven by four golden-horned deer \| Roman_equivalent = Diana \| animals = deer, serpent, dog, boar, goat, bear, quail, buzzard, guineafowl \| tree = cypress, palm, walnut }} {{Ancient Greek religion}} {{Contains special characters}} In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Artemis ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɑr\|t\|ɪ\|m\|ɪ\|s}}; {{langx\|grc\|Ἄρτεμις}}) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleArtemis {{!}} Myths, Symbols, & Meaning\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Artemis-Greek-goddess\|access-date2021-07-06\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen}}</ref><ref name":merr">{{cite book \|titleMerriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature\|date1995\|publisherMerriam-Webster \|isbn9780877790426 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?ideKNK1YwHcQ4C&pgPA74&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse 74]}}</ref> In later times, she was identified with Selene, the personification of the Moon.<ref name":smt">Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D47%3Aentry%3Dartemis-bio-2 s.v. Artemis]</ref> She was often said to roam the forests and mountains, attended by her entourage of nymphs. The goddess Diana is her Roman equivalent. In Greek tradition, Artemis is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and twin sister of Apollo. In most accounts, the twins are the products of an extramarital liaison. For this, Zeus' wife Hera forbade Leto from giving birth anywhere on solid land. Only the island of Delos gave refuge to Leto, allowing her to give birth to her children. In one account, Artemis is born first and then proceeds to assist Leto in the birth of the second twin, Apollo.<ref>Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.21</ref> Artemis was a kourotrophic (child-nurturing) deity, that is the patron and protector of young children, especially young girls. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia and Hera. Artemis was also a patron of healing and disease, particularly among women and children, and believed to send both good health and illness upon women and children. Artemis was one of the three major virgin goddesses, alongside Athena and Hestia. Artemis preferred to remain an unmarried maiden and was one of the three Greek goddesses over whom Aphrodite had no power.<ref>Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (5), [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0138%3Ahymn%3D5%3Acard%3D1 p.21–32]</ref> In myth and literature, Artemis is presented as a hunting goddess of the woods, surrounded by her chaste band of nymphs. In the myth of Actaeon, when the young hunter sees her bathing naked, he is transformed into a deer by the angered goddess and is then devoured by his own hunting dogs, who do not recognize their master. In the story of Callisto, the girl is driven away from Artemis' company after breaking her vow of virginity, having lain with and been impregnated by Zeus. In the Epic tradition, Artemis halted the winds blowing the Greek ships during the Trojan War, stranding the Greek fleet in Aulis, after King Agamemnon, the leader of the expedition, shot and killed her sacred deer. Artemis demanded the sacrifice of Iphigenia, Agamemnon's young daughter, as compensation for her slain deer. In most versions, when Iphigenia is led to the altar to be offered as a sacrifice, Artemis pities her and takes her away, leaving a deer in her place. In the war that followed, Artemis supported the Trojans against the Greeks, and she challenged Hera in battle. Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities; her worship spread throughout ancient Greece, with her multiple temples, altars, shrines, and local veneration found everywhere in the ancient world. Her great temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, before it was burnt to the ground. Artemis' symbols included a bow and arrow, a quiver, and hunting knives, and the deer and the cypress were sacred to her. Diana, her Roman equivalent, was especially worshipped on the Aventine Hill in Rome, near Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills, and in Campania.<ref name":1" />Etymology ]] The name "Artemis" (n., f.) is of unknown or uncertain etymology,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleArtemis \|dictionaryOnline Etymology Dictionary \|urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/Artemis}}</ref><ref name"Babiniotis">{{cite dictionary \|lastBabiniotis \|firstGeorgios \|author-linkGeorgios Babiniotis \|year2005 \|dictionary{{math\|Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας}} \|title{{math\|Άρτεμις}} \|publisher{{math\|Κέντρο Λεξικολογίας}} \|locationAthens, EL \|page286}}</ref> although various sources have been proposed. R.S.P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin.<ref name":2">R.S.P. Beekes, 2009, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, p.142</ref> Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus.<ref>Houwink ten Cate, 1961, The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera during the Hellenistic Period (Leiden) p 166, noted in this context by {{harvp\|Brown\|2004\|p252}}</ref><ref>Indogermanica et Caucasica: Festschrift fur Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag (Studies in Indo-European language and culture), W. de Gruyter, 1994, Etyma Graeca, [https://books.google.com/books?idP3vb4KDB_UkC&pgPA213&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse pp. 213–214].</ref>{{rp\|213–214}} Georgios Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, also states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Greek origin.<ref name="Babiniotis" /> The name may be related to Greek árktos "bear" (from PIE h₂ŕ̥tḱos), supported by the bear cult the goddess had in Attica (Brauronia) and the Neolithic remains at the Arkoudiotissa Cave, as well as the story of Callisto, which was originally about Artemis (Arcadian epithet kallisto);<ref>Michaël Ripinsky-Naxon (1993) The Nature of Shamanism: Substance and function of a religious metaphor, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, p 32</ref> this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshipped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested,<ref>Campanile, Ann. Scuola Pisa 28:305</ref><ref>Restelli, Aevum 37:307, 312</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|firstEdwin L. \|lastBrown \|year2004 \|titleIn search of Anatolian Apollo \|seriesCharis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr \|journalHesperia Supplements \|volume33 \|pages243–257 }} — Artemis, as Apollo's inseparable twin, is discussed at {{nobr\|p 251 ff}}</ref> the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek {{lang\|gmy\|{{script\|Linb\|𐀀𐀳𐀖𐀵}}}}, a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ (gen.) and {{lang\|gmy\|{{script\|Linb\|𐀀𐀴𐀖𐀳}}}}, a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/ (dat.), written in Linear B at Pylos.<ref>{{cite journal\|first1John\|last1Chadwick \|authorlink1John Chadwick\|first2Lydia\|last2Baumbach\|author2-linkLydia Baumbach\|year1963\|titleThe Mycenaean Greek vocabulary\|journalGlotta\|volume41\|issue3–4 \|pages157-271, {{nobr\|esp. p 176 ff}} }} — s.v. {{math\|Ἂρτεμις}}, a-te-mi-to- (genitive)</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|firstC. \|lastSouvinous \|year1970 \|titleA-TE-MI-TO and A-TI-MI-TE \|journalKadmos \|volume9 \|pages=42–47 }} : {{cite journal \|firstT. \|lastChristidis \|datec. 1970 \|titleFurther remarks on A-TE-MI-TO and A-TI-MI-TE \|journalKadmos \|volume11 \|pages125–128 }}</ref><ref name":2" /> According to J.T. Jablonski, the name is also Phrygian and could be "compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon".<ref nameAnthon1855>{{cite dictionary\|lastAnthon \|firstCharles\|author-linkCharles Anthon\|year1855\|titleArtemis\|dictionaryA Classical Dictionary\|publisherHarper & Brothers\|locationNew York, NY\|page210\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTIYMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA210\|viaGoogle books }}</ref> Charles Anthon argued that the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from arta, art, arte, all meaning "great, excellent, holy", thus Artemis "becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshiped at Ephesus".<ref nameAnthon1855/> Anton Goebel "suggests the root {{math\|στρατ}} or {{math\|ῥατ}}, 'to shake', and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter".<ref name"Andrew Lang" /> Ancient Greek writers, by way of folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis (Doric Artamis) to {{lang\|grc\|{{math\|ἄρταμος}}}}, artamos, i.e. "butcher"<ref>{{LSJ\|a)/rtamos\|{{math\|ἄρταμος}}\|ref}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ\|)/artemis\|{{math\|Ἄρτεμις}}\|ref}}</ref> or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to {{lang\|grc\|{{math\|ἀρτεμής}}}}, artemḗs, i.e. "safe", "unharmed", "uninjured", "pure", "the stainless maiden".<ref name"Andrew Lang">{{cite book \|lastLang \|firstAndrew \|author-linkAndrew Lang \|year1887 \|titleMyth, Ritual, and Religion \|publisherLongmans, Green and Co \|locationLondon, UK \|pages209–210 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/mythritualreligi02lang#page/209/mode/1up }}</ref><ref nameAnthon1855/><ref>{{LSJ\|a)rtemh/s\|{{math\|ἀρτεμής}}\|ref}}</ref> A. J. van Windekens tried to explain both {{lang\|grc\|{{math\|ἀρτεμής}}}} and Artemis from {{lang\|grc\|{{math\|ἀτρεμής}}}}, atremḗs, meaning "unmoved, calm; stable, firm" via metathesis.<ref>{{harvp\|Van Windekens\|1986\|pages[https://archive.org/details/van-windekens-dictionnaire-etymologique-complementaire-de-la-langue-grecque-1986/page/18/mode/2up 19‒20]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastBlažek\|firstVáclav\|authorlinkVáclav Blažek\|year2016\|titleArtemis and her family\|journalGraeco-Latina Brunensia\|volume21 \|issue2\|pages29–50, esp. p&nbsp;40\|issn2336-4424\|doi10.5817/GLB2016-2-4\|hdl11222.digilib/136225\|urlhttps://digilib.phil.muni.cz/node/9892 }}</ref>Description pottery, 675–600 BCE. Hypothetical restoration (only some parts have been preserved). Archaeological Museum of Mykonos.]] Artemis is presented as a goddess who delights in hunting and punishes harshly those who cross her. Artemis' wrath is proverbial, and represents the hostility of wild nature to humans.<ref name":merr"/> Homer calls her {{lang\|grc\|πότνια θηρῶν}}, "the mistress of animals", a title associated with representations in art going back as far as the Bronze Age, showing a woman between a pair of animals.{{sfn\|Powell\|2012\|page[https://archive.org/details/classicalmyth0000powe_l2w2/page/224/mode/2up?q&viewtheater p.225]}} Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths.<ref>Dietrich, "The origins of Greek religion", p.185</ref> Artemis was one of the most popular goddesses in Ancient Greece. The most frequent name of a month in the Greek calendars was Artemision in Ionic, territories Artemisios or Artamitios in the Doric and Aeolic territories and in Macedonia. Also Elaphios in Elis, Elaphebolion in Athens, Iasos, Apollonia of Chalkidice and Munichion in Attica.<ref>Nilsson,"Geschichte", Vol I, p.481</ref> In the calendars of Aetolia, Phocis and Gytheion there was the month Laphrios and in Thebes, Corcyra, and Byzantion the month Eucleios. The goddess was venerated in festivals during spring.<ref>Nilsson,"Geschichte",Vol I, p.483-484 and 493-494</ref> In some cults she retains the theriomorphic form of a Pre-Greek goddess who was conceived with the shape of a bear (άρκτος árktos: bear). Kallisto in Arcadia is a hypostasis of Artemis with the shape of a bear, and her cults at Brauron and at Piraeus (Munichia) are remarkable for the arkteia where virgin girls before marriage were disguised as she-bears.<ref nameSuid.1>Suidas s,v : " Arkteusai (being bears) ..... is established for the virgins before marriage at the temples of Artemis Mounychia and Brauronia</ref><ref nameGeschichte>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol. I, p. 482-487</ref> The ancient Greeks called potnia theron the representation of the goddess between animals; on a Greek vase from circa 570 BCE, a winged Artemis stands between a spotted panther and a deer.{{sfn\|Powell\|2012\|page[https://archive.org/details/classicalmyth0000powe_l2w2/page/56/mode/2up?q&viewtheater 56]}} "Potnia theron" is very close to the daimons and this differentiates her from the other Greek divinities. This is the reason that Artemis was later identified with Hecate, since the daimons were tutelary deities. Hecate was the goddess of crossroads and she was the queen of the witches.<ref nameNils227>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.227</ref> seal from Knossos. A goddess flanked by two lionesses, probably the "Mother of the Mountains", in the presence of her consort or the dedicant.]] Laphria is the Pre-Greek "mistress of the animals" at Delphi and Patras. There was a custom to throw animals alive into the annual fire of the fest.<ref name"Lane91" /> The festival at Patras was introduced from Calydon and this relates Artemis to the Greek heroine Atalanta who symbolizes freedom and independence.<ref name"The Atalanta Legend in Art and Lite">Howell 1989",{{cite journal \|last1Howell \|first1Reet A. \|last2Howell \|first2Maxwell L. \|titleThe Atalanta Legend in Art and Literature \|journalJournal of Sport History \|date1989 \|volume16 \|issue2 \|pages127–139 \|jstor43609443}}</ref> Other epithets that relate Artemis to the animals are Amarynthia and Kolainis.<ref nameGeschichte/> In the Homeric poems Artemis is mainly the goddess of hunting, because it was the most important sport in Mycenean Greece. An almost formulaic epithet used in the Iliad and Odyssey to describe her is {{lang\|grc\|ἰοχέαιρα}} iocheaira, "she who shoots arrows", often translated as "she who delights in arrows" or "she who showers arrows".{{sfn\|Immendörfer\|2017\|page[https://books.google.com/books?id0cxjssVerbkC&pgPA224&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse 224-225]}} She is called Artemis Chrysilakatos, of the golden shafts, or Chrysinios, of the golden reins, as a goddess of hunting in her chariot.<ref nameIliad6200>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.+Il.+6.205&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad 6.200]</ref><ref nameGeschichte/> The Homeric Hymn 27 to Artemis paints this picture of the goddess: {{Blockquote \|I sing of Artemis, whose shafts are of gold, who cheers on the hounds, the pure maiden, shooter of stags, who delights in archery, own sister to Apollo with the golden sword. Over the shadowy hills and windy peaks she draws her golden bow, rejoicing in the chase, and sends out grievous shafts. The tops of the high mountains tremble and the tangled wood echoes awesomely with the outcry of beasts: earthquakes and the sea also where fishes shoal.\|titleHomeric Hymn 27 to Artemis [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0138:hymn=27 p.1–9]<ref>Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White</ref>}} According to the beliefs of the first Greeks in Arcadia Artemis is the first nymph, a goddess of free nature. She is an independent free woman, and she does not need any partner. She is hunting surrounded by her nymphs.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.498</ref> This idea of freedom and women's skill is expressed in many Greek myths.<ref name="The Atalanta Legend in Art and Lite"/> . Louvre, Paris]] In Peloponnese the temples of Artemis were built near springs, rivers and marshes. Artemis was closely related to the waters and especially to Poseidon, the god of the waters. Her common epithets are Limnnaia, Limnatis (relation to waters) and Potamia and Alphaea (relation to rivers). In some cults she is the healer goddess of women with the surnames Lousia and Thermia.<ref name=Nilsson492>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.492,493</ref> Artemis is the leader of the nymphs (Hegemone) and she is hunting surrounded by them.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.499</ref> The nymphs appear during the festival of the marriage, and they are appealed by the pregnant women.<ref name"Nilsson251"/> Artemis became goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was worshipped with the surname Eucleia in several cities.<ref nameNilsson492/> Women consecrated clothes to Artemis for a happy childbirth and she had the epithets Lochia and Lecho.<ref name=Oxf268 /> The Dorians interpreted Artemis mainly as goddess of vegetation who was worshipped in an orgiastic cult with lascivious dances, with the common epithets Orthia, Korythalia and Dereatis.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.161,490</ref> The female dancers wore masks and were famous in antiquity. The goddess of vegetation was also related to the tree-cult with temples near the holy trees and the surnames Apanchomene, Caryatis and Cedreatis.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.315,486-487</ref> According to Greek beliefs the image of a god or a goddess gave signs or tokens and had divine and magic powers. With these conceptions she was worshipped as Tauria (the Tauric, goddess),<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.83</ref> Aricina (Italy) and Anaitis (Lydia). In the bucolic (pastoral) songs the image of the goddess was discovered in bundles of leaves or dry sticks and she had the surnames Lygodesma and Phakelitis.<ref name"books.google.com">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYTfxZH4QnqgC&dqartemis+lygodesma&pgPA187 \|titleGreek Religion and Culture, the Bible, and the Ancient Near East \|isbn978-9004164734 \|last1Bremmer \|first1Jan N. \|year2008\|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> , Italy, between 62 CE and 79 CE (Destruction of Pompeii).]] In the European folklore, a wild hunter is chasing an elfish woman who falls in the water. In the Greek myths the hunter is chasing a female deer (doe) and both disappear into the waters. In relation to these myths Artemis was worshipped as Saronia and Stymphalia . The myth of a goddess who is chased and then falls in the sea is related to the cults of Aphaea and Diktynna.<ref name=Geschichte/> Artemis carrying torches was identified with Hecate and she had the surnames Phosphoros and Selasphoros.<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, p.495</ref> In Athens and Tegea, she was worshipped as Artemis Kalliste, "the most beautiful".<ref>Pausanias [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+1.29.2&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 1.29.2 Pausanias 1.29.2]</ref> Sometimes the goddess had the name of an Amazon like Lyceia (with a helmet of a wolf-skin) and Molpadia. The female warriors Amazons embody the idea of freedom and women's independence.<ref>{{cite book \|authorAdrienne Mayor \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/amazonsliveslege0000mayo \|titleThe Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World \|dateSeptember 22, 2014 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn9780691147208 \|access-dateJanuary 12, 2021 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> In spite of her status as a virgin who avoided potential lovers, there are multiple references to Artemis' beauty and erotic aspect;{{sfn\|Konstan\|2014\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idr1QgBQAAQBAJ&pgPA65 65]}} in the Odyssey, Odysseus compares Nausicaa to Artemis in terms of appearance when trying to win her favor, Libanius, when praising the city of Antioch, wrote that Ptolemy was smitten by the beauty of (the statue of) Artemis;{{sfn\|Konstan\|2014\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idr1QgBQAAQBAJ&pgPA65 65]}} whereas her mother Leto often took pride in her daughter's beauty.<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods [http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?idhome:texts_and_library:dialogues:dialogues-of-the-gods#section16 Hera and Leto]</ref><ref name":0o" /> She has several stories surrounding her where men such as Actaeon, Orion, and Alpheus tried to couple with her forcibly, only to be thwarted or killed. Ancient poets note Artemis' height and imposing stature, as she stands taller and more impressive than all the nymphs accompanying her.<ref name":0o">Homer, Odyssey 6.102 ff</ref><ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.138 ff</ref> Epithets and functions , Palermo]] Artemis is rooted to the less developed personality of the Mycenean goddess of nature. The goddess of nature was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic aspects. The Mycenean goddess was related to the Minoan mistress of the animals, who can be traced later in local cults,<ref nameD182>B. C. Dietrich (1974), The origins of the Greek religion p.181,182 :[https://books.google.com/books?idTZVsDwAAQBAJ&pgPA181&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse p.181–182]</ref> however we do not know to what extent we can differentiate the Minoan from the Mycenean religion.<ref>Burkert (1985),Greek religion, p.21</ref> Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths.<ref nameD182 /> According to the beliefs of the first Greeks in Arcadia, Artemis is the first nymph, a divinity of free nature. She was a great goddess and her temples were built near springs marshes and rivers where the nymphs live, and they are appealed by the pregnant women.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Larson\|first1Jennifer\|year1997\|titleHandmaidens of Artemis?\|journalThe Classical Journal\|volume92\|issue3\|pages249–257\|jstor3298110}}</ref> In Greek religion we must see less tractable elements which have nothing to do with the Olympians, but come from an old, less organized world–exorcisms, rituals to raise crops, gods and goddesses conceived not quite in human shape. Some cults of Artemis retained the pre-Greek features which were consecrated by immemorial practices and connected with daily tasks. Artemis shows sometimes the wild and darker side of her character and can bring immediate death with her arrows, however she embodies the idea of "the free nature" which was introduced by the first Greeks.<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, p.498</ref> The Dorians came later in the area, probably from Epirus and the goddess of nature was mostly interpreted as a vegetation goddess who was related to the ecstatic Minoan tree-cult. She was worshipped in orgiastic cults with lascivious and sometimes obscene dances, which have pure Greek elements introduced by the Dorians.<ref>A not localized phallic dance of women is connected with the boisterous and nudge dances of the cult of Artemis, as a goddess of vegetation": Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.491</ref> The feminine (sometimes male) dancers wore usually masks, and they were famous in the antiquity. The great popularity of Artemis corresponds to the Greek belief in freedom<ref>"Hospitality to the strangers and freedom for all": L.H.Jeffery (1976), The city states, c.700-500 BCE, p.6, Ernest Benn Limited</ref> and she is mainly the goddess of women and children. The goddess of free nature is independent and celibate.<ref>Ionescu, C., The Enduring Goddess: Artemis and Mary, Mother of Jesus, dissertation under the tutelage of Prof. B. Lee, York University, Toronto, 2016, [https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/22fa14c4-9d82-4b69-9584-4b8b794b4623/content#page232 pp. 227–229].</ref>{{rp\|227–229}} Artemis is frequently depicted carrying a torch and she was occasionally identified with Hecate. Like other Greek deities, she had a number of other names applied to her, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the goddess.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967), "Die Geschichte der Griechischen religion", C.H. Beck Verlag, Munchen, p.481-500</ref><ref nameOxf268>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome Vol I, 7, [https://books.google.com/books?idlNV6-HsUppsC&pgPA268 Oxford Encyclop, p.268]</ref> , Berlin]] Aeginaea, probably huntress of chamois or the wielder of the javelin, at Sparta<ref>{{cite book\|lastSchmitz \|firstLeonhard \|contributionAeginaea \|editor-lastSmith \|editor-firstWilliam \|year1867 \|titleDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology \|volume1 \|page26 \|placeBoston \|contribution-urlhttp://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0035.html \|access-date2007-10-19 \|archive-date2009-02-11 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090211114659/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0035.html \|url-statusdead}}</ref> However the word may mean "from the island Aegina", that relates Artemis with Aphaia (Britomartis).<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?laiginai%2Fa&lagreek#Perseus:text:1999.04.0058:entryayi)ginai/h-contents Αιγινάίη]</ref> Aetole, of Aetolia at Nafpaktos. A marble statue represented the goddess in the attitude of one hurling a javelin.<ref name"Pausanias 10.38.12">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D38%3Asection%3D12 Pausanias 10.38.12]</ref> Agoraea, guardian of popular assemblies in Athens. She was considered to be the protector of the assemblies of the people in the agora. At Olympia the cult of "Artemis Agoraea" was related to the cult of Despoinai.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+5.15.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 5.15.4]</ref> (The double named goddesses Demeter and Persephone).<ref name=Geschichte2/> Agrotera, the huntress of wild wood, in the Iliad and many cults.<ref nameIliad214>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.+Il.+21.471&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad 21.471]</ref> It was believed that she first hunted at Agrae of Athens after her arrival from Delos. There was a custom of making a "slaughter sacrifice", to the goddess before a battle.<ref>{{cite book \| last Parker \| first Robert \| title Polytheism and Society in Athens \| publisher Oxford University Press \| year 2005 \| pages 56, 178, 400, 419 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idEkXh9roRTC0C \| isbn 0-19-921611-8}}</ref> The deer always accompanies the goddess of hunting. Her epithet Agraea is similar with Agrotera.<ref>{{cite book \| last Bell \| first Robert E. \| author-link Robert E. Bell \| title Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary \| publisher ABC-CLIO \| year 1991 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/womenofclassical00bell/page/17 17], 191, 253 \| url https://archive.org/details/womenofclassical00bell \| url-access registration \| isbn 0-87436-581-3}}</ref> Alphaea, in the district of Elis. The goddess had an annual festival at Olympia and a temple at Letrinoi near the river Alpheus.<ref nameGeschichte1/> At the festival of Letrinoi, the girls were dancing wearing masks. In the legend, Alphaea and her nymphs covered their faces with mud and the river god Alpheus, who was in love with her, could not distinguish her from the others. This explains, somehow, the clay masks at Sparta.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.490-491</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D8 Pausanias 6.22.8-6.22.9]</ref> , Paris.]] Amarynthia, or Amarysia, with a famous temple at Amarynthus near Eretria. The goddess was related to the animals, however she was also a healer goddess of women. She is identified with Kolainis.<ref name=Geschichte2>Nilsson, "Geshichte", Vol I, p.494-500</ref> Amphipyros, with fire at each end, a rare epithet of Artemis as bearing a torch in either hand. Sophocles calls her, "Elaphebolos, (deer slayer) Amphipyros", reminding the annual fire of the festival Laphria<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I p.495 A4 :Sophocles, Trach.205 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0011,001:214&langoriginal Sophocles Trach.214]</ref> The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades).<ref name"αμφίπυρος">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=a)mfi/puros αμφίπυρος]</ref> Anaitis, in Lydia. The fame of Tauria (the Tauric goddess) was very high, and the Lydians claimed that the image of the goddess was among them. It was considered that the image had divine powers. The Athenians believed that the image became booty to the Persians and was carried from Brauron to Susa.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.16.8&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.16.8]</ref> Angelos, messenger, envoy, title of Artemis at Syracuse in Sicily.<ref>Heschychius Schol.ad.Theocr. ii 12</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?laggelos&lagreek#lexicon άγγελος]</ref> Apanchomene, the strangled goddess, at Caphyae in Arcadia. She was a vegetation goddess related to the ecstatic tree cult. The Minoan tree goddesses Helene, Dentritis, and Ariadne were also hanged. This epithet is related to the old traditions where icons and puppets of a vegetation goddess would be hung on a tree. It was believed that the plane tree near the spring at Caphyae, was planted by Menelaus, the husband of Helen of Troy. The tree was called "Menelais". The previous name of the goddess was most likely Kondyleatis.<ref nameGesch315>Nillson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.315-317</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.23.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.23.4]</ref> Aphaea, or Apha, unseen or disappeared, a goddess at Aegina and a rare epithet of Artemis. Aphaea is identified with Britomartis. In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her. She travelled to Aegina on a wooden boat and then she disappeared. The myth indicates an identity in nature with Diktynna.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.30.3&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.30.3]</ref> . Antique fresco from Pompei, probably a copy of a painting by Timanthes. Agamemnon (right) and Clytemnestra crying (left). In the sky appears the fawn which will replace her. National Archaeological Museum, Naples.]] Aricina, derived from the town Aricia in Latium, or from Aricia, the wife of the Roman forest god Virbius (Hippolytus). The goddess was related with Artemis Tauria (the Tauric Artemis). Her statue was considered the same with the statue that Orestes brought from Tauris.<ref>Strabo Geographica vp 239</ref> Near the sanctuary of the goddess there was a combat between slaves who had run away from their masters and the prize was the priesthood of Artemis.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.27.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.27.4]</ref> Ariste, the best, a goddess of the women. Pausanias describes xoana of "Ariste" and "Kalliste" in the way to the academy of Athens and he believes that the names are surnames of the goddess Artemis, who is depicted carrying a torch.<ref>Heshych : Kalliste..... Hecate established in Kerameikos, who some call Artemis</ref> Kalliste is not related to Kalliste of Arcadia.<ref name=Geschichte2/> Aristobule, the best advisor, at Athens. The politician and general Themistocles built a temple of Artemis Aristobule near his house in the deme of Melite, in which he dedicated his own statue.<ref>Plutarch, Themistocles 22</ref> Astrateia, she that stops an invasion, at Pyrrichos in Laconia. A wooden image (xoanon), was dedicated to the goddess, because she stopped the invasion of the Amazons in this area. Another xoanon represented "Apollo Amazonios".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.eds/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.25.3&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.25.3]</ref> Basileie, at Thrace and Paeonia. The women offered wheat stalks to the goddess. In this cult, which reached Athens, Artemis is relative to the Thracian goddess Bendis.<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, p.823</ref> (with her Thracian cap), Apollo, Hermes and a young warrior. Apulian red-figure bell-shaped krater, c. 380–370 BCE by the Bendis Painter. Louvre, Paris.]] Brauronia, worshipped at Brauron in Attica. Her cult is remarkable for the "arkteia", young girls who dressed with short saffron-yellow chitons and imitated bears (she-bears: arktoi).<ref nameBlund33>Blundell, Sue and Margaret Williamson, eds. The Sacred and the Feminine in Ancient Greece. New York: Routledge, 1998, 33</ref> In the Acropolis of Athens, the Athenian girls before puberty should serve the goddess as "arktoi".<ref nameSuid.1/> Artemis was the goddess of marriage and childbirth.<ref name"Blund33"/> The name of the small "bears" indicate the theriomorphic form of Artemis in an old pre-Greek cult. In the cult of Baubronia, the myth of the sacrifice of Iphigenia was represented in the ritual.<ref nameStinton26>Stinton, T. C. W. 1976 is. “Iphigeneia and the Bears of Brauron.” The Classical Quarterly 26:11-13</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastNelson\|firstThomas J.\|titleIphigenia in the Iliad and the Architecture of Homeric Allusion\|date2022 \|urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/article/852866\|journalTAPA \|languageen\|volume152\|pages55–101\|doi10.1353/apa.2022.0007\|s2cid=248236106}}</ref><ref>Euripides, "Iphigeneia among the Taurrians", 1446-1468</ref> Boulaia, of the council, in Athens.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lboulai%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon βουλαία]</ref><ref name=Geschichte2/> Boulephoros, counselling, advising, at Miletus, probably a Greek form of the mother-goddess.<ref>Artemis the adviser, Skyris. (related to the family of Skyridai), a form of the mother-goddess: Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, p.498 A1</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lboulai%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon βουληφόρος]</ref> Caryatis, the lady of the nut-tree, at Caryae on the borders between Laconia and Arcadia. Artemis was strongly related to the nymphs, and young girls were dancing the dance Caryatis. The dancers of Caryai were famous in antiquity.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lkarua%2Ftis&lagreek#lexicon Καρύαι]</ref> In a legend, Carya, the female lover of Dionysos was transformed into a nut tree and the dancers into nuts.<ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. (Berkeley: University of ~California Press), 1999:227</ref> The city is considered to be the place of the origin of the bucolic (pastoral) songs.<ref name=Geschichte/> Cedreatis, near Orchomenus in Arcadia. A xoanon was mounted on the holy cedar (kedros).<ref name=Geschichte/> Chesias, from the name of a river at Samos.<ref name=Geschichte1>Nilsson, "Gescichte", Vol. I, p.488-493</ref> on Eurystheus, who, frightened, hides in a jar. Goddesses Artemis (left) and Athena (right). Attic Amphora 500–515 BCE by Rycroft Painter. National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).]] Chitonia, wearing a loose tunic, at Syracuse in Sicily, as goddess of hunting. The festival was distinguished by a peculiar dance and by a music on the flute.<ref name"Chitonia">[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0063%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DC%3Aentry+group%3D5%3Aentry%3Dchitonia-cn Chitonia]</ref><ref name=Geschichte1/> Chrisilakatos, of the golden arrow, in Homer's Iliad as a powerful goddess of hunting. In the Odyssey, she descends from a peak and travels along the ridges of Mount Erymanthos, that was sacred to the "Mistress of the animals".<ref name"Odyssey 6.102">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.+Od.+6.102&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0135 Odyssey 6.102]</ref> In a legend, when the old goddess became wrathful, she would send the terrible Erymanthian boar to lay waste to fields.<ref nameKeren148>Kerenyi(1959), "The Heroes of the Greeks", p.150-151 [https://archive.org/details/heroes-of-the-greeks-carl-kerenyi/page/n179/mode/2up The Heroes of the Greeks, p.148-151]</ref> Artemis can bring an immediate death with her arrows. In the Iliad, Hera stresses the wild and darker side of her character and she accuses her of being "a lioness between women".<ref nameIliad21>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.+Il.+21.483&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad 21.480-21.485]</ref>{{sfn\|Immendörfer\|2017\|page[https://books.google.com/books?id0cxjssVerbkC&pgPA224&redir_escy#vonepage&q&f=false 224-225]}} Chrisinios, of the golden reins, as a goddess of hunting in her chariot. In the Iliad, in her wrath, she kills the daughter of Bellerophon.<ref name="Iliad6200"/> Coryphaea, of the peak, at Epidaurus in Argolis. On the top of the mountain Coryphum there was a sanctuary of the goddess. The famous lyric poet Telesilla mentions "Artemis Coryphaea" in an ode.<ref>u [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.28.2&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.28.2]</ref> Cnagia, near Sparta in Laconia. In a legend the native Cnageus was sold as a slave in Crete. He escaped to his country taking with him the virgin priestess of the goddess Artemis. The priestess carried with her from Crete the statue of the goddess, who was named Cnagia.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.18.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.18.4)]</ref> Cynthia, as goddess of the moon, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthos at Delos. Selene, the Greek personification of the moon, and the Roman Diana were also sometimes called Cynthia.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id37CPbHwqPjwC&pgPA96 Imky Panen(2010) : When the bad bleeds, Bonn University Press]</ref> Daphnaea, as goddess of vegetation. Her name is most likely derived from the "laurel-branch" which was used as "May-branch",<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.124</ref> or an allusion to her statue being made of laurel-wood (daphne)<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DD%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Ddaphnaea-bio-1 Daphnaea]</ref> Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia.<ref nameGeschichte1/> Delia, the feminine form of Apollo Delios Delphinia, the feminine form of Apollo Delphinios (literally derived from Delphi). Dereatis, at Sparta near Taygetos. Dancers were performing the obscene dance "kallabis".<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.161</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lka%2Fllabis&lagreek#lexicon καλλαβίς]</ref> Diktynna, from Mount Dikti, who is identified with the Minoan goddess Britomartis. Her name is derived from the mountain Dikti in Crete. A folk etymology derives her name from the word "diktyon" (net).<ref name="Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I p.311-312">Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.311-312</ref> In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) was hunting together with Artemis who loved her desperately. She escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her, by jumping into the sea and falling into a net of fishes.<ref>Calimachus: Hymn III V 189</ref> , Paris]] Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth in Boeotia and other local cults especially in Crete and Laconia. During the Bronze Age, in the cave of Amnisos, she was related to the annual birth of the divine child.<ref>Dietrich, "The origins of the Greek religion", [https://books.google.com/books?idrgWHB3QMB3sC&pgPA109 p.109]</ref> In the Minoan myth the child was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by the powers of nature. Elaphia, goddess of hunting (deer). Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Elaphebolos, shooter of deer, with the festival "Elaphebolia" at Phocis and Athens,<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/webstersnewunive0000unse_o3r6/page/458/mode/2up \|page458 \|titleWebster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary\|publisherBarnes & Noble\|locationNew York \|year1994\|isbn1-56619-147-5}}</ref> and the name of a month in several local cults. Sophocles calls Artemis "Elaphebolos, Amphipyros", carrying a torch in each hand. This was used during the annual fire of the festival of Laphria at Delphi.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.495 -A4</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0011,001:214&lang=original Sophocles's Trach.214]</ref> Ephesia, at the city Ephesus of Minor Asia. The city was a great center of the cult of the goddess, with a magnificent temple, (Artemision). Ephesia belongs to the series of the Anatolian goddesses (Great mother, or mountain-mother). However she is not a mother-goddess, but the goddess of free nature. In the Homeric Ionic sphere she is the goddess of hunting.<ref name=Geschichte2/> Eucleia, as a goddess of marriage in Boeotia, Locris and other cities. Epheboi and girls who wanted to marry should make a preliminary sacrifice in honour of the goddess.<ref>proteleia gamon : sacrifices oferred before the marriage</ref><ref name"Plutarch Arist.20">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0007,024:20&langoriginal Plutarch Arist.20]</ref> "Eukleios" was the name of a month in several cities and "Eucleia" was the name of a festival at Delphi.<ref nameGeschichte1/><ref>During the festival, the offerings darata correspond to the offerings gamela (offerings of marriage) during the Apaturia : Nilsson, Vol I, p 493.</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lga%2Fmela&lagreek#lexicon γάμελα]</ref> In Athens Peitho, Harmonia and Eucleia can create a good marriage. The bride would sacrifice to the virgin goddess Artemis.<ref namePeitho>{{Cite journal\|lastSmith\|firstAmy C.\|date2005\|titleThe politics of weddings at Athens: an iconographic assessment\|journalLeeds International Classical Studies\|volume4\|issue1 \|pages1–32\|urlhttps://centaur.reading.ac.uk/6921/1/200501.pdf}} pp. 2-4,24</ref> Eupraxis, fine acting. On a relief from Sicily the goddess is depicted holding a torch in one hand and an offering on the other. The torch was used for the ignition of the fire on the altar.<ref name="Nilsson, Geschichte p.80, 81">Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol. I, p.80, 81</ref> , 460-450 BCE by the Niobid Painter. Louvre, Paris.]] Eurynome, wide ruling, at Phigalia in Arcadia. Her wooden image (xoanon) was bound with a roller golden chain. The xoanon depicted a woman's upper body and the lower body of a fish. Pausanias identifies her as one of the Oceanids daughters of Oceanus and Tethys<ref nameGeschichte/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.41.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.41.4-8.41.6]</ref> Hagemo, or Hegemone, leader,<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.37.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.37.1]</ref> as the leader of the nymphs. Artemis was playing and dancing with the nymphs who lived near springs, waters and forests and she was hunting surrounded by them. The nymphs joined the festival of the marriage and then they returned to their original form. The pregnant women appealed to the nymphs for help.<ref nameNilsson251>Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol. I, p.251, 252</ref> In Greek popular culture the commandress of the Neraiden (fairies) is called "Great lady", "Lady Kalo" or "Queen of the mountains".<ref nameGeschichte2/> Heleia, related to the marsh or meadow in Arcadia, Messenia and Kos.<ref nameGeschichte1/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?le%29lei%2Fa&la=greek#lexicon ελεία]</ref> Hemeresia, the soothing goddess worshipped at well Lusoi<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DH%3Aentry+group%3D6%3Aentry%3Dhemeresia-bio-1 Hemeresia]</ref> Heurippa, horse finder, at Pheneus in Arcadia. Her sanctuary was near the bronze statue of Poseidon Hippios (horse). In a legend, Odysseus lost his mares and travelled throughout Greece to find them. He found his mares at Pheneus, where he founded the temple of "Artemis Heurippa".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.14.5&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.14.5]</ref> Hymnia, at Orchomenos in Boeotia. She was a goddess of dance and songs, especially of female choruses. The priestesses of Artemis Hymnia could not have a normal life like the other women. They were at first virgins and were to remain celibate in the priesthood. They could not use the same baths and they were not allowed to enter the house of a private man.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.89-90</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last =Brulé \| first =Pierre \| title =Women of Ancient Greece \| chapter=The feminine and the sacred \| publisher =Edinburgh University Press \| date =2003 \| pages =18–19 \| language =English \| url https://books.google.com/books?idr28xEAAAQBAJ \| isbn 9780748679843 <!--\| access-date2021-09-10-->}} </ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.13.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.13.1]</ref> Iakinthotrophos, nurse of Hyacinthos at Knidos. Hyacinthos was a god of vegetation with Minoan origin. After his birth he was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by Artemis who represents the first power of nature.<ref name=Gesch315/> Imbrasia, from the name of a river at Samos.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Iocheaira, shooter of arrows by Homer (archer queen), as goddess of hunting. She has a wild character and Hera advises her to kill animals in the forest, instead of fighting with her superiors.<ref nameIliad21/> Apollo and Artemis kill with their arrows the children of Niobe because she offended her mother Leto.<ref name"Jane Ellen Harrison 1903">Jane Ellen Harrison, A Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903), "The Maiden-Trinities" p.286ff</ref>{{Sfn\|Immendörfer\|2017\|page[https://books.google.com/books?id0cxjssVerbkC&pgPA224 p.224-225]}}<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.+Il.+24.603&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad 24.603]</ref> In the European and Greek popular religion the arrow-shots from invisible beings can bring diseases and death. Painter. National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).]] Issora, or Isora, at Sparta, with the surname Limnaia or Pitanitis. Issorium was a part of a great summit which advances into the level of Eurotas<ref>{{cite web \|lastLeake \|firstWilliam Martin \|date1830 \|titleTravels in the Morea: with a map and plans \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideA0xf2SuS2gC&qpolyaen+issorium&pgPA177 \|access-date2020-01-16}}</ref> a Pausanias identifies her with the Minoan Britomartis.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.14.2&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.14.2]</ref><ref nameGeschichte1/> Kalliste, the most beautiful, another form of Artemis with the shape of a bear at Tricoloni near Megalopolis a mountainous area full of wild beasts.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.35.8&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.35,8]</ref> Kallisto the attendant of Artemis, bore Arcas the patriarch of the Arcaden. In a legend Kallisto was transformed into a bear and in another myth Artemis shot her. Kallisto is a hypostasis of Artemis with a theriomorphic form from a pre-Greek cult.<ref>Nilsson,"Geschichte", Vol I p.214</ref> 'Keladeini, echoing chasing (noisy) in Homer's Iliad because she hunts wild boars and deer surrounded by her nymphs.<ref nameGeschichte2/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.%20Il.%2016.183&lang=original Iliad 16.183]</ref> 'Kithone, as a goddess of childbirth at Millet. Her name is probably derived from the custom of clothes consecration to the goddess, for a happy childbirth.<ref name=Geschichte2/> Kolainis, related with the animals at Euboea and Attica. At Eretria she had a major temple and she was called Amarysia.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lkolaini%2Fs&lagreek&cankolaini%2Fs0#lexicon κολαινίς]</ref> The goddess became a healer goddess of women.<ref nameGeschichte/> Kolias, in a cult of women. Men were excluded because the fertility of the earth was related to motherhood. Aristophanes mentions Kolias and Genetyllis who are accused for lack of restraint. Their cult had a very emotional character.<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.783 :Aristophanes,Lysistr. V 641, V 388</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0019,003:52&langoriginal Aristoph. Clouds 52]</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lgenetulli%2Fs&lagreek#lexicon γενετυλλις]</ref> Kondyleatis, named after the village Kondylea, where she had a grove and a temple. In a legend some boys tied a rope around the image of the goddess and said that Artemis was hanged. The boys were killed by the inhabitants and this caused a divine punishment. All the women brought dead children in the world, until the boys were honourably buried. An annual sacrifice was instituted to the divine spirits of the boys. Kondyleatis was most likely the original name of Artemis Apanchomeni.<ref nameGeschichte/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.23.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.23.6]</ref> Kordaka, in Elis. Τhe dancers performed the obscene dance kordaka, which is considered the origin of the dance of the old comedy. The dance is famous for its nudge and hilarity and gave the name to the goddess.<ref name"Nilsson p.161, 490">Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I, p.161, 490</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lkorda%2Fka&la=greek#lexicon κόρδαξ]</ref> Korythalia, derived from Korythale, probably the "laurel May-branch",<ref>Heshychius: "Korythali.........some call the "eirisione" :[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?leiresiw%2Fnh&lagreek#lexicon ειρισιώνη]</ref> as a goddess of vegetation at Sparta. The epheboi and the girls who entered the marriage age placed the Korythale in front of the door of the house.<ref>A similar custom exists in modern Greece, at the beginning of May. The May-wreath is hanged over the door of house</ref> In the cult the female dancers (famous in the antiquity) performed boisterous dances and were called Korythalistriai. In Italy, the male dancers wore wooden masks and they were called kyrritoi (pushing with the horns).<ref>Nilsson (1967), Geschichte Vol I, p.123, 490</ref><ref>Hesych. Kyrritoi, the buffoons with the wooden faces who celebrate the "Korythalia"</ref><ref>Heshych. Tavris (tavros:bull), a phallic dance of the people of Taras</ref> Kourotrophos, protector of children. During the Apaturia the front hair of young girls and young boys (koureion) were offered to the goddess.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Laphria, the mistress of the animals (Pre-Greek name) in many cults, especially in central Greece, Phocis and Patras.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?llafri%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon λαφρία]</ref> "Laphria" was the name of the festival. The characteristic rite was the annual fire and there was a custom to throw animals alive in the flames during the fest.<ref name"Lane91" /><ref namePaus718>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D11 Pausanias 7.18.11-7.18.12]</ref><ref>"At Delphi the festival "Laphria" was introduced by the priests of Delphi "Lab(r)yaden". :{{cite book \|titleGods, Heroes and Tyrants: Greek chronology in chaos \|firstEmmet John \|lastSweeney \|publisherAlgora Publishing \|isbn9780875866826 \|date2009 \|page116 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwI6zh4E06TgC&qLabryades&pgPA116}}</ref> The cult of "Laphria" at Patras was transferred from the city Calydon of Aetolia<ref>Strabo VIII, p.387 : Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.130</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D38%3Asection%3D12 Pausanias 4.31.7]</ref> In a legend during the Calydonian boar hunt the fierce-huntress Atalanta was the first who wounded the boar.<ref>At birth she was abandoned by her father and then she was nursed by a she-bear (the symbol of Artemis with a Pre-Greek theriomorph form.) {{cite web\|titleAelian: Various Histories. Book XIII, Ch. 1\|urlhttp://penelope.uchicago.edu/aelian/varhist13.html \|access-date2021-03-08\|publisherpenelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> Atalanta was a Greek heroine, symbolizing the free nature and independence <ref>{{cite journal \|last1Howell \|first1Reet A. \|last2Howell \|first2Maxwell L. \|titleThe Atalanta Legend in Art and Literature \|journalJournal of Sporet History \|date1989 \|volume16 \|issue2 \|pages127–139 \|jstor43609443}}</ref> Lecho, protector of a woman in childbed, or of one who has just given birth.<ref name=Oxf268/> Leukophryene, derived from the city Leucophrys in Magnesia of Ionia. The original form of the cult of the goddess is unknown, however it seems that once the character of the goddess was similar with her character in Peloponnese.<ref name=Geschichte2/> Limnaia, of the marsh, at Sparta, with a swimming place Limnaion. (λίμνη: lake).<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?llimnai%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon λιμναία]</ref><ref name=Geschichte1/> Limnatis, of the marsh and the lake, at Patras, Ancient Messene and many local cults. During the festival, the Messenian young ladies were violated. Cymbals have been found around the temple, indicating that the festival was celebrated with dances.<ref name"Nilsson p.161, 490" /><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D2 Pausanias 4.4.2]</ref> Lochia, as goddess of childbirth and midwifery.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lloxi%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon λοχία]</ref> Women consecrated clothes to the goddess for a happy childbirth. Other less common epithets of Artemis as goddess of childbirth are Eulochia and Geneteira.<ref name=Oxf268 /> Lousia, bather or purifier, as a healer goddess at Lusoi in Arcadia, where Melampus healed the Proitiden.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Lyaia, at Syracuse in Sicily. (Spartan colony). There is a clear influence from the cult of Artemis Caryatis in Laconia. The Sicilian songs were transformed songs from the Laconic bucolic (pastoral) songs at Caryai.<ref name=Geschichte1/> breaking off the golden antler of the Ceryneian Hind, while Athena (left) and Artemis (right) look on. Black-figure amphora, c. 540–530 BCE, from Vulci. British Museum, London.]] Lyceia, of the wolf or with a helmet of a wolf skin,<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?llukei%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon λυκεία]</ref> at Troezen in Argolis. It was believed that her temple was built by the hunter Hippolytus who abstained from sex and marriage. Lyceia was probably a surname of Artemis among the Amazons from whom Hippolytus descended from his mother.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.31.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.31.4)]</ref> (Hippolyta). Lycoatis, with a bronze statue at the city Lycoa in Arcadia. The city was near the foot of the mountain Mainalo, which was sacred to, Pan. On the south slope the Mantineians fetched the bones of Arcas, the son of Kallisto.(Kalliste).<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.36.7&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.36.7-8.36.8]</ref> .]] Lygodesma, willow bound, at Sparta (another name of Orthia). In a legend her image was discovered in a thicket of willows.<ref name"books.google.com"/> standing upright (orthia).<ref nameGeschichte/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.16.11&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.16.11]</ref> Melissa, bee or beauty of nature, as a moon goddess. In Neoplatonic philosophy melissa is any pure being of souls coming to birth. The goddess took suffering away from mothers giving birth. It was Melissa who drew souls coming to birth.<ref>Porphyr.Antr 18-19</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastGimbutas\|firstMarija\|titleThe Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe: Myths and Cult Images\|year2007\|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-25398-8 \|pages182\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzKFFOoPlyjIC&qmelissa+goddess&pg=PA182}}</ref> Molpadia, singer of divine songs, a rare epithet of Artemis as a goddess of dances and songs and leader of the nymphs.<ref nameOxf268/> In a legend Molpadia was an Amazon. During the Attic war she killed Antiope to save her by the Athenian king Theseus, but she was killed by Theseus.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+1.2.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 1.2.1]</ref> Munichia, in a cult at Piraeus, related to the arkteia of Brauronian Artemis. According to legend, if someone killed a bear, he should be punished by sacrificing his daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter by dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter.<ref nameGeschichte/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lmounuxi%2Fa&la=greek#lexicon μουνυχία]</ref> Mysia, with a temple on the road from Sparta to Arcadia near the "Tomb of the Horse".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.20.9&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausan. 3.20.9]</ref> Oenoatis, derived from the city Oenoe in Argolis. Above the town there was the mountain Artemisium, with the temple of the goddess on the summit.<ref>Euripides Herc. Fur.376</ref> In a Greek legend the mountain was the place where Heracles chased and captured the terrible Ceryneian Hind, an enormous female deer with golden antlers and hooves of bronze. The deer was sacred to Artemis.<ref>{{cite book\|titleApollodorus the Library\|publisherG. P. Putnam's Sons\|year1921\|volume1\|locationNew York\|pages191 with the Scholiast\|translator-lastFrazer\|translator-firstSir James George\|chapterThe Library 2. 5. 3-4\|idark:/13960/t00012x9f}}</ref> Orthia, upright, with a famous festival at Sparta. Her cult was introduced by the Dorians. She was worshipped as a goddess of vegetation in an orgiastic cult with boisterous cyclic dances. Among the offerings, there were terracotta masks representing grotesque faces and it seems that animal-masks were also used.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSuddaby\|firstToryn\|date2014\|titleMasks and Maidens: Women and the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia\|journalConstellations\|languageen-US\|volume6\|issue1\|doi10.29173/cons24110\|issn2562-0509\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In literature there was a great fight for taking the pieces of cheese that were offered to the goddess.<ref>Plutarch Arist.17</ref> The whipping of the epheboi near the altar was a ritual of initiation, preparing them for their future life as soldiers.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2garBSREfywC&dqFrom+Artemis+to+Diane%2C+The+Goddess+of+Man+and+Beast&pgPA9\|titleFrom Artemis to Diana: The Goddess of Man and Beast\|last1Fischer-Hansen\|first1Tobias\|last2Poulsen\|first2Birte\|date2009\|publisherMuseum Tusculanum Press\|isbn9788763507882\|languageen}}</ref> During this ritual the altar was full of blood.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D16%3Asection%3D9 Pausanias 3.16.9-3.16.1]</ref> .]] Paidotrophos, protector of children at Corone in Messenia. During a festival of Korythalia the wet-nurses brought the infants in the sanctuary of the goddess, to get her protection.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Peitho, Persuasion, at the city Argos in Argolis. Her sanctuary was in the market place.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.21.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.21.1]</ref> In Pelopponnese Peitho is related to Artemis. In Athens Peitho is the consensual force in civilized society and emphasizes civic armony.<ref name=Peitho/> Pergaia, who was worshipped at Pamphylia of Ionia. A famous annual festival was celebrated in honor of Artemis in the city Perga. Filial cults existed in Pisidia, north of Pamphylia.<ref name=Karola>Margret Karola, Johannes Nollé: Götter, Städte, Feste. Kleinasiatische Münzen der römischen Kaiserzeit. Staatliche Münzsammlung, München 2014, S. 61</ref> Pheraia, from the city Pherai, at Argos, Athens and Sicyon. It was believed that the image of the goddess was brought from the city Pherai of Thessaly.<ref name"Pausanias2.23.5">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.23.5&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias2.23.5]</ref> This conception relates Artemis with the distinctly Thessalian goddess Enodia. Enodia had similar functions with Hecate and she carried the common epithet "Pheraia".<ref name"Apollo p.109-124">C.D.Graninger "Apollo, Enodia and fourth century Thessaly" Kernos22/2009 p.109-124</ref> Phakelitis, of the bundle, at Tyndaris in Sicily. In the local legend the image of the goddess was found in a bundle of dry sticks.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Phoebe, bright, as a moon goddess sister of Phoebus.<ref nameOxf268/> The epithet Phoebe is also given to the moon goddess Selene.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lPhoebe&lala&canphoebe0&prior=foi/bh#lexicon Phoebe]</ref> Phosphoros, carrier of light. In Ancient Messene she is carrying a torch as a moon-goddess and she is identified with Hecate.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Polo, in Thasos, with inscriptions and statues from the Hellenistic and Roman period. The name is probably related to "parthenos" (virgin).<ref name=Geschichte/> Potamia, of the river, at Ortygia in Sicily.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lpotami%2Fa&lagreek#lexicon ποταμία]</ref> In a legend Arethusa, was a chaste nymph and tried to escape from the river god Alpheus who fell in love with her. She was transformed by Artemis into a stream, traversed underground and appeared at Ortygia, thus providing water for the city.<ref nameGeschichte/> Ovid calls Arethusa, "Alfeias"<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D17%3Aentry%3Dalpheias-bio-1 Alfeias]</ref> (Alfaea) (of the river god). Potnia Theron, mistress of the animals. The origin of her cult is Pre-Greek and the term is used by Homer for the goddess of hunting.<ref nameIliad214/> Potnia was the name of the Mycenean goddess of nature.<ref nameD182 /> In the earliest Minoan conceptions the "Master of the animals" is depicted between lions and daimons (Minoan Genius). Sometimes "potnia theron" is depicted with the head of a Gorgon, who is her distant ancestor.<ref>Image : Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, Table 30.1</ref> She is the only Greek goddess who stands close to the daimons and she has a wild side which differentiates her from other Greek gods.<ref nameNils227/> In the Greek legends when the goddess was offended she would send terrible animals like the Erymanthian boar and Calydonian boar to laid waste the farmer's land, or voracious birds like the Stymphalian birds to attack farms and humans.<ref nameKeren148/><ref>Nilsson,Geschichte, Vol I, p.295-297</ref> In Arcadia and during the festival of Laphria, there is evidence of barbaric animal sacrifices.<ref name"Lane91" /><ref namePaus718 /> Pythia, as a goddess worshipped at Delphi.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lpu%2Fqios&lagreek#lexicon Πύθιος]</ref> or Artemis is depicted with a bow, twin flaming torches and a large dog. Archaic Attic black figure kylix, attributed to Kleibolos Painter. Museum of the University of Tübingen, Baden.]] Saronia, of Saron, at Troezen across the Saronic gulf. In a legend the king Saron was chasing a doe that dashed into the sea. He followed the doe in the waters and he was drowned in the waves of the sea. He gave his name to the Saronic gulf.<ref nameGeschichte/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.30.7&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.30.7]</ref> Selasphoros, carrier of light, flame, as a moon-goddess identified with Hecate, in the cult of Munichia at Piraeus.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lse%2Flas&lagreek#lexicon σέλας]</ref><ref name=Geschichte1/> Soteira (Kore Soteira), Kore saviour, at Phigalia. In Arcadia the mistress of the animals is the first nymph closely related to the springs and the animals, in a surrounding of animal-headed daimons. At Lycosura Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch and dressed with a deer skin, besides Demeter and Persephone. It was said that she was not the daughter of Leto, but the daughter of Demeter.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.480</ref><ref namePausanias837>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.37.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.37.1, 8.37.6]</ref> Stymphalia, of Stymphalus, a city in Arcadia. In a legend the water of the river descended in a chasm which was clogged up and the water overflowed creating a big marsh on the plain. A hunter was chasing a deer and both fell into the mud at the bottom of the chasm. The next day the whole water of the marsh dried up and the land was cultivated.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D8 Pausanias 8.228-8.22.9]</ref><ref nameGeschichte/> The monstrous man eating Stymphalian birds that were killed by Heracles were considered birds of Artemis.<ref name=Keren148/> Tauria, or Tauro (the Tauric goddess), from the Tauri or of the bull. Euripides mentions the image of "Artemis Tauria". It was believed that the image of the goddess had divine powers.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docEur.+IT+1156&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0112 Euripidis, Iphigenia in Tauris 1170-1179]</ref> Her image was considered to have been carried from Tauris by Orestes and Iphigenia and was brought to Brauron, Sparta or Aricia.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.16.7&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.16.7]</ref> with Artemis, deer, bull, club and quiver. c. 320–290 BCE. Diagora-, magistrate. CHER, Artemis Parthenos left. DIAGORA, Bull butting right; Christopher Markom Collection]] {{anchor\|Tauropolos}}Tauropolos, usually interpreted as hunting bull goddess. Tauropolos was not original in Greece and she has similar functions with foreign goddesses, especially with the mythical bull-goddess. The cult can be identified at Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar festival, a man was sacrificed. He was killed in the ritual with a sword cutting his throat.<ref name"perseus.tufts.edu">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docEur.+IT+1450&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0112 Euripides,Iphigeneia in Tauris 1450-1460]</ref> Strabo mentions that during the night-fest of Tauropolia a girl was raped.<ref>Strabo IX, 599</ref><ref nameGeschichte/> Thermia, as a healer goddess at Lousoi in Arcadia, where Melampus healed the Proitiden.<ref name=Geschichte1/> Toxia, or Toxitis, bowstring in torsion, as goddess of hunting in the island of Kos and at Gortyn. She is the sister of "Apollo Toxias".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?ltoci%2Ftis&lagreek#lexicon τοξίτης]</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?ltoc-i%2Fa&lagreek&cantoc-i%2Fa0#lexicon τοξίας]</ref><ref nameGeschichte/> Triclaria, at Patras. Her cult was superimposed on the cult of Dionysos Aisemnetis. During the festival of the god the children were wearing garlands of corn-ears. In a ritual they laid them aside to the goddess Artemis.<ref nameGeschichte1/><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+7.20.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 7.20.1-7.20.2]</ref> Triclaria was a priestess of Artemis who made love with her lover in the sanctuary. They were punished to be sacrificed in the temple and each year the people should sacrifice a couple to the goddess. Europylus came carrying a chest with the image of Dionysos who put an end to the killings.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D1 Pausanias 7.19.1-7.19.6]</ref> Issoria (Ἰσσωρία), a name given to her from her shrine at Mount Issorion in Laconia.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D7%3Aentry%3Dissoria-harpers Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Issoria]</ref>Mythology{{More citations needed section\|dateOctober 2021}}{{blockquote\| text=<poem> Leto bore Apollo and Artemis, delighting in arrows, Both of lovely shape like none of the heavenly gods, As she joined in love to the Aegis-bearing ruler. </poem> \| signHesiod \| source Theogony, lines 918–920 (written in the 7th century BCE)}} Birth Various conflicting accounts are given in Greek mythology regarding the birth of Artemis and Apollo, her twin brother. In terms of parentage, though, all accounts agree that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. In some sources, she is born at the same time as Apollo; but in others, earlier or later.<ref name":1">{{cite book \|last1Roman \|first1Luke \|last2Roman \|first2Monica \|date2010 \|titleEncyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|isbn9781438126395 \|pages85 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtOgWfjNIxoMC&qEncyclopedia+of+Greek+and+roman+mythology+cite&pgPP1}}</ref> Although traditionally stated to be twins, the author of The Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo (the oldest extant account of Leto's wandering and birth of her children) is only concerned with the birth of Apollo, and sidelines Artemis;{{sfn\|Shelmerdine\|1995\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idVVowBQAAQBAJ&pgPA63&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse 63]}} in fact in the Homeric Hymn they are not stated to be twins at all. It is a slightly later poet, Pindar, who speaks of a single pregnancy.{{sfn\|Rutherford\|2001\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idgPjZOB1YNqAC&pgPA368&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse 368]}} The two earliest poets, Homer and Hesiod, confirm Artemis and Apollo's status as full siblings born to the same mother and father, but neither explicitly makes them twins.<ref>Homer, Iliad [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 1.9] and [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D21%3Acard%3D502 21.502–510]; Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D901 918–920]</ref> According to Callimachus, Hera, who was angry with her husband Zeus for impregnating Leto, forbade her from giving birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island, but the island of Delos disobeyed and allowed Leto to give birth there. According to some, this rooted the once freely floating island to one place. According to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, however, the island where she and her twin were born was Ortygia.<ref>Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0138%3Ahymn%3D3%3Acard%3D1 14&ndash;18]; Gantz, p.38; cf. Orphic Hymn 35 to Leto, 3&ndash;5 (Athanassakis & Wolkow, p.31)</ref><ref>Hammond. Oxford Classical Dictionary. p.597-598</ref> In ancient Cretan history, Leto was worshipped at Phaistos, and in Cretan mythology, Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis on the islands known today as Paximadia {{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2024}}. A scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia<ref>Or as a separate island birthplace of Artemis: "Rejoice, blessed Leto, for you bear glorious children, the lord Apollon and Artemis who delights in arrows; her in Ortygia, and him in rocky Delos," says the Homeric Hymn; the etymology Ortygia, "Isle of Quail", is not supported by modern scholars</ref> by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) to prevent Hera from finding out about his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form, Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when she lays an egg.<ref>McLeish, Kenneth. Children of the Gods pp 33f; Leto's birth-pangs, however, are graphically depicted by ancient sources</ref> from Heracles. Detail of an Attic black-figure amphora c. 530–520 BCE. Louvre, Paris ]] The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as firstborn, becoming her mother's midwife upon the birth of her brother Apollo. Servius, a late fourth/early fifth-century grammarian, wrote that Artemis was born first because at first it was night, whose instrument is the Moon, which Artemis represents, and then day, whose instrument is the Sun, which Apollo represents.<ref>Servius, ''Commentary on Virgil's Aeneid'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D3%3Acommline%3D73 3.73]</ref> Pindar however writes that both twins shone like the Sun when they came into the bright light.{{sfn\|Rutherford\|2001\|pages[https://archive.org/details/rutherford-2001-pindars-paeans/page/364/mode/2up?view=theater 364–365]}} After their troubling childbirth, Leto took the twin infants and crossed over to Lycia, in the southwest corner of Asia Minor, where she tried to drink from and bathe the babies in a spring she found there. However, the local Lycian peasants tried to prevent the twins and their mother from making use of the water by stirring up the muddy bottom of the spring, so the three of them could not drink it. Leto, in her anger that the impious Lycians had refused to offer hospitality to a fatigued mother and her thirsty infants, transformed them all into frogs, forever doomed to swim and hop around the spring.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastBryce\|authorlinkTrevor R. Bryce\|firstTrevor R.\|titleThe Arrival of the Goddess Leto in Lycia\|journalHistoria: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte\|volume32\|number1\|dateJanuary 1, 1983\|pages1–13\|publisherFranz Steiner Verlag\|jstor4435828\|urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/4435828\|access-date=February 13, 2023}}</ref> ]] Relations with men The river god Alpheus was in love with Artemis, but as he realized he could do nothing to win her heart, he decided to capture her. When Artemis and her companions at Letrenoi go to Alpheus, she becomes suspicious of his motives and covers her face with mud so he does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities the girl and saves her, transforming her into a spring in the temple Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink. Bouphagos, son of the Titan Iapetus, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him down at Mount Pholoe. Daphnis was a young boy, a son of Hermes, who was accepted by and became a follower of the goddess Artemis; Daphnis would often accompany her in hunting and entertain her with his singing of pastoral songs and playing of the panpipes.<ref>Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4D.html#p83 4.84.1]</ref> Artemis taught a man, Scamandrius, how to be a great archer, and he excelled in the use of a bow and arrow with her guidance.<ref>Homer, Iliad [https://topostext.org/work/2#5.50 5.50]</ref> Broteas was a famous hunter who refused to honour Artemis, and boasted that nothing could harm him, not even fire. Artemis then drove him mad, causing him to walk into fire, ending his life.<ref>"I think that this is an aetiological myth, intended to explain the rite in which a human effigy was burnt upon a pyre in the festival of the hunters' goddess," observes Martin P. Nilsson, "Fire-Festivals in Ancient Greece", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 43.2 (1923:144-148) p.144 note 2; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D2 2.2]</ref> According to Antoninus Liberalis, Siproites was a Cretan who was metamorphized into a woman by Artemis, for, while hunting, seeing the goddess bathing.<ref>Forbes Irving, p.89, 149 n. 1, 166; Fontenrose, [https://books.google.com/books?idtD4lJxC95mEC&pgPA125 p.125]; Antoninus Liberalis, 17 (Celoria, [https://books.google.com/books?id9_Eolzuv0eQC&pgPA71 p.71]; Papathomopoulos, p.31)</ref> Artemis also changed a Calydonian man named Calydon, the son of Ares and Astynome, into stone when he saw the goddess bathing naked.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, De fluviis [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0094.tlg001.perseus-eng1:22 22]</ref> Divine retribution Actaeon , Paris.]] Multiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core, they involve the great hunter Actaeon whom Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression, and who is then killed by hunting dogs.<ref>Heath, "The Failure of Orpheus", Transactions of the American Philological Association 124 (1994:163-196) p.196</ref><ref>Walter Burkert, Homo Necans (1972), translated by Peter Bing (University of California Press) 1983, p.111</ref> Usually, the dogs are his own, but no longer recognize their master. Occasionally they are said to be the hounds of Artemis. Various tellings diverge in terms of the hunter's transgression: sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she,<ref>Lacy, "Aktaion and a Lost 'Bath of Artemis'" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 110 (1990:26-42)</ref> or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele. Apollodorus, who records the Semele version, notes that the ones with Artemis are more common.<ref name":apact">Apollodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 3.4.4]</ref> According to Lamar Ronald Lacey's The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies, the standard modern text on the work, the most likely original version of the myth portrays Actaeon as the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris, he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions, Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon Artemis. and her nymph surprised by Actaeon.Mosaic, 2nd century CE Ruins of Volubilis, Morocco]] A single line from Aeschylus's now lost play Toxotides ("female archers") is among the earlier attestations of Actaeon's myth, stating that "the dogs destroyed their master utterly", with no confirmation of Actaeon's metamorphosis or the god he offended (but it is heavily implied to be Artemis, due to the title).<ref>Aeschylus fr 135 (244), [https://ryanfb.github.io/loebolus-data/L146.pdf Aeschylus: Agamemnon, Libation-Bearers, Eumenides, Fragments]. Translated by Smyth, Herbert Weir. Loeb Classical Library Volume 146. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926, p.464</ref> Ancient artwork depicting the myth of Actaeon predate Aeschylus.<ref>Matheson, S. B., Polygnotos and Vase Painting in Classical Athens (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), [https://books.google.com/books?idY_UTwjgroSIC&pgPA264&redir_escy#vonepage&q&ffalse p. 264].</ref>{{rp\|264}} Euripides, coming in a bit later, wrote in the Bacchae that Actaeon was torn to shreds and perhaps devoured by his "flesh-eating" hunting dogs when he claimed to be a better hunter than Artemis.<ref>Euripides, Bacchae [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0092%3Acard%3D298 330-342]</ref> Like Aeschylus, he does not mention Actaeon being deer-shaped when that happens. Callimachus writes that Actaeon chanced upon Artemis bathing in the woods, and she caused him to be devoured by his own hounds for the sacrilege, and he makes no mention of transformation into a deer either.<ref>Callimachus, Hymn 5 On the Bath of Pallas [https://archive.org/details/callimachuslycop00calluoft/page/120/mode/2up?view=theater 109-115]</ref> Diodorus Siculus wrote that Actaeon dedicated his prizes in hunting to Artemis, proposed marriage to her, and even tried to forcefully consummate said "marriage" inside the very sacred temple of the goddess; for this he was given the form "of one of the animals which he was wont to hunt", and then torn to shreds by his hunting dogs. Diodorus also mentioned the alternative of Actaeon claiming to be a better hunter than the goddess of the hunt.<ref>Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4D.html#p75 4.81.3-5]</ref> Hyginus also mentions Actaeon attempting to rape Artemis when he finds her bathing naked, and her transforming him into the doomed deer.<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#181 181]</ref> '' by Titian (1556–1559), oil in canvas. National Gallery and Scottish National Gallery, London and Edinburg.]] Apollodorus wrote that when Actaeon saw Artemis bathing, she turned him into a deer on the spot, and intentionally drove his dogs into a frenzy so that they would kill and devour him. Afterward, Chiron built a sculpture of Actaeon to comfort his dogs in their grief, as they could not find their master no matter how much they looked for him.<ref name=":apact"/> According to the Latin version of the story told by the Roman Ovid, Actaeon was a hunter who after returning home from a long day's hunting in the woods, he stumbled upon Artemis and her retinue of nymphs bathing in her sacred grotto. The nymphs, panicking, rushed to cover Artemis' naked body with their own, as Artemis splashed some water on Actaeon, saying he was welcome to share with everyone the tale of seeing her without any clothes as long as he could share it at all. Immediately, he was transformed into a deer, and in panic ran away. But he did not go far, as he was hunted down and eventually caught and devoured by his own fifty hunting dogs, who could not recognize their own master.<ref>{{EB1911\|wstitleActaeon\|volume1\|page157}}</ref><ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0074%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D138 3.138 ff.]; Grimal, s.v. Actaeon, p.10</ref> Pausanias says that Actaeon saw Artemis naked and that she threw a deerskin on him so that his hounds would kill him, in order to prevent him from marrying Semele.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+9.2.3&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 9.2.3]</ref> Niobe The story of Niobe, queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, who blasphemously boasted of being superior to Leto. This myth is very old; Homer knew of it and wrote that Niobe had given birth to twelve children, equally divided in six sons and six daughters (the Niobids). Other sources speak of fourteen children, seven sons, and seven daughters. Niobe claimed of being a better mother than Leto, for having more children than Leto's own two, "but the two, though they were only two, destroyed all those others."<ref>Homer, Iliad 24.602 ff, trans. Lattimore</ref> Leto was not slow to catch up on that and grew angry at the queen's hubris. She summoned her children and commanded them to avenge the slight against her. depicting Niobe attempting to shield her children from Artemis and Apollo. Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas.]] Swiftly Apollo and Artemis descended on Thebes. While the sons were hunting in the woods, Apollo crept up on them and slew all seven with his silver bow. The dead bodies were brought to the palace. Niobe wept for them, but did not relent, saying that even now she was better than Leto, for she still had seven children, her daughters.<ref name"Ovid 6.146">Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0074%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D146 6.146 ff]</ref> On cue, Artemis then started shooting the daughters one by one. Right as Niobe begged for her youngest one to be spared, Artemis killed that last one.<ref name"Ovid 6.146" /> Niobe cried bitter tears, and was turned into a rock. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. The gods themselves entombed them. In some versions, Apollo and Artemis spared a single son and daughter each, for they prayed to Leto for help; thus Niobe had as many children as Leto did, but no more.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.21.9&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 2.21.9]</ref>Orion 's 1685 painting of Diana over Orion's dead body, before he is placed in the heavens. Louvre, Paris.]] Orion was Artemis' hunting companion; after giving up on trying to find Oenopion, Orion met Artemis and her mother Leto, and joined the goddess in hunting. A great hunter himself, he bragged that he would kill every beast on earth. Gaia, the earth, was not too pleased to hear that, and sent a giant scorpion to sting him. Artemis then transferred him into the stars as the constellation Orion.<ref>Pseudo-Eratosthenes, Catasterismi [https://books.google.com/books?id0EoZAAAAYAAJ&pgPA162 32] Hesiod, Astronomia [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/70/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 4 Evelyn-White, p.70&ndash;73] [https://books.google.com/books?idB75GgVdxYT0C&pgPA12 fr. 7 Freeman, p.12&ndash;13]; Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.26.2 2.26.2]; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pgPA564 p.564]; cf. Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#195 195]</ref> In one version Orion died after pushing Leto out of the scorpion's way.<ref>Ovid, Fasti [https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFive.php#anchor_Toc69367925 5.539]</ref> In another version, Orion tries to violate Opis,<ref>Kerenyi 1951 (p.204) says that this is "[a]nother name for Artemis herself"</ref> one of Artemis' followers from Hyperborea, and Artemis kills him.<ref>Apollodorus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D5 1.4.5]</ref> In a version by Aratus, Orion grabs Artemis' robe and she kills him in self-defense.<ref>Aratus, Phaenomena [https://topostext.org/work/551#634 638]</ref> Other writers have Artemis kill him for trying to rape her or one of her attendants.<ref>Callimachus, Hymn III to Artemis [https://archive.org/details/callimachuslycop00calluoft/page/82/mode/2up?viewtheater 265]; Nonnus, Dionysiaca [https://topostext.org/work/529#48.382 48.395]</ref> Istrus wrote a version in which Artemis fell in love with Orion, apparently the only time Artemis ever fell in love. She meant to marry him, and no talk from her brother Apollo would change her mind. Apollo then decided to trick Artemis, and while Orion was off swimming in the sea, he pointed at him (barely a spot in the horizon) and wagered that Artemis could not hit that small "dot". Artemis, ever eager to prove she was the better archer, shot Orion, killing him. She then placed him among the stars.<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.34.4 2.34.4]</ref> In Homer's Iliad, the goddess of the dawn Eos seduces Orion, angering the gods who did not approve of immortal goddesses taking mortal men for lovers, causing Artemis to shoot and kill him on the island of Ortygia.<ref>Homer, Iliad [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D92 5.121&ndash;124]; Gantz, p.97; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Orion; Hansen, p.118</ref>Callisto and other nymphs. Antique fresco from Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum, Naples.]] Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia,<ref>Pseudo-Eratosthenes, Catasterismi [https://books.google.com/books?id0EoZAAAAYAAJ&pgPA50 1] [Hesiod, Astronomia [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/68/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 3 Evelyn-White, p.68&ndash;71] [https://books.google.com/books?idB75GgVdxYT0C&pgPA12 fr. 6 Freeman, p.12]; Gantz, p.725; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Callisto; Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D1 1.25.1], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 8.2.6]; Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#176 176], [https://topostext.org/work/206#177 177]. According to the Bibliotheca, Eumelos "and some others" called Callisto the daughter of Lycaon, Asius called her the daughter of Nycteus, Pherecydes called her the daughter of Ceteus, and Hesiod called her a nymph. (Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2] [Eumelos, fr. 32 (West 2003, [https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC/page/n259/mode/2up?viewtheater p.248&ndash;249]) Asius fr. 9 (West 2003, [https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC/page/n269/mode/2up?viewtheater p.258&ndash;259]) Pherecydes FGrHist [https://books.google.com/books?idy5pxAAAAIAAJ&pgPA92 3 F86] Hesiod, fr. 163 Merkelbach-West])</ref> was one of Artemis' hunting attendants, and, as a companion of Artemis, took a vow of chastity.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2]; Gantz, p.98; Tripp, s.v. Callisto, p.145&ndash;146; cf. Pseudo-Eratosthenes, Catasterismi [https://books.google.com/books?id0EoZAAAAYAAJ&pgPA50 1] [ Hesiod, Astronomia [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/70/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 4 Evelyn-White, p.70&ndash;73] [https://books.google.com/books?idB75GgVdxYT0C&pgPA12 fr. 7 Freeman, p.12&ndash;13]</ref> According to Hesiod in his lost poem Astronomia, Zeus appeared to Callisto, and seduced her, resulting in her becoming pregnant. Though she was able to hide her pregnancy for a time, she was soon found out while bathing. Enraged, Artemis transformed Callisto into a bear, and in this form she gave birth to her son Arcas. Both of them were then captured by shepherds and given to Lycaon, and Callisto thus lost her child. Sometime later, Callisto "thought fit to go into" a forbidden sanctuary of Zeus, and was hunted by the Arcadians, her son among them.<ref>Gantz (p.275) notes that "[t]he text here seems to indicate that Arkas (and others) pursued [Callisto] only after she had entered the sanctuary, and only because she had done so"</ref> When she was about to be killed, Zeus saved her by placing her in the heavens as a constellation of a bear.<ref>Pseudo-Eratosthenes, Catasterismi [https://books.google.com/books?id0EoZAAAAYAAJ&pgPA50 1] [Hesiod, Astronomia [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/68/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 3 Evelyn-White, p.68&ndash;71] [https://books.google.com/books?idB75GgVdxYT0C&pgPA12 fr. 6 Freeman, p. 12]; Gantz, p. 98, 725&ndash;726; cf. Hesiod, Astronomia [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/68/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 3 Evelyn-White, p.68&ndash;71]</ref> In his De astronomia, Hyginus, after recounting the version from Hesiod,<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.1.1 2.1.1]</ref> presents several other alternative versions. The first, which he attributes to Amphis, says that Zeus seduced Callisto by disguising himself as Artemis during a hunting session, and that when Artemis found out that Callisto was pregnant, she replied saying that it was the goddess's fault, causing Artemis to transform her into a bear. This version also has both Callisto and Arcas placed in the heavens, as the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.1.2 2.1.2]</ref> Hyginus then presents another version in which, after Zeus lay with Callisto, it was Hera who transformed her into a bear. Artemis later, while hunting, kills the bear, and "later, on being recognized, Callisto was placed among the stars".<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.1.3 2.1.3]; Gantz, p.727. Compare with Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#177 p.177] and Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 8.2.6]</ref> Hyginus also gives another version, in which Hera tries to catch Zeus and Callisto in the act, causing Zeus to transform her into a bear. Hera, finding the bear, points it out to Artemis, who is hunting; Zeus, in panic, places Callisto in the heavens as a constellation.<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.1.4 2.1.4]; Gantz, p.727; cf. Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2]</ref> , c. 1556–1559, by Titian. Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh.]] Ovid gives a somewhat different version: Zeus seduced Callisto once again disguised as Artemis, but she seems to realise that it is not the real Artemis,<ref>Gantz (p.726) says that "Kallisto realizes the identity (or at least the gender) of her seducer..."</ref> and she thus does not blame Artemis when, during bathing, she is found out. Callisto is, rather than being transformed, simply ousted from the company of the huntresses, and she thus gives birth to Arcas as a human. Only later is she transformed into a bear, this time by Hera. When Arcas, fully grown, is out hunting, he nearly kills his mother, who is saved only by Zeus placing her in the heavens.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0074%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D401 401&ndash;530]; Gantz, p.726</ref> In the Bibliotheca, a version is presented in which Zeus raped Callisto, "having assumed the likeness, as some say, of Artemis, or, as others say, of Apollo". He then turned her into a bear himself so as to hide the event from Hera. Artemis then shot the bear, either upon the persuasion of Hera, or out of anger at Callisto for breaking her virginity.<ref>In the first version, Artemis was not aware the bear was Callisto. (Gantz, p. 727) Of the second version, Gantz (p. 727) says that it "[q]uite probably … implies a variant in which Kallisto does not become a bear at all, as Artemis is not likely to transform her and shoot her, or to slay her for her own reasons after Hera has accomplished the transformation"</ref> Once Callisto was dead, Zeus made her into a constellation, took the child, named him Arcas, and gave him to Maia, who raised him.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2]; Gantz, p.727; Tripp, s.v. Callisto, p.145&ndash;146; cf. Eumelos, fr. 32 (West 2003, [https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC/page/n259/mode/2up?viewtheater p.248&ndash;249]) [Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2]. Gantz (p.727) suggests that this version may have come from Pherecydes, while West 2003 says that Eumelos "must have told the story of how Zeus made love to Callisto and changed her into a bear. Artemis killed her, but Zeus saved her child, who was Arcas." (West 2003, [https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC/page/n259/mode/2up?view=theater p.249, note 26 to fr. 32])</ref> Pausanias, in his Description of Greece, presents another version, in which, after Zeus seduced Callisto, Hera turned her into a bear, which Artemis killed to please Hera.<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 8.2.6]; Gantz, p.727. Compare with Hyginus, De astronomia'' [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.1.3 2.1.3] and Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D1 1.25.1]</ref> Hermes was then sent by Zeus to take Arcas, and Zeus himself placed Callisto in the heavens.<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 8.2.6&ndash;7]; Gantz, p.727; cf. Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D2 3.8.2]</ref> Minor myths Painter. Louvre, Paris.]] When Zeus' gigantic son Tityos tried to rape Leto, she called out to her children for help, and both Artemis and Apollo were quick to respond by raining down their arrows on Tityos, killing him.<ref>Homer, Odyssey [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D11%3Acard%3D567 11.580 ff]; Pindar, Pythian Odes [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0223 4.161–165]; Apollodorus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D1 1.4.1]; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.183739/page/n149/mode/2up?viewtheater 3.390 ff]; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pgPA147 p.147–148]</ref> Chione was a princess of Phokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was more beautiful than Artemis because she had made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with an arrow,<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#200 200]; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pgPA192 p.192]</ref> or struck her mute by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}} Artemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to nurse the baby, who was then raised by hunters. In some stories, Artemis later sent a bear to injure Atalanta because others claimed Atalanta was a superior hunter. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the Calydonian boar hunt, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood and was awarded the prize of the boar's hide. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis. Meleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus ordered him to gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turns his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids, into guineafowl that Artemis favoured. In Nonnus' Dionysiaca, Aura, the daughter of Lelantos and Periboia, was a companion of Artemis.<ref>Grimal, s.v. Aura, p.71</ref> When out hunting one day with Artemis, she asserts that the goddess's voluptuous body and breasts are too womanly and sensual, and doubts her virginity, arguing that her own lithe body and man-like breasts are better than Artemis' and a true symbol of her own chastity. In anger, Artemis asks Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity. Nemesis agrees, telling Artemis that Aura's punishment will be to lose her virginity, since she dared question that of Artemis. Museum.]] Nemesis then arranges for Eros to make Dionysus fall in love with Aura. Dionysus intoxicates Aura and rapes her as she lies unconscious, after which she becomes a deranged killer. While pregnant, she tries to kill herself or cut open her belly, as Artemis mocks her over it. When she bore twin sons, she ate one, while the other, Iacchus, was saved by Artemis. The twin sons of Poseidon and Iphimedeia, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive and skilled hunters who could not be killed except by each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer that jumped out between them. In another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe and jumped between them.<ref name=":1" /> , 1709. Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia.]] The Aloadae threw their spears and so mistakenly killed one another. In another version, Apollo sent the deer into the Aloadae's midst, causing their accidental killing of each other.<ref name=":1" /> In another version, they start pilling up mountains to reach Mount Olympus in order to catch Hera and Artemis, but the gods spot them and attack. When the twins had retreated the gods learnt that Ares had been captured. The Aloadae, not sure about what to do with Ares, lock him up in a pot. Artemis then turns into a deer and causes them to kill each other. In some versions of the story of Adonis, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill him as punishment for boasting that he was a better hunter than her.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D4 3.14.4]; cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0074%3Abook%3D10%3Acard%3D652 10.652]; Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#248 248]; Plutarch, Quaestiones Convivales [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0312%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D3 4.5.3]; Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2013.01.0003%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D80 2.80]</ref> In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis is a favorite of Aphrodite, who was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a hunter of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus's death. In yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares as punishment for being with Aphrodite.<ref>Nonnus, Dionysiaca [https://archive.org/details/dionysiaca03nonnuoft/page/210/mode/2up?view=theater 42.204&ndash;211]; Grimal, s.v. Adonis, p.12&ndash;13</ref> Polyphonte was a young woman who fled home in pursuit of a free, virginal life with Artemis, as opposed to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment, Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to mate and have children with a bear. Artemis, seeing that, was disgusted and sent a horde of wild animals against her, causing Polyphonte to flee to her father's house. Her resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the entire family was transformed into birds who became ill portents for mankind.<ref>Antoninus Liberalis, [https://topostext.org/work/216#21 p.21]</ref> Coronis was a princess from Thessaly who became the lover of Apollo and fell pregnant. While Apollo was away, Coronis began an affair with a mortal man named Ischys. When Apollo learnt of this, he sent Artemis to kill the pregnant Coronis, or Artemis had the initiative to kill Coronis on her own accord for the insult done against her brother. The unborn child, Asclepius, was later removed from his dead mother's womb.<ref>Pindar, Pythian Ode [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DP.%3Apoem%3D3 3 str1-ant3]; Pausanias, Description of Greece [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+2.26.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 2.26.6]</ref> When two of her hunting companions who had sworn to remain chaste and be devoted to her, Rhodopis and Euthynicus, fell in love with each other and broke their vows in a cavern, Artemis turned Rhodopis into a fountain inside that very cavern as punishment. The two had fallen in love not on their own but only after Eros had struck them with his love arrows, commanded by his mother Aphrodite, who had taken offence in that Rhodopis and Euthynicus rejected love and marriage in favour of a chaste life.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Greek romances of Heliodorus, Longus and Achilles Tatius; comprising the Ethiopics; or, Adventures of Theagenes and Chariclea; The pastoral amours of Daphnis and Chloe; and The loves of Citopho and Leucippe \|lastSmith \|firstRowland \|locationLondon \|publisherG. Bell and Sons \|page[https://archive.org/details/cu31924026460869/page/504/mode/2up?viewtheater 8.12] \|date1901 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924026460869/mode/2up?viewtheater}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titlePaul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesus \|volume80 \|firstRick \|lastStrelan \|publisherDe Gruyter \|date1996 \|locationBerlin, New York City \|journalBeihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft \|issn0171-6441 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnw1xdz7fO18C \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idnw1xdz7fO18C&pgPA75 75] \|isbn=9783110150209}}</ref> When the monstrous Typhon attacked Olympus, all the terrified gods transformed into various animals and fled to Egypt. Artemis became a cat,<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0074%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D250 5.319]; Antoninus Liberalis, Collection of Transformations [https://topostext.org/work/216#28 28]</ref> as she was identified by the Greeks with the Egyptian feline goddess Bastet.<ref>{{cite book \| title Greco-Egyptian Interactions: Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BC-AD 300 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idoBqHCwAAQBAJ \| page [https://books.google.com/books?idoBqHCwAAQBAJ&pgPA64 64] \| first Ian \| last Rutherford \| date February 19, 2016 \| publisher Oxford University Press \| location United Kingdom \| isbn = 978-0-19-965612-7}}</ref> When the queen of Kos Echemeia ceased to worship Artemis, she shot her with an arrow; Persephone then snatched the still-living Euthemia and brought her to the Underworld.<ref>Hyginus, Astronomica [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.16.2 2.16.2]</ref> Trojan War , Greece.]] Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city, and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. Artemis plays a significant role in the war; like Leto and Apollo, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. In the Iliad, Artemis on her chariot with the golden reins, kills the daughter of Bellerophon.<ref name"Iliad6200"/> Bellorophone was a divine Greek hero who killed the monster Chimera. At the beginning of the Greek's journey to Troy, Artemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter than the goddess.<ref name"Theoi.com">{{cite web \|lastAtsma \|firstAaron J. \|titleFAVOUR OF ARTEMIS: Greek mythology \|publisherTheoi.com \|urlhttp://www.theoi.com/Olympios/ArtemisFavour.html#Iphigeneia \|access-date2011-01-28}}</ref> , Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans]] When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to commence the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas erroneously advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. In some version of the myth, Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer; in others, Artemis allowed Iphigenia to be sacrificed. In versions where Iphigenia survived, a number of different myths have been told about what happened after Artemis took her; either she was brought to Tauris and led the priests there, or she became Artemis' immortal companion.<ref name="Theoi.com" />Aeneas was also helped by Artemis, Leto, and Apollo. Apollo found him wounded by Diomedes and lifted him to heaven. There, the three deities secretly healed him in a great chamber. During the theomachy, Artemis found herself standing opposite of Hera, on which a scholium to the Iliad wrote that they represent the Moon versus the air around the Earth.<ref name=":soi2067"/> Artemis chided her brother Apollo for not fighting Poseidon and told him never to brag again; Apollo did not answer her. An angry Hera berated Artemis for daring to fight her: <blockquote> How now art thou fain, thou bold and shameless thing, to stand forth against me? No easy foe I tell thee, am I, that thou shouldst vie with me in might, albeit thou bearest the bow, since it was against women that Zeus made thee a lion, and granted thee to slay whomsoever of them thou wilt. In good sooth it is better on the mountains to be slaying beasts and wild deer than to fight amain with those mightier than thou. Howbeit if thou wilt, learn thou of war, that thou mayest know full well how much mightier am I, seeing thou matchest thy strength with mine. </blockquote> Hera then grabbed Artemis' hands by the wrists, and holding her in place, beat her with her own bow.<ref>Homer, Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D21%3Acard%3D468 21.468-497]</ref> Crying, Artemis left her bow and arrows where they lay and ran to Olympus to cry at her father Zeus' knees, while her mother Leto picked up her bow and arrows and followed her weeping daughter.<ref>Homer, Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D21%3Acard%3D502 502-510]</ref> Worship {{Main\|Cult of Artemis at Brauron}} . The stoa and the sacred spring from the SW.]] Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece.<ref>"... a goddess universally worshipped in historical Greece, but in all likelihood pre-Hellenic." Hammond, Oxford Classical Dictionary, p.126</ref> Her best known cults were on the island of Delos (her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows and accompanied by a deer. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign. Athenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta. Pre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears. '' in Jerash, Jordan, built during the reign of Antoninus Pius]] A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls "act the bear" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death.<ref>Golden, M., Children and Childhood in Classical Athens (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), [https://books.google.com/books?idLvV0CQAAQBAJ&pgPT84 p.84]</ref> Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia. Dedications of clothing to her sanctuaries after a successful birth was common in the Classical era.<ref name":0">{{cite thesis \|typePhD \|lastWise \|firstSusan \|date2007 \|titleChildbirth Votives and Rituals in Ancient Greece \|publisherUniversity of Cincinnati \|urlhttps://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accessionucin1186592935&dispositioninline \|access-date2 April 2022 \|archive-date17 November 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117050720/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accessionucin1186592935&dispositioninline \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Artemis could be a deity to be feared by pregnant women, as deaths during this time were attributed to her. As childbirth and pregnancy was a very common and important event, there were numerous other deities associated with it, many localized to a particular geographic area, including but not limited to Aphrodite, Hera and Hekate.<ref name=":0" /> at Ephesus. Its final form was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.]] It was considered a good sign when Artemis appeared in the dreams of hunters and pregnant women, but a naked Artemis was seen as an ill omen.<ref>van der Toorn et al, [https://books.google.com/books?idyCkRz5pfxz0C&pgPA93 s.v. Artemis, p. 93]</ref> According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin.<ref>{{cite book \|authorPseudo-Apollodorus \|titleBibliotheca}}</ref> Older sources, such as Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo (in Line 115), have the arrival of Eileithyia on Delos as the event that allows Leto to give birth to her children. Contradictory is Hesiod's presentation of the myth in Theogony, where he states that Leto bore her children before Zeus' marriage to Hera with no commentary on any drama related to their birth. Despite her being primarily known as a goddess of hunting and the wilderness, she was also connected to dancing, music, and song like her brother Apollo; she is often seen singing and dancing with her nymphs, or leading the chorus of the Muses and the Graces at Delphi. In Sparta, girls of marriageable age performed the partheneia (choral maiden songs) in her honor.<ref nameOxf268 /> An ancient Greek proverb, written down by Aesop, went "For where did Artemis not dance?", signifying the goddess' connection to dancing and festivity.<ref>The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, [https://books.google.com/books?idoHAmAgAAQBAJ&pgPA81 p.81]</ref><ref>Budin, [https://books.google.com/books?idNL0BCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 p.110] "One site especially famous for its choruses dedicated to Artemis was Ephesos. According to the Hellenistic poet Kallimakhos, this custom was established by the Amazons who founded the cult by dancing around a wooden image of the goddess."</ref> During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hekate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya). There was a women's cult at Cyzicus worshiping Artemis, which was called Dolon (Δόλων).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/delta/1345\|titleSOL Search\|websitewww.cs.uky.edu}}</ref>FestivalsArtemis was born on the sixth day of the month Thargelion (around May), which made it sacred for her, as her birthday.<ref>Mikalson, [https://books.google.com/books?idd4p9BgAAQBAJ&pgPA18 p.18]</ref> On the seventh day of the same month was Apollo's birthday.<ref namecalendars>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.winterscapes.com/kharis/calendar.htm#Thar \|titleAncient Athenian Festival Calendar \|publisherWinterscapes.com \|date2007-07-24 \|access-date=2011-01-28}}</ref> Artemis was worshipped in many festivals throughout Greece mainland and the islands, Asia Minor and south Italy. Most of these festivals were celebrated during spring. ; Attica . Archaeological Museum of Piraeus.]] Athens. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated on the sixth day of the month Elaphebolion (ninth month). The name is related to elaphos (deer) and Artemis is the Deer Huntress. Cakes made from flour, honey, and sesame and in the shape of stags were offered to the goddess during the festival.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.hellenion.org/festivals/elaphebolia/\|titleElaphebolia\|websiteHellenio non\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190929100713/http://www.hellenion.org/festivals/elaphebolia/\|archive-date2019-09-29\|access-date2020-04-20}}</ref><ref namecalendars/><ref name=NilssonA>Nilsson, "Geschichte, Vol I p.483-486</ref> * Brauron. The festival was remarkable for the arkteia, where girls, aged between five and ten, were dressed in saffron robes and played at being bears, or "act the bear" to appease the goddess after she sent the plague when her bear was killed. Another commentator says that girls had to placate the goddess for their virginity (parthenia), so that they would not be the object of revenge from her.<ref>Blundell, Sue and Margaret Williamson, eds. The Sacred and the Feminine in Ancient Greece. New York: Routledge, 1998, 33.</ref> * Piraeus. The festival of Artemis Munichia was celebrated on the 6th or 16th day of the month Munichion (tenth month). Young girls were dressed up as bears, as for the Brauronia. In the temple have been found sherds from the geometric period. The festival commemorated the victory of the Greek fleet over the Persians at Salamis.<ref>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities edited by William Smith (1870) {{usurped\|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20050617081723/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/0776.html p.769]}}</ref><ref nameNilssonA/> * Athens. Artemis had a filial cult of Brauronia, near the Acropolis.<ref name=NilssonA/> * Agrae, a district of Athens, with a temple of Artemis-Agrotera. (huntress)<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D6 Pausanias 1.19.6]</ref> On the 6th day of the month Boedromion, an armed procession would take a large number of goats to the temple. They would all be sacrificed in honor of the victory at the Battle of Marathon.<ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAgroteras Thusia\|volume1\|page427\|noicony}}</ref> The festival was called "Charisteria," also known as the Athenian "Thanksgiving."<ref namecalendars/> * Myrrhinus, a deme near Merenda (Markopoulo). There was a cult of Kolainis.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+1.31.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 1.31.4]</ref> Kolainis is usually identified with Artemis Amarysia in Euboia. Some rites and animal sacrifices were probably similar with the rites of Laphria.<ref name=NilssonA/> Athmonia, a deme near Marousi. The festival of Artemis Amarysia was no less splendid than the festival of Amarysia in Euboea.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D5 Pausanias 1.31.5]</ref> Halae Araphenides, a deme near Brauron. The fest Tauropolia was celebrated in honour of Artemis Tauropolos. During the festival a human sacrifice was represented in a ritual.<ref name=NilssonA/> * Erchia a district of Athens. The modern Athenian airport was built over the ruins of the deme. A festival was celebrated on the 16th day of the month Metageitnion. Sacrifices were offered to Artemis and Hekate.<ref name=calendars/> ;Central Greece , Paris.]] * Hyampolis in Phocis. During an attack of the Thessalians, the Phocians terrified gathered together in one spot their women, children, movable property, and also their clothes, gold and made a vast pyre. The order was that if they would be defeated, all should be killed and would be thrown into the flames together with their property.<ref>Forlorn hopes: Phocian despair (Φωκική απόνοια)</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D6 Pausanias 10,1.6]</ref> The Phocians achieved a great victory and each year they celebrated their victory in the festival Elaphebolia-Laphria in honour of Artemis. All kinds of offerings were burned in an annual fire, reminding the great pyre of the battle.<ref>Nilsson, Geschichte,Vol I, p. 27,484</ref> Delphi in Phocis. The festival Laphria was celebrated in the month Laphrios. The cult of Artemis Laphria was introduced by the priests of Delphi Lab(r)yaden who had probably Cretan origin.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleGods, Heroes and Tyrants: Greek chronology in chaos \|firstEmmet John \|lastSweeney \|publisherAlgora Publishing \|isbn9780875866826 \|date2009 \|page116 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwI6zh4E06TgC&qLabryades&pgPA116}}</ref> Laphria is certainly the Pre-Greek "Mistress of the animals".<ref nameNilssonA/> Delphi in Phocis . The festival Eucleia was celebrated in honour of Artemis. According to the Labyaden-inscriptions the offerings darata are determined by the specified gamela and pedēia. Eucleia was a goddess of marriage.<ref name=NilssonC>Nilsson, "Geschichte, Vol I p.492-495</ref> , California.]] Tithorea in Ancient Phocis. It seems that the festival of Isis was a reform of the festival of Artemis Laphria.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+10.32.14&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 10.32.14]</ref> Erineos in Doris. Festival of Artemis Laphria, indicated by the month Laphrios in the local calendar.<ref name=NilssonA/> Antikyra in Phocis.Cult of Artemis-Diktynaia, a popular goddess who was worshipped with great respect.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+10.36.5&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 10.36.5]</ref> Thebes in Boeotia. Before marriage a premilinary sacrifice should be made by the bride and the groom to Artemis-Eucleia.<ref name=NilssonC/> Amarynthos in Euboia. Festival of Artemis Amarysia. Animals were sacrificed with rites probably similar with the fest Laphria.<ref name=NilssonA/> Aulis in Boeotia. In a festival all kinds of sacrificial animals were offered to the goddess. It seems that the festival was a reverberation of the rites of Laphria.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D7 Pausanias 9.19.7]</ref><ref nameNilssonA/> Calydon in Aetolia. Calydon is considered the origin of the cult of Artemis Laphria at Patras. In the Aetolian calendar there was the month Laphrios.<ref name=NilssonA/> Near the city there was the temple of Apollo Laphrius;<ref>{{Cite Strabo\|p. 459}}</ref> Nafpaktos in Aetolia. Cult of Artemis Laphria.<ref name"Pausanias 4.31.7">[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+4.31.7&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 4.31.7]</ref> Acarnania. Cult of Artemis-Agrotera (huntress) in a society of hunters.<ref name=NilssonA/> ;Peloponnese ns. Artemis holding a deer welcomes Apollo. Cycladic krater (7th cent. BCE) National Archaeological Museum, Athens.]] Patras in Achaea. The great festival Laphria was celebrated in honour of Artemis. The characteristic rite was the annual fire. Birds, deers, sacrificial animals, young wolves and young bears were thrown alive in a great pyre. Laphria (Pre-Greek name) is the "Mistress of Animals".<ref nameNilssonA/> Traditionally her cult was introduced from Calydon of Aetolia.<ref name"Pausanias 4.31.7"/><ref>Eftychia Stavrianopoulou (2013), "Ritual and Communication in Graeco-Roman world",p.102, Open editions books. [https://books.google.com/books?idj_sXCwAAQBAJ&dqLaphria+goddess&pg=PA102 p.102]</ref> Patras. The Ionians who lived in Ancient Achaea celebrated the annual festival of Artemis Triclaria. Pausanias mentions the legend of human sacrifices to the outraged goddess. The new deity Dionysus, put an end to the sacrifices.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+7.19.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 7.19.1–7.19.4]</ref><ref name=NilssonC/> Corinth. The festival Eucleia was celebrated in honor of Artemis.<ref>Xenophon Hellenica 4.4.2</ref> Aigeira in Achaea. Festival of Artemis Agrotera (huntress). When the Sicyonians attacked the city, the Aigeirians tied torches on all goats of the area and during night they set the torches alight. The Sicyonians believed that Aigeira had a great army and they retreated.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+7.26.2&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 7.26.2-7.26.3]</ref> Sparta. Festival of Artemis-Orthia. The goddess was associated with the female initiatory rite Partheneion.<ref>Eyprosyne Boutsikas (2020), "The Cosmos in Ancient Greek religious experience" p.135, Cambridge University Press [https://books.google.com/books?idb9oGEAAAQBAJ&dqorthia&pgPA135 p.135]</ref> Women performed round dances. In a legend Theseus stole Helene from the dancing floor of Orthia, during the round-dancing. The significant prize of the competitions was an iron sickle (drepanē) indicating that Orthia was a goddess of vegetation.<ref nameNilssonB>Nilsson, Geschichte, Vol I, p.487-491</ref> Sparta on the road to Amyklai. Artemis-Korythalia was a goddess of vegetation. Women performed lascivious dances. The fest was celebrated in round huts covered with leaves. The nurses brought the infants in the temple of Korythalia during the fest Tithenedia.<ref>{{cite book \|firstClaude \|lastCalame \|date2001 \|titleChoruses of Young women in Ancient Greece \|publisherRowman @Littlefield Publishers Inc. \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idDhfmgSz1eR4C&dqkorythalia&pg=PA169 169]}}</ref> ]] Messene near the borders with Laconia. Festival of Artemis Limnatis (of the lake). The festival was celebrated with cymbals and dances.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+4.4.2&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 4.4.2]</ref> The goddess was worshipped by young women during the festivals of transition from childhood to adulthood.<ref>Maria Spathi (2018) "Findings of cultic traditions for goddess Artemis", p. Center for Hellenic studies in Greece. Harvard University.[https://greece.chs.harvard.edu/news/early-career-2022-meet-maria Cultic traditions of Artemis]</ref> Dereion on Taygetos in Laconia. Cult of Artemis -Dereatis. The festival was celebrated with the hymns calavoutoi and with the obscene dance callabis.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=paus.+3.20.7 Pausanias 3.20.7]</ref><ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte" Vol I, p. 161</ref> Epidauros Limera in Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.23.10&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.23.10]</ref><ref name=NilssonA/> Caryae on the borders between Laconia and Arcadia . Festival of Artemis-Caryatis, a goddess of vegetation related to the tree-cult. Each year women performed an exstatic dance called the caryatis.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.10.7&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.10.7]</ref><ref name=NilssonA/> Boiai in Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Soteira (savior), which was related to the myrtle tree. When the inhabitants of the cities near the gulf were expelled, Artemis with the shape of a hare guided them to a myrtle tree where they built the new city.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D11 Pausanias 3.22.11-3.22.12]</ref><ref nameNilssonA/> Gytheion in Laconia. Cult of Artemis Laphria, in the month Laphrios.<ref name=NilssonA/> Elis . Pelops (Peloponnese: Pelop's island) had won the sovereignty of Pisa and his followers celebrated their victory near the temple of Artemis-Kordaka. They danced the peculiar dance kordax.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+6.22.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 6.21.11-6.22.1]</ref><ref name=NilssonB/> , London]] Elis . Festival of Artemis-Elaphia in the month Elaphios (elaphos:deer). Elaphia was a goddess of hunting.<ref namePausanias>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D8 Pausanias 6.22.8-6.22.10)]</ref><ref name=NilssonA/> Letrinoi in Elis . Festival of Artemis Alpheaia. Girls wearing masks performed dances.<ref namePausanias/><ref nameNilssonB/> Olympia in Elis. Annual festival (panegeris) of Artemis Alpheaia .<ref nameStrabo>Strabo VIII p.343</ref><ref nameNilssonB/> Olympia in Elis. Annual festival of Artemis Elaphia.<ref nameStrabo/><ref nameNilssonB/> Olympia in Elis. Annual festival of Artemis Daphnaia (of the laurel-branch), as a goddess of vegetation.<ref nameStrabo/><ref nameNilssonB/> Hypsus in Arcadia near the borders of Laconia. Annual festival of Artemis-Diktynna. Her temple was built near the sea.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D24%3Asection%3D9 Pausanias 3.24.9]</ref> Hypsus . Annual fest of Artemis Daphnaia.(Of the laurel-branch).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.24.8&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.24.8]</ref><ref name =NilssonB/> Stymphalus in Arcadia . Festival of Artemis-Stymphalia. The festival begun near the Katavothres where the water overflowed and created a big marsh.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.22.8&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.22.8]</ref><ref name=NilssonA/> Orchomenus, in Arcadia. A sanctuary was built for Artemis Hymnia where her festival was celebrated every year.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.13.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.13.1]</ref> Tegea in Arcadia, on the road to Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis (of the lake).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.53.11&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.53.11]</ref><ref name=NilssonC/> Phigalia in Arcadia. In a battle the Phigalians expelled the conquerors Spartans and recovered their city. On the summit of the Acropolis they built the sanctuary of Artemis-Soteira (Savior) and a statue of the goddess. At the beginning of festivals, all their processions started from the sanctuary.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.39.5&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.39.5]</ref> Troizen in Argolis. Festival of Artemis-Saronia. Near the temple was the grave of the king Saron who was drowned into the sea.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mythindex.com/greek-mythology/S/Saron.html \|titleSARON, Greek Mythology Index \|publisherMythindex.com \|access-date2011-01-28}}</ref> <ref name=NilssonA/> ;Northern Greece Aegae, in Macedonia. Eucleia had a shrine with dedications in the agora of the city. The goddess is associated with Artemis-Eucleia, the goddess of marriage who was widely worshipped in Boeotia.<ref>Eugene Borza (2020), "In the shadow of Olympus. Emergence of Macedonia", p.192, Princeton University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?idOF3sDwAAQBAJ&dqeucleia&pg=PA192 p.192]</ref> Apollonia of Chalcidice. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated in honor of Artemis in the month Elaphebolion<ref name=NilssonA/> ;Greek islands ]] Icaria. The Tauropolion,<ref>Strabo (xiv.1.19)</ref> the temple of Artemis Tauropolos was built at Oinoe. There was another smaller temenos that was sacred to Artemis-Tauropolos on the coast of the island.<ref>J. H. Croon, "Hot Springs and Healing: A Preliminary Answer" Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, 14.2 (1961:140–141).</ref> Cephalonia. Cult of Artemis-Laphria who is related to the legend of Britomartis.<ref>Antonin. Lib 40 : Nilsson, Vol I, p.484</ref> Corcyra. Cult of Artemis-Laphria in the month Laphrios.<ref name =NilssonA/> ; Asia Minor Ephesus in Ionia. The great festival Artemisia was celebreted in honor of Artemis. The wealth and splendor of temple and city were taken as evidence of Artemis Ephesia's power. Under Hellenic rule, and later, under Roman rule, the Ephesian Artemisia festival was increasingly promoted as a key element in the pan-Hellenic festival circuit .<ref>{{cite book \|authorPliny the Elder \|titleNatural History \|at=35–93}}</ref> Perga in Ionia. Famous festival of Artemis-Pergaia. Under Roman rule Diana-Pergaia is identified with Selene.<ref name=Karola/> Iasos in Caria. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated in honor of Artemis in the month Elaphebolion<ref name=NilssonA/> Byzantion. Festival of Artemis-Eucleia in the month Eucleios.<ref name=NilssonC/> ;Magna Graecia Syracuse in Sicily. The festival of Artemis Chitonia was distinguished by a peculiar dance and by a music on the flute. Chitonia (wearing a loose tunic) was a goddess of hunting.<ref name="Chitonia"/> * Syracuse in Sicily. Festival of Artemis-Lyaia. Men from the countryside came to the city in a rustic dress. They carried a deer-antler on their head and held a shepherd's stab. They sang satirical songs drinking wine. The festival was the link between the comic performance and the countryside.<ref>"Theater and Autocracy in Ancient world" (2022), p.65 eds. Walter de Gruyter .[https://books.google.com/books?id5JmnEAAAQBAJ&dqlyaia&pgPA65 p.65]</ref><ref nameNilssonC/> Tauromenion in Sicily. Festival of Artemis-Eucleia in the month Eucleios.<ref name =NilssonC/> Festival of Artemis-Korythalia. The male dancers wore wooden masks.<ref name NilssonB/>AttributesVirginity (Athens) dates from the mid-fourth century BCE and was given to sculptor Euphranor.]] ]] An important aspect of Artemis' persona and worship was her virginity, which may seem contradictory, given her role as a goddess associated with childbirth. The idea of Artemis as a virgin goddess likely is related to her primary role as a huntress. Hunters traditionally abstained from sex prior to the hunt as a form of ritual purity and out of a belief that the scent would scare off potential prey. The ancient cultural context in which Artemis' worship emerged also held that virginity was a prerequisite to marriage, and that a married woman became subservient to her husband.<ref name=Hjerrild /> In this light, Artemis' virginity is also related to her power and independence. Rather than a form of asexuality, it is an attribute that signals Artemis as her own master, with power equal to that of male gods. Her virginity also possibly represents a concentration of fertility that can be spread among her followers, in the manner of earlier mother-goddess figures. However, some later Greek writers did come to treat Artemis as inherently asexual and as an opposite to Aphrodite.<ref nameHjerrild>Hjerrild, B. (2009). Near Eastern equivalents to Artemis. Tobias Fischer-Hansen & Birte Poulsen, eds. From Artemis to Diana: The Goddess of Man and Beast. Museum Tusculanum Press. {{ISBN\|8763507889}}, 9788763507882</ref> Furthermore, some have described Artemis along with the goddesses Hestia and Athena as being asexual; this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, Aphrodite is described as having "no power" over the three goddesses.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59339816\|titleThe Homeric hymns\|date2003\|publisherPenguin Books\|translator-lastCashford\|translator-firstJules\|isbn0-14-043782-7\|locationLondon\|oclc59339816}}</ref> As a mother goddess Despite her virginity, both modern scholars and ancient commentaries have linked Artemis to the archetype of the mother goddess. Artemis was traditionally linked to fertility and was petitioned to assist women with childbirth. According to Herodotus, Greek playwright Aeschylus identified Artemis with Persephone as a daughter of Demeter. Her worshipers in Arcadia also traditionally associated her with Demeter and Persephone. In Asia Minor, she was often conflated with local mother-goddess figures, such as Cybele, and Anahita in Iran.<ref name=Hjerrild/> , Izmir, Turkey]] The archetype of the mother goddess, though, was not highly compatible with the Greek pantheon, and though the Greeks had adopted the worship of Cybele and other Anatolian mother goddesses as early as the seventh century BCE, she was not directly conflated with any Greek goddesses. Instead, bits and pieces of her worship and aspects were absorbed variously by Artemis, Aphrodite, and others as Eastern influence spread.<ref nameHjerrild/>As the Lady of Ephesus {{Main\|Temple of Artemis}} At Ephesus in Ionia, Turkey, her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best-known center of her worship except for Delos. There, the Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through interpretatio graeca was worshipped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the "Lady of Ephesus" adorned with multiple large beads. Excavation at the site of the Artemision in 1987–88 identified a multitude of tear-shaped amber beads that had been hung on the original wooden statue (xoanon), and these were probably carried over into later sculpted copies.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/98868504/49-MORRIS-Potnia-Aswiya-Anatolian-Greek-Religion\|title"Potnia Aswia: Anatolian Contributions to Greek Religion" by Sarah P. Morris\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140106033338/http://www.scribd.com/doc/98868504/49-MORRIS-Potnia-Aswiya-Anatolian-Greek-Religion\|archive-date=2014-01-06}}</ref> In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!"<ref>Acts 19:28</ref> Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple's location. As a lunar deity bronze head of a goddess (probably Artemis), wearing a lunate crown, 4th century BCE. Found at Issa, Vis, Croatia).]] No records have been found of the Greeks referring to Artemis as a lunar deity, as their lunar deity was Selene,<ref>Sacks (1995), p.35</ref><ref>Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pgPA46 p.46]; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Morford, [https://archive.org/details/classicalmytholo0000morf_8ed/page/64/mode/2up?viewtheater p.64], [https://archive.org/details/classicalmytholo0000morf_8ed/page/219/mode/2up?viewtheater 219–220]; Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docselene-bio-1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104 s.v. Selene]</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastAdler \|firstMargot\|author-linkMargot Adler \|titleDrawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today, Revised and Expanded Edition \|year1986 \|publisherBeacon Press \|isbn978-0-8070-3253-4}}</ref> but the Romans identified Artemis with Selene leading them to perceive her as a lunar deity, though the Greeks did not refer to her or worship her as such.<ref>Shen (2018), p.60</ref><ref>Gury, Françoise, "Selene, Luna" in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) VII.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1994. {{ISBN\|3-7608-8751-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastSfameni Gasparro \|firstGiulia \|chapterThe Hellenistic Face of Isis: Cosmic and Saviour Goddess \|editor1-lastBricault \|editor1-firstLaurent \|editor2-lastVersluys \|editor2-firstMiguel John \|editor3-lastMeyboom \|editor3-firstPaul G. P. \|titleNile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis Studies, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, May 11–14 2005 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric \|url-accesslimited \|pages[https://archive.org/details/nileintotiberegy00bric/page/n66 40]–72 \|year2007 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-90-04-15420-9}}</ref> As the Romans began to associate Apollo more with Helios, the personification of the Sun, it was only natural that the Romans would then begin to identify Apollo's twin sister, Artemis, with Helios' own sister, Selene, the personification of the Moon.<ref name":smt"/> Evidence of the syncretism of Artemis and Selene is found early on; a scholium on the Iliad, claiming to be reporting sixth century BCE author Theagenes's interpretation of the theomachy in Book 21, says that in the fight between Artemis and Hera, Artemis represents the Moon, while Hera represents the earthly air.<ref name":soi2067">Scholia on the Iliad [https://archive.org/details/scholiagraecainh02homeuoft/page/194/mode/2up?viewtheater 20.67] ; Hansen, [https://archive.org/details/handbookofclassi0000hans/page/10/mode/2up?viewtheater&q p.10]; Anecdota græca e codd. manuscriptis Bibliothecæ regiæ parisiensis, [https://books.google.com/books?idextPAAAAYAAJ&pgPA120 p.120]</ref><ref name":hard187">Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA187 p.187]</ref> Active references to Artemis as an illuminating goddess start much later.<ref name":budin"/> Notably, Roman-era author Plutarch writes how during the Battle of Salamis, Artemis led the Athenians to victory by shining with the full moon, but all lunar-related narratives of this event come from Roman times, and none of the contemporary writers (such as Herodotus) makes any mention of the night or the Moon.<ref name":budin">Budin, [https://books.google.com/books?idyL0BCgAAQBAJ&pgPA62 p.62]</ref> - Vatican Museums.]] Artemis' connection to childbed and women's labour naturally led to her becoming associated with the menstrual cycle in course of time, thus the Moon.<ref>van der Toorn et al, [https://books.google.com/books?idyCkRz5pfxz0C&pgPA92 s.v. Artemis, p.92]</ref> Selene, just like Artemis, was linked to childbirth, as it was believed that women had the easiest labours during the full moon, paving thus the way for the two goddesses to be seen as the same.<ref>Chrysippus [https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum02arniuoft/page/212/mode/2up?viewtheater fr. 748]</ref><ref name":hard187"/> On that, Cicero writes: <blockquote>Apollo, a Greek name, is called Sol, the sun; and Diana, Luna, the moon. [...] Luna, the moon, is so called a lucendo (from shining); she bears the name also of Lucina: and as in Greece the women in labor invoke Diana Lucifera,<ref>Cicero, De Natura Deorum [https://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=137#2.68 2.68]</ref></blockquote> Association to health was another reason Artemis and Selene were syncretized; Strabo wrote that Apollo and Artemis were connected to the Sun and the Moon, respectively, which was due to the changes the two celestial bodies caused in the temperature of the air, as the twins were gods of pestilential diseases and sudden deaths.<ref>Strabo, Geographica [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docStrab.+14.1.6&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239 14.1.6]</ref> Roman authors applied Artemis/Diana's byname, "Phoebe", to Luna/Selene, the same way as "Phoebus" was given to Helios due to his identification with Apollo.<ref>Morford, [https://archive.org/details/classicalmytholo0000morf_8ed/page/64/mode/2up?viewtheater p. 64]</ref> Another epithet of Artemis that Selene appropriated is "Cynthia", meaning "born in Mount Cynthus."<ref>Pannen, [https://books.google.com/books?id37CPbHwqPjwC&pgPA96 p.96]</ref> The goddesses Artemis, Selene, and Hecate formed a triad, identified as the same goddess with three avatars: Selene in the sky (moon), Artemis on earth (hunting), and Hecate beneath the earth (Underworld).<ref>Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D6%3Acommline%3D118 6.118]; Green, C. M. C. (2007). Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia. New York: Cambridge University Press</ref> In Italy, those three goddesses became a ubiquitous feature in depictions of sacred groves, where Hecate/Trivia marked intersections and crossroads along with other liminal deities.<ref name":bergm">Bergmann, Bettina, Joseph Farrell, Denis Feeney, James Ker, Damien Nelis, and Celia Schultz. "An Exciting Provocation: John F. Miller's 'Apollo, Augustus, and the Poets.'" Vergilius (1959-) 58 (2012): [http://www.jstor.org/stable/43186298 10–11]</ref> The Romans enthusiastically celebrated the multiple identities of Diana as Hecate, Luna, and Trivia.<ref name":bergm" /> Roman poet Horace in his odes enjoins Apollo to listen to the prayers of the boys, as he asks Luna, the "two-horned queen of the stars", to listen to those of the girls in place of Diana, due to their role as protectors of the young.<ref>Horace, Carmen Saeculare [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm4.shtml 33–36]</ref> In Virgil's Aeneid, when Nisus addresses Luna/the Moon, he calls her "daughter of Latona."<ref>Virgil, Aeneid [https://topostext.org/work/245#9.367 9.404]</ref> In works of art, the two goddesses were mostly distinguished; Selene is usually depicted as being shorter than Artemis, with a rounder face, and wearing a long robe instead of a short hunting chiton, with a billowing cloak forming an arc above her head.<ref>Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DS%3Aentry+group%3D11%3Aentry%3Dselene-bio-1 s.v. Selene]</ref> Artemis was sometimes depicted with a lunate crown.<ref>Collins-Clinton, [https://books.google.com/books?idU6vdDwAAQBAJ&pgPA88 p.88]</ref>As Hecate , Vatican Museums]] Hecate was the goddess of crossroads, boundaries, ghosts and witchcraft. She is the queen of the witches.<ref>Seyffert, s.v. [https://archive.org/details/b3135841x/page/270/mode/2up?viewtheater Hecate]</ref> Artemis absorbed the Pre-Greek goddess Potnia Theron who was closely associated with the daimons.<ref nameNils227/> In the Mycenean age daimons were lesser deities of ghosts, divine spirits and tutelary deities.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2323243 2323243] Perseus Tufts Consulted 2017-05-05</ref> Some scholars believe that Hecate was an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon. Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshipped separately under her title Hecate.<ref>Fairbanks, Arthur. A Handbook of Greek Religion. American Book Company, 1910. p.229</ref> Both goddesses carried torches, and were accompanied by a dog. It seems that the character of Artemis in Arcadia was original.<ref name=Nilsson497>Nilsson, "Geschichte Vol I p. 497</ref> At Acacesium Artemis Hegemone is depicted holding two torches, and at Lycosura Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch. A bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side.<ref name=Pausanias374 /> Sophocles calles Artemis Amphipyros, carrying a torch in each hand, however the adjective refers also to the twin fire on the two peaks of the mountain Parnassus behind Delphi. In the fest of Laphria at Delphi Artemis is related to the Pre-Greek mistress of the animals, with barbaric sacrifices and possible connections with magic and ghosts since Potnia Theron was close to the daimons. The annual fire was the characteristique custom of the fest.<ref name"Lane91" /><ref namePaus718/> At Kerameikos in Athens Artemis is clearly identified with Hecate. Pausanias believes that Kalliste (the most beautiful ) is a surname of Artemis carrying a torch. In Thessaly the distinctly local goddess Enodia with the surname Pheraia is identified with Hecate.<ref name"Apollo p.109-124"/> Artemis Pheraia was worshipped in Argos, Athens and Sicyon.<ref name"Pausanias2.23.5"/> Symbols Chariots . Legion of Honor (museum), San Francisco.]] Homer uses the epithet Chrisinios, of the golden reigns, to illustrate the chariot of the goddess of hunting.<ref nameNilsson483>Nilsson, "Geschichte" Vol I, p.482-484</ref> At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer.<ref nameNilsson483/> Spears, nets, and lyre Artemis is rarely portrayed with a hunting spear. In her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetole was depicted with a hunting spear or javelin.<ref name="Pausanias 10.38.12"/> Artemis is also sometimes depicted with a fishing spear connected with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing. This conception relates her with Diktynna (Britomartis).<ref name"Nilsson, Geschichte Vol I p.311-312"/> As a goddess of maiden dances and songs, Artemis is often portrayed with a lyre in ancient art.<ref>Kimberley Christine Patton, Religion of the Gods: Ritual, Paradox, and Reflexivity [https://books.google.com/books?idQwgTDAAAQBAJ&pgPA333 p.333]</ref>DeerDeer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden-horned deer and harnessed them to her chariot.<ref>Callimachus, Hymn 3 to Artemis [http://www.katinkahesselink.net/other/artemis.html 98]</ref> At Lycosura in isolated Arcadia Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch and dressed with a deer skin, besides Demeter and Persephone.<ref namePausanias374>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+8.37.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 8.37.4]</ref> It seems that the depictions of Artemis and Demeter-Melaina (black) in Arcadia correspond to the earliest conceptions of the first Greeks in Greece.<ref>L.H.Jeffery (1976), "The city states" p.23 Ernest Benn Ltd.</ref> At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer.<ref name=Nilsson483 /> The third labour of Heracles, commanded by Eurystheus, consisted of chasing and catching the terrible Ceryneian Hind. The hind was a female deer with golden andlers and hooves of bronze and was sacred to Artemis. Heracles begged Artemis for forgiveness and promised to return it alive. Artemis forgave him, but targeted Eurystheus for her wrath.<ref>Pindar, Olympian Odes [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D3 3]</ref>Hunting dogIn a legend Artemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one – these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race, but Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time.<ref>Callimachus, Hymn 3 to Artemis [http://www.katinkahesselink.net/other/artemis.html 86]</ref> In the earliest conceptions of Artemis at Lycosura, a bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side.<ref namePausanias374 /> Bear In a Pre-Greek cult Artemis was conceived as a bear. Kallisto was transformed into a bear, and she is a hypostasis of Artemis with a theriomorph form. In the cults of Artemis at Brauron and at Piraeus Munichia (arkteia) young virgin girls were disguished to she-bears (arktoi) in a ritual and they served the goddess before marriage.<ref>Nilsson Vol I, p.285-486</ref> , bronze statue of the 4th century]] An etiological myth tries to explain the origin of the Arkteia. Every year, a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. A bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear's blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple (played the bear for the goddess).<ref>Suda, [https://topostext.org/work/240#al.3958 Ἄρκτος ἢ Βραυρωνίοις]</ref> In a legend of the cult of Munichia if someone killed a bear, then they were to be punished by sacrificing their daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschicte", p.485 A6</ref> Boar The boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oeneus<ref>Homer, the Iliad [https://topostext.org/work/2#9.530 9.530]</ref> and Adonis<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docApollod.+3.14.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022 3.14.4]</ref> were both killed by Artemis' boar. In The Odyssey, she descends from a peak and she travels along the ridges of Mount Erymanthos, that was sacred to the "Mistress of the animals".<ref nameNilsson483/><ref name"Odyssey 6.102"/> When the goddess became wrathful she would send the terrible Erymanthian boar to laid waste the farmer's fields. Heracles managed to kill the terrible creature during his Twelve Labors.<ref name=Keren148/> In one legend, the Calydonian boar had terrorized the territory of Calydon because Artemis (the mistress of the animals) was offended. The Calydonian boar hunt is one of the great heroic adventures in Greek legend. The most famous Greek heroes including Meleager and Atalanta took part in the expedition. The fierce-hunter virgin Atalanta allied to the goddess Artemis was the first who wounded the Calydonian boar.<ref>Hard, p.415, calls it "the greatest adventure in Aetolian legend"</ref> Ovid describes the boar as follows:<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0959.phi006.perseus-eng1:8.260-8.364 8.284&ndash;289]</ref> :A dreadful boar.—His burning, bloodshot eyes :seemed coals of living fire, and his rough neck :was knotted with stiff muscles, and thick-set :with bristles like sharp spikes. A seething froth :dripped on his shoulders, and his tusks :were like the spoils of Ind [India]. Discordant roars :reverberated from his hideous jaws; :and lightning—belched forth from his horrid throat— :scorched the green fields. ::— Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.284–289 (Brookes More translation) Guinea fowl Artemis felt pity for the Calydonian princesses Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleager, so she transformed them into Guinea fowl to be her favorite animals.<ref>Antoninus Liberalis, Transformations [https://topostext.org/work/216#2 2]</ref> Bee The bee as a symbol of abundance was associated with Artemis Ephesia. Bees appear on the statue of the goddess, while the priestesses of the goddess received the name of 'Melissa' ('Bee' 'Μέλισσα'), possibly as a late Hellenistic worship element addition. The bee was also related to the Cretan tradition of worship, whereby Artemis was designated as 'Britomartis' (Βριτομάρτις), a word possibly deriving from the root vrito- (βρίτο-) a variant of 'melissa' ('μέλισσα' or 'bee').<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Elderkin \|first1G. W. \|titleThe Bee of Artemis \|journalThe American Journal of Philology \|date1939 \|volume60 \|issue2 \|pages203–213 \|doi10.2307/291201 \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/291201 \|issn0002-9475}}</ref>Buzzard hawk Hawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included.<ref>Aelian, On Animals [http://www.attalus.org/translate/animals12.html#4 12.4]</ref> c Chersonesus with Artemis, deer, bull, club and quiver ({{circa\|300 BCE}})]] Bull Artemis is sometimes identified with the mythical bull-goddess in a cult foreign in Greece. The cult can be identified in Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar fest the sacrifice of a man was represented in a ritual.<ref name="perseus.tufts.edu"/> . Manhattan, New York]] Euripides relates her cult with Tauris (tauros:bull) and with the myth of Iphigenia at Brauron. Orestes brought the image of the goddess from Tauris, to Brauron Sparta or Aricia.<ref>Nilsson, "Gescichte" Vol I, p.83, 482</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+3.16.7&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160Pausanias Pausanias 3.16.7]</ref> Torch Artemis is often depicted holding one or two torches. There is not any sufficient explanation for this depiction. The character of the goddess in Arcadia seems to be original.<ref nameNilsson497/> At Acacesium Artemis Hegemone (the leader) is depicted holding two torches. At Lycosura the goddess is depicted holding a snake and a torch, and a bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side<ref namePausanias837/>Sophocles calls Artemis "Elaphebolos, (deer slayer) Amphipyros (with a fire in each end)" reminding the annual fire of the fest Laphria at Delphi.<ref>Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.495 A4 :Sophocles, Trach.214 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0011,001:214&langoriginal Sophocles Trach.214]</ref> The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades).<ref name"αμφίπυρος"/> Heshychius believes that Kalliste is the name of Hecate established at Kerameikos of Athens, who some call Artemis (torch bearing). On a relief from Sicily the goddess is depicted holding a torch in one hand and an offering on the other. The torch was used for the ignition of the fire on the altar.<ref name"Nilsson, Geschichte p.80, 81"/> Archaic and classical art During the Bronze Age, the "mistress of the animals" is usually depicted between two lions with a peculiar crown on her head. The oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic art, circa 550 BCE, portray her as Potnia Theron ("Queen of the Beasts"): a winged goddess holding a stag and lioness in her hands, or sometimes a lioness and a lion. Potnia theron is the only Greek goddess close to the daimons and sometimes is depicted with a Gorgon head, and the Gorgon is her distant ancestor. This winged Artemis lingered in ex-votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary close by Sparta. In Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress, young, tall, and slim, clothed in a girl's short skirt,<ref>Homer portrayed Artemis as girlish in the Iliad</ref> with hunting boots, a quiver, a golden or silver bow<ref>Greek poets variously described Artemis' bow as silver or gold: "Over the shadowy hills and windy peaks she draws her golden bow." (Homeric Hymn to Artemis), and it is a golden bow as well in Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.693, where her nymph's is of horn. "And how often goddess, didst thou make trial of thy silver bow?", asks Callimachus for whom it is a Cydonian bow that the Cyclopes make for her (Callimachus, Hymn 3 to Artemis)</ref> and arrows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a lunar deity, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe. Artemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others. On June 7, 2007, a Roman-era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby's auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million. Gallery <gallery mode"heights&quot;160&quot;" caption="Ancient art"> Funeral pithos, Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850-800 BC, AMH, 079075.jpg\|Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850–800 BCE Niobid Krater - Niobid massacre.jpg\|Apollo and Artemis kill the children of Niobe, 460–450 BCE by the Niobid Painter. Louvre, Paris. Artemis Hekate. Apollonia, Albania.jpg\|Artemis Hecate, as a goddess protector of the necropolis. Marble, 3rd century CE, Apollonia, Albania. Plaque votive figurant Artémis ou Hécate.jpg\|Votive figure Artemis and Hecate </gallery> <gallery mode"heights&quot;160&quot;" caption="Modern art"> Diana and her hound.jpg\|Artemis-Diana and her hound Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre 2712.jpg\|Boucher, Artemis-Diana, Louvre Artemis (BM 1899,0120.160).jpg\|Artemis in a landscape Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier.jpg\|Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier Orion aveugle cherchant le soleil.jpg\|Nicolas Poussin (1658) "Landscape with blind Orion seeking the sun". Metropolitan Museum of Arts, Manhattan, New York. </gallery> Legacy In astronomy 105 Artemis (an asteroid discovered in 1868) Artemis (crater) (a tiny crater on the Moon, named in 2010) Artemis Chasma (a nearly circular fracture on the surface of the planet Venus, described in 1980) Artemis Corona (an oval feature largely enclosed by the Artemis Chasma, also described in 1980) Acronym (ArTeMiS) for "Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub-Millimetrique au Sol", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.apex-telescope.org/instruments/pi/artemis/ \|titleAPEX – Artemis \|publisherApex-telescope.org \|date2010-01-11 \|access-date2013-03-25}}</ref>In taxonomyThe taxonomic genus Artemia, which entirely comprises the family Artemiidae, derives from Artemis. Artemia species are aquatic crustaceans known as brine shrimp, the best-known species of which, Artemia salina, or sea monkeys, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758. Artemia species live in salt lakes, and although they are almost never found in an open sea, they do appear along the Aegean coast near Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis once stood.In modern spaceflightThe Artemis program is an ongoing robotic and crewed spaceflight program which has the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region no earlier than 2025.<ref>{{cite web \|lastFoust \|firstJeff \|date2021-11-09 \|titleNASA delays human lunar landing to at least 2025 \|urlhttps://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-human-lunar-landing-to-at-least-2025/ \|access-date2022-11-22 \|websiteSpaceNews \|languageen-US}}</ref> The program is being carried out by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as the European Space Agency, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency.<ref name"Artemis home">[https://www.nasa.gov/specials/moon2mars/]. NASA. Accessed on 19 May 2019</ref> Genealogy {{chart top\|Artemis' family tree&nbsp;<ref>This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted</ref>\|collapsed=no}} {{chart/start}} {{chart}} {{chart\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|URA \|y\|GAI \|URAUranus\|GAIGaia}} {{chart\| \| \| \| \| \|,\|-\|-\|-\|v\|-\|^\|-\|v\|-\|-\|-\|.}} {{chart\|URA\| \|COE \|y\|PHO \| \|CRO \|y\|RHE \|COECoeus\|PHOPhoebe\|URA<small>Uranus'&nbsp;genitals</small>\|CROCronus\|RHE=Rhea}} {{chart\| \|!\| \|,\|-\|-\|-\|'\|,\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|^\|v\|-\|-\|-\|v\|-\|-\|-\|v\|-\|-\|-\|v\|-\|-\|-\|.}} {{chart\| \|!\|LET\|~\|y\|ZEU \|V\|~\|~\|y\|~\|HER \| \|POS \| \|HAD \| \|DEM \| \|HES \|LETLeto\|HESHestia\|DEMDemeter\|ZEUZeus\|HERHera\|HADHades\|POS=Poseidon}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \|,\|-\|^\|-\|.\| \|:\| \|,\|^\|-\|.\| \|!}} {{chart\| \|!\| \|APO \| \|ART \|:\| \|!\| \|AAA \|!\|APOApollo\|ARTARTEMIS\|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a<ref>According to Homer, Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570&ndash;579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p.74</ref>\|border_AAA0}} {{chart\|border0\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\| \|!\| \| \|!\|BBB \|BBB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b<ref>According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+927 927&ndash;929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p.74</ref>}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\| \|!\| \| \|!\| \|!}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\|ARE \| \|HEP \|AREAres\|HEPHephaestus}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|D\|~\|~\|~\|y\|~\|~\|~\|~\|MET \|MET=Metis}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\| \| \|ATH \|ATHAthena<ref>According to Hesiod's Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+886 886&ndash;890], of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, p.51&ndash;52, 83&ndash;84</ref>}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|D\|~\|~\|~\|y\|~\|~\|~\|~\|MAI \|MAI=Maia}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\| \| \|HER \|HER=Hermes}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|D\|~\|~\|~\|y\|~\|~\|~\|~\|SEM \|SEM=Semele}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|:\| \| \|DIO \|DIO=Dionysus}} {{chart\| \|!\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|L\|~\|~\|~\|~\|y\|~\|~\|~\|DIO \|DIO=Dione}} {{chart\|border0\|AAA \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|BBB\|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a<ref>According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+183 183&ndash;200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, p.99&ndash;100</ref>\|BBB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b<ref>According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370&ndash;71]), see Gantz, p.99&ndash;100</ref>}} {{chart\| \|`\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|-\|.\| \|!}} {{chart\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|APH \|APH=Aphrodite}} {{chart/end}} {{chart bottom}} See also {{Portal\|Ancient Greece\|Myths\|Religion}} Bendis Dali (goddess) Janus Lunar deity Palermo Fragment Regarding Tauropolos: Bull (mythology) Iphigenia in Tauris Taurus (Mythology) References {{reflist\|30em\|refs<ref name"Lane91">Lane Fox, Robin. Pagan and Christians. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1989. p.90-91</ref> }} Bibliography {{refbegin\|30em}} Aelian, On Animals, Volume III: Books 12-17, translated by A. F. Scholfield, Loeb Classical Library No. 449, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL449/1959/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. {{ISBN\|978-0-674-99494-2}}. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidC431BA809CA4DEA22A15DA9C666F3400?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0022%3atext%3dLibrary Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Aratus Solensis, Phaenomena translated by G. R. Mair. Loeb Classical Library Volume 129. London: William Heinemann, 1921. [https://topostext.org/work/551 Online version at the Topos Text Project]. * {{cite journal \|firstIrene Ringwood \|lastArnold \|titleFestivals of Ephesus \|journalAmerican Journal of Archaeology \|volume77 \|issue1 \|year1972 \|pages17–22 \|doi10.2307/503607 \|jstor503607 \|s2cid=191403956}} Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, Volume V: Books 10.420e-11. Edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson. Loeb Classical Library 274. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Budin, Stephanie, Artemis, Routledge publications, 2016, {{ISBN\|978-0-415-72541-5}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yL0BCgAAQBAJ Google books]. Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. {{ISBN\|0-674-36281-0}}. Callimachus. Hymns, translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928). London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921. [https://archive.org/stream/callimachuslycop00calluoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. [https://topostext.org/work/120 Online version at the Topos Text Project]. Celoria, Francis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis: A Translation with a Commentary, Routledge, 1992. {{ISBN\|978-0-415-06896-3}}. Cicero, Nature of the Gods, from the Treatises of M.T. Cicero, translated by Charles Duke Yonge (1812–1891), Bohn edition of 1878, in the public domain. [https://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=137 Text available online at Topos text]. Collins-Clinton, Jacquelyn, Cosa: The Sculpture and Furnishings in Stone and Marble, University of Michigan Press, 2020, {{ISBN\|978-0-472-13159-4}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=U6vdDwAAQBAJ Google books]. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. Evelyn-White, Hugh, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://books.google.com/books?idgYBiAAAAMAAJ Google Books]. [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/n7/mode/2up?viewtheater Internet Archive]. Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Orion: The Myth of the Hunter and the Huntress, University of California Press, 1981. {{ISBN\|0-520-09632-0}}. Forbes Irving, P. M. C., Metamorphosis in Greek Myths, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1990. {{ISBN\|978-0-198-14730-5}}. Freeman, Kathleen, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Harvard University Press, 1983. {{ISBN\|9780674035010}}. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: {{ISBN\|978-0-8018-5360-9}} (Vol. 1), {{ISBN\|978-0-8018-5362-3}} (Vol. 2). Robert Graves (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths (Penguin) Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. {{ISBN\|978-0-631-20102-1}}. Hansen, William, Handbook of Classical Mythology, ABC-CLIO, 2004. {{ISBN\|978-1576072264}}. Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, {{ISBN\|9780415186360}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC Google Books]. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Hesiod, Astronomia, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/66/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De astronomia, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/207 Online version at ToposText]. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus'', edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/206 Online version at ToposText]. {{cite book\|first1Michael \|last1Immendörfer\|titleEphesians and Artemis: The Cult of the Great Goddess of Ephesus as the Epistle's Context \|date2017\|isbn978-3-16-155264-9\|publisherMohr Siebeck}} Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. {{cite book \|last1Keightley\|first1Thomas\|titleThe Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy\|date 1838\|publisher= Whittaker and Co}} {{cite book \|last1Konstan \|first1David \|titleBeauty: The Fortunes of an Ancient Greek Idea \|date2014 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-992726-5}} Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1940. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidE61EDD48E4F1A22F839AA4DC149C0955?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Mikalson, Jon D., The Sacred and Civil Calendar of the Athenian Year, Princeton University Press, 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d4p9BgAAQBAJ Google books]. Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology, Eighth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-530805-1}}. [https://archive.org/details/classicalmytholo0000morf_8ed/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. Most, G.W., Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia, Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. {{ISBN\|978-0-674-99720-2}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL057/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. Most, G.W., Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library, No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. {{ISBN\|978-0-674-99721-9}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL503/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, in three volumes. Loeb Classical Library No. 346, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. {{ISBN\|978-0-674-99046-3}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL042/1916/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. Ovid, ''Ovid's Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer, London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. [https://archive.org/stream/ovidsfasti00oviduoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal: Volume 24, 1996, {{ISBN\|0-89236-397-5}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=oHAmAgAAQBAJ Google books]. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. {{ISBN\|0-19-869117-3}}. Pannen, Imke, When the Bad Bleeds: Mantic Elements in English Renaissance Revenge Tragedy, Volume 3 of Representations & Reflections; V&R unipress GmbH, 2010. {{ISBN\|9783899716405}}. Papathomopoulos, Manolis, Antoninus Liberalis: Les Métamorphoses, Collection Budé, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1968. {{ISBN\|978-2-251-00020-6}}. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar'' including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0161%3Abook%3DN. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{cite book \|last1Powell\|first1Barry B.\|titleClassical Myth\|date2012\|publisherPearson\|isbn978-0-205-17607-6}} {{cite book \| title Pindar's Paeans: A Reading of the Fragments with a Survey of the Genre \| date 2001 \| first1 Ian \| last1 Rutherford \| publisher Oxford University Press \| isbn 0-19-814381-8\|location = New York}} {{cite book \|first1 Susan \|last1 Shelmerdine \|title The Homeric Hymns \|date 1995 \|publisher Focus Publishing \|isbn 978-1-58510-477-2}} Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{citation\|editor-lastToorn \|editor-firstKarel van der \|editor-linkKarel van der Toorn \|editor2-lastBecking \|editor2-firstBob \|editor3-lastHorst \|editor3-firstPieter Willem van der \|editor3-linkPieter Willem van der Horst \|titleDictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd ed. \|locationGrand Rapids \|publisherWm. B. Eerdmans Publishing \|date1999 \|page92\|title-linkDictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible}}. Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). {{ISBN\|069022608X}}. West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, edited and translated by Martin L. West, Loeb Classical Library No. 497, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. {{ISBN\|978-0-674-99605-2}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL497/2003/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. {{cite book \|last1Sacks \|first1David \|editor1-lastMurray \|editor1-firstOswyn \|editor1-linkOswyn Murray \|titleA Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World \|dateJanuary 1, 1995 \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford, England, United Kingdom \|isbn978-0195112061 \|refSacks \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofanci00sack}} {{cite book \|last1Shen \|first1Ann \|titleLegendary Ladies: 50 Goddesses to Empower and Inspire You \|dateApril 3, 2018 \|publisherChronicle Books \|locationSan Francisco, United States \|isbn978-1452163413 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtpNFDwAAQBAJ \|access-dateAugust 14, 2019 \|ref=Shen}} {{citation \| last Van Windekens \| title Dictionnaire Étymologique Complémentaire de la Langue Grecque \| date 1986 \| url https://archive.org/details/van-windekens-dictionnaire-etymologique-complementaire-de-la-langue-grecque-1986/ \| first Albert Joris \| publisher Leuven Peeters \| isbn = 90-6831-067-4}} {{refend}} External links {{Commons}} [http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Artemis.html Theoi Project, Artemis, information on Artemis from original Greek and Roman sources, images from classical art]. Marindin, G. E., Smith, William, LLD, & Wayte, William, eds., [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0063&querylabel%3D%23290&word=Amarysia A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities] (London: John Murray, 1890). [https://books.google.com/books?id2garBSREfywC&dqeileithyia&pg=PA27 Fischer-Hansen T., Poulsen B. (eds.) From Artemis to Diana: the goddess of man and beast''. Collegium Hyperboreum and Museum Tusculanum Press, Copenhagen, 2009] [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000101 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,150 images of Artemis)] {{Twelve Olympians}} {{Greek religion}} {{Greek mythology (deities)}} {{Hunting topics}} {{Authority control}}<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Animal goddesses Category:Childhood goddesses Category:Hunting goddesses Category:Lunar goddesses Category:Nature goddesses Category:Night goddesses Category:Greek virgin goddesses Category:Mythological Greek archers Category:Children of Zeus Category:Divine twins Category:Deities in the Iliad Category:Metamorphoses characters Category:Dog goddesses Category:Deities in the Aeneid Category:Light goddesses Category:Bear deities Category:Women in Greek mythology Category:Mountain goddesses Category:Dance goddesses Category:Tree goddesses Category:Health goddesses Category:Women of the Trojan war Category:Fertility goddesses Category:Twelve Olympians Category:Plague goddesses Category:Music and singing goddesses Category:Kourotrophoi Category:Shapeshifters in Greek mythology Category:Wolf deities Category:Cat goddesses Category:Delian mythology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis	2025-04-05T18:26:12.010757
2906	Arbeit macht frei	{{Short description\|German phrase used on Nazi concentration camps}} {{For\|the album\|Arbeit macht frei (album){{!}}Arbeit macht frei (album)}} {{italic title}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} ]] in the Czech Republic]] {{lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei}} ({{IPA\|de\|ˈaʁbaɪt ˈmaxt ˈfʁaɪ\|\|De-Arbeit macht frei.ogg}}) is a German phrase translated as "Work makes one free" or, more idiomatically, "Work sets you free" or "Work liberates". The phrase originates from the title of an 1873 novel by Lorenz Diefenbach and alludes to John 8:31–32. Following the Nazi Party's rise to power in 1933, the phrase became a slogan used in programs implemented to combat mass unemployment in Germany.<ref name"Slogan">{{cite web \| titleArbeit macht frei \| websiteauschwitz.org \| urlhttp://70.auschwitz.org/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id212&Itemid179&langen \| access-date2024-03-24}}</ref> Today, it is primarily known for its use above the entrance of Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps.<ref>Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Yad Vashem, 1990, vol. 4, p. 1751.</ref> Because prisoners were generally not released from the camps and performed forced labor under horrific conditions, the phrase has come to be understood as meaning that the only way for prisoners to gain a sort of freedom was to work until they died.<ref>{{Cite journal \|titleHolocaust Business: Some Reflections on Arbeit Macht Frei \|urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/000271628045000107 \|access-date2025-01-06 \|journalThe Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science \|date1980 \|languageen \|doi10.1177/000271628045000107 \|last1Roth \|first1John K. \|volume450 \|pages68–82 }}</ref>OriginThe expression comes from the title of an 1873 novel by the German philologist Lorenz Diefenbach, {{lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei: Erzählung von Lorenz Diefenbach}}, in which gamblers and fraudsters find the path to virtue through labour.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/18/auschwitz-arbeit-macht-frei-sign\|titlePoland declares state of emergency after 'Arbeit Macht Frei' stolen from Auschwitz\|lastConnolly\|firstKate\|date2009-12-18\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|access-date2018-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4tlbAAAAcAAJ\|quotediefenbach arbeit macht frei.\|titleArbeit macht frei: Erzählung von Lorenz Diefenbach\|lastDiefenbach\|firstLorenz\|date1873\|publisherJ. Kühtmann's Buchhandlung\|language=de}}</ref> "The truth will set you free" ({{Lang\|La\|Vēritās līberābit vōs}}) is a statement of Jesus found in John 8:32—"And ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" (KJV). The phrase was also used in French ({{lang\|fr\|le travail rend libre!}}) by Auguste Forel, a Swiss entomologist, neuroanatomist and psychiatrist, in his {{lang\|fr\|Fourmis de la Suisse}} ({{langx\|en\|Ants of Switzerland\|linkno}}) (1920).<ref name"Fourmis de la Suisse">{{cite web \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/lesfourmisdelasu00fore#page/n7/mode/2up \|titleLes fourmis de la Suisse (2nd Ed.) \|firstAuguste \|lastForel \|author-linkAuguste Forel\|locationLa Chaux-de-Fonds \|publisherImprimarie cooperative \|year1920 \|languagefr \|access-date22 November 2010}}</ref> In 1922, the {{lang\|de\|Deutsche Schulverein}} of Vienna, an ethnic nationalist "protective" organization of Germans within Austria, printed membership stamps with the phrase {{lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei}}.{{cn\|date=September 2022}} The phrase is also evocative of the medieval German principle of {{lang\|de\|Stadtluft macht frei}} ("urban air makes you free"), according to which serfs were liberated after being a city resident for one year and one day.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.br.de/nachrichten/bayern/stadtluft-macht-frei-sibler-bedauert-geweckte-assoziationen,RLkOSOe \|languagede \|title"Stadtluft macht frei": Minister bedauert Irritationen \|date26 March 2019 \|access-date8 August 2019 \|archive-date31 October 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191031125906/https://www.br.de/nachrichten/bayern/stadtluft-macht-frei-sibler-bedauert-geweckte-assoziationen,RLkOSOe \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Use by the Nazis ]] ]] ]] In 1933, the first communist prisoners were being rounded up for an indefinite period without charges. They were held in a number of places in Germany. The slogan {{Lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei}} was first used over the gate of the Oranienburg concentration camp,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Bartrop \|first1Paul R. \|titleThe Holocaust: The Essential Reference Guide \|last2Grimm \|first2Eve E. \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2022 \|isbn978-1-4408-7778-0 \|locationSanta Barbara \|postscript{{pages needed\|dateNovember 2024}}}}</ref> which was set up in an abandoned brewery in March 1933 (it was later rebuilt in 1936 as Sachsenhausen).<ref name"BMF">{{cite web \|date2014 \|titleOranienburg Concentration Camp 1933–1934 \|urlhttp://www.stiftung-bg.de/gums/en/index.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720011243/http://www.stiftung-bg.de/gums/en/index.htm \|archive-date20 July 2011 \|access-date17 December 2014 \|workMemorial and Museum Sachsenhausen \|publisherBrandenburg Memorials Foundation \|dfdmy-all}}</ref> The slogan's use was implemented{{when\|dateSeptember 2022}} by {{lang\|de\|Schutzstaffel}} (SS) officer Theodor Eicke at Dachau concentration camp.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWOD9ncsixssC&pgPA26 \|titleLegacies of Dachau: The Uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp, 1933-2001\|lastMarcuse\|firstHarold\|date2001-03-22\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9780521552042\|languageen}}</ref> From Dachau, it was copied by the Nazi officer Rudolf Höss, who had previously worked there. Höss was appointed to create the original camp at Auschwitz, which became known as Auschwitz (or Camp) 1 and whose intended purpose was to incarcerate Polish political detainees.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/40-45/beginnings/\|titleAuschwitz: Inside the Nazi State . Auschwitz 1940-1945 . Surprising Beginnings {{!}} PBS\|websitewww.pbs.org\|access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref><ref>Laurence Rees, Auschwitz: a New History</ref> The Auschwitz&nbsp;I sign was made by prisoner-laborers including master blacksmith Jan Liwacz, and features an upside-down 'B', which has been interpreted as an act of defiance by the prisoners who made it.<ref>{{cite news\|titleAuschwitz's sign of death and defiance\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8420681.stm\|workBBC News\|access-date23 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleB - the sculpture\|urlhttp://www.auschwitz.info/en/b-the-sculpture.html\| websiteInternational Auschwitz Committee\| access-date23 April 2015}}</ref><ref name"KrakowDirect">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://krakowdirect.com/arbeit-macht-frei-facts-auschwitz-gate/\|titleArbeit macht frei - facts about Auschwitz gate\|date2019-07-05\|websiteKrakow Direct\|languageen-GB\|access-date=2019-07-18}}</ref> In The Kingdom of Auschwitz, Otto Friedrich wrote about Rudolf Höss, regarding his decision to display the motto so prominently at Auschwitz: {{Blockquote\|He seems not to have intended it as a mockery, nor even to have intended it literally, as a false promise that those who worked to exhaustion would eventually be released, but rather as a kind of mystical declaration that self-sacrifice in the form of endless labor does in itself bring a kind of spiritual freedom.<ref nameFriedrich>{{cite book \|last Friedrich \|firstOtto \|title The Kingdom of Auschwitz \|publisherHarper Perennial \|dateAugust 1994 \|isbn978-0-06-097640-8 \|pages 2–3}}</ref>}} In 1938, the Austrian political cabaret writer Jura Soyfer and the composer Herbert Zipper, while prisoners at Dachau, wrote the {{lang\|de\|Dachaulied}} or "The Dachau Song". They had spent weeks marching in and out of the camp's gate to daily forced labour, and considered the motto {{Lang\|De\|Arbeit macht frei}} over the gate an insult.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Zobl \|first1Wilhelm \|last2Zipper \|first2Herbert \|titleÜBER DIE ENTSTEHUNG DES DACHAU-LIEDS \|journalÖsterreichische Musikzeitschrift \|dateDecember 1988 \|volume43 \|issue12 \|page666 \|doi10.7767/omz.1988.43.12.666 \|s2cid164058102 \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.7767/omz.1988.43.12.666 \|access-date8 August 2022}}</ref> The song repeats the phrase cynically as a "lesson" taught by Dachau. An example of ridiculing the slogan was a popular saying used among Auschwitz prisoners: {{Verse translation\|lang=de \|Arbeit macht frei durch Krematorium Nummer drei. \|Work makes you free Through crematorium number three.<ref name="KrakowDirect"/>}} It can also be seen at the Gross-Rosen and Theresienstadt camps, as well as at Fort Breendonk in Belgium. At the Monowitz camp (also known as Auschwitz&nbsp;III), the slogan was reportedly placed over the entrance gates.<ref>Denis Avey with Rob Broomby The Man who Broke into Auschwitz, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 2011 p.236</ref><ref>Freddie Knoller with Robert Landaw Desperate Journey: Vienna-Paris-Auschwitz, Metro, London, 2002, {{ISBN\|978-184-358028-7}} p.158</ref> However, Primo Levi describes seeing the words illuminated over a doorway (as distinct from a gate).<ref>Levi, Primo, trans. Stuart Woolf, If This Is a Man. Abacus, London, 2004, p. 28.</ref> The slogan appeared at the Flossenbürg camp on the left gate post at the camp entry. The original gate posts survive in another part of the camp, but the sign no longer exists.<ref>KZ-Gedenkstaette Flossenbuerg</ref> The signs are prominently displayed, and were seen by all prisoners and staff— all of whom knew, suspected, or quickly learned that prisoners confined there would likely only be freed by death. The signs' psychological impact was tremendous.<ref nameFriedrich/>Thefts of {{Lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei}} signsThe {{Lang\|de\|Arbeit macht frei}} sign over the Auschwitz&nbsp;I gate was stolen in December 2009 and later recovered by authorities in three pieces. Anders Högström, a Swedish neo-Nazi, and five Polish men were jailed as a result.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/former-neo-nazi-jailed-for-auschwitz-sign-theft-2172533.html\|titleFormer neo-Nazi jailed for Auschwitz sign theft\|workThe Independent\|access-date2018-10-01\|languageen-GB}}</ref> The original sign is now in storage at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and a replica was put over the gate in its place.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12094855 \| workBBC News \| titleAuschwitz sign theft: Swedish man jailed \| date30 December 2010}}</ref> On 2 November 2014, the sign over the Dachau gate was stolen.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29878278 \| workBBC News \| titleDachau infamous Nazi concentration camp gate stolen \| date3 November 2014}}</ref> It was found on 28 November 2016 under a tarp at a parking lot in Ytre Arna, a settlement north of Bergen, Norway's second-largest city.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/221193\|title'No usable evidence' in investigation into stolen Dachau sign\|websiteIsrael National News\|date4 December 2016 \|languageen\|access-date2018-10-01}}</ref> See also Extermination through labour {{Lang\|de\|Jedem das Seine}} (idiomatically, "everyone gets what he deserves"), a motto used at the Buchenwald concentration camp. References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category-inline\|Arbeit macht frei\|Arbeit Macht Frei}} {{Wiktionary-inline\|Arbeit macht frei}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arbeit Macht Frei}} Category:German words and phrases Category:Signage Category:Terminology of Nazi concentration camps Category:Nazi forced labour Category:Holocaust terminology Category:Military-related euphemisms Category:Quotations from literature Category:1870s neologisms Category:1870s quotations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeit_macht_frei	2025-04-05T18:26:12.044016
2907	Axayacatl	{{Short description\|Sixth Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan}} {{for\|the insect\|Axayacatl (insect)}} {{Infobox royalty \| name = Axayacatl \| succession = <!--Tlatoani prior to Tizoc/Ahuitzotl did not use the style Huey Tlatoani, see sources in their articles and in the list of Tenochtitlan rulers-->Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan \| image = Axayacatl.jpg \| caption = Axayacatl as depicted in the {{lang\|la\|Codex Azcatitlan}} \| reign 3 House – 2 House<br/>(1469–1481)<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Conrad \|first1Geoffrey W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIqecX148zLsC&pgPA45 \|titleReligion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism \|last2Demarest \|first2Arthur A. \|date1984-08-31 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-31896-9 \|pages45 \|languageen}}</ref> \| predecessor = Atotoztli II \| successor = Tizoc \| father = Prince Tezozomoc \| mother = Princess Atotoztli II \| spouse = Xochicueyetl \| issue = {{Plainlist}} * Moctezuma II * Cuitláhuac {{Endplainlist}} \| birth_date = {{circa}} {{birth-date\|1449}} \| death_date = 2 House<br/>{{death year and age\|1481\|1449}}\| }} Axayacatl ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|ʃ\|ə\|ˈ\|j\|ɑː\|k\|ə\|t\|əl}}; {{langx\|nci\|āxāyacatl}} {{IPA\|nah\|aːʃaːˈjákatɬ\|\|Axayakatl.ogg}}; {{langx\|es\|Axayácatl}} {{IPA\|es\|axaˈʝakatɬ\|}}; meaning "face of water"; {{circa\|1449}}–1481) was the sixth {{lang\|nci\|tlatoani}} of the {{lang\|nci\|altepetl}} of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Biography Early life and background Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin. He was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac. Rise to power During his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl. It is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. An earthquake in Tenochtitlán occurred and destroyed many homes.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttp://staging.doaks.org/research/publications/doaks-online-publications/palaces-of-the-ancient-new-world/isbn-0-88402-300-1.pdf#page16 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://staging.doaks.org/research/publications/doaks-online-publications/palaces-of-the-ancient-new-world/isbn-0-88402-300-1.pdf#page16 \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titlePalaces of the Ancient New World \|last1Evans \|first1Susan Toby \|last2Pillsbury \|first2Joanne \|publisherDumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection \|year1998 \|isbn0-88402-300-1 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|pages16 }}{{Dead link\|dateJune 2020 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> is visible, being carved under his orders in 1479]] Military actions and death Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy. .]] Axayacatl largely dedicated his twelve-year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring {{lang\|nci\|altepetl}} of Tlatelolco in 1473 (see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans of Michoacán in 1476. Despite some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl's defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc. Axayacatl the poet Axayacatl wrote two poems. The first, Ycuic Axayayatzin (English: "Song of Axayacatl") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second, Huehue cuicatl (English: "Song of the Ancients") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan.<ref name"azteca">{{cite book\|titleTrece Poetas del Mundo Azteca\|authorMiguel Leon-Portilla\|publisherUniversidad Nacinal Autonoma de Mexico\|date1978\|locationMexico City\|edition2nd, 1972\|languageSpanish\|trans-titleThirteen Poets of the Aztec World\|pages133–153}}</ref> In popular culture * The Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc, with their youngest brother Ahuitzotl appearing as a primary character. Notes {{reflist}} See also {{Portal\|Mexico\|Biography}} * List of Tenochtitlan rulers References * {{cite book \|lastDavies \|firstNigel \|year1980 \|titleThe Aztecs \|edition2nd \|locationNorman \|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press }} * {{cite book \|lastDavies \|firstNigel \|year1987 \|titleThe Aztec Empire: The Toltec Resurgence \|locationNorman \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press }} * {{cite book \|lastHassig \|firstRoss \|year1988 \|titleAztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|locationNorman \|isbn=0-8061-2121-1 }} * {{cite book \|lastTownsend \|firstRichard F. \|year2000 \|titleThe Aztecs \|editionrevised \|publisherThames and Hudson \|locationLondon \|isbn0-500-28132-7 }} * {{cite book \|lastWeaver \|firstMuriel Porter \|year1993 \|titleThe Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica \|edition3rd \|publisherAcademic Press \|locationSan Diego \|isbn0-01-263999-0 }} External links {{Commons category}} * {{Wikisource-inline \|list {{Cite Americana \|wstitleAxayacatl \|shortx \|noiconx }} {{Cite NIE \|wstitleAxayacatl \|year1905 \|shortx \|noiconx }} {{Cite Appletons' \|wstitleAxayacatl \|year1900 \|notarefx \|shortx \|noicon=x }} {{Cite AmCyc \|wstitleAxayacatl \|shortx \|noicon=x }} }} {{s-start}} {{s-reg}} {{s-bef \|before=Moctezuma I }} {{s-ttl \|titleTlatoani of Tenochtitlan \|years3 House – 2 House<br/>(1469–1481) }} {{s-aft \|after=Tizoc }} {{s-end}} {{Tenochtitlan rulers}}{{Authority control}} Category:Tenochca tlatoque Category:Nahuatl-language poets Category:15th-century monarchs in North America Category:15th-century Aztec nobility Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:1440s births Category:1481 deaths Category:Moctezuma family	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axayacatl	2025-04-05T18:26:12.055720
2908	Ahuitzotl	{{Short description\|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan from 1486 to 1502}} {{Redirect\|Ahuizotl\|the mythical animal\|Ahuizotl (mythology)}} {{Infobox royalty \| name = Ahuizotl \| image = Ahuitzotl.jpg \| caption = Ahuitzotl depicted in the Codex Mendoza \| reign = {{Nowrap\|7 Rabbit (1486) – 10 Rabbit (1502)}} \| successor = Moctezuma II \| predecessor = Tizoc \| queen \| issue Chimalpilli II<br>Cuauhtémoc<br>Unidentified daughter \| father = Tezozomoc \| mother = Atotoztli II \| birth_date = 15th century \| death_date = 10 Rabbit (1502) \| death_place = Tenochtitlan, Aztec Triple Alliance \| image_size = 200px \| succession = Huey Tlatoani of the Aztec Empire <br> Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan \| religion = Aztec polytheism \| birth_place = Tenochtitlan, Aztec Triple Alliance }} Ahuitzotl ({{langx\|nah\|āhuitzotl}}, {{IPA\|nah\|aːˈwit͡sot͡ɬ\|-\|Awisotl.ogg}}) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the Huey Tlatoani of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means "Water Thorny" and was also applied to the otter.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAhuítzotl, "El espinoso del agua" (1486-1502)\|urlhttps://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/ahuitzotl-el-espinoso-del-agua-1486-1502\|websiteArcheologia Mexicana\|date14 July 2016 \|languagees \|access-dateJune 4, 2019\|trans-title=Ahuítzotl, "Thorny Water" (1486-1502)}}</ref> It is also theorized that more likely, the animal called ahuitzotl is actually the water opossum, the hand symbolizing its prehensile tail, which otters notably lack. Either Ahuitzotl or his predecessor Tizoc was the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan to assume the title Huey Tlatoani ("supreme tlatoani") to make their superiority over the other cities in the Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire) clear.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTuerenhout \|firstDirk R. Van \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEqfvgerVsuEC \|titleThe Aztecs: New Perspectives \|date2005 \|publisherABC-CLIO \|isbn978-1-57607-921-8 \|pages43 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastAguilar-Moreno \|firstManuel \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZseasJq3WzEC \|titleHandbook to Life in the Aztec World \|date2007 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-533083-0 \|pages82 \|languageen}}</ref> Ahuitzotl was responsible for much of the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire's power after emulating his predecessor. He took power as Emperor in the year 7 Rabbit (1486), after the death of his predecessor and brother, Tizoc. He had two sons, the kings Chimalpilli II and Cuauhtémoc, and one daughter.{{citation needed\|dateFebruary 2020}}Biography Perhaps the greatest known military leader of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, Ahuizotl began his reign by suppressing a Huastec rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the Mixtec, Zapotec, and other peoples from Pacific Coast of Mexico down to the western part of Guatemala. Ahuizotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlan on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor in the year 8 Reed (1487). He presided over the introduction of the great-tailed grackle into the Valley of Mexico, the earliest documented case of human-mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleIntroduction of the Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) by Aztec Emperor Auitzotl: Provenance of the historical account (La Introducción de la Quiscalus mexicanus por el Emperador Azteca Auitzotl: Origen del Relato Histórico)\|firstPaul D.\|lastHaemig\|journalThe Auk\|volume129\|number1\|dateJanuary 2012\|pages70–75\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|jstor10.1525/auk.2011.11058\|doi10.1525/auk.2011.11058\|s2cid85574380 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ahuizotl died in the year 10 Rabbit (1502) and was succeeded by his nephew, Moctezuma II. Ahuizotl took his name from the animal ahuizotl, which the Aztecs considered to be a legendary creature in its own right rather than a mere mythical representation of the king. In January 2021 the INAH proposed moving the statues of Ahuizotl and Itzcóatl, known as the Indios Verdes, from the Parque del Mestizaje in Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City to the Paseo de la Reforma. “The transfer means a reading of the urban space, recovering the historical discourse that gave rise to the formation of a set of monuments and roundabouts on Paseo de la Reforma, conceived at the end of the 19th century, with the idea of honoring the Reformation, a great transformation that it meant for Mexico, but to recover a historical reading that began precisely by underlining the Mexican splendor and the importance of the pre-Hispanic or Mesoamerican antecedents of our country”, Diego Prieto, director of INAH said.<ref>{{cite news \|titleTraslado de Indios Verdes, recupera discurso histórico \|urlhttps://www.eluniversal.com.mx/cultura/traslado-de-indios-verdes-recupera-discurso-historico \|access-dateJanuary 2, 2021 \|workEl Universal \|date2 January 2021 \|languagees}}</ref> In popular culture Under the name Teomitl, Ahuitzotl is a primary character in the Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard, which are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc. In the historical fiction novel Aztec by Gary Jennings, Ahuitzotl is a prominent character. Set in the time just before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, it accounts his construction of the many expansions of Tenochtitlan, and wars of conquest, trade, and proclivities. Citations {{reflist}} General and cited references * Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. * Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (revised ed.). New York: Thames and Hudson. * {{cite book \|lastWeaver \|firstMuriel Porter \|year1993 \|titleThe Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI0MATwEACAAJ \|edition3rd \|locationSan Diego \|publisherAcademic Press \|isbn978-0-01-263999-3 }} {{S-start}} {{Succession box \| title = {{Nowrap\|Ruler of Tenochtitlan<br>Ruler of the Aztec Triple Alliance}} \| before = Tizoc \| after = Moctezuma II \| years = 7 Rabbit {{en dash}} 10 Rabbit<br>(1486{{en dash}}1502) }} {{S-end}} {{Tenochtitlan rulers}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ahuizotl}} Category:1502 deaths Category:15th-century Aztec nobility Category:15th-century births Category:15th-century monarchs in North America Category:Tenochca tlatoque Category:Year of birth unknown	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahuitzotl	2025-04-05T18:26:12.062059
2909	Albinism in humans	{{short description\|Condition characterized by absence of pigment}} {{use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Albinism \| image = Albinisitic man portrait.jpg \| caption = Young African boy with albinism \| field = Dermatology \| synonyms = Achromia, achromasia, achromatosis \| pronounce albino ({{IPAc-en\|uk\|æ\|l\|ˈ\|b\|iː\|n\|oʊ}},<ref>{{Cite web \|date2017 \|titlealbino \|urlhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/albino \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteRandom House Dictionary \|viaDictionary.Reference.com}}</ref> or {{IPAc-en\|us\|æ\|l\|ˈ\|b\|aɪ\|n\|oʊ}})<ref>{{Cite web \|date2017 \|titleAmerican Pronunciation of albino \|urlhttps://www.macmillandictionary.com/pronunciation/american/albino \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteMacmillan Dictionary}}</ref> \| symptoms \| complications \| onset \| duration \| types \| causes \| risks \| diagnosis \| differential \| prevention \| treatment \| medication \| prognosis \| frequency \| }} <!-- Definition and symptoms --> Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells, leading to increased susceptibility to infection.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKaplan \|firstJ. \|last2De Domenico \|first2I. \|last3Ward \|first3D. M. \|date2008 \|titleChediak-Higashi syndrome \|journalCurrent Opinion in Hematology \|volume15 \|issue1 \|pages22–29 \|doi10.1097/MOH.0b013e3282f2bcce \|pmid18043242 \|s2cid=43243529}}</ref> <!-- Cause --> Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAlbinism \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|urlhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12993/albinism \|access-date27 January 2015}}</ref> While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid.<ref name"Tietz">{{Cite journal \|lastTietz \|firstW. \|date1963 \|titleA Syndrome of Deaf-Mutism Associated with Albinism Showing Dominant Autosomal Inheritance \|journalAmerican Journal of Human Genetics \|volume15 \|issue3 \|pages259–264 \|pmc1932384 \|pmid13985019}}</ref> The term is from the Latin albus, "white".Signs and symptoms ]]There are two principal types of albinism: oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only. There are different types of oculocutaneous albinism depending on which gene has undergone mutation. With some there is no pigment at all. The other end of the spectrum of albinism is "a form of albinism called rufous oculocutaneous albinism, which usually affects dark-skinned people".<ref>{{Cite web \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|dateOctober 2015 \|titleoculocutaneous albinism \|urlhttp://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/oculocutaneous-albinism \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteGenetics Home Reference \|publisherU.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health \|locationBethesda, Maryland}}{{tertiary source\|date=November 2017}}</ref> According to the US National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation, "With ocular albinism, the color of the iris of the eye may vary from blue to green or even brown, and sometimes darkens with age. However, when an optometrist or ophthalmologist examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInformation Bulletin – Ocular Albinism \|urlhttp://www.albinism.org/site/c.flKYIdOUIhJ4H/b.9260357/k.A94A/Information_Bulletin__Ocular_Albinism.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312070207/http://www.albinism.org/site/c.flKYIdOUIhJ4H/b.9260357/k.A94A/Information_Bulletin__Ocular_Albinism.htm \|archive-date12 March 2017 \|access-date11 March 2017 \|publisher=National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation}}</ref> Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.<ref name"Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis">{{Cite book \|lastChen \|firstHarold \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2VcdAXJ_dZkC&qAlbinism&pgPA36 \|titleAtlas of genetic diagnosis and counseling \|date2006 \|publisherHumana Press \|isbn9781588296818 \|locationTotowa, New Jersey \|pages37–40 \|access-date22 July 2010}}</ref> The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate "red eye", due to the red of the retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKhanna \|firstPragya \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idByQ07W-RxIwC \|titleEssentials of Genetics \|date30 December 2013 \|publisherI. K. International \|isbn9789380026343}}</ref> Those with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality,<ref name"eMedicine1" /> although the lack of pigment blocking ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of melanomas (skin cancers) and other problems.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRichter \|firstRoxane \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIk8DDgAAQBAJ \|titleWitchcraft as a Social Diagnosis: Traditional Ghanaian Beliefs and Global Health \|last2Flowers \|first2Thomas \|last3Bongmba \|first3Elias \|date2017 \|publisherLexington Books \|isbn9781498523196}}</ref>Visual problems an Mandinka singer Salif Keita with albinism]] Development of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin. For this reason, the reduction or absence of this pigment in people with albinism may lead to: * Misrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres<ref name="Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /> * Photophobia and decreased visual acuity due to light scattering within the eye (ocular straylight)<ref name"Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKruijt \|firstBastiaan \|last2Franssen \|first2Luuk \|last3Prick \|first3Liesbeth J. J. M. \|last4Van Vliet \|first4Johannes M. J. \|last5Van Den Berg \|first5Thomas J. T. P. \|date2011 \|titleOcular Straylight in Albinism \|journalOptometry and Vision Science \|volume88 \|issue5 \|pagesE585–592 \|doi10.1097/OPX.0b013e318212071e \|pmid21358444 \|s2cid24992321}}</ref> * Reduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage.<ref name="Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /> Eye conditions common in albinism include: * Nystagmus, irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion.<ref name="Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /> * Amblyopia, decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as strabismus.<ref name="Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /> * Optic nerve hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the optic nerve. The improper development of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye.<ref name"Optometry Albinism">{{Cite web \|lastSowka \|firstJoseph W. \|last2Gurwood \|first2Andrew S. \|last3Kabat \|first3Allan G. \|date15 April 2009 \|titleAlbinism \|urlhttps://www.reviewofoptometry.com/CMSDocuments/2009/9/ro0409_handbook.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150824100916/https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/CMSDocuments/2009/9/ro0409_handbook.pdf \|archive-date24 August 2015 \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteThe Handbook of Ocular Disease Management: Supplement to Review of Optometry \|publisherJobson Medical Information \|pages63A–65A \|viaReviewOfOptometry.com \|edition11th \|locationNew York}}<!--Note: Albinism has been removed, for some reason, from at least the 12th (2010) through 18th (2016) editions.--></ref> The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses or brimmed hats.<ref name"Facts Albinism" />GeneticsOculocutaneous albinism is generally the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual such as OCA1 and OCA2. A mutation in the human TRP-1 gene may result in the deregulation of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) genotype, "OCA3".<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBoissy \|firstR. E. \|last2Zhao \|first2H. \|last3Oetting \|first3W. S. \|last4Austin \|first4L. M. \|last5Wildenberg \|first5S. C. \|last6Boissy \|first6Y. L. \|last7Zhao \|first7Y. \|last8Sturm \|first8R. A. \|last9Hearing \|first9V. J. \|last10King \|first10R. A. \|last11Nordlund \|first11J. J. \|date1996 \|titleMutation in and lack of expression of tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TRP-1) in melanocytes from an individual with brown oculocutaneous albinism: A new subtype of albinism classified as "OCA3" \|journalAmerican Journal of Human Genetics \|volume58 \|issue6 \|pages1145–1156 \|pmc1915069 \|pmid8651291}}</ref> Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body.<ref name"eMedicine1">{{Cite web \|lastBoissy \|firstRaymond E. \|date21 July 2016 \|editor-lastJames \|editor-firstWilliam D. \|titleDermatologic Manifestations of Albinism \|urlhttps://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1068184-overview \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteMedscape \|publishereMedicine / WebMD \|display-editorsetal}}</ref><ref name"OMIM1">[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMDsearch&DBomim&term=albinism Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man], at Johns Hopkins University {{crossref\|(see also Mendelian Inheritance in Man for more information about this source)}}.</ref> The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes.<ref name"eMedicine1" /> An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X&nbsp;chromosomes.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleSex-linked recessive \|encyclopediaThe ADAM Medical Encyclopedia \|publisherU.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health / Ebix Inc. \|locationBethesda, Maryland / Atlanta, Georgia, US \|urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002051.htm \|access-date10 November 2017 \|lastHaldeman-Englert \|firstChad \|date6 November 2017}}</ref> There are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis, and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastFrayne \|firstJames F. \|titleApplications of Genetics \|date2018 \|publisherMontana Publications}}</ref>Enzyme The enzyme defect responsible for OCA1-type albinism is tyrosine 3-monooxygenase (tyrosinase), which synthesizes melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. <ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDolinska \|firstM. B. \|last2Kovaleva \|first2E. \|last3Backlund \|first3P. \|last4Wingfield \|first4P. T. \|last5Brooks \|first5B. P. \|last6Sergeev \|first6Y. V. \|date2014 \|titleAlbinism-Causing Mutations in Recombinant Human Tyrosinase Alter Intrinsic Enzymatic Activity \|journalPLOS ONE \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pagese84494 \|bibcode2014PLoSO...984494D \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0084494 \|pmc3879332 \|pmid24392141 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref>Evolutionary theoriesIt is suggested that the early genus Homo (humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago.<ref name"royalsocietypublishing.org">{{Cite journal \|lastGreaves \|firstM. \|date2014 \|titleWas skin cancer a selective force for black pigmentation in early hominin evolution? \|journalProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences \|volume281 \|issue1781 \|pages20132955 \|doi10.1098/rspb.2013.2955 \|pmc3953838 \|pmid24573849}}</ref> The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape-like Australopithecus to early Homo is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto-humans would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection.<ref name"royalsocietypublishing.org" /> When comparing the prevalence of albinism in Africa to its prevalence in other parts of the world, such as Europe and the United States, the potential evolutionary effects of skin cancer as a selective force due to its effect on these populations may not be insignificant.<ref name"royalsocietypublishing.org" /> It would follow, then, that there would be stronger selective forces acting on albino individuals in Africa than on albinos in Europe and the US.<ref name"biomedcentral.com">{{Cite journal \|lastHong \|firstE. S. \|last2Zeeb \|first2H. \|last3Repacholi \|first3M. H. \|date2006 \|titleAlbinism in Africa as a public health issue \|journalBMC Public Health \|volume6 \|pages212 \|doi10.1186/1471-2458-6-212 \|pmc1584235 \|pmid16916463 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In two separate studies in Nigeria, very few people with albinism appear to survive to old age. One study found that 89% of people diagnosed with albinism are between 0 and 30 years of age, while the other found that 77% of albinos were under the age of 20.<ref name"biomedcentral.com" /> However, it has also been theorized that albinism may have been able to spread in some Native American communities, because albino males were culturally revered and assumed as having divine origins. The very high incidence of albinism among the Hopi tribe has been frequently attributed to the privileged status of albino males in Hopi society, who were not required to perform physical work outdoors, shielding them from the harmful effects of UV radiation. This privileged status of albino males in Hopi society allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women, spreading the genes that are associated with albinism.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHedrick \|firstPhilip W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrzoLdpRMR1gC&dqalbino+male+sexual+hopi&pgPA186 \|titleGenetics of Populations \|date2005 \|publisherJones & Bartlett Learning \|isbn9780763747725 \|pages2, 186 \|languageen \|quote"An often-cited example of pleiotropic effects of viability and male-mating success in humans is for albinism in Hopi Indians, a small tribe in northern Arizona."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastShuttleworth \|firstRussell P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnacDq2gTeAQC&qalbino+male+sexual+hopi \|titleThe Pursuit of Sexual Intimacy for Men with Cerebral Palsy \|date2000 \|publisherUniversity of California, San Francisco \|page74 \|languageen \|quote"The apparent reason for this phenomenon is that albino Hopi men developed a sexual advantage over non-albino men."}}</ref> Diagnosis {{More citations needed section\|date=November 2007}} Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits, except in the case of non-OCA disorders. Such disorders cause other medical problems in conjunction with albinism, and may be treatable. Genetic tests are currently available for parents who want to find out if they are carriers of ty-neg albinism. Diagnosis of albinism involves carefully examining a person's eyes, skin and hairs. Genealogical analysis can also help. Albinism can also be a feature of several syndromes:<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbinism (Concept Id: C0001916) \|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen/182 \|access-date2023-12-12 \|websitewww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov \|language=en}}</ref> * ABCD syndrome * Albinism-hearing loss syndrome * Deafness, congenital, with total albinism * Ermine phenotype * Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 1 to 11 (excluding 9) * Microcephaly-albinism-digital anomalies syndrome * Ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness * Ocular albinism, type II * Oculocutaneous albinism types 1B, 3 to 7 * Tyrosinase-negative oculocutaneous albinism * Tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism * Vici syndrome * Waardenburg syndrome type 2A Management Since there is no cure for albinism, it is managed through lifestyle adjustments. People with albinism need to take care not to get sunburnt and should have regular healthy skin checks by a dermatologist.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2018-01-27 \|titleInformation Bulletin – Sun Protection - National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation \|urlhttps://albinism.org/information-bulletin-sun-protection/ \|access-date2025-02-15 \|language=en-US}}</ref> For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the extra-ocular muscles to decrease strabismus.<ref name"Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis" /> Nystagmus-damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the "shaking" of the eyes back and forth.<ref name"Surgical management of nystagmus">{{Cite journal \|lastLee \|firstJ. \|dateMay 2002 \|titleSurgical management of nystagmus \|journalJournal of the Royal Society of Medicine \|volume95 \|issue5 \|pages238–241 \|doi10.1177/014107680209500506 \|pmc1279676 \|pmid11983764}}</ref> The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.{{cn\|dateOctober 2024}} Glasses (often with tinted lenses), low vision aids, large-print materials, and bright angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars or wearable devices like eSight and Brainport.<ref name"Facts Albinism">{{Cite web \|lastKing \|firstRichard \|last2Summers \|first2C. Gail \|last3Haefemeyer \|first3James W. \|last4LeRoy \|first4Bonnie \|date2004 \|titleFacts About Albinism \|urlhttp://albinism.med.umn.edu/newfacts.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090125144209/http://albinism.med.umn.edu/newfacts.htm \|archive-date25 January 2009 \|access-date10 November 2017 \|websiteAlbinism.Med.UMN.edu \|publisherUniversity of Minnesota}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastPardes \|firstArielle \|date20 July 2017 \|titleThe Wearables Giving Computer Vision to the Blind \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/wearables-for-the-blind/ \|access-date8 September 2017 \|magazineWired \|publisherCondé Nast}}</ref> The condition may lead to abnormal development of the optic nerve and sunlight may damage the retina of the eye as the iris cannot filter out excess light due to a lack of pigmentation. Photophobia may be ameliorated by the use of sunglasses which filter out ultraviolet light.<ref name"news medical">{{Cite web \|date20 March 2018 \|titleAlbinism causes \|urlhttps://www.news-medical.net/health/Albinism-Causes.aspx \|access-date27 July 2018 \|websiteNews-Medical.net}}</ref> Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Owsley \|first1C. \|titleDriving with bioptic telescopes: organizing a research agenda \|journalOptom Vis Sci \|date2012 \|volume89 \|issue9 \|pages1249-1256 \|doi10.1097/OPX.0b013e3182678dc8\|pmc3471243 }}</ref> (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids".) There are a number of national support groups across the globe which come under the umbrella of the World Albinism Alliance.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnon \|date7 January 2015 \|titleWorld Albinism Alliance \|urlhttps://worldalbinism.org/2015/01/07/introduction-to-the-world-albinism-alliance/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180727181056/https://worldalbinism.org/2015/01/07/introduction-to-the-world-albinism-alliance/ \|archive-date27 July 2018 \|access-date27 July 2018 \|publisherWAA}}</ref>EpidemiologyAlbinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population, and is highest overall in people of sub-Saharan African descent.<ref name"Oculocutaneous albinism">{{Cite journal \|lastGronskov \|firstK. \|last2Ek \|first2J. \|last3Brondum-Nielsen \|first3K. \|date2 November 2007 \|titleOculocutaneous albinism \|journalOrphanet Journal of Rare Diseases \|volume2 \|pages43 \|doi10.1186/1750-1172-2-43 \|pmc2211462 \|pmid17980020 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Today, the prevalence of albinism in sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5,000, while in Europe and the US it is around 1 in 20,000 of the European derived population.<ref>{{Cite web \|date15 December 2020 \|titleAbout Albinism and Hypopigmentation \|urlhttps://www.albinism.org/about-albinism/ \|websiteAlbinism.org \|publisherNational Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation}}</ref><ref name"royalsocietypublishing.org" /> Rates as high as 1 in 1,000 have been reported for some populations in Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa.<ref name"biomedcentral.com" /> Certain ethnic groups and populations in isolated areas exhibit heightened susceptibility to albinism, presumably due to genetic factors. These include notably the Native American Kuna, Zuni and Hopi nations (respectively of Panama, New Mexico and Arizona); Japan, in which one particular form of albinism is unusually common (OCA 4);<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEntry - #606574 - Albinism, Oculocutaneous, Type IV; OCA4 - OMIM \|urlhttps://omim.org/entry/606574 \|access-date5 March 2023 \|websiteomim.org}}</ref> and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2009 \|titleUkerewe Albino Society \|urlhttp://www.southern-africas-children.org.uk/ukerewe-albino.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121224142247/http://www.southern-africas-children.org.uk/ukerewe-albino.html \|archive-date24 December 2012 \|access-date21 July 2010 \|websiteSouthern Africa's Children}}</ref> Society and culture <!--********************************************** DO NOT add new entries for people, fiction characters, legends and myths, paintings or any other aspect of popular culture in this section; those go instead in the Albinism in popular culture article. This section summarizes that article and provides a place to add SOURCED material about albinism and CULTURE, not POP CULTURE (e.g. news reports of abuse of people with albinism, or the rare counter-example). ********************************************--> Special status of albinos in Native American culture people and other indigenous tribes of the American Southwest have a very high incidence of albinism.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastYi \|firstZ. \|last2Garrison \|first2N. \|last3Cohen-Barak \|first3O. \|last4Karafet \|first4T. M. \|last5King \|first5R. A. \|last6Erickson \|first6R. P. \|last7Hammer \|first7M. F. \|last8Brilliant \|first8M. H. \|dateJanuary 2003 \|titleA 122.5-kilobase deletion of the P gene underlies the high prevalence of oculocutaneous albinism type 2 in the Navajo population. \|journalAmerican Journal of Human Genetics \|volume72 \|issue1 \|pages62–72 \|doi10.1086/345380 \|pmc420013 \|pmid=12469324}}</ref>]] In some Native American and South Pacific cultures, people with albinism have been traditionally revered, because they were considered heavenly beings associated with the sky.<ref name"Hendrick" /><ref>{{Cite book \|lastLester \|firstPaul Martin \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoG9QAAAAMAAJ&qnative+americans+albinos+%22visual+communication%22 \|titleVisual Communication: Images with Messages \|date2003 \|publisherThomson/Wadsworth \|isbn9780534562441 \|page17 \|languageen}}</ref> Among various indigenous tribes in South America, albinos were able to live luxurious lives due to their divine status.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKromberg \|firstJennifer \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrScsDwAAQBAJ&dqnative+americans+revered+albinism&pgPA58 \|titleAlbinism in Africa: Historical, Geographic, Medical, Genetic, and Psychosocial Aspects \|last2Manga \|first2Prashiela \|date2 January 2018 \|publisherAcademic Press \|isbn9780128133170 \|page58 \|languageen}}</ref> This special status was applied mainly to male albinos.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastNagle \|firstJames J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSV8KAQAAMAAJ&qhopi+albinism+social+status \|titleHeredity and Human Affairs \|date1984 \|publisherTimes Mirror/Mosby \|isbn9780801636264 \|page291 \|languageen \|quote"Albino men in particular have been socially accepted in the dark-skinned Hopi society."}}</ref> It has been theorized that the very high level of albinism among some Native American tribes can be attributed to sexual privileges given to male albinos, which allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women in their tribes, leading to the spread of genes that are associated with albinism.<ref name"Hendrick">{{Cite journal \|lastHedrick \|firstPhilip W. \|dateJune 2003 \|titleHopi Indians, cultural selection, and albinism \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12740958/ \|journalAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology \|languageen \|volume121 \|issue2 \|pages151–156 \|doi10.1002/ajpa.10180 \|issn0002-9483 \|pmid12740958}}</ref> Persecution of people with albinism {{Main\|Persecution of people with albinism}} Humans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. It is especially socially stigmatised in many African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that "they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Furthermore, affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners".<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMagna \|firstP. \|dateJanuary 2014 \|titleBiology and genetics of Oculocutaneous albinism and vitiligo-common pigmentation disorders in Southern Africa \|urlhttp://www.ajol.info/index.php/samj/article/view/98355 \|journalSouth African Medical Journal \|volume103 \|issue1 \|pages984–988 \|doi10.7196/samj.7046 \|doi-broken-date1 November 2024 \|pmid24300644}}</ref> Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastJennifer G R Kromberg \|last2Flynn \|first2Kaitlyn A \|last3Kerr \|first3Robyn A \|date2023-07-13 \|titleDetermining a Worldwide Prevalence of Oculocutaneous Albinism: A Systematic Review \|urlhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10353740/ \|journalInvestigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science \|languageen \|volume64 \|issue10 \|doi10.1167/iov \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20250204073700/https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10353740/ \|archive-date=2025-02-04}}</ref> In African countries such as Tanzania<ref>{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date21 July 2008 \|titleLiving in fear: Tanzania's albinos \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7518049.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News \|publisherBritish Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> and Burundi,<ref name"bbc.co.uk">{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date24 October 2010 \|titleBurundi albino boy 'dismembered' \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11614957 \|workBBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date19 May 2009 \|titleBurundian albino murders denied \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8057956.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref> there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witch doctors.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastVogel \|firstFranck \|author-linkFranck Vogel \|dateAugust 2010 \|titleZeru, Zeru: Being Albino in Tanzania \|urlhttp://www.visuramagazine.com/franck-vogel-zeru-zeru \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706110514/http://www.visuramagazine.com/franck-vogel-zeru-zeru \|url-statususurped \|archive-date6 July 2011 \|access-date10 November 2017 \|workVisura Magazine \|publisherFoto Visura \|locationWestford, Vermont \|issue10}}</ref> Numerous authenticated incidents have occurred in Africa during the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date13 November 2008 \|titleMan 'tried to sell' albino wife \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7726743.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date27 July 2008 \|titleTanzania albinos targeted again \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/africa/7527729.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastNtetema \|firstVicky \|date24 July 2008 \|titleIn hiding for exposing Tanzania witchdoctors \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7523796.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date14 November 2008 \|titleMothers hacked in albino attacks \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7730193.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref> For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes.<ref>{{Cite news \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|date23 September 2009 \|titleDeath for Tanzania albino killers \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8270446.stm \|access-date27 February 2010 \|workBBC News}}</ref> Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts,<ref name"bbc.co.uk" /> as part of a continuing problem. The US-based National Geographic Society estimated that in Tanzania a complete set of albino body parts is worth US$75,000.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastIngber \|firstSasha \|last2Martin \|first2Jacquelyn \|date27 January 2013 \|titlePictures: Inside the Lives of Albinos in Tanzania \|urlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/01/130125-albino-albinism-tanzania-witch-doctors/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130127191203/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/01/130125-albino-albinism-tanzania-witch-doctors/ \|archive-date27 January 2013 \|access-date10 November 2017 \|workNational Geographic News \|publisherNational Geographic Society \|locationWashington DC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vocwWzE6_u20 \|titleTanzanians with albinism targeted for witchcraft \|date30 April 2015 \|publisherUNICEF \|access-date22 February 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/ocwWzE6_u20 \|archive-date23 November 2021 \|url-statuslive \|viaYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Another harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes (and subsequent HIV infection).<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMachipisa \|firstLewis \|date25 November 2002 \|titleThe Last Minority Group to Find a Voice \|urlhttp://www.ipsnews.net/2002/11/rights-zimbabwe-the-last-minority-group-to-find-a-voice/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090121145742/http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews14122 \|archive-date21 January 2009 \|access-date30 January 2010 \|websiteIPSNews.net \|publisherInter Press Service News Agency}}</ref> Albinism in popular culture {{Main\|Albinism in popular culture}} Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston "Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie "Piano Red" Perryman, Kalash Criminel; actor-rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan "La Burnt" Byrne and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have albinism because he was said to have been born with white hair.{{citation needed\|date=June 2024}}<!-- ******************************************** DO NOT add new entries for people, fiction characters, legends or folklore, paintings or any other aspect of popular culture in this section; those go instead in the Albinism in popular culture article. This section summarizes that article and provides a place to add SOURCED material about albinism and CULTURE, not POP CULTURE (e.g. news reports of abuse of people with albinism, or the rare counter-example). *********************************************--> International Albinism Awareness Day {{Main\|International Albinism Awareness Day}} International Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted on 18 December 2014 by the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day as of 2015.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInternational Albinism Awareness Day \|urlhttps://www.un.org/en/events/albinismday/index.shtml}}</ref> This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleIndependent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism \|urlhttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Albinism/Pages/IEAlbinism.aspx \|websiteOHCHR.org \|publisherOffice of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations \|locationGeneva}}</ref>See also{{Columns-list\|colwidth30em\| Albinism–deafness syndrome * Marie Antoinette syndrome * Dyschromia * Erythrism, unusually red pigmentation * Heterochromia iridum * Human variability * Isabellinism * Nevus, or birthmark * Piebaldism, patchy alternating loss of and concentrations of dermal pigmentation * Vitiligo (or leukoderma), patchy loss of dermal pigmentation * Xanthochromism and axanthism, unusually yellow pigmentation and lack of yellow pigment, respectively * Light skin }} References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Wiktionary\|albinism\|albino}} {{Commons category\|People with albinism}} * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?bookgene&partoca2 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 2] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?bookgene&partoca4 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 4] * {{Skeptoid \|id4425 \|number425 \|titleAlbinism Facts and Fiction \|date29 July 2014 \|access-date=}} {{Medical resources \| DiseasesDB = 318 \| ICD11 = {{ICD11\|EC23.2}} \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|E70.3}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|270.2}} \| ICDO \| OMIM 203100 \| MedlinePlus = 001479 \| eMedicineSubj = derm \| eMedicineTopic = 12 \| MeshID = D000417 \| oMIM_mult = {{OMIM4\|103470}}, {{OMIM4\|203200}}, {{OMIM4\|606952}}, {{OMIM4\|203290}}, {{OMIM4\|203300}}, {{OMIM4\|203310}}, {{OMIM4\|256710}}, {{OMIM4\|278400}}, {{OMIM4\|214450}}, {{OMIM4\|214500}}, {{OMIM4\|220900}}, {{OMIM4\|300500}}, {{OMIM4\|300600}}, {{OMIM4\|300650}}, {{OMIM4\|300700}}, {{OMIM4\|600501}}, {{OMIM4\|604228}}, {{OMIM4\|606574}}, {{OMIM4\|606952}}, {{OMIM4\|607624}}, {{OMIM4\|609227}} }} {{Pigmentation disorders\|state=collapsed}} {{Skin colors}} {{Authority control}} Category:Autosomal recessive disorders Category:Dermatologic terminology Category:Disturbances of human pigmentation Category:Human skin color	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albinism_in_humans	2025-04-05T18:26:12.085695
2911	Amr Diab	{{Short description\|Egyptian singer and actor (born 1961)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2022}} {{Infobox person \| name = Amr Diab \| image = Amr Diab With World Music Awards.jpg \| image_size = 240 \| caption = Amr Diab in 2014 \| native_name = {{Nobold\|{{lang\|ar\|عمرو دياب}}}} \| birth_name = Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab<br />{{lang\|ar\|عمرو عبد الباسط عبد العزيز دياب}} \| other_names = El Hadaba<br /> ("The Plateau", "The Hill") \| birth_date {{birth date and age\|dfyes\|1961\|10\|11}} \| birth_place = Port Said, Egypt \| years_active = 1983–present \| occupation = {{hlist\|Singer\|composer\|actor}} \| spouse = {{plain list\| * {{marriage\|Shereen Reda\|1989\|1992\|end=div}} * {{marriage\|Zeina Ashour\|1994\|2018\|end=div}} * {{marriage\|{{ill\|Dina El Sherbiny\|ar\| دينا الشربيني}}\|2018\|2020\|end=separated}} }} \| children = 4 \| module = {{Infobox musical artist \| embed = yes \| genre = {{hlist\|Arabic pop\|dance-pop}} \| label = {{hlist\|Delta Sound (1984–1998)\|Alam El Phan (1996–2003)\|Rotana (2004–2015)\|Nay for Media (2016–2024)\|Sony Music (2024–present)}} \| instruments = {{hlist\|Vocals\|guitar\|oud\|piano}} }} \| website = {{URL\|https://amrdiab.net/}} }} Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab ({{langx\|ar\|عمرو عبد الباسط عبد العزيز دياب}}, {{IPA\|ar\|ˈʕɑmɾe ʕæbdelˈbɑːsetˤ ʕæbdelʕæˈziːz deˈjæːb\|}}; born 11 October 1961) is an Egyptian singer, composer and actor.<ref>{{cite web \| lastLesswing \| first Bryan \| titleSounds of the Middle East, Minnesota provide options for listeners \| url http://www.thedepauw.com/features/sounds-of-the-middle-east-minnesota-provide-options-for-listeners-1.1993168 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716232527/http://www.thedepauw.com/features/sounds-of-the-middle-east-minnesota-provide-options-for-listeners-1.1993168 \| url-status dead \| archive-date16 July 2011 \| date October 2009 \| publisherThe DePauw \| access-date 20 December 2009 }}</ref> He has established himself as a globally acclaimed recording artist and author.<ref nameAmrDiab/> He is a Guinness World Record holder, the best selling Middle Eastern artist, a seven-times winner of World Music Awards and five-times winner of Platinum Records.<ref name"AmrDiab">{{Cite web \|date2022-02-21 \|titleEgypt’s megastar Amr Diab to perform live in Riyadh on February 24 \|urlhttps://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/113086/Egypt%E2%80%99s-megastar-Amr-Diab-to-perform-live-in-Riyadh-on \|access-date2025-03-29 \|websiteEgyptToday}}</ref>Early lifeDiab was born as Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab on 11 October 1961 in Port Said<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleAmr Diab Biography {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/biography/ \|access-date2025-03-29 \|websiteAmr Diab \|languageen-US}}</ref>to a middle-class Egyptian Muslim family from the countryside of Menia Elamh in Sharqia Governorate. Diab graduated with a bachelor's degree in music from the Cairo Academy of Arts in 1986.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-11-23 \|titleقصة اسم عمرو دياب الحقيقي \|urlhttps://www.elbalad.news/4068518 \|access-date2025-03-29 \|websiteصدى البلد \|languagear-eg}}</ref>Music career Diab released his first album entitled {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ya Tareeq}} in 1983. Diab's second album, {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ghanny Men Albak}} (1984), was the first of a series of records he released with Delta Sound; including {{Transliteration\|ar\|Hala Hala}} (1986), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Khalseen}} (1987), and {{Transliteration\|ar\|Mayyal}} (1988). His later releases include ''{{Transliteration\|ar\|Shawa'na}} (1989), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Matkhafesh}} (1990), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Habibi}} (1991), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ayyamna}} (1992), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ya Omrena}} (1993), {{Transliteration\|ar\|Weylomony}} (1994), and {{Transliteration\|ar\|Rag'een}} (1995). By 1992, he became the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern artist to start making high-tech music videos.<ref name="tinge" /> In 1996, Diab released his first album with Alam El Phan entitled {{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}}, and he won the World Music Award for the first time, which proved an international success and gained Diab recognition beyond the Arabic-speaking world. Diab recorded four more albums with Alam El Phan, including {{Transliteration\|ar\|Amarain}} (1999). Diab also collaborated with Khaled (on the song "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Alby}}") and with Angela Dimitriou (on the song "Bahebak Aktar"). According to research by Michael Frishkopf, he has created a style in the song "{{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}}", termed as "Mediterranean music", a blend of Western and Middle Eastern/Egyptian rhythms.<ref name"tinge">{{cite book\|titleMediterranean mosaic: popular music and global sounds \|lastFrishkopf \|firstMichael \|editor1-firstGoffredo \|editor1-lastPlastino \|year2003 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-415-93656-9 \|pages145–148 \|chapterSome Meanings of the Spanish Tinge in Contemporary Egyptian Music \|urlhttp://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/Some%20Meanings%20of%20the%20Spanish%20Tinge.pdf \|access-date4 June 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090327153246/http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/Some%20Meanings%20of%20the%20Spanish%20Tinge.pdf \|archive-date27 March 2009 }}</ref> In the summer of 2004, Diab, having left Alam El Phan, released his first album with Rotana Records, {{Transliteration\|ar\|Leily Nahary}}, which he followed up with the hugely successful {{Transliteration\|ar\|Kammel Kalamak}} (2005), and {{Transliteration\|ar\|El Lilady}}'' (2007). {{Transliteration\|ar\|Wayah}} was released for sale on the internet on 27 June 2009; however, the album was leaked online and was downloaded illegally amid complaints of slow download speed on the official site. Diab's fans initiated a massive boycott of the sites with the illegal copies.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAmr Diab's album sweeping cassette market \|urlhttp://www.musicananet.net/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id831:2009-06-30-21-53-47&catid55:2009-02-18-21-10-52&Itemid93 \|date30 June 2009 \|publisherMusicananet \|access-date2 July 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090704070007/http://www.musicananet.net/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id831%3A2009-06-30-21-53-47&catid55%3A2009-02-18-21-10-52&Itemid93 \|archive-date4 July 2009 \|language=ar }}</ref> On 18 October 2009, Diab won four 2009 African Music Awards in the categories of best artist, album, vocalist and song for "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Wayah}}"; Diab had been nominated by the Big Apple Music Awards.<ref name"AfricanAwards">{{Cite web \|url http://artonline.tv/Entertainment/newsdetails.aspx?newsID17963 \|title Amr Diab wins four African Music Awards \|firstKhaled \|last Taha \|date25 October 2009 \|publisher ART \|access-date28 October 2009 \|language ar \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091027141453/http://www.artonline.tv/Entertainment/NewsDetails.aspx?newsID17963 \|archive-date27 October 2009 \|url-status dead \|df= dmy-all }}</ref> In February 2011, Diab released his hit single {{Transliteration\|ar\|Masr Allet}} ("Egypt spoke"), followed by the release of his album {{Transliteration\|ar\|Banadeek Taala}} in September, produced by Rotana. In 2012, Diab hosted the first Google Hangout in the Middle East during his performance in Dubai. In October 2014, Diab released his album {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}}, which topped his last album {{Transliteration\|ar\|El Leila}} (2013) and again became the best-selling album in Egypt on iTunes andp eaked at No. 1 on the Billboard World Albums Charts, making him the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern performer to accomplish such a feat.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleShoft El Ayam's Billboard World Albums Chart performance \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/amr-diab/chart-history/wlp/ \|access-date24 April 2020 \|magazineBillboard}}</ref> In July 2015, Diab released a music video for his song "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Gamalo}}" from his album {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}}. In March 2016, he released {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ahla w Ahla}}, his first album since he left Rotana Music. The album was produced by the record label Nay For Media. His new album {{Transliteration\|ar\|Maadi el Nas}} was released in July 2017 with Nay Records.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastالرفاعى \|firstمحمود \|date2017-08-10 \|titleبالأسماء{{!}} 10 أغنيات في ألبوم "معدي الناس" لـ عمرو \|urlhttps://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/2407955/ \|access-date2025-03-29 \|websiteالوطن \|languagear}}</ref> In October 2018, he released a new album called {{Transliteration\|ar\|Kol Hayaty}}. In 2019, he released a mini-album, {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ana Gheir}}, and in February 2020, he released his 30th album, {{Transliteration\|ar\|Sahran}}, which included 16 songs. In the same year, Amr Diab released another album, Ya Ana Ya La, at the end of the year, December 31, 2020. From April 2021 to July 2023, Amr Diab released a huge amount of singles, many of which topped the charts on digital listening platforms until his album release in 2023.<ref name=":0" /> In February 2022, Anghami announced an exclusive partnership that will see the Diab's entire Nay Label audio and video catalogue and future releases available only on Anghami.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-02-24 \|titleAnghami signs exclusivity music deal with Arab Megastar Amr Diab \|urlhttps://campaignme.com/anghami-signs-exclusivity-music-deal-with-arab-megastar-amr-diab/ \|access-date2022-05-31 \|websiteCampaign Middle East \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-02-24 \|titleAmr Diab signs exclusive partnership with Anghami \|urlhttps://www.egyptindependent.com/amr-diab-signs-exclusive-partnership-with-anghami/ \|access-date2022-05-31 \|websiteEgypt Independent \|languageen-US}}</ref> In December 2023, Amr Diab released an album called “Makanak” which contains 12 songs exclusively on Anghami.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMakanak, New Album for Amr Diab {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/makanak-new-album-for-amr-diab/ \|access-date2024-05-02 \|websiteAmr Diab \|language=en-US}}</ref> Then released two singles called El Kelma El Helwa it was an Ad for Vodafone MUSIC (Egypt) and Hekyatna Helwa for Hyde Park both of them on the same March 11, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEl Kelma El Helwa with Vodafone {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/el-kelma-el-helwa-with-vodafone/ \|access-date2024-05-02 \|websiteAmr Diab \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleHyde Park with Amr Diab {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/hyde-park-with-amr-diab/ \|access-date2024-05-02 \|websiteAmr Diab \|languageen-US}}</ref> In April 2024, Rolling Stone picked Tamally Maak to top the Best Arabic Pop Songs of the 21st Century.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHajjar \|firstDanny \|date2024-04-26 \|titleThe 50 Best Arabic Pop Songs of the 21st Century \|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-arabic-pop-songs-1235000979/ \|access-date2024-05-02 \|websiteRolling Stone \|languageen-US}}</ref> In July of that year, his exclusive contract with Anghami expired.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/3212293 \|titleأول تعليق من عمرو دياب بعد أزمته مع أنغامي (بيان رسمي) \|publisherAl-Masry Al-Youm \|languagear \|date12 July 2024 }}</ref>Musical styleDiab is known as the "father of Mediterranean music".<ref>{{cite news \| last Crane \| firstKelly \| title Egyptian superstar Amr Diab is set to rock Dubai \| urlhttp://gulfnews.com/arts-entertainment/music/egyptian-superstar-amr-diab-is-set-to-rock-dubai-1.615728 \| date April 2010 \| newspaperGulf News \| access-date24 April 2010 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100426154116/http://gulfnews.com/arts-entertainment/music/egyptian-superstar-amr-diab-is-set-to-rock-dubai-1.615728\| archive-date 26 April 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> David Cooper and Kevin Dawe refer to his music as "the new breed of Mediterranean music".<ref>{{cite book \|title The Mediterranean in music: Critical perspectives, common concerns, cultural differences \|last1Cooper \|first1 David \|first2Kevin \|last2Dawe \|year2005 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn0-8108-5407-4 \|page 117}}</ref> According to author Michael Frishkopf, Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially with his international hit, "{{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}}".<ref nametinge /> Moreover, Diab is known as a composer, having composed more than 97 of his own songs. Music videos Diab is one of the first singers to popularize music videos in the whole MENA region and is the first Egyptian singer to appear in music videos.<ref nametinge /> Film career Diab's fame in the music industry has led him to experiment with other forms of media, such as film. Diab played himself in his first film, {{Transliteration\|ar\|El Afareet}}, which was released in 1989. It also starred Madiha Kamel. His second film was Hussein El-Imam's production Ice Cream in Gleam ({{Transliteration\|ar\|Ays Krim fi Glym}}), in which Diab starred in 1992, was chosen as one of the best five Egyptian musical films by the University of California, Los Angeles (ULCA) School of Theater, Film and Television.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2016 \|titleAmr Diab \|urlhttps://souteldelta.com/en/artists/amr-diab/ \|websiteDelta Sound}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSameh \|firstYara \|date27 Jun 2022 \|titleAmr Diab Announces New Song "El Look El Geded" \|urlhttps://see.news/amr-diab-announces-new-song-el-look-el-geded \|workSada Elbalad}}</ref> The film was featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive's new program "Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" at James Bridges Theater at UCLA on 6, 8 and 10 April 1999. David Chute of the LA Weekly termed it "observant" and "a big leap".<ref>{{cite news \|first1David \|last1 Chute \|first2Irene G. \|last2Behnan \|titleAll Singing! All Belly-Dancing \|url http://www.laweekly.com/1999-04-08/film-tv/all-singing-all-belly-dancing/2 \|workLos Angeles Weekly \|date 8 April 1999 \|access-date4 June 2009\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090627134412/http://www.laweekly.com/1999-04-08/film-tv/all-singing-all-belly-dancing/2\| archive-date27 June 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> His third movie was released in 1993, and was named ''{{Transliteration\|ar\|Deahk We La'ab}} (Laughter and Fun). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Diab played alongside international Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif (Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago'') and Yousra. Overall, Diab did not experience the same level of success in film that he had with his music career. Since 1993, Diab has focused on his singing career. Amr Diab in movies Diab's songs have been used in several films, including: * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Wala Ala Baloh}}" in Divine Intervention (2002) * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Awedouni}}" in The Dancer Upstairs (2002) * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|El Alem Alah}}" and "{{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}}" in O Clone (2001) * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Nafs El Makan}}" in Double Whammy (2001)<ref>{{cite web \| titleAmr Diab Filmography \| url https://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1809493507\| publisherYahoo! Movies \| access-date11 June 2009\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090520171140/http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1809493507\| archive-date 20 May 2009 \| url-status= live}}</ref> * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Tamally Ma'ak}}" and "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Nour El Ain}}" in Coco (2009) * "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Wala Ala Baloh}}" in The Dictator (2012) Egyptian Revolution During the 2011 uprising, some protesters criticized Diab for staying silent, and for fleeing Egypt for London.<ref>{{cite web\|titleEgyptian celebrities face protesters' wrath in post-Mubarak Egypt\|urlhttp://www.aawsat.net/2011/02/article55247479\|workAsharq al-awsat, 18 February 2011\|access-date7 May 2013}}</ref> A few days after former President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Diab composed and sang a memorial song, "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Masr A'let}}" (Egypt Said),<ref>{{Citation\|lastAmr Diab\|titleAmr Diab – Masr A'let (Translated) عمرو دياب – مصر قالت\|date20 February 2011\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vjsxyHbWY71s\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/jsxyHbWY71s\| archive-date23 November 2021 \| url-statuslive\|access-date19 March 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and released it in conjunction with a music video showing pictures of the martyrs who died in the uprising. He initiated a charity campaign "{{Transliteration\|ar\|Masry Begad}}" ("Truly Egyptian").<ref>{{cite web \|title‘Amr Diab commences the "Masry Begad" ("An Egyptian for Real") campaign to revitalize the tourist sector following the revolution \|urlhttps://elcinema.com/en/press/678920802/ \|websiteEl Cinema \|access-date2 October 2023}}</ref> His online radio station Diab FM often presents talks and discussions about what the Diab FM team can offer to the community as well as applying it practically by being present in different sites across Egypt with a new humanitarian project each week.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMasry Begad Campaign Launch {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/masry-begad-campaign-launch/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110428082422/http://diabfm.com/masry-begad/ \|archive-date28 April 2011 \|access-date2025-03-22 \|websiteAmr Diab \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date4 July 2012 \|titleعمرو دياب.. مصري بجد \|urlhttps://bostah.com/الأخبار/عمرو-دياب-مصري-بجد.html \|access-date22 March 2025 \|workBostah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2011-03-19 \|titleعمرو دياب يلتقى شباب حملة "مصرى بجد" \|urlhttps://www.youm7.com/story/2011/3/19/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%89-%D8%B4%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A8%D8%AC%D8%AF/373046 \|access-date2025-03-22 \|websiteاليوم السابع \|languagear}}</ref> Personal life Diab has an elder daughter from his first marriage to Egyptian actress Shereen Reda. In 1994, he was married to Saudi businesswoman Zeina Ashour. They have three children. In 2018, he went on to marry Egyptian actress, Dina El Sherbiny, after his relationship with Ashour ended.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Sameh \|first1Yara \|titleDid Amr Diab and Dina El Sherbiny Get Married? \|urlhttps://see.news/did-amr-diab-and-dina-el-sherbiny-get-married/ \|websiteSee.news \|date22 May 2020 \|publisherSada El Balad \|access-date29 August 2020}}</ref> It is unknown whether they were separated or divorced.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleاليكم سبب عدم نعي عمرو دياب لوالدة زوجته زينة عاشور\|urlhttps://elbashayer.com/2541685/اليكم-سبب-عدم-نعي-عمرو-دياب-لوالدة-زوجت/\|date8 May 2020\|access-date4 September 2020\|workEl Bashayer\|languagear}}</ref> However, Diab and El Sherbiny separated in late 2020.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.albawaba.com/entertainment/amr-diab-shockingly-kicks-dina-el-sherbiny-out-his-four-seasons-apartment-1396030 \|titleAmr Diab SHOCKINGLY Kicks Dina El-Sherbiny Out of His Four Seasons Apartment! \|websitealbawaba.com \|date30 November 2020 }}</ref> Discography {{Main\|Amr Diab discography}} Main Studio Albums {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"2" ! scope="col" \| Year ! scope="col" \| Original Title ! scope="col" \| Translation ! scope="col" \| Label \|- \| 1983 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ya Tareeq}} \|\| O Road \|\| Sawt Al Madina \|- \| 1984 \|\| Ghanni Min Albak \|\| Sing From Your Heart \|\| rowspan="11" \|Delta Sound \|- \| 1986 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Hala Hala}} \|\| Welcome Welcome \|- \| 1987 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Khalseen}} \|\| ''We're Done \|- \| 1988 \|\| Mayal \|\| Leaning \|- \| 1989 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shawa'na}} \|\| Make Us Miss You \|- \| 1990 \|\|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Matkhafesh}} \|\| Don't Be Afraid \|- \| 1991 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Habibi}} \|\| Baby \|- \| 1992 \|\| Ayamna \|\| Our Days \|- \| 1993 \|\| Ya Omrena \|\| O Our Life \|- \| 1994 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|We Yloumouni}} \|\| Let Them Blame Me \|- \|1995 \|Ragein \|We're Coming Back \|- \| 1996 \|\| {{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}} \|\| Light of the Eye \|\| Alam El Phan \|- \| 1998 \|\| Awedony \|\| Made Me Used To You \|\| Delta Sound \|- \| 1999 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Amarain}} \|\| Two Moons \|\| rowspan="4"\|Alam El Phan \|- \| 2000 \|\| Tamally Maak \|\| Always With You \|- \| 2001 \|\| Aktar Wahed \|\| The One That Loves You The Most \|- \| 2003 \|\| Allem Alby \|\| Teach My Heart \|- \| 2004 \|\| Lealy Nahary \|\| Night and Day \|\| rowspan="7"\|Rotana \|- \| 2005 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Kammel Kalamak}} \|\| Keep Talking \|- \| 2007 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|El Lilady}} \|\| Tonight \|- \| 2009 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Wayah}} \|\| With Her \|- \| 2011 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Banadeek Ta'ala}} \|\| Come I'm Calling You \|- \| 2013 \|\| El Leila \|\| This Night \|- \| 2014 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}} \|\| I saw the days \|- \|2016 \|\| Ahla W Ahla \|\| Prettier and Prettier \|\| rowspan="7" \|Nay For Media \|- \| 2017 \|\| Meaddy El Nas \|\| Greater than People \|- \| 2018 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Kol Hayaty}} \|\| All My Life \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2020 \|\| {{Transliteration\|ar\|Sahran}} \|\| Up All Night \|- \| Ya Ana Ya La \|\| Either Me or No One \|- \|2023 \|Makanak \|Your Place \|- \|} Singles {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"4" ! scope="col" \| Year ! scope="col" \| Original Title ! scope="col" \| Translation ! scope="col" \| Label \|- \| rowspan="2" \|1999 \|Eleos - with Angela Dimitriou \|Mercy \|EMI \|- \|Ana Mahma Kibirt \|Whatever I Get Old, I Still Young \|Alam El Phan \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2000 \|El Quds De Aredna \| Quds is Our "Arabs" Land \| rowspan="2" \|Rotana \|- \|El Helm Da Helmena \|This Dream is Ours \|- \|2002 \|Bahebak Nefsi Aaolhalak \|I Hope to Say I Love You \| rowspan="2" \|Alam El Phan \|- \|2003 \|Rouh Alby \|Soul of My Heart \|- \|2005 \|Elly Beiny We Beinak \|That Between You and Me \| rowspan="7" \|Rotana \|- \|2007 \|Allah Aliha \| God Bless Her \|- \|2008 \|Oldies Singles \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2009 \|Leh Youm Ma Abeltak \| Why That Happened When I Met You? \|- \|Makontsh Nawy \|I didn't intend to \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2010 \|Nokia 5800 Releases \|- \|Aslaha Betefre’a \|It's different \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2011 \|Masr Alet \|Egypt Said \|Nay for Media \|- \| La' Yestaheil \|She deserves \| rowspan="7" \|Rotana \|- \| rowspan="3" \|2012 \|Fe Haga Feek \|There's Something With You \|- \|We Redet \| I'm Satisfied \|- \|Ayesh Maak \| I Spend Days With You \|- \|2013 \|Dawam El Haal \| What Goes around Comes around \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2014 \|Mesh Kol Wahed \|Not Everybody \|- \|Ya Hob Dawebna \|Oh love, Melt us in you \|- \|2015 \|Balash Teb'ed \|Don't Go Far \| rowspan="13" \|Nay for Media \|- \|2016 \|Al Qahera - ft. Mohamed Mounir \|Cairo \|- \|2017 \|El Farha El Leila \|The Joy is tonight \|- \|2018 \|Bahebak Ana \|Me, Love You \|- \| rowspan="4" \|2019 \|Maa'darsh Al Nesyan \|I cannot afford to forget \|- \|Gamaa Habybak \|Gather Your Loved Ones \|- \|Africa (2019 Edition) \|- \|Aha Gheir \| I'm Different \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2020 \|Ya Baladna Ya Helwa \|Our Country is Beautiful \|- \|Amaken El Sahar \|Nightlife places \|- \|2021 \|Inta El Haz \|You're the Luck \|- \|2022 \|El Ser \| The Secret \|- \|2023 \|Shokran Min Hena Le Bokra \| Thank you from here on out \|} Famous Songs {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"2" ! scope="col" \| Year ! scope="col" \| Original Title ! scope="col" \| Translation ! scope="col" \| Composers !Producers ! scope="col" \| Album \|- \| rowspan="2"\|1984 \|Ghanni Min Albak \|Sing From Your Heart \|Hani Zaki, Azmi Al Kilany \|rowspan="3"\|Mohamed Helal \| rowspan="2" \|Ghanni Min Albak \|- \|Ashof Ainaik \|I See Your Eyes \|Traditional, adaptation Issam Abdallah \|- \|1986 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Hala Hala}} \|Welcome Welcome \|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Hala Hala}} \|- \|1987 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Khalseen}} \|We're Done \|Reda Ameen, Khalil Mostafa \|rowspan="2"\|Fathy Salama \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Khalseen}} \|- \|1988 \|Mayal \|Leaning \|rowspan="2"\|Magdi El Naggar, Haggag Abdel Rahman \|Mayal \|- \|1989 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Shawa'na}} \|Make Us Miss You \|rowspan="2"\|Hamid El Shaeri \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Shawa'na}} \|- \|1990 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Matkhafesh}} \|Don't Be Afraid \|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Matkhafesh}} \|- \|1991 \|Aeh Pas Ille Ramak \|What made you love? \|rowspan="4"\|Medhat El Adl, Amr Diab \|rowspan="4"\|Hossam Hosny \|Habibi \|- \| rowspan="4"\|1992 \|Ice Cream Fi Glym \|Ice Cream in Glym \| rowspan="3" \|Ice Cream in Glym \|- \|Raseef Nemra Khamsa \|Sidewalk Number Five \|- \|Wehna Maak \|We'll Sing With You \|- \|El Mady \|The Past \|Magdi El Naggar, Abdel Azeez Al Nasir \|Hamid El Shaeri \|Ayamna \|- \|1993 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Ya Omrena}} \|Our Days Together \| rowspan="2"\|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab \|Tarek Madkour \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Ya Omrena}} \|- \|1994 \|Africa \|Africa \|Modi El Emam \|Zekrayat \|- \|1995 \|Ragein \|We're Coming Back \|Medhat El Adl, Reyad El Hamshari \|Tarek Madkour \|Ragein \|- \|1996 \|{{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}} \|Light of the Eye \|Ahmed Sheta, Nasser Al Mezdawy \|rowspan="2"\|Hamid El Shaeri \|{{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}} \|- \|1998 \|Awedouny \|Made Me Used to You \|Abdel Monem Taha, Amr Tantawy \|Awedouny \|- \| rowspan="3"\|1999 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Alby}} <small>(featuring Khaled)</small> \|My Heart \|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Mahmoud \|Farid Awamer \| rowspan="3" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Amarain}} \|- \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Amarain}} \|Two Moons \|Mohamed Refahey, Sherif Tag \|rowspan="9"\|Tarek Madkour \|- \|Bahebbak Aktar <small>(featuring Angela Dimitriou)</small> \|I Love You More \|Mohamed Refahy, Sherif Tag, Panos Falaras \|- \| rowspan="3" \|2000 \|El Alem Allah \|God Knows \|Amir Teima, Amr Mostafa, Amr Diab \| rowspan="3" \|Tamally Maak \|- \|Tamally Maak \|Always With You \|Ahemd Ali Mousa, Sherif Tag \|- \|We Heya Amleh Eih \|And How is She Doing \|Bahaa El Din Mohamed, Essam Karika \|- \| rowspan="4"\|2001 \|Wala Ala Balo \|Not On Her Mind \|Mohamed Refahey, Mohamed Rahim \| rowspan="4" \|Aktar Wahed \|- \|Aktar Wahed \|The One Who Loves You Most \|Ahmed Ali Mousa, Amr Mostafa \|- \|Kan Tayeb \|He Was Good \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Amr Diab \|- \|Baed El Layaly \|I Count The Nights \|Mohamed Refahey, Khaled Ezz \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2003 \|Allem Alby \|Teach My Heart \|Waleed Galal, Amr Diab, Khaled Ezz \|Fahd \| rowspan="2" \|Allem Alby \|- \|Ana Ayesh \|I'm Alive \|Rabea El Seuofey, Amr Diab, Amr Mostafa \|Hani Yacoub \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2004 \|Lealy Nahary \|Night and Day \|rowspan="3"\|Khaled Tag Eldeen, Amr Mostafa \|rowspan="2"\|Nader Hamdy \|rowspan="2"\|Lealy Nahary \|- \|Qusad Einy \|In front of My Eyes \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2005 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|We Maloh}} \|Why Not? \|rowspan="2"\|Tarek Madkour \|rowspan="2" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Kammel Kalamak}} \|- \|Kammel Kalamak \|Keep Talking \|Amir Teima, Nasser El Mezdawi \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2007 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|El Lilady}} \|Tonight \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Amr Mostafa \|rowspan="4"\|Hassan El Shafei \|rowspan="2" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|El Lilady}} \|- \|Khalik Ma'aya \|Stay With Me \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2009 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Wayah}} \|With Her \|Tamer Hussien, Amr Mostafa \| rowspan="2" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Wayah}} \|- \|Yehemak Fe Eih \|What does it matter to you? \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia \|- \|2010 \|Aslaha Betifrek \|It's Different \|Magdy El Naggar, Amr Diab \|rowspan="3"\|Adel Hakki \|Single Release \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2011 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Banadeek Taala}} \|Come I'm Calling You \|Tamer Hussien, Amr Diab \| rowspan="2" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Banadeek Taala}} \|- \|Ma'drrsh Ana \|I Can't Handle \|rowspan="2"\|Tamer Hussien, Amr Tantawi \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2013 \|El Leila \|This Night \|Osama Elhendy \| rowspan="2" \|El Leila \|- \|Sebt Faragh Kebeer \|You've left a trail \|Magdi El Naggar, Khalil Mostafa \|rowspan="2"\|Adel Hakki \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2014 \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}} \|Did You See the Days \| rowspan="2"\|Tamer Hussien, Shady Hassan \| rowspan="2" \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}} \|- \|{{Transliteration\|ar\|Gamalo}} \|Her Beauty \|rowspan="7"\|Osama Elhendy \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2016 \|Ragea \|You're Back! \|Tamer Hussien, Islam Zaki \| rowspan="2" \|Ahla W Ahla \|- \|Amentak \|I have Placed a Trust in You \|Tamer Hussien, Mohamed El Nady \|- \|2017 \|Ya Agmal Eyoun \|Most Beautiful Eyes \|Turki Al Alsheikh, Amr Mostafa \|Meaddy El Nas \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2018 \|Yetalemo \|They Learn from You \|Tamer Hussien, Amr Mostafa \| rowspan="2" \|Kol Hayaty \|- \|Da Law Etsab \|If It Got Left \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2019 \|Youm Talat \|On Tuesday \|rowspan="2"\|Tamer Hussien, Aziz El Shafei \| rowspan="3" \|Sahran \|- \|Odam Merayetha \|In Front of her Mirror \|Tarek Madkour \|- \| rowspan="3"\|2020 \|Zay Manty \|You are as You are \|Aziz El Shafei \|Nader Hamdy \|- \|Ya Ana Ya La \|Either Me or No One \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia \|Adel Hakki \|Ya Ana Ya La \|- \|Amaken El Sahar \|Nightlife places \|rowspan="2"\|Tamer Hussien, Aziz El Shafei \|Osama Elhendy \| rowspan="6" \|Single Release \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2021 \|Inta El Haz \|You're the Luck \|Wesam Adel Munem \|- \|Ray'a \|When You're in the Mood \|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia \|Tarek Madkour \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2022 \|Hatedalaa \|You'll be spoiled \|Mohamed El Kayaty, Mohamed Yehia \|Ahmed Ibrahim \|- \|Elly Beina Hayah \|What Between Us, is a Life \|Aziz El Shafei \|Wesam Abdel Munem \|- \| rowspan="3"\|2023 \|El Hafla \|The Party \|Ahmed Marzouk, Mohamed Kammah \|Mohamed Kammah \|- \|Makanak \|Your Place \|Tamer Hussien, Amr Diab \|Ahmed Ibrahim \| rowspan="3" \|Makanak \|- \|Ya Amar \|Oh Moon \|Mostafa Hadouta, Amr Diab \|Wesam Abdel Munem \|} Awards He has been awarded the World Music Award for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist four times: 1996 for album {{Transliteration\|arz\|Nour El Ain\|}}, 2001 for album Akter Wahed, 2007 for album El Lillady and 2013 for {{Transliteration\|ar\|El Leila}}'' album. He has also won (Best Egyptian Artist, Best Male Arab Artist and World's Best Arab Male Artist Voted Online) at the World Music Awards 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://amrdiab.net/diab/awards/item/264-wma2014.html\|titleLG concert 2003\|websiteamrdiab.net\|access-date15 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141215125040/http://amrdiab.net/diab/awards/item/264-wma2014.html\|archive-date15 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Amr Diab is the only Middle Eastern artist to have received 7 World Music Awards.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2016/9/father-of-mediterranean-music-earns-title-for-most-world-music-awards-445370\|titleEgyptian singer Amr Diab recognised by Guinness World Records for Most World Music Awards wins\|date28 September 2016\|workGuinness World Records\|access-date19 March 2018}}</ref> Five of his albums reached the top 10 of Billboard's World Albums chart, with {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}} reaching No. 1 in 2014, the first for an Arabic performer.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/amr-diab/chart-history\|titleDiab's Billboard World Albums Chart History\|magazineBillboard\|access-date24 April 2020}}</ref> Alongside that accomplishment, two of his albums (2014's {{Transliteration\|ar\|Shoft El Ayam}} and 2016's {{Transliteration\|ar\|Ahla w Ahla}}) both peaked at 29 and 14 respectively on Billboard's Heatseekers charts.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/amr-diab/chart-history/tln/\|titleDiab's Billboard Heatseekers Chart History\|magazineBillboard\|access-date24 April 2020}}</ref> On 28 September 2016, Diab announced that he achieved a Guinness World Records title for "Most World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist".<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/439460-most-world-music-awards-for-best-selling-middle-eastern-artist\|titleMost World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist\|workGuinness World Records\|access-date19 March 2018}}</ref> List of awards received by Amr Diab * Seven World Music Awards (1997/2001/2007/2014) * Six African Music Awards (2009/2010) * Two All Africa Music Awards (2016/2017) * Guinness World Record (2016)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmr Diab Awards {{!}} Amr Diab Official Website \|urlhttps://amrdiab.net/awards/ \|access-date2025-03-29 \|websiteAmr Diab \|languageen-US}}</ref> Program "Al-helm" A program produced by Amr Afifi, consisting of 12 parts aired on Rotana Music, Rotana Cinema and Egyptian Channel 1 station. The program detailed the biography of Diab and was scheduled to be launched simultaneously with the release of Amr Diab's new album, but the album's release was postponed to a later date.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleعمرو دياب وتامر.. صراع النجومية يمتد للحلقات التليفزيونية.. قصة صعود حسني تقليد لتجربة الهضبة في الحلم \|urlhttps://gate.ahram.org.eg/News/440523.aspx \|access-date2025-03-22 \|websiteبوابة الأهرام \|languagear}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2017-11-23 \|titleجمهور عمرو دياب يشكك في تنفيذ برنامجه الجديد \|urlhttps://al-ain.com/article/amr-diab-program-new \|access-date2025-03-22 \|websiteالعين الإخبارية \|languagear}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleDailymotion \|urlhttps://www.dailymotion.com/amrdiab/videos \|access-date2025-03-22 \|websitewww.dailymotion.com \|languageen-US}}</ref> References {{reflist}} External links {{commons}} * {{Official website}} * [https://amrdiab.net/biography/ Official Biography] * [https://youtube.com/@AmrDiab Youtube Channel] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180220033213/https://amrdiab.world/ Amr Diab World (archive)] * {{IMDb name}} * [https://music.apple.com/us/artist/amr-diab/15869915 Amr Diab] on Apple Music {{Amr Diab}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Diab, Amr}} Category:1961 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from Port Said Category:Egyptian male film actors Category:Egyptian male television actors Category:Egyptian male actors Category:Egyptian composers Category:20th-century Egyptian male singers Category:21st-century Egyptian male singers Category:Egyptian Muslims Category:Egyptian singer-songwriters Category:Musicians from Port Said Category:Singers who perform in Classical Arabic Category:Singers who perform in Egyptian Arabic Category:World Music Awards winners Category:Arabic-language singers of Egypt	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amr_Diab	2025-04-05T18:26:12.137173
2916	Belgian hip-hop	Belgian hip hop music has a few rappers stemming from Africa and Italy. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Rwanda, and Burundi until the early 1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium. The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late 1980s with a U.S.-based techno/hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like "Pump up the Jam" and "Shake That Body". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office's report on Music in Europe, this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene. Also in the late 1980s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/rapping groups like 't Hof van Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects. Today, the Belgian hip hop scene is growing. Rappers like Coely, Roméo Elvis and Damso are achieving commercial success in their country and abroad. Other contemporary rappers/formations are Stikstof, Woodie Smalls, L'Or Du Commun and . References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_hip-hop	2025-04-05T18:26:12.147856
2917	Dutch hip-hop	{{Short description\|Regional music genre}} {{Multiple issues\|{{Review\|date=January 2008}} {{globalize\|dateMay 2023\|2Netherlands\|discuss=Talk:Dutch hip hop#Globalize}}}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2015}} ouali is perhaps Holland's best-known rapper, also successful in many other public roles.]] Dutch hip hop or Nederhop ("Netherhop") is hip hop / rap music created by Dutch speaking musicians in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). Although the first Dutch rappers in Europe typically wrote in the English language, this began to change when Osdorp Posse<ref>Osdorp is a "hood" in Amsterdam.</ref> gained a big following of fans. They were the first to record and release hip hop in the Dutch language, perform for big crowds<ref>{{Citation \|titleOsdorp Posse op Pinkpop 1997: mini-docu over de grootste Nederlandstalige rap-show van de jaren '90 \| dateJuly 2022 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vGoHCXTJtjLo \|access-date2024-03-26}}</ref> and to achieve chart success with their albums.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDiscografie Osdorp Posse - dutchcharts.nl \|urlhttps://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpretOsdorp+Posse&orderyear \|access-date2024-03-26 \|website=dutchcharts.nl}}</ref> In 1995, the same year Osdorp Posse had a top 20 chart hit with their album Afslag Osdorp, rapper Extince was the first Dutch rap artist to achieve a top 10 hit in the singles charts with Spraakwater.<ref name="DWDD1215">[https://www.bnnvara.nl/dewerelddraaitdoor/videos/273648 20 Years of Netherhop, by Ali B. – video] on DWDD talkshow (in Dutch; Dec 2015)</ref> After rapper Def Rhymz was the first to reach the Dutch main chart with number 1 hits such as Doekoe (Sranan Tongo for 'money'; 1999), and Schudden ("Shake (it)"/"Shaking"; 2001) with a more pop, R&B and dance influenced sound, Dutch{{nbsp}}language hip hop has grown into a staple of mainstream pop music in the Netherlands and Flanders in the 21st century. In 2021, Netherlands music streaming charts were dominated by Dutch rap music artists like Boef, Josylvio, Broederliefde, Lil' Kleine, Snelle, and Sevn Alias.<ref nameNPOkennis/>{{Update inline \|dateApril 2024}} History 1980s Between 1980 and 1985 a few Dutch Hip Hop records had already been released, but in 1986 Dutch rap duo MC Miker G & DJ Sven had a top 10 hit in at least ten countries across Europe with their Holiday Rap, which sampled Madonna's "Holiday". It caused notable financial disputes, four years ahead of Vanilla Ice's similar sampling troubles with Ice Ice Baby. That same year Dutch rapper Extince released his first record Rap Around The Clock, and in 1987 he scored a modest hit with The Milkshake Rap.<ref name=NPOkennis>[https://npokennis.nl/longread/7458/hoe-werd-rappen-in-het-nederlands-populair Sjoerd Huismans: How rapping in Dutch became popular (2021-2-26; in Dutch)]</ref> However, in the late 1980s Nederhop ("Netherhop") emerged, as artists began to rap in Dutch, such as Def Rhymz, Blonnie B, Alex and the CityCrew, Dynamic Rockers, and the Osdorp Posse. Though there is disagreement about who were the first, the pioneers' work was at first only experimental, except for the Osdorp Posse, a group from Osdorp, a "hood" in Amsterdam, who were first to release tracks in Dutch, for instance the single Moordenaar ("Murderer") in 1989, marking a beginning milestone of Nederhop.<ref nameNPOkennis/> After their frontman, rapper Def P, began by literally translating English raps into Dutch, he started writing original work that still contained peculiar idioms that resulted from his earlier literal rewordings.<ref>For instance: "motherfucker" became "moederneuker", a word that wasn't previously used in Dutch.</ref> The result was described by rapper Ali B as highly visual and captivating.<ref nameDWDD1215/> Once Extince switched to Dutch in 1994, having rapped in English since 1984, both he and Osdorp Posse became highly influential in Nederhop in the 1990s and beyond. Notable in the late 1980s were All Star Fresh of King Bee topping charts with: "Back by Dope Demand" in early 1990 and Rudeboy of Urban Dance Squad who, at the time, were arguably more widely known in New York City than in the Netherlands. DJ and Producer All Star Fresh turned professional as early as 1979. After winning the Dutch Mixing Championships (DMC) in 1988, he was invited for the World Mix Championships in the London Royal Hall and won third place among strong competition. He was invited by Dave Funkenklein to enter the lion's den in New York. He made history in the Big Apple of hiphop by being the first non-American to fly into the finals of the World Supremacy Battle of DJs. He gained the highly respected second place of this prestigious DJ contest. The impression that he made that year, resulted in many invitations to perform with artists like Public Enemy, Stetsasonic, Ice T and Ultra Magnetic MCs. All Star Fresh. As performer and producer he is better known as KING BEE. With his second floor filler Back By Dope Demand he achieved one of his biggest hiphop hits. In the Netherlands it resulted in a Top 3 position, and best Dance Product by The Edison Awards in the Netherlands. (The Edison Awards is an award by the Dutch Music Industry.) This also meant that with this title, he was the first black artist to win this award in the Netherlands. After that he appeared as supporting act for Madonnas show in the Netherlands. All Star Fresh kept entering the dance floors. The last titles mentioned were also popular worldwide, selling over 2.4&nbsp;million copies. He didn't only work within projects like King Bee or Capella, but also was featuring well known production teams like Snap (I Got the Power). This teamwork resulted in the single Lets Get Busy (Clubland Quarts feat Snap {{sic\|introductin}} King Bee). This record ended up No. 1 in the Billboard Dance Charts (United States). Other productions in this line were Deepzone "It's Gonna Be All right", Kellee- my love, Ty Holden- you're my Inspiration and His Royal Freshness- They don't understand. , peaking at 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1991.]] 1990s Urban Dance Squad was a Dutch rap rock band formed after a jam session at a festival in Utrecht in 1986, including rapper/vocalist Rudeboy Remington and DJ DNA (DoNotAsk). The band's music is described as a blend of genres, including hard rock, funk, soul, hip hop, reggae, jazz and ska and is compared with Living Colour, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Fishbone. They are still known for their hit single Deeper Shade of Soul, which charted at number 21 in the United States on Billboard Hot 100. In 1989 Osdorp Posse formed, the first rap act solely in the Dutch language. They started out translating N.W.A songs to Dutch, but soon began writing their own rhymes. Dutch rap was still frowned up in general. Many hip hop listeners found it silly to hear raps in a different language than English and the radio and television didn't want to have anything to do with it at all. Osdorp Posse overcame this, and gained a small crowd of followers. Indie label Djax Records from Eindhoven picked up on this and signed Osdorp Posse to their label. In 1992 they released their debut album Osdorp Stijl, making it the first ever Dutch language hip hop album.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Keys\|first1Kelsea\|titleOsdorp Posse's Biography\|urlhttps://www.last.fm/music/Osdorp+Posse/+wiki\|websitelast.fm\|access-date16 October 2017}}</ref> Their beats, created by producer Seda on Amiga 500 with Protracker, had a heavy sound and was similar to U.S. old-school hip hop, while also embracing an own style by making use of samples from metal music. The lyrics were often focussed on social criticism, with frontman Def P describing it as hardcore rap. In Deventer they found their first following, and the first Dutch language hip hop scene was born. The first hip hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid-Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen. Dutch rap kept on reaching a bigger crowd, though it still could be considered as an underground genre. A year after the debut album of Osdorp Posse, they released 2 more albums, Roffer Dan Ooit and Vlijmscherp. Paving the way like this, many Dutch rap acts popped up. In 1994 a breakthrough took place with the release of compilation record De Posse: Nederhop Groeit (meaning "Nederhop is growing"), presenting no less than 7 different new Dutch rap acts on one record. These groups performed all across the Netherlands, gaining even a bigger audience. By 1996, Djax Records released material by Ouderkerk Kaffers, White Wolf, West Klan, Dr. Doom, Spookrijders, Zuid Oost Posse, Klaas Vaak, Cut, Mach, Vuurwerk, Loco-Motief, Lijkenpikkers, Bitchez & Cream, Space Marines, Jesse, Neuk! and De Uitverkorenen. The media still largely boycotted Dutch rap, while often expressing criticism on the harsh lyrics and lo-fi beats. Despite this, Osdorp Posse managed to build a large following of fans by 1995, resulting in nation-wide sold-out tours and big spots at Dutch festivals. They performed at the Lowlands Festival in 1995, with their popularity getting completely underestimated by the bookers, causing fans to even climb up lightning rigs and poles of the festival tent to be able to experience the set. In 1997 Osdorp Posse did two shows at the biggest festival of The Netherlands, the Pinkpop Festival. On the main day of the festival they performed at the main stage for a packed field of fans, resulting in the biggest Dutch rap show of the decade.<ref>{{Citation \|titleOsdorp Posse op Pinkpop 1997: mini-docu over de grootste Nederlandstalige rap-show van de jaren '90 \| dateJuly 2022 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vGoHCXTJtjLo \|access-date=2024-03-26}}</ref> By that year the band had 2 albums which charted in the Dutch album charts, while still on an indie label and with virtually no airplay on radio and TV. In 1995 Afslag Osdorp, their fourth album, was the first Dutch language rap album to enter the Album Top 100, for a total of 14 weeks and even a ranking in the top 20.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHung \|firstSteffen \|titleOsdorp Posse - Afslag Osdorp \|urlhttp://hitparade.ch/showitem.asp?interpretOsdorp+Posse&titelAfslag+Osdorp&cata \|access-date2024-03-26 \|websitehitparade.ch}}</ref> A unique achievement, with a peak position in the charts that would only be matched 7 years later by Brainpower.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHung \|firstSteffen \|titleBrainpower - Verschil moet er zijn \|urlhttp://hitparade.ch/showitem.asp?interpretBrainpower&titelVerschil+moet+er+zijn&cata \|access-date2024-03-26 \|websitehitparade.ch}}</ref> By then, the band and Dutch rap in general got taken more seriously as well. After the undeniable success live on stage and in the album charts by Osdorp Posse, the lyrical content was getting cautious praise. By the mid-90's Def P collaborated with renowned and highly esteemed writers like Remco Campert <ref>{{Citation \|titleHenny Vrienten en Def P: Het Alfabet van Remco Campert (een Nederlandse vertaling van 'Night Mail') \| date26 July 2023 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vErzrSklWdio \|access-date2024-03-26}}</ref> and was often invited to recite his lyrics at poetry rap festivals like the Double Talk Festival at Paradiso.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNieuwsgierige dichters stellen zich op de hoogte van straatcultuur tijdens festival Double Talk Hiphop voor bij het kampvuur en de afwas \|url=https://archive.today/20231203182249/https://www.volkskrant.nl/cultuur-media/nieuwsgierige-dichters-stellen-zich-op-de-hoogte-van-straatcultuur-tijdens-festival-double-talk-hiphop-voor-bij-het-kampvuur-en-de-afwas~bb621f1c/}}</ref> At the same time a shift took place, when rapper Extince took rap in the Dutch language to a new commercial level and a different audience in 1995. While Osdorp Posse already had big chart successes with their albums, Extince's Spraakwater became the first single to make the mainstream pop single charts in the country. The song even made the top 10 of the singles charts and got airplay at the radio. From then on there were two styles dominating the Dutch hip hop landscape. On one side the hardcore rap performers like Osdorp Posse, De Uitverkorenen, Casto and West Klan, who focussed on the content of their lyrics with social criticism, political subjects and knowledge, on often energetic and rough beats. With on the other side Extince, who was more of a storyteller with a slick flow and a knack for wordplay and metaphoric imagery, on funky and laidback beats. A mix of these two styles gave birth to the Spookrijders, a three-man hip-hop group founded in 1996. With MCs Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, the Spookrijders even gained respect from non-hip-hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/DJ Cliff 'the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album De Echte Shit ("The Real Shit"). In 1999, Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits "Klokkenluiders" and "Ik ben de man." Both these songs appeared on the second album, Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam. After some personal arguments among the three crewmembers, Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing a third and final album Hey... Spookies!! In 1999 The Postmen released their rap/reggae mix De Bom ("The Bom"), a top three hit-single. They were active across Europe from 1998 to 2003. 2000s topped charts with Dansplaat and received both MTV Award and TMF Awards.]] From 2000 onward, Dutch language hiphop grew considerably, both in number of artists, as well as in popularity, both underground and mainstream. In the early 2000s the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, mainly impressing with their albums. Since 2002, they released four albums, the first three of which made the Dutch album top&nbsp;40. Def Rhymz, Spookrijders & Brainpower helped develop the art. Def Rhymz & Brainpower dropped multiple hit records. Described by Ali B. as "..a white library boy with glasses..", Brainpower made Dutch rapping accessible to a much greater demographic.<ref name=DWDD1215/> With six Top&nbsp;100 albums, Brainpower is one of the most commercially successful Dutch MC's to date. By 2000, about 15 years after their founding, Osdorp Posse still did sold-out tours and still had big album chart success. They even scored a surprise hit song, when Origineel Amsterdams hit the top 10 of the single charts. By then, Dutch rap fully took over from Dutch artists rapping in English, and Osdorp Posse set up their own label to release Dutch rap artists. The same year they released their seventh album Kernramp as the first double album in Dutch rap, with the second disc containing up and coming Dutch rap artists. In the months following its release alone, 17,000 physical copies were sold,<ref>{{Cite web \|date2005-02-09 \|titleRamp Records Statistieken \|urlhttp://www.ramp-records.nl/newsite/html/rampstats.htm \|access-date2024-03-26 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050209115909/http://www.ramp-records.nl/newsite/html/rampstats.htm \|archive-date9 February 2005 }}</ref> unique for Dutch language rap at the time. Having let a permanent mark on their fanbase, when the album was re-released on vinyl in 2019, it became the best-selling album on vinyl the week of release.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDutch Charts - dutchcharts.nl \|urlhttps://dutchcharts.nl/weekchart.asp?catav&year2019&date20190803 \|access-date2024-03-26 \|website=dutchcharts.nl}}</ref> , from Zwolle, stems from one of the 'regional' Dutch rappers scenes.]] From the late 1990s, a flourishing underground scene in provincial town Zwolle included rappers Blaxtar, Jawat!, and Kubus, and centered around the group Opgezwolle. Formed in 1998 by rappers Sticky Steez and Phreaco Rico, together with DJ Delic, the band Opgezwolle (punning their town's name into "Swollen"), was a group making raw hiphop.<ref name=NPOkennis/> They released three successful albums, in 2001, 2003, and 2006. Eigen Wereld ("Own World"), from 2006, achieved the highest notation of any Dutch-language rap album until then in the Dutch Album Top&nbsp;100, reaching top&nbsp;4. In the same year, rapper Typhoon, also from Zwolle, and inspired by aforementioned peer Blaxtar, released his philosophical debut album Tussen Licht en Lucht ("Between Light and Air"). The successes of the Zwolle rappers crop boosted other Dutch artists' confidence and inspired them to be proud of their origins – whether local, foreign, or mixed. Rapper Typhoon pointed out, that band names of trailblazers like 'Osdorp Posse' and 'Opgezwolle' refer to their origins (Amsterdam Osdorp and Zwolle) for an important reason, and tied this to the shift from rapping in English to Dutch, making it more relatable and resonant with the audience.<ref nameNPOkennis/> Instead of hard and angry, some 2000s releases stood out fragile and sensitive, for instance the single Je moest waarschijnlijk gaan ("I Guess You Had to Go"; 2001) by Brainpower, mourned the loss of his best friend; and the raps of Typhoon are called some of the most poetic.<ref nameDWDD1215/> Opgezwolle split up in 2007, but members Rico & Sticks formed a new group: Fakkelbrigade, with Typhoon, Mick 2dope Murray, MC James and beatmaker A.R.T. In 2009, they released the critically acclaimed album Colucci Era. From 2003 through 2006, Lange Frans & Baas&nbsp;B had four top-three hits in the Dutch Top&nbsp;40, beside three more listings. Zinloos, a sad commentary on senseless violence ("Zinloos Geweld"), and their patriotic yet introspective Het Land van .. ("The Land of..") gave the duo two number-1 hits, in 2004 and 2005 respectively. In the mid-2000s Cilvaringz, Ali B. and Raymzter were also commercially successful. Ali B featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with Marco Borsato on the song "Wat zou je doen?" for the charity War Child. He first achieved solo success with "Ik ben je zat", featuring Brace, in 2003. Together with music artist Akon, and Ali's cousin Yes-R, Ali B made an internationally successful remix of Akon's track Ghetto, including additional Dutch lyrics. Yes-R had six Dutch Top&nbsp;40 hits from 2006 to 2012, including his debut single. Ali B. has sofar had fourteen Top&nbsp;40 hit singles since 2003, including several top&nbsp;three listings. In 2005, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig ("Kids These Days") were successful with Watskeburt?! ("Wuzhappenin?!"). Rapper Jawat won the "Grote Prijs van Nederland" 2006. Another Dutch hip-hop duo are Pete Philly and Perquisite who are already well known in the Netherlands, Germany, and in Japan. A famous Dutch rapper outside the Netherlands is Salah Edin. His album Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie (Biggest Nightmare of the Netherlands) won Best Album Award in 2007 and was fully produced by Dr. Dre's right-hand man Focus... He also shot three of the most expensive music videos in the history of Dutch Hip Hop, and through a management deal with Cilvaringz, performed in 34 countries worldwide. had three straight top-1 albums, out of four that charted for over a year.]] 2010s Social acceptance of rap / hip hop in the Netherlands was perhaps epitomized, when artist Typhoon performed for the Dutch royal family twice – both in 2013 and in 2016.<ref>[https://www.vorsten.nl/vorstenhuizen/nederland/typhoon-heeft-klik-met-koninklijk-familie/ Typhoon heeft klik met koninklijke familie ] – Vorsten.nl ("Royals" tabloid), 2016-7-19</ref> In 2015, a self-titled "New Wave" generation of 'social media' (em)powered artists broke through with their eponymous New Wave album, as a temporary collaboration, including Bokoesam, D-Double, Jonna Fraser, Lil' Kleine, Ronnie Flex, and SFB.<ref name=NPOkennis/> Since 2014, rapper group Broederliefde released no less than seven albums, with the "worst one" topping at 13 in the charts — their debut album reached number 3, and their last five albums were consecutive top-2s, with three of them topping the chart. Their third album, Hard Work Pays Off (II) (2016), broke an all-time record by staying at number 1 for 14 weeks, beating a 2003 12-week record, held by Dutch A-list singer Frans Bauer.<ref>[https://nos.nl/op3/artikel/2129572-broederliefde-pakt-13-jaar-oud-record-van-frans-bauer-af.html Broederliefde takes away 13-year record from Frans Bauer] – NPO, 2016-9-02</ref> Nine of their singles also charted in the singles Top 40. In 2016, album WOP! by Lil' Kleine was the first hip-hop album to reach number 1 on the Album Top 100.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://3voor12.vpro.nl/artikelen/overzicht/2016/Februari/lil-kleine-wop-nummer-1-album-single-top-100.html\|titleLil' Kleine breekt records: heel WOP in de Single Top 100 – stories\|work3VOOR12\|access-date6 November 2017\|languagenl-NL}}</ref><ref name":2">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nu.nl/muziek/4217564/lil-kleine-breekt-meerdere-records-in-nederlandse-hitlijsten.html\|titleLil' Kleine breekt meerdere records in Nederlandse hitlijsten\|workNU.nl\|access-date6 November 2017\|language=nl}}</ref> In the same year, Ali B's third album, Een klein beetje geluk ("A{{nbsp}}Little Bit of Happiness"), proved his best yet, reaching number 7. Starting 2016, rapper Sevn Alias released five consecutive top-10 albums, with his second reaching nr. 1, and the last three consistently reaching top-2 positions. He is highly productive, and is also enjoying extensive success with singles, collaborations, and other track releases. 2020s {{Expand section\|date=June 2021}} {{break}} Conflicts The Dutch hip-hop scene also saw many conflicts between rappers, followed by diss tracks. The following were among the biggest Dutch feuds in hip-hop: Osdorp Posse vs. Extince,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.volkskrant.nl/muziek/een-vermakelijke-ruzie-tussen-twee-hiphop-pioniers-osdorp-posse-en-extince-disten-elkaar-over-en-weer-in-hun-nummers~b44fa939/ \|titleEen vermakelijke ruzie tussen twee hiphop-pioniers: Osdorp Posse en Extince 'disten' elkaar over en weer in hun nummers\|access-date=2024-06-26 }}</ref> BrainPower vs. Extince, T.H.C vs. Negativ, Kempi vs. Nino, Yukkie B vs. Negativ, T.H.C. vs. Lexxxus, Baas B vs. Kimo, Kempi vs. Mini, Kempi vs. Bloedserieus, Heist Rockah vs. Negativ, and Regga vs. Lexxxus. The feud between T.H.C. and Lexxxus resulted in a fistfight on a hip-hop event, when T.H.C. frontman Rocks got into an argument with Lexxxus and then started the fistfight. Genres in Dutch hip hop Gangsta Dutch gangsta hip hop is currently a large scene together with underground hip-hop. Among the most notable acts and performers are THC, Heinek'n, Keizer, Kempi, Steen, Hef, Crooks, Adonis and Negativ. The rhythms are influenced by the American rap scene, and the lyrics are often about crime, drugs, money, women and other criminal things. Often coming from Dutch ghettos, lyrics often include themes occurring in these areas. Dutch gangsta hip hop mostly comes from the five largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven. Commercial success The commercial success of Dutch hip hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes-R, Ali B, Lange Frans & Baas B and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip hop community Yes-R, Ali B and Lange Frans & Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 2-man group, having had success with hits such as "Stuk" (Broken), and "Dat is Die Shit" (That's the shit), with other popular songs in the background such as "Non Stop" ft. Brainpower, "We Gaan Los" (we're going crazy {because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and "Wat Wil Je Doen" (What do you want to do?). Dutch oldskool The Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, LTH, Osdorp Posse, Extince, Sugacane and Duvelduvel. Osdorp Posse make to what they themselves call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N.W.A. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution, police and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Duvelduvel is known as a conceptual hip hop group. Notable artists Notable Dutch hip hop artists, listed by locality include: {{columns-list\| * Alphen aan den Rijn: Brainpower, Salah Edin * Alkmaar: Boef, The Opposites * Almere: Ali B, Josylvio, Raymzter * Amsterdam: Sevn Alias, Brainpower, Osdorp Posse, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, The Opposites, D-Men, Lange Frans & Baas B, Appa, Yes-R, Tuindorp Hustler Click (THC), Lil' Kleine * Capelle aan den IJssel: Ronnie Flex * Deventer: Snelle * Eindhoven: Fresku, Kempi * Groningen: Kraantje Pappie * Nijmegen: Gers Pardoel * Oosterhout: Extince * Rotterdam: E-Life, U-Niq, Winne, Feis, Hef, Postmen * The Hague: Frenna * Utrecht: Kyteman * Tilburg: Cilvaringz * Zoetermeer: Mr. Probz * Zwolle: Opgezwolle, Typhoon }} See also * European hip hop References <references /> {{hiphop}} {{Music topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dutch Hip Hop}}	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_hip-hop	2025-04-05T18:26:12.162266
2919	Anaïs Nin	{{Short description\|French-born American author (1903–1977)}} {{Infobox writer \| name = Anaïs Nin \| image = Anais Nin.jpg \| imagesize \| caption Portrait in the 1970s by Elsa Dorfman \| pseudonym \| birth_name Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell \| birth_date = {{birth date\|1903\|2\|21}} \| birth_place = Neuilly-sur-Seine, France \| death_date = {{death date and age\|1977\|1\|14\|1903\|2\|21}} \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S. \| occupation = Author \| parents = {{plainlist\| * Joaquín Nin * Rosa Culmell }} \| relatives = Joaquín Nin-Culmell (brother) \| spouse = {{plainlist\| * {{marriage\|Hugh Parker Guiler\|1923}} * {{marriage\|Rupert Pole\|1955\|1966\|end=ann}} (bigamy) }} \| signature = Anaïs Nin signature.svg }} Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell{{Family name footnote\|Nin\|Culmell\|langSpanish}} ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|n\|aɪ\|ˈ\|iː\|s\|_\|n\|iː\|n}} {{respell\|AN\|eye\|EESS\|_\|NEEN}};<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAmerican Lives: An Anthology of Autobiographical Writing \|publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press \|year1994 \|isbn978-0299142445 \|editor-lastSayre \|editor-firstRobert F. \|page597}}</ref> {{IPA\|fr\|ana.is nin\|lang}}; February 21, 1903 – January 14, 1977) was a French-born American diarist, essayist, novelist, and writer of short stories and erotica. Born to Cuban parents in France, Nin was the daughter of the composer Joaquín Nin and the classically trained singer Rosa Culmell. Nin spent her early years in Spain and Cuba, about sixteen years in Paris (1924–1940), and the remaining half of her life in the United States, where she became an established author. Nin wrote journals prolifically from age eleven until her death. Her journals, many of which were published during her lifetime, detail her private thoughts and personal relationships. Her journals also describe her marriages to Hugh Parker Guiler and Rupert Pole, in addition to her numerous affairs, including those with psychoanalyst Otto Rank and writer Henry Miller, both of whom profoundly influenced Nin and her writing. In addition to her journals, Nin wrote several novels, critical studies, essays, short stories, and volumes of erotic literature. Much of her work, including the collections of erotica Delta of Venus and Little Birds, was published posthumously amid renewed critical interest in her life and work. Nin spent her later life in Los Angeles, California, where she died of cervical cancer in 1977. She was a finalist for the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1976. Early life Anaïs Nin was born in Neuilly, France, to Joaquín Nin, a Cuban pianist and composer, and Rosa Culmell,<ref name"kir">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/anaisnin.htm \|titleAnaïs Nin profile \|lastLiukkonen \|firstPetri \|websitekirjasto.sci.fi \|publisherKuusankoski Public Library \|locationFinland \|languagefi \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttp://arquivo.pt/wayback/20120123084641/http%3A//www%2Ekirjasto%2Esci%2Efi/anaisnin%2Ehtm \|archive-date23 January 2012}}</ref> a classically trained Cuban singer.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.morbidoutlook.com/nonfiction/articles/2001_03_anaisnin.html \|titleThe Unique Anaïs Nin \|lastFenner \|firstAndrew \|access-dateDecember 26, 2016}}</ref> Her father's grandfather had fled France during the French Revolution, going first to Saint-Domingue, then New Orleans, and finally to Cuba, where he helped build the country's first railway.{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p125}} Nin was raised a Roman Catholic<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStuhlmann \|firstGunther \|titleA Spy In The House Of Love (Foreword) \|publisherSwallow Press \|page3}}</ref> but left the church when she was 16 years old.{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|p126}} She spent her childhood and early life in Europe. Her parents separated when she was two; her mother then moved Nin and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and Joaquín Nin-Culmell, to Barcelona, and then to New York City, where she attended high school. Nin dropped out of high school in 1919 at age sixteen,{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|pxxi}} and according to her diaries, Volume One, 1931–1934, later began working as an artist's model. After being in the United States for several years, Nin had forgotten how to speak Spanish, but retained her French and became fluent in English.{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p183}}On March 3, 1923, in Havana, Cuba, Nin married her first husband, American Hugh Parker Guiler (1898–1985), a banker and artist from Boston, later known as "Ian Hugo", when he became an experimental filmmaker in the late 1940s. The couple moved to Paris the following year, where Guiler pursued his banking career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing; in her diaries she also mentions having trained as a flamenco dancer in Paris in the mid-to-late 1920s with Francisco Miralles Arnau. Her first published work was a critical 1932 evaluation of D.&nbsp;H. Lawrence called D.&nbsp;H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study, which she wrote in sixteen days.<ref name="kir" /> Nin became interested in psychoanalysis and studied extensively, first with René Allendy in 1932 and then with Otto Rank.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastOakes \|firstElizabeth H. \|titleAmerican Writers \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2004 \|isbn978-1438108094 \|page255}}</ref> Both men eventually became her lovers, as she recounts in her Journal.<ref>Anais Nin, Journal (1931–1934), Paris: Le Livre de Poche, 1966, pp. 138, 171–172, 237, 404, 505, passim.</ref> On her second visit to Rank, Nin reflects on her desire to be reborn as a woman and artist. Rank, she observes, helped her move between what she could verbalize in her journals and what remained unarticulated. She discovered the quality and depth of her feelings in the wordless transitions between what she could and could not say. "As he talked, I thought of my difficulties with writing, my struggles to articulate feelings not easily expressed. Of my struggles to find a language for intuition, feeling, instincts which are, in themselves, elusive, subtle, and wordless."{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p276}} In late summer 1939, when residents from overseas were urged to leave France due to the approaching war, Nin left Paris and returned to New York City with her husband (Guiler was, according to his own wishes, edited out of the diaries published during Nin's lifetime; his role in her life is therefore difficult to evaluate).<ref>"Several persons, when faced with the question of whether they wanted to remain in the diary 'as is' ... chose to be deleted altogether from the manuscript (including her husband and some members of her family)." The Diary of Anaïs Nin, ed. by Gunther Stuhlmann. Harcourt, 1966, p. xi.</ref> During the war, Nin sent her books to Frances Steloff of the Gotham Book Mart in New York for safekeeping.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.anaisnin.com/history/Steloff.html \|titleFrances Steloff \|lastGriffin \|firstM. Collins \|publisherAnaisNin.com \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140812185852/http://www.anaisnin.com/history/Steloff.html \|archive-dateAugust 12, 2014 \|access-date=October 2, 2017}}</ref> In New York, Nin rejoined Otto Rank, who had previously moved there, and moved into his apartment. She actually began to act as a psychoanalyst herself, seeing patients in the room next to Rank's.{{sfn\|Nin\|1967\|pages17–25}} She quit after several months, however, stating: "I found that I wasn't good because I wasn't objective. I was haunted by my patients. I wanted to intercede."<ref name"fraser" /> It was in New York that she met the Japanese-American modernist photographer Soichi Sunami, who went on to photograph her for many of her books. Literary career Journals in Berkeley, California, 1946]] Nin's most studied works are her diaries or journals, which she began writing in her adolescence. The published journals, which span six decades, provide insight into her personal life and relationships. Nin was acquainted, often intimately, with a number of prominent authors, artists, psychoanalysts, and other figures, and wrote of them often, especially Otto Rank. Moreover, as a female author describing a primarily masculine group of celebrities, Nin's journals have acquired importance as a counterbalancing perspective. She initially wrote in French and did not begin to write in English until she was seventeen.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLiukkonen \|firstPetri \|titleAnaïs Nin \|urlhttp://authorscalendar.info/anaisnin.htm \|access-date2022-08-20 \|websiteauthorscalendar.info}}</ref> Nin felt that French was the language of her heart, Spanish was the language of her ancestors, and English was the language of her intellect. The writing in her diaries is explicitly trilingual; she uses whichever language best expresses her thought.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNin, Anais (1903–1977) {{!}} Encyclopedia.com \|urlhttps://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nin-anais-1903-1977 \|access-date2022-08-20 \|websitewww.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> In the second volume of her unexpurgated journal, Incest, she wrote about her father candidly and graphically (207–15), detailing her incestuous adult sexual relationship with him. Previously unpublished works were released in A Café in Space, the Anaïs Nin Literary Journal, which includes "Anaïs Nin and Joaquín Nin y Castellanos: Prelude to a Symphony{{snd}}Letters between a father and daughter". So far sixteen volumes of her journals have been published. All but the last five of her adult journals are in expurgated form. Erotic writings Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest writers of female erotica. She was one of the first women known to explore fully the realm of erotic writing, and certainly the first prominent woman in the modern West known to write erotica. Before her, erotica acknowledged to be written by women was rare, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Kate Chopin. Nin often cited authors Djuna Barnes and D.&nbsp;H. Lawrence as inspirations, and she states in Volume One of her diaries that she drew inspiration from Marcel Proust,{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p15}} André Gide,{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p45}} Jean Cocteau,{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|pages60, 109}} Paul Valéry,{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p60}} and Arthur Rimbaud.{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p=29, 40}} According to Volume One of her diaries, 1931–1934, published in 1966, Nin first came across erotica when she returned to Paris with her husband, mother and two brothers in her late teens. They rented the apartment of an American man who was away for the summer, and Nin came across a number of French paperbacks: "One by one, I read these books, which were completely new to me. I had never read erotic literature in America... They overwhelmed me. I was innocent before I read them, but by the time I had read them all, there was nothing I did not know about sexual exploits... I had my degree in erotic lore."{{sfn\|Nin\|1966\|p=96}} Faced with a desperate need for money, Nin, Henry Miller and some of their friends began in the 1940s to write erotic and pornographic narratives for an anonymous "collector" for a dollar a page, somewhat as a joke.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGertzman \|firstJay A. \|titleBookleggers and Smuthounds: The Trade in Erotica, 1920–1940 \|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press \|year2011 \|isbn978-0812205855 \|editionReprint \|page344}}</ref> (It is not clear whether Miller actually wrote these stories or merely allowed his name to be used.<ref>Noël Riley Fitch, Anaïs: The Erotic Life of Anaïs Nin (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1993) {{ISBN\|0316284289}}</ref>) Nin considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricatures and never intended the work to be published, but changed her mind in the early 1970s and allowed them to be published as Delta of Venus<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKowaleski-Wallace \|firstElizabeth \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffe0053unse/page/190 \|titleEncyclopedia of Feminist Literary Theory \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year1997 \|isbn978-0815308249 \|page[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffe0053unse/page/190 190]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastGibson \|firstAndrew \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/postmodernityeth00gibs_0/page/177 \|titlePostmodernity, Ethics and the Novel: From Leavis to Levinas \|publisherRoutledge \|year1999 \|isbn978-0415198950 \|page[https://archive.org/details/postmodernityeth00gibs_0/page/177 177]}}</ref> and Little Birds. In 2016, a previously undiscovered collection of Nin's erotica, Auletris, was published for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-empowerment-diary/201611/the-sexual-censorship-controversy \|titleThe Sexual Censorship Controversy \|lastRaab \|firstDiana \|dateNovember 3, 2016 \|websitePsychology Today \|access-date=October 5, 2017}}</ref> Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many literary figures, including Miller, John Steinbeck, Antonin Artaud, Edmund Wilson, Gore Vidal, James Agee, James Leo Herlihy, and Lawrence Durrell. Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller strongly influenced her both sexually and as an author. Claims that Nin was bisexual were given added circulation by the 1990 Philip Kaufman film Henry & June about Miller and his second wife June Miller. The first unexpurgated portion of Nin's journal to be published, Henry and June, makes clear that Nin was stirred by June to the point of saying (paraphrasing), "I have become June", though it is unclear to what extent she consummated her feelings sexually. To both Anaïs and Henry, June was a femme fatale{{snd}}irresistible, cunning, and erotic. Nin gave June money, jewelry, and clothes, often leaving herself without money. Novels and other publications In addition to her journals and collections of erotica, Nin wrote several novels, which critics frequently associated with the surrealist movement.<ref name"eb">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAnaïs Nin \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anais-Nin \|access-dateOctober 6, 2017 \|last}}</ref> Her first book of fiction, House of Incest (1936), contains heavily veiled allusions to a brief sexual relationship Nin had with her father in 1933: while visiting her estranged father in France, the then-30-year-old Nin had a brief incestuous sexual relationship with him.<ref name"father">{{Cite journal \|lastCharnock \|firstRuth \|dateSeptember 30, 2013 \|titleIncest in the 1990s: Reading Anaïs Nin's 'Father Story' \|urlhttp://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/11712/1/Life%20Writing%20article.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/11712/1/Life%20Writing%20article.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|journalLife Writing \|volume11 \|pages55–68 \|doi10.1080/14484528.2013.838732\|s2cid162354162 }}</ref> In 1944, she published a collection of short stories, Under a Glass Bell, which was reviewed by Edmund Wilson.<ref name=fraser/> Nin also wrote several works of nonfiction: her first publication, written during her years studying psychoanalysis, was D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study (1932), an assessment of the works of D. H. Lawrence.{{sfn\|Franklin\|1996\|p6}} In 1968, she published The Novel of the Future, which elaborated on her approach to writing and the writing process.{{sfn\|Franklin\|1996\|p127}} Personal life According to her diaries, Vol. 1, 1931–1934, Nin shared a bohemian lifestyle with Henry Miller during her time in Paris. Her husband Guiler is not mentioned in the published edition of the 1930s parts of her diary (Vol. 1–2), though the opening of Vol. 1 makes clear that she is married, and the introduction suggests her husband declined to be included in the published diaries. The diaries edited by her second husband, after her death, say that her relationship with Miller was very passionate and physical, and that she believed that it was a pregnancy by him that she aborted in 1934. In 1947, at age 44, Nin met former actor Rupert Pole in a Manhattan elevator on her way to a party.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCorbett \|firstSara \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/31/magazine/31pole.t.html?_r1 \|titleThe Lover Who Always Stays \|date2006-12-31 \|workNew York Times \|access-date2011-02-16}}</ref><ref name"pole">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId5591676 \|titleAnais Nin Husband, Rupert Pole Dies in L.A. \|dateJuly 29, 2006 \|publisherNational Public Radio \|access-dateFebruary 16, 2011}}</ref> The two began a relationship and traveled to California together; Pole was 16 years her junior. On March 17, 1955, while still married to Guiler, she married Pole at Quartzsite, Arizona, returning with him to live in California.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jul-26-me-pole26-story.html \|titleThe Ranger Who Told All About Anais Nin's Wild Life \|lastWoo \|firstElaine \|dateJuly 26, 2006 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|access-dateOctober 4, 2017}}</ref> Guiler remained in New York City and was unaware of Nin's second marriage until after her death in 1977, though biographer Deirdre Bair alleges that Guiler knew what was happening while Nin was in California but consciously "chose not to know".<ref name="pole" /> Nin called her simultaneous marriages her "bicoastal trapeze".<ref name="pole" /> According to Deidre Bair: {{blockquote\|[Anaïs] would set up these elaborate façades in Los Angeles and in New York, but it became so complicated that she had to create something she called the lie box. She had this absolutely enormous purse and in the purse she had two sets of checkbooks. One said Anaïs Guiler for New York and another said Anaïs Pole for Los Angeles. She had prescription bottles from California doctors and New York doctors with the two different names. And she had a collection of file cards. And she said, "I tell so many lies I have to write them down and keep them in the lie box so I can keep them straight."<ref name="pole" />}} In 1966, Nin had her marriage with Pole annulled due to the legal issues arising from both Guiler and Pole trying to claim her as a dependent on their tax returns,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.boston.com/news/globe/obituaries/articles/2006/07/27/rupert_pole_executor_of_exotic_works_by_anas_nin/ \|titleRupert Pole, executor of exotic works by Anaïs Nin \|lastWoo, Elaine \|date2006-07-27 \|websiteBoston Globe \|access-date2011-02-16}}</ref> but she and Pole continued to live together as if married until her death. According to Barbara Kraft, Nin wrote to Guiler asking for his forgiveness. He responded by saying how meaningful his life had been because of her.<ref>Kraft, Barbara. Anaïs Nin: The Last Days Pegasus Books, {{ISBN\|978-0988968752}}, 2013, p. 200</ref> After Guiler's death in 1985, Pole commissioned the unexpurgated versions of Nin's journals.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWoo \|firstElaine \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jul-26-me-pole26-story.html \|titleThe Ranger Who Told All About Anais Nin's Wild Life \|dateJuly 26, 2006 \|workLos Angeles Times \|access-date8 August 2012}}</ref> Six volumes have been published: Henry and June, Fire, Incest, Nearer the Moon, Mirages, and Trapeze. Pole arranged for Guiler's ashes to be scattered in the same area where Nin's ashes were, Mermaid Cove in Santa Monica Bay.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId5591676\|titleAnais Nin Husband, Rupert Pole Dies in L.A.\|publisherNational Public Radio\|access-dateApr 28, 2020}}</ref> Pole died in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/30/us/30pole.html \|titleRupert Pole, 87, Diarist's Duplicate Spouse, Dies \|lastFox \|firstMargalit \|dateJuly 30, 2006 \|websiteThe New York Times \|access-date=October 6, 2017}}</ref> Nin once worked at Lawrence R. Maxwell Books, at 45 Christopher Street in New York City.{{sfn\|Franklin\|1996\|p6}} In addition to her work as a writer, Nin appeared in the Kenneth Anger film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954) as Astarte; in the Maya Deren film Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946); and in Bells of Atlantis (1952), a film Guiler directed under the name "Ian Hugo" with a soundtrack of electronic music by Louis and Bebe Barron.{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|pagesxxi–xxii}} In her later life, Nin worked as a tutor at the International College in Los Angeles.<ref namekraft/>DeathNin was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1974.{{sfn\|Herron\|1996\|p235}} She had cancer for two years as it metastasized, and she underwent numerous surgical operations, radiation, and chemotherapy.<ref name"kraft">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.culturalweekly.com/anais-nin-last-days/ \|titleAnaïs Nin: The Last Days \|lastKraft \|firstBarbara \|dateDecember 13, 2016 \|websiteCultural Weekly \|access-dateSeptember 28, 2017}}</ref> Nin died of the cancer at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, on January 14, 1977.<ref name"herron">{{Cite book \|lastHerron \|firstPaul \|titleAnaïs Nin: A Book of Mirrors \|publisherSky Blue Press \|year1996 \|isbn978-0965236409 \|page235}}</ref><ref>Nin, Anaïs. Rauner Library Letters (September 1975): "I suppose you know I have been fighting cancer for 9 months – just recovering very slowly."</ref><ref name"fraser">{{Cite news \|lastFraser \|firstC. Gerald \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/16/archives/anais-nin-author-whose-diaries-depicted-intellectual-life-dead.html \|titleAnais Nin, Author Whose Diaries Depicted Intellectual Life, Dead \|dateJanuary 16, 1977 \|workThe New York Times \|access-dateSeptember 1, 2017}}</ref> Her body was cremated and her ashes scattered over Santa Monica Bay in Mermaid Cove. Her first husband, Hugh Guiler, died in 1985, and his ashes were scattered in the same cove.<ref name"pole" /> Rupert Pole was named Nin's literary executor, and he arranged to have new, unexpurgated editions of Nin's books and diaries published between 1985 and his death in 2006. Large portions of the diaries are still available only in expurgated form. The originals are in the UCLA Library.<ref>{{Cite archive \|access-date Nov 26, 2020 \|file2066 \|collection-url https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3489p4x9/ \|collectionFinding Aid for the Anais Nin Papers, ca. 1910–1977 \|institution UCLA Library Special Collections \|locationOnline Archive of California \|repository Charles E. Young Research Library \|first1Anais \|last1 Nin }}</ref> Legacy The explosion of the feminist movement in the 1960s gave feminist perspectives on Nin's writings of the past twenty years, which made Nin a popular lecturer at various universities; contrarily, Nin dissociated herself from the political activism of the movement.<ref name"kir" /> In 1973, prior to her death, Nin received an honorary doctorate from the Philadelphia College of Art. She was also elected to the United States National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1974, and in 1976 was presented with a Los Angeles Times Woman of the Year award.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://latimesblogs.latimes.com/thedailymirror/2011/06/times-woman-of-the-year-anais-nin.html \|titleTimes Woman of the Year – Anais Nin \|dateJune 6, 2011 \|workLos Angeles Times \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2015}}</ref> The Italian film La stanza delle parole (dubbed into English as The Room of Words) was released in 1989 based on the Henry and June diaries. Philip Kaufman directed the 1990 film Henry & June based on Nin's diaries published as Henry and June: From the Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin. She was portrayed in the film by actress Maria de Medeiros. In February 2008, poet Steven Reigns organized Anaïs Nin at 105<ref>{{cite web \|titleAnaïs Nin \|urlhttps://hammer.ucla.edu/programs-events/2008/02/anais-nin \|websiteHammer UCLA \|date12 February 2008 \|access-date28 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAnais Nin @ 105 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/playlist?listPL24F2F558E9EE2241 \|websiteYouTube \|access-date28 June 2024}}</ref> at the Hammer Museum in Westwood, Los Angeles.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.laweekly.com/arts/all-about-anais-nin-2151862 \|titleAll About Anais Nin \|lastKosnett \|firstRena \|dateFebruary 6, 2008 \|websiteLA Weekly \|access-dateOctober 5, 2017}}</ref> Reigns said: "Nin bonded and formed very deep friendships with women and men decades younger than her. Some of them are still living in Los Angeles and I thought it'd be wonderful to have them share their experiences with [Nin]."<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.dailybruin.ucla.edu/news/2008/feb/12/writer-garners-personal-praise/ \|titleWriter garners personal praise \|dateFebruary 12, 2008 \|websiteThe Daily Bruin \|publisherUniversity of California, Los Angeles \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080524095148/http://www.dailybruin.ucla.edu/news/2008/feb/12/writer-garners-personal-praise/ \|archive-dateMay 24, 2008}}</ref> Bebe Barron, an electronic music pioneer and longtime friend of Nin, made her last public appearance at this event.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://echoes.org/2008/04/21/the-first-lady-of-electronic-music-passes-bebe-barron/ \|titleThe First Lady of Electronic Music Passes: Bebe Barron \|date2008-04-21 \|websiteEchoes \|access-dateOctober 4, 2017}}</ref> Reigns also published an essay refuting Bern Porter's claims of a sexual relationship with Nin in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleBern Porter's Wild Sexual Life with Anais Nin or Wild Imaginings? \|journalA Cafe in Space: The Anais Nin Literary Journal\|firstSteven \| lastReigns \| dateFebruary 2014}} republished: {{Cite web \|urlhttp://blog.anaisnin.com/2014/06/i-pursue-her-still-bern-porter-on-anais.html \|titleBern Porter's Wild Sexual Life with Anais Nin or Wild Imaginings? \|lastReigns \|firstSteven \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414023319/http://blog.anaisnin.com/2014/06/i-pursue-her-still-bern-porter-on-anais.html \|archive-date2016-04-14 \|access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref> Reigns is the President of the Board of the non-profit organization devoted to Nin's legacy, the Anaïs Nin Foundation.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Anais Nin Foundation-About \|urlhttps://theanaisninfoundation.org/about \|websiteAnais Nin Foundation \|access-date28 June 2024}}</ref> Cuban-American writer Daína Chaviano paid homage to Anaïs Nin and Henry Miller in her novel Gata encerrada (2001), where both characters are portrayed as disembodied spirits whose previous lives they shared with Melisa, the main character—and presumably Chaviano's alter ego—, a young Cuban obsessed with Anaïs Nin.<ref name="gata">Rodríguez, Antonio O. and Andricaín, Sergio. "Fusión de erotismo y magia: Gata encerrada es una novela cautivadora". Newsweek en Español, July 11, 2001</ref> The Cuban poet and novelist Wendy Guerra, long fascinated with Nin's life and works, published a fictional diary in Nin's voice, Posar desnuda en la Habana (Posing Nude in Havana) in 2012. She explained that "[Nin's] Cuban Diary has very few pages and my delirium was always to write an apocryphal novel; literary conjecture about what might have happened".<ref name"sanchez">{{Cite news \|lastSanchez \|firstYoani \|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/yoani-sanchez/cuban-author-wendy-guerra_b_6299348.html \|titleCuban Author Wendy Guerra: 'I'm a Demon Who Writes What She Feels' \|date9 February 2015 \|access-date30 May 2016 \|publisherHuffPost Latino Voices}}</ref> On September 27, 2013, screenwriter and author Kim Krizan published an article in The Huffington Post<ref namegore/> revealing she had found a previously unpublished love letter written by Gore Vidal to Nin. This letter contradicts Gore Vidal's previous characterization of his relationship with Nin, showing that Vidal did have feelings for Nin that he later heavily disavowed in his autobiography, Palimpsest. Krizan did this research in the run up to the release of the fifth volume of Anaïs Nin's uncensored diary, Mirages, for which Krizan provided the foreword.<ref name"gore">{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/kim-krizan/gore-vidals-secret-unpubl_b_4004916.html \|titleGore Vidal's Secret, Unpublished Love Letter To Anaïs Nin \|dateSeptember 27, 2013 \|workThe Huffington Post \|access-date=September 20, 2013}}</ref> In 2015, a documentary film directed by Sarah Aspinall called The Erotic Adventures of Anais Nin was released, in which Lucy Cohu portrayed Nin's character. In 2019, Kim Krizan published Spy in the House of Anaïs Nin, an examination of long-buried letters, papers, and original manuscripts Krizan found while doing archival work in Nin's Los Angeles home.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.hobartpulp.com/web_features/spy-in-the-house-of-anais-nin-an-interview-with-kim-krizanl\|titleSpy In The House Of Anaïs Nin: An Interview With Kim Krizan\|dateNovember 1, 2019\|workHobart\|accessdate2020-07-11}}{{Dead link\|dateAugust 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Also that year, Routledge published the book Anaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own by Clara Oropeza, that analyzes Nin's literature and literary theory through the perspective of mythological studies and depth psychology.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own \|urlhttps://www.routledge.com/Anais-Nin-A-Myth-of-Her-Own/Oropeza/p/book/9780367252663 \|access-date2022-08-20 \|websiteRoutledge & CRC Press \|language=en}}</ref> In 2002, Alissa Levy Caiano produced a short film called "The All-Seeing" based on Nin's short story of the same name in Under a Glass Bell.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt1437249/\|titleThe All Seeing\|via=IMDb}}</ref> In 2021, the porn film company Thousand Faces released a short film called "Mathilde" based on Nin's story of the same name in Delta of Venus.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://thousandfacesfilms.com/films/mathilde/\|titleMathilde\|websiteThousandFaces Films}}</ref>BibliographyDiaries{{Library resources box\|byyes\|viaf=14774462}} * The Diary of Anaïs Nin, in 7 volumes, edited by herself * The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin (1914–1931) in 4 volumes Linotte: 1914-20 (1987) 1920-23 (1983) The Journal of a Wife: 1923-27 (1984) 1927-31 (1985) * Henry and June: From a Journal of Love. The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin (1931–1932) (1986), edited by Rupert Pole after her death * Incest: From a Journal of Love (1992) * Fire: From a Journal of Love (1995) * Nearer the Moon: From a Journal of Love (1996) * Mirages: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1939–1947 (2013) * Trapeze: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1947–1955 (2017) * The Diary of Others: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1955–1966 (2021) * A Joyous Transformation: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1966–1977 (2023) Correspondence * A Literate Passion: Letters of Anaïs Nin & Henry Miller 1932–1953 (1988) * Letters to a friend in Australia (1992) * Arrows of Longing: Correspondence Between Anaïs Nin & Felix Pollack, 1952–1976 (1998) * Morale des épicentres (2004) * Reunited: The Correspondence of Anaïs and Joaquin Nin, 1933–1940 (2020) * Letters to Lawrence Durrell 1937–1977 (2020) Novels * House of Incest (1936) * Winter of Artifice (1939) * Cities of the Interior (1959), in five volumes: Ladders to Fire Children of the Albatross The Four-Chambered Heart A Spy in the House of Love ** Seduction of the Minotaur, originally published as Solar Barque (1958). * Collages (1964) Short stories * Waste of Timelessness: And Other Early Stories (written before 1932, published posthumously in 1977) * Under a Glass Bell (1944) * Delta of Venus (1977) * Little Birds (1979) * Auletris (2016) Non-fiction * D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study (1932) * The Novel of the Future (1968) * A Woman Speaks (1975) * In Favor of the Sensitive Man (1976) * Conversations with Anaïs Nin (Edited by Wendy M. DuBow, 1994) * The Mystic of Sex: Uncollected Writings: 1930-1974 (1995) Filmography Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946): Short film, dir. Maya Deren{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|p=xxi}} [https://www.instagram.com/anaisninfoundation/reel/C70wSvAR9kL Lascivious Folk Ballet] (1946) - (Outtakes from Ritual in Transfigured Time). Bells of Atlantis (1952): Short film, dir. Ian Hugo{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|p=xxii}} ''Tropical Noah's Ark (1952). Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954): Short film, dir. Kenneth Anger{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|p=xxi}} Jazz of Lights (1954) Melodic Inversion (1958) Lectures pour tous (1964) Anaïs Nin Her Diary (1966) Un moment avec une grande figure de la littérature, Anaïs Nin (3 May 1968) The Henry Miller Odyssey (1969). Through the Magiscope (1969). Apertura (1970). Anaïs Nin at the University of California, Berkeley (December 1971) Anaïs Nin at Hampshire College, (1972) 'Ouvrez les guillemets (11 November 1974) Journal de Paris (21 November 1974) Anais Nin Observed (1974): Documentary, dir. Robert Snyder{{sfn\|Nin\|DuBow\|1994\|pxxii}}See also {{Portal\|Biography\|Literature}} * List of Cuban American writers * List of Cuban Americans Notes {{Notelist}} Citations {{Reflist}} Works cited * {{Cite book \|lastBair \|firstDeirdre \|year1995 \|titleAnaïs Nin: A Biography \|title-linkAnaïs Nin: A Biography \|publisherPutnam \|isbn978-0399139888\|author-linkDeirdre Bair}} * {{Cite book \|lastFitch \|firstNoël Riley \|author-linkNoël Riley Fitch \|year1993 \|titleAnaïs: The Erotic Life of Anaïs Nin \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/anaiseroticlifeo00fitc \|publisherLittle, Brown and Company \|isbn978-0316284288}} * {{Cite book \|editor-lastFranklin \|editor-firstBenjamin V. \|year1996 \|titleRecollections of Anaïs Nin \|publisherOhio University Press \|isbn978-0821411643}} * {{Cite book \|lastNin \|firstAnaïs \|year1966 \|titleThe Diary of Anaïs Nin (1931–1934) \|volume1 \|publisherHarcourt, Brace & World \|isbn=978-0547538709}} * {{Cite book \|lastNin \|firstAnaïs \|year1967 \|titleThe Diary of Anaïs Nin (1934–1939) \|volume2 \|publisherHarcourt, Brace & World \|isbn=978-0156260268}} * {{Cite book \|last1Nin \|first1Anaïs \|last2DuBow \|first2Wendy M. \|year1994 \|titleConversations with Anaïs Nin \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/conversationswit00nina \|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi \|isbn978-0878057191}}Further reading * Oropeza, Clara. (2019) Anaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own, Routledge * {{Cite book \|lastJarczok \|firstAnita \|titleWriting an Icon: Celebrity Culture and the Invention of Anaïs Nin \|publisherOhio University Press \|year2017 \|isbn978-0804040754}} * {{Cite book \|editor-lastMason \|editor-firstGregory H. \|titleArrows of Longing: The Correspondence between Anaïs Nin and Felix Pollak, 1952–1976 \|publisherOhio University Press \|year1998 \|isbn978-0804010061}} * Yaguchi, Yuko. (2022) Anaïs Nin's Paris Revisited The English–French Bilingual Edition (French Edition), Wind Rose-Suiseisha * Bita, Lili. (1994) "Anais Nin". EI'' Magazine of [https://web.archive.org/web/20181105160436/https://euarceblog.wixsite.com/euarce European Art Center (EUARCE)], Is. 7/1994 pp.&nbsp;9, 24–30 External links {{Commons category\|Anaïs Nin}} {{wikiquote}} * [https://www.sky-blue-press.com/blog/ The Official Anaïs Nin Blog] * [http://www.theanaisninfoundation.org Anaïs Nin Foundation] Contact the Anaïs Nin estate for rights and permissions requests * [http://www.instagram.com/anaisninfoundation Official Instagram account] * {{Internet Archive author \|sname=Anaïs Nin}} * {{IMDb name\|632405}} * [http://www.roberthaller.com/firstlight/hugo.html Ian Hugo (Nin's husband)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170420090918/http://www.roberthaller.com/firstlight/hugo.html \|date2017-04-20 }} * [https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/21/t-magazine/anais-nin-los-angeles-home.html Anais Nin's Hideaway Home in Los Angeles] (2022-03-21 in The New York Times) <!---Inactive links below - as/of 20220322---> <!---* [http://www.oldkewgardens.com/ss-2-homes-0125.html Anaïs Nin: 82nd Avenue] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180303160531/http://www.oldkewgardens.com/ss-2-homes-0125.html \|date2018-03-03 }}---> <!---* [https://archives.lib.siu.edu/?pcollections/controlcard&id2079 Anaïs Nin Letters, 1932–1946] at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center---> <!---* [http://segundaviola.com.ar/natvideos/#04 Anaïs Nin video text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140605061455/http://segundaviola.com.ar/natvideos/#04 \|date2014-06-05 }}---> {{Anaïs Nin\|state=expanded}} {{Henry Miller}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nin, Anais}} Category:1903 births Category:1977 deaths Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American women writers Category:20th-century American diarists Category:20th-century French essayists Category:American people of Catalan descent Category:American writers of Cuban descent Category:American people of Danish descent Category:American women diarists Category:Analysands of Otto Rank Category:Analysands of René Allendy Category:Burials at sea Category:Deaths from cancer in California Category:Deaths from cervical cancer in the United States Category:Former Roman Catholics Category:French emigrants to the United States Category:French erotica writers Category:French novelists Category:French people of Catalan descent Category:French people of Cuban descent Category:French people of Danish descent Category:French short story writers Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Polyandry Category:Women erotica writers Category:Writers from Neuilly-sur-Seine Category:Writers from Paris	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaïs_Nin	2025-04-05T18:26:12.189995
2923	AIM (software)	{{Short description\|Instant messaging service}} {{pp-move}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=October 2017}} {{distinguish\|AIM alliance{{!}}the AIM alliance}} {{Infobox software \| name = AOL Instant Messenger \| logo = Logo of AOL Instant Messenger (2011).png \| logo caption = AIM's logo introduced in December 2011, replacing the earlier "running man" mascot \| screenshot = AIM 2013 screenshot.png \| caption = Windows version of AIM (2013 release) \| developer = AOL \| released = {{start date and age\|1997\|05}} \| discontinued = yes \| latest release version = <!--?--> \| latest release date = <!--?--> \| programming language = C++, Adobe Flash \| operating system = Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, macOS, Android, iOS, BlackBerry OS, Android TV \| genre = Instant messaging \| license = Proprietary \| website = }} AOL Instant Messenger (AIM, sometimes stylized as aim) was an instant messaging and presence computer program created by AOL, which used the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time. AIM was popular by the late 1990s; teens and college students were known to use the messenger's away message feature to keep in touch with friends, often frequently changing their away message throughout a day or leaving a message up with one's computer left on to inform buddies of their ongoings, location, parties, thoughts, or jokes.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5404762\|titleAway messages keep users in touch\|websiteNBC News\|dateJuly 9, 2004 \|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|archive-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210907080237/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5404762\|url-statusdead}}</ref> AIM's popularity declined as AOL subscribers started decreasing and steeply towards the 2010s, as Gmail's Google Talk, SMS, and Internet social networks, like Facebook gained popularity. Its fall has often been compared with other once-popular Internet services, such as Myspace.<ref name"mashable"/><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2017/10/06/aol-instant-messenger-shut-down/\|titleAOL Instant Messenger is shutting down after 20 years\|dateOctober 6, 2017\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|archive-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210907063611/https://techcrunch.com/2017/10/06/aol-instant-messenger-shut-down/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications.<ref name"buyout-cnbc">{{cite news\|last1Imbert\|first1Fred\|titleVerizon to buy AOL for $4.4B; AOL shares soar\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2015/05/12/verizon-to-buy-aol-for-44-billion.html\|publisherCNBC\|access-dateMay 12, 2015\|dateMay 12, 2015\|archive-dateJuly 3, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150703103324/https://www.cnbc.com/id/102670331\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastSawers \|firstPaul \|urlhttps://venturebeat.com/2015/06/23/verizon-completes-4-4b-acquisition-of-aol/ \|titleVerizon completes $4.4B acquisition of AOL \|workVentureBeat \|dateJune 23, 2015 \|access-dateJune 23, 2015 \|archive-dateJune 23, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150623184318/http://venturebeat.com/2015/06/23/verizon-completes-4-4b-acquisition-of-aol/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In June 2017, Verizon combined AOL and Yahoo into its subsidiary Oath Inc. (now called Yahoo). The company discontinued AIM as a service on December 15, 2017.<ref name"retirement">{{cite web \|lastAlbers \|firstMichael \|dateOctober 6, 2017 \|titleOne Last Away Message \|urlhttps://aimemories.tumblr.com/ \|url-statuslive \|access-dateOctober 5, 2017 \|workAOL Instant Messenger (AIM) on Tumblr \|publisherOath Inc. \|archive-dateOctober 6, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006144753/https://aimemories.tumblr.com/ }}</ref>HistoryIn May 1997, AIM was released unceremoniously as a stand-alone download for Microsoft Windows.<ref name"mashable">{{cite news \|last1Abbruzzese \|first1Jason \|titleThe Rise and Fall of AIM, the Breakthrough AOL Never Wanted \|urlhttps://mashable.com/2014/04/15/aim-history/ \|access-date13 December 2020 \|publisherMashable \|date15 April 2014 \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201127095841/https://mashable.com/2014/04/15/aim-history/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> AIM was an outgrowth of "online messages" in the original platform written in PL/1 on a Stratus computer by Dave Brown. At one time, the software had the largest share of the instant messaging market in North America, especially in the United States (with 52% of the total reported {{as of\|2006\|lcy}}).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bigblueball.com/forums/general-other-im-news/34413-im-market-share.html \|titleIM Market Share&nbsp;— BigBlueBall Forums \|publisherBigblueball.com \|access-dateDecember 4, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101030030304/http://www.bigblueball.com/forums/general-other-im-news/34413-im-market-share.html \|archive-dateOctober 30, 2010 \|url-statusdead\|df=mdy-all}}</ref> This does not include other instant messaging software related to or developed by AOL, such as ICQ and iChat. During its heyday, its main competitors were ICQ (which AOL acquired in 1998), Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger. AOL particularly had a rivalry or "chat war" with PowWow and Microsoft, starting in 1999. There were several attempts from Microsoft to simultaneously log into their own and AIM's protocol servers. AOL was unhappy about this and started blocking MSN Messenger from being able to access AIM.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/4/21/5635488/msn-messenger-vs-aol-aim-chat-wars\|titleInside Microsoft's '90s chat war with AOL\|firstTom\|lastWarren\|dateApril 21, 2014\|worktheverge.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateDecember 22, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161222065503/http://www.theverge.com/2014/4/21/5635488/msn-messenger-vs-aol-aim-chat-wars\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://nplusonemag.com/issue-19/essays/chat-wars/\|titleChat Wars\|dateMarch 25, 2014\|worknplusonemag.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateDecember 22, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161222205923/https://nplusonemag.com/issue-19/essays/chat-wars/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> This led to efforts by many companies to challenge the AOL and Time Warner merger on the grounds of antitrust behaviour, leading to the formation of the OpenNet Coalition.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAOL & Partners Announce Formation of OpenNet Coalition \|urlhttps://www.hpcwire.com/1999/02/05/aol-partners-announce-formation-opennet-coalition/ \|access-date13 December 2020 \|workHPCwire \|date5 February 1999 \|archive-dateOctober 17, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211017093512/https://www.hpcwire.com/1999/02/05/aol-partners-announce-formation-opennet-coalition/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Official mobile versions of AIM appeared as early as 2001 on Palm OS through the AOL application.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/1020672/m105.html\|titlePalm introduces new m105 PDA\|dateMarch 6, 2001\|websiteMacworld\|access-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-dateApril 28, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190428093529/https://www.macworld.com/article/1020672/m105.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Third-party applications allowed it to be used in 2002 for the Sidekick.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://bgr.com/2007/10/02/mobile-im-clients-sidekick-helio-ocean-blackberry-iphone-and-more/\|titleMobile IM clients: Sidekick, Helio Ocean, BlackBerry, iPhone, and more\|firstJonathan S.\|lastGeller\|dateOctober 2, 2007\|workbgr.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 14, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171014034509/http://bgr.com/2007/10/02/mobile-im-clients-sidekick-helio-ocean-blackberry-iphone-and-more/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A version for Symbian OS was announced in 2003<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.zdnet.com/article/aol-and-symbian-cosy-up/\|titleAOL and Symbian cosy up\|firstBen\|lastCharny\|websiteZDNet\|access-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-dateJuly 26, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726064328/https://www.zdnet.com/article/aol-and-symbian-cosy-up/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> as were others for BlackBerry<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2007/04/11/get-your-official-blackberry-im-clients-now-if-you-dare/\|titleGet your official BlackBerry IM clients now, if you dare\|websiteEngadget\|dateApril 11, 2007 \|access-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190427110326/https://www.engadget.com/2007/04/11/get-your-official-blackberry-im-clients-now-if-you-dare/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Windows Mobile<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://download.cnet.com/blog/download-blog/aims-windows-mobile-chat-app-nails-a-bullseye/\|titleAIM's Windows Mobile chat app nails a bullseye&nbsp;— The Download Blog&nbsp;— CNET Download.com\|workcnet.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 14, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171014034640/http://download.cnet.com/blog/download-blog/aims-windows-mobile-chat-app-nails-a-bullseye/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> After 2012, stand-alone official AIM client software included advertisements and was available for Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Classic Mac OS, macOS, Android, iOS, and BlackBerry OS.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://products.aim.com/products \|titleProducts AIM \|publisherProducts AIM \|access-dateDecember 4, 2010 \|archive-dateJuly 1, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100701222359/http://products.aim.com/products \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Usage decline and product sunsetAround 2011, AIM started to lose popularity rapidly, partly due to the quick rise of Gmail and its built-in real-time Google Chat instant messenger integration in 2011 and because many people migrated to SMS or iMessages text messaging and later, social networking websites and apps for instant messaging, in particular, Facebook Messenger, which was released as a standalone application the same year. AOL made a partnership to integrate AIM messaging in Google Talk, and had a feature for AIM users to send SMS messages directly from AIM to any number, as well as for SMS users to send an IM to any AIM user.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://smallbusiness.chron.com/send-text-messages-aim-account-43122.html\|titleHow to Send Text Messages to an AIM Account\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|archive-dateJanuary 22, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230122152520/https://smallbusiness.chron.com/hiding-name-aol-65276.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> As of June 2011, one source reported AOL Instant Messenger market share had collapsed to 0.73%.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.opswat.com/sites/default/files/OPSWAT-Market-Share-Report-June-2011.pdf\|titleOPSWAT Market Share Report June 2011\|publisheropswat.com\|access-dateAugust 11, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130102180321/http://www.opswat.com/sites/default/files/OPSWAT-Market-Share-Report-June-2011.pdf\|archive-dateJanuary 2, 2013\|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> However, this number only reflected installed IM applications, and not active users. The engineers responsible for AIM claimed that they were unable to convince AOL management that free was the future.<ref name="mashable"/> On March 3, 2012, AOL ended employment of AIM's development staff while leaving it active and with help support still provided.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://gizmodo.com/5893031/aim-is-unofficially-dead\|titleAIM Is (Unofficially) Dead (Updated)\|firstSam\|lastBiddle\|workgizmodo.com\|dateMarch 13, 2012\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateFebruary 15, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170215091647/http://gizmodo.com/5893031/aim-is-unofficially-dead\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On October 6, 2017, it was announced that the AIM service would be discontinued on December 15;<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://help.aol.com/articles/aim-discontinued\|titleAIM Sunset\|workAOL Help Article\|access-dateOctober 6, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006155404/https://help.aol.com/articles/aim-discontinued\|archive-dateOctober 6, 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"retirement" /><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2017/10/06/rip-aim-aol-instant-messenger-dies-december/739076001/\|titleRIP AIM: AOL Instant Messenger dies in December\|firstBrett\|lastMolina\|workUSA Today\|dateOctober 6, 2017\|access-dateOctober 6, 2017\|archive-dateJuly 25, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725054235/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2017/10/06/rip-aim-aol-instant-messenger-dies-december/739076001/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> however, a non-profit development team known as Wildman Productions started up a server for older versions of AOL Instant Messenger, known as AIM Phoenix.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2018/06/26/aols-instant-messenger-back-aim-phoenix/736383002/\|titleAOL's instant messenger is back: Meet AIM Phoenix\|firstDalvin\|lastBrown\|workUSA Today\|dateJune 26, 2018\|access-dateNovember 12, 2018\|archive-dateNovember 13, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181113075652/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2018/06/26/aols-instant-messenger-back-aim-phoenix/736383002/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The "Running Man" The AIM mascot was designed by JoRoan Lazaro and was implemented in the first release in 1997. This was a yellow stickman-like figure, often called the "Running Man". AIM's popularity in the late 1990s and the 2000s led to the “Running Man” becoming a familiar brand on the Internet. After over 14 years, the iconic logo disappeared as part of the AIM rebranding in 2011. However, in August 2013, the "Running Man" returned.<ref name"theatlantic.com">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/the-story-behind-aols-iconic-yellow-running-man/383652/\|titleThe Story Behind AOL's Iconic Yellow Running Man\|firstAdrienne\|lastLaFrance\|worktheatlantic.com\|dateDecember 11, 2014\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 31, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161031133627/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/the-story-behind-aols-iconic-yellow-running-man/383652/\|url-status=live}}</ref> It was used for other AOL services like AOL Top Speed and is still featured in a theme on AOL Mail. In 2014, a Complex editor called it a "symbol of America".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://uk.complex.com/style/2014/12/aol-designer-explains-the-companys-iconic-yellow-running-man-logo\|titleAOL Designer Explains the Company's Iconic Yellow Running Man Logo\|workcomplex.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateNovember 24, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151124164607/http://uk.complex.com/style/2014/12/aol-designer-explains-the-companys-iconic-yellow-running-man-logo\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In April 2015, the Running Man was officially featured in the Virgin London Marathon, dressed by a person for the AOL-partnered Free The Children charity.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.advertising.aol.co.uk/2015/03/31/aol-s-running-man-takes-part-in-london-marathon-in-support-of-fr/\|titleAOL's Running Man takes part in London Marathon in Support of Free The Children\|workaol.co.uk\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304102300/http://www.advertising.aol.co.uk/2015/03/31/aol-s-running-man-takes-part-in-london-marathon-in-support-of-fr/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Protocol The standard protocol that AIM clients used to communicate is called Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime (OSCAR). Most AOL-produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR's features, but was sometimes used for clients that only require basic chat functionality. The TOC/TOC2 protocol specifications were made available by AOL, while OSCAR is a closed protocol that third parties had to reverse-engineer. In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support for AIM,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://florianjensen.com/2008/01/17/aol-adopting-xmpp-aka-jabber/\|titleAOL adopting XMPP aka Jabber\|date2008-01-17\|access-date2008-01-17\|authorFlorian Jensen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080120143857/http://florianjensen.com/2008/01/17/aol-adopting-xmpp-aka-jabber/\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2008\|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> allowing AIM users to communicate using the standardized, open-source XMPP. However, in March 2008, this service was discontinued.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleXMPP ~ Computer Science ~ 3073 ~ p2k.unhamzah.ac.id\|urlhttp://p2k.unhamzah.ac.id/IT/en/3073-2970/XMPP_2601_p2k-unhamzah.html\|access-date2021-09-27\|websitep2k.unhamzah.ac.id\|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210927215253/http://p2k.unhamzah.ac.id/IT/en/3073-2970/XMPP_2601_p2k-unhamzah.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2011, AOL started offering limited XMPP support.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.aim.com/xmpp \|titleAOL XMPP Gateway \|date2011-05-14 \|access-date2011-05-14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110522092331/http://www.aim.com/xmpp \|archive-dateMay 22, 2011 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> On March 1, 2017, AOL announced (via XMPP-login-time messages<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://pidgin.im/pipermail/support/2017-March/029513.html\|titleFwd: AOL\|date2017-03-01\|access-dateMarch 1, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170302030248/https://pidgin.im/pipermail/support/2017-March/029513.html\|archive-dateMarch 2, 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref>) that the AOL XMPP gateway would be desupported, effective March 28, 2017. Privacy For privacy regulations, AIM had strict age restrictions. AIM accounts are available only for people over the age of 13; children younger than that were not permitted access to AIM.<ref name"6 Facts About AIM's Privacy Policy">{{cite web\|urlhttp://im.about.com/od/promotingimsafety/a/aim-privacy.htm\|titleAIM Privacy -- Terms of Service Policy -- AIM Privacy\|authorBrandon De Hoyos\|workAbout.com Tech\|access-dateAugust 10, 2015\|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150928122933/http://im.about.com/od/promotingimsafety/a/aim-privacy.htm\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Under the AIM Privacy Policy, AOL had no rights to read or monitor any private communications between users. The profile of the user had no privacy.<ref name="6 Facts About AIM's Privacy Policy" /> In November 2002, AOL targeted the corporate industry with Enterprise AIM Services (EAS), a higher security version of AIM.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.computerworld.com/article/2578769/aol-takes-aim-at-corporate-instant-messaging-users.html\|titleAOL Takes AIM at Corporate Instant Messaging Users\|firstTodd R.\|lastWeiss\|dateNovember 11, 2002\|websiteComputerworld\|access-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-dateApril 27, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190427110333/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2578769/aol-takes-aim-at-corporate-instant-messaging-users.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> If public content was accessed, it could be used for online, print or broadcast advertising, etc. This was outlined in the policy and terms of service: "...&nbsp;you grant AOL, its parent, affiliates, subsidiaries, assigns, agents and licensees the irrevocable, perpetual, worldwide right to reproduce, display, perform, distribute, adapt and promote this Content in any medium". This allowed anything users posted to be used without a separate request for permission.<ref name="6 Facts About AIM's Privacy Policy" /> AIM's security was called into question. AOL stated that it had taken great pains to ensure that personal information will not be accessed by unauthorized members, but that it cannot guarantee that it will not happen.<ref name="6 Facts About AIM's Privacy Policy" /> AIM was different from other clients, such as Yahoo! Messenger, in that it did not require approval from users to be added to other users' buddy lists. As a result, it was possible for users to keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to see when they were online, read their status and away messages, and read their profiles. There was also a Web API to display one's status and away message as a widget on one's webpage.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://dev.aol.com/data_sheets/WebAIM_Quick_Start_Guide.pdf \|titleIntegrate Your Site with AIM in 3 Easy Steps \|workAOL Developer Network \|publisherAOL Inc \|page2 \|access-dateAugust 9, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110726062640/http://dev.aol.com/data_sheets/WebAIM_Quick_Start_Guide.pdf \|archive-dateJuly 26, 2011 \|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Though one could block a user from communicating with them and seeing their status, this did not prevent that user from creating a new account that would not automatically be blocked and therefore able to track their status. A more conservative privacy option was to select a menu feature that only allowed communication with users on one's buddy list; however, this option also created the side-effect of blocking all users who were not on one's buddy list. Users could also choose to be invisible to all. Chat robots AOL and various other companies supplied robots (bots) on AIM that could receive messages and send a response based on the bot's purpose. For example, bots could help with studying, like StudyBuddy. Some were made to relate to children and teenagers, like Spleak. Others gave advice. The more useful chat bots had features like the ability to play games, get sport scores, weather forecasts or financial stock information. Users were able to talk to automated chat bots that could respond to natural human language. They were primarily put into place as a marketing strategy and for unique advertising options. It was used by advertisers to market products or build better consumer relations.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cnet.com/news/aol-tries-out-new-im-chat-bot/\|titletries out new IM chat bot\|date2003-01-27\|access-date2015-10-27\|websiteCNET\|archive-dateDecember 9, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209025130/http://www.cnet.com/news/aol-tries-out-new-im-chat-bot/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Before the inclusions of such bots, the other bots DoorManBot and AIMOffline provided features that were provided by AOL for those who needed it. ZolaOnAOL and ZoeOnAOL were short-lived bots that ultimately retired their features in favor of SmarterChild. URI scheme AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installed an extra URI scheme ("protocol") handler into some Web browsers, so URIs beginning with <code>aim:</code> could open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This was similar in function to the <code>mailto:</code> URI scheme, which created a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a webpage might have included a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user notarealuser: &lt;a href"aim:goim?screennamenotarealuser"&gt;Send Message&lt;/a&gt; To specify a message body, the <code>message</code> parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim:goim?screennamenotarealuser&messageThis+is+my+message To specify an away message, the message parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim:goaway?message=Hello,+my+name+is+Bill When placing this inside a URL link, an AIM user could click on the URL link and the away message "Hello, my name is Bill" would instantly become their away message. To add a buddy, the addbuddy message was used, with the "screenname" parameter aim:addbuddy?screenname=notarealuser This type of link was commonly found on forum profiles to easily add contacts. Vulnerabilities AIM had security weaknesses that have enabled exploits to be created that used third-party software to perform malicious acts on users' computers.<ref>{{cite web\|first1Jaikumar\|last1Vijayan\|accessdate2024-03-05\|titleAOL Instant Messenger vulnerable to hackers\|urlhttps://www.computerworld.com/article/2586310/aol-instant-messenger-vulnerable-to-hackers.html\|date2 January 2002\|websiteComputerworld}}</ref> Although most were relatively harmless, such as being kicked off the AIM service, others performed potentially dangerous actions, such as sending viruses. Some of these exploits relied on social engineering to spread by automatically sending instant messages that contained a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) accompanied by text suggesting the receiving user click on it, an action which leads to infection, i.e., a trojan horse. These messages could easily be mistaken as coming from a friend and contain a link to a Web address that installed software on the user's computer to restart the cycle.{{fact\|dateMarch 2024}} Extra features iPhone application On March 6, 2008, during Apple Inc.'s iPhone SDK event, AOL announced that they would be releasing an AIM application for iPhone and iPod Touch users. The application was available for free from the App Store, but the company also provided a paid version, which displayed no advertisements. Both were available from the App Store. The AIM client for iPhone and iPod Touch supported standard AIM accounts, as well as MobileMe accounts. There was also an express version of AIM accessible through the Safari browser on the iPhone and iPod Touch.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.macrumors.com/2008/03/06/apple-releases-iphone-sdk-demos-spore-instant-messaging/ \|titleApple Releases iPhone SDK, Demos Spore, Instant Messaging \|publisherMac Rumors \|date2008-03-06 \|access-date2010-12-04 \|archive-dateJune 16, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080616203828/http://www.macrumors.com/2008/03/06/apple-releases-iphone-sdk-demos-spore-instant-messaging/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2011, AOL launched an overhaul of their Instant Messaging service. Included in the update was a brand new iOS application for iPhone and iPod Touch that incorporated all the latest features. A brand new icon was used for the application, featuring the new cursive logo for AIM. The user-interface was entirely redone for the features including: a new buddy list, group messaging, in-line photos and videos, as well as improved file-sharing.<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2396491,00.asp/ \|titleAOL Overhauls AIM, Adds New iPhone App \|magazinePC Magazine \|date2011-11-16 \|access-date2012-03-25 \|archive-dateJuly 22, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722112121/https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2396491,00.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Version 5.0.5, updated in March 2012, it supported more social stream features, much like Facebook and Twitter, as well as the ability to send voice messages up to 60 seconds long.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://handheld.softpedia.com/get/Chat/AIM-for-iPhone-97755.shtml/ \|titleAIM for iPhone 5.0.5 \|publisherSoftpedia \|date2012-03-20 \|access-date2012-03-25 \|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111227011258/http://handheld.softpedia.com/get/Chat/AIM-for-iPhone-97755.shtml \|archive-date2011-12-27 }}</ref> iPad application On April 3, 2010, Apple released the first generation iPad. Along with this newly released device AOL released the AIM application for iPad. It was built entirely from scratch for the new version of iOS with a specialized user-interface for the device. It supported geolocation, Facebook status updates and chat, Myspace, Twitter, YouTube, Foursquare, and many other social networking platforms.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.macstories.net/ipad/aim-for-ipad-approved-screenshot/ \|titleAIM for iPad Approved, Screenshot \|publisherMacStories \|date2010-04-01 \|access-date2012-03-25 \|archive-dateJune 21, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100621100705/http://www.macstories.net/ipad/aim-for-ipad-approved-screenshot/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> AIM Express AIM Express ran in a pop-up browser window. It was intended for use by people who are unwilling or unable to install a standalone application or those at computers that lack the AIM application. AIM Express supported many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but did not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, video conferencing, or buddy info. It was implemented in Adobe Flash.<ref>{{cite web\|titleProducts – Express\|urlhttp://www.aim.com/products/express\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101205062532/http://www.aim.com/products/express\|archive-dateDecember 5, 2010\|access-date2010-12-04\|publisherAim.com}}</ref> It was an upgrade to the prior AOL Quick Buddy, which was later available for older systems that cannot handle Express before being discontinued. Express and Quick Buddy were similar to MSN Web Messenger and Yahoo! Web Messenger. This web version evolved into AIM.com's web-based messenger.AIM PagesAIM Pages was a free website released in May 2006 by AOL in replacement of AIMSpace.<ref>{{cite web\|lastCashmore\|firstPete\|titleAIM Pages\|dateMay 11, 2006\|urlhttp://mashable.com/2006/05/10/aimpages-not-as-lame-as-youd-expect/\|publisherMashable\|accessdate24 September 2012\|archive-dateJune 15, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210615125326/https://mashable.com/2006/05/10/aimpages-not-as-lame-as-youd-expect/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Anyone who had an AIM user name and was at least 16 years of age could create their own web page (to display an online, dynamic profile) and share it with buddies from their AIM Buddy list. Layout AIM Pages included links to the email and Instant Message of the owner, along with a section listing the owners "buddies", which included AIM user names. It was possible to create modules in a Module T microformat.<ref name"wikipedia1">AOL Instant Messenger#AIM Pages</ref> Video hosting sites like Netflix and YouTube could be added to ones AIM Page, as well as other sites like Amazon.com. It was also possible to insert HTML code. The main focus of AIM Pages was the integration of external modules, like those listed above, into the AOL Instant Messenger experience.<ref name"macmanus1">{{cite web\|lastMacManus\|firstRichard\|titleAIM Pages - AOL Breaking Down the Walled Garden\|urlhttp://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/aim_pages_aol_b.php\|accessdate24 September 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120519070114/http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/aim_pages_aol_b.php\|archive-date2012-05-19\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Discontinuation By late 2007, AIM Pages were discontinued.<ref name"wikipedia1"/> After AIM Pages shutdown, links to AIM Pages were redirected to AOL Lifestream,<ref name"macmanus1" /> AOL's new site aimed at collecting external modules in one place, independent of AIM buddies.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAOL Lifestream\|urlhttp://lifestream.aol.com/help/learnmore\|accessdate24 September 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120923134924/http://lifestream.aol.com/help/learnmore\|archive-date23 September 2012\|url-statusdead}}</ref> AOL Lifestream was shut down February 24, 2017.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAOL Lifestream Sunset Notification\|urlhttps://help.aol.com/articles/aol-lifestream-sunset-notification\|url-statuslive\|access-date2021-06-17\|websiteAOL Help\|languageen-US\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170926144012/https://help.aol.com/articles/aol-lifestream-sunset-notification\|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2017}}</ref>AIM for MacAOL released an all-new AIM for the Mac on September 29, 2008, and the final build on December 15, 2008. The redesigned AIM for Mac is a full universal binary Cocoa API application that supports both Tiger and Leopard&nbsp;— Mac OS X 10.4.8 (and above) or Mac OS X 10.5.3 (and above). On October 1, 2009, AOL released AIM 2.0 for Mac.AIM real-time IMThis feature was available for AIM 7 and allowed for a user to see what the other is typing as it is being done. It was developed and built with assistance from Trace Research and Development Centre at University of Wisconsin–Madison and Gallaudet University. The application provides visually impaired users the ability to convert messages from text (words) to speech.<ref name"What is Real-Time IM">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.aniesoft.com/realtime-im.html\|titleWhat is Real-Time IM? Source: AOL Help\|workaniesoft.com\|access-dateJanuary 15, 2017\|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160923231752/http://www.aniesoft.com/realtime-im.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> For the application to work users must have AIM 6.8 or higher, as it is not compatible with older versions of AIM software, AIM for Mac or iChat.<ref name"What is Real-Time IM" /> AIM to mobile (messaging to phone numbers) This feature allows text messaging to a phone number (text messaging is less functional than instant messaging).<ref>{{cite web\|titleHow-To use AIM to send a Text Message to a phone\|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2004/07/13/how-to-use-aol-instant-messenger-to-send-a-text-message-to-a\|websiteengadget.com\|dateJuly 13, 2004\|access-dateAugust 23, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 7, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171007124714/https://www.engadget.com/2004/07/13/how-to-use-aol-instant-messenger-to-send-a-text-message-to-a/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Discontinued features AIM Phoneline AIM Phoneline was a Voice over IP PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC service<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,1194787,00.html\|titleAOL Launches AIM Phoneline\|access-dateAugust 10, 2015\|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927010705/http://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,1194787,00.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.internetnews.com/infra/article.php/3604556 \|titleFree Calls From AIM \|access-dateJune 22, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 24, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624204147/http://www.internetnews.com/infra/article.php/3604556 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-04-aim-phone_x.htm\| title AOL's 'AIM Phoneline' offers free local phone number\| website USA Today\| access-date June 22, 2021\| archive-date July 4, 2012\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120704000431/http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-05-04-aim-phone_x.htm\| url-status live}}</ref> provided via the AIM application. It was also known to work with Apple's iChat Client. The service was officially closed to its customers on January 13, 2009. The closing of the free service caused the number associated with the service to be disabled and not transferable for a different service.<ref>{{cite web\|titleFree AIM Phoneline Service Closing on January 13, 2009&nbsp;— VOIP Tech Chat&nbsp;— DSLReports Forums\|urlhttp://www.dslreports.com/forum/r21456143-Free-AIM-Phoneline-Service-Closing-on-January-13-2009\|access-dateAugust 10, 2015\|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923220732/http://www.dslreports.com/forum/r21456143-Free-AIM-Phoneline-Service-Closing-on-January-13-2009\|url-statuslive}}</ref> AIM Phoneline website was recommending users switch to a new service named AIM Call Out, also discontinued now.<ref>[http://voice.aol.com/help/aim-phoneline/faq/is-the-registration-path-for-free-aim-phoneline-shut-down Is the registration path for FREE AIM Phoneline shut down?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081018180858/http://voice.aol.com/help/aim-phoneline/faq/is-the-registration-path-for-free-aim-phoneline-shut-down\|date=October 18, 2008}}</ref> Launched on May 16, 2006, AIM Phoneline provided users the ability to have several local numbers, allowing AIM users to receive free incoming calls.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://labnol.blogspot.ca/2006/05/aim-phoneline-free-phone-number-for.html\|titleAIM Phoneline: Free Phone number for AOL Messenger users\|access-dateAugust 10, 2015\|archive-dateOctober 15, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015202315/http://labnol.blogspot.ca/2006/05/aim-phoneline-free-phone-number-for.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The service allowed users to make calls to landlines and mobile devices through the use of a computer. The service, however, was only free for receiving and AOL charged users $14.95 a month for an unlimited calling plan.<ref name"pcworld.com">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/126005/first_look_aim_phoneline_and_skype_25.html\|titleFirst Look: AIM Phoneline and Skype 2.5\|dateJune 19, 2006\|workPCWorld\|access-dateAugust 10, 2015\|archive-dateJanuary 22, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110122234131/http://www.pcworld.com/article/126005/first_look_aim_phoneline_and_skype_25.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In order to use AIM Phoneline users had to install the latest free version of AIM Triton software and needed a good set of headphones with a boom microphone. It could take several days after a user signed up before it started working.<ref name"pcworld.com" /> AIM Call Out AIM Call Out is a discontinued Voice over IP PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC service provided by AOL via its AIM application that replaced the defunct AIM Phoneline service in November 2007.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.aimphoneline.com/?promo784114&flv1&ncidoyjqUzrKfk0000000465&icidone_click.M\|titleLooking for AIM Phoneline?\|publisherAimphoneline.com\|access-date2008-10-02}}{{dead link\|dateMarch 2018 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> It did not depend on the AIM client and could be used with only an AIM screenname via the WebConnect feature or a dedicated SIP device. The AIM Call Out service was shut down on March 25, 2009.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://voice.aol.com/\|titleAOL Voice Services no longer offers new registrations\|websiteAOL.com\|access-date2014-12-18\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141218012459/http://voice.aol.com/\|archive-dateDecember 18, 2014\|dfmdy-all}}</ref>SecurityOn November 4, 2014, AIM scored one out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. AIM received a point for encryption during transit, but lost points because communications are not encrypted with a key to which the provider has no access, i.e., the communications are not end-to-end encrypted, users can't verify contacts' identities, past messages are not secure if the encryption keys are stolen, (i.e., the service does not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to independent review, (i.e., the code is not open-source), the security design is not properly documented, and there has not been a recent independent security audit.<ref name"secure-messaging-scorecard">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.eff.org/secure-messaging-scorecard \|publisherElectronic Frontier Foundation \|titleSecure Messaging Scorecard. Which apps and tools actually keep your messages safe? \|dateNovember 4, 2014 \|access-dateJune 1, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161115054343/https://www.eff.org/secure-messaging-scorecard \|archive-dateNovember 15, 2016 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2471658,00.asp \|magazinePC Magazine \|titleOnly 6 Messaging Apps Are Truly Secure \|dateNovember 5, 2014 \|access-dateJanuary 8, 2015 \|archive-dateSeptember 11, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170911120946/https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2471658,00.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> BlackBerry Messenger (BBM), Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail, Kik Messenger, Skype, Viber, and Yahoo! Messenger also scored one out of seven points.<ref name"secure-messaging-scorecard" />See also * Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients * List of defunct instant messaging platforms References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Commons category}} * {{Official website}} {{Instant messaging}} {{AOL Inc.}} {{Verizon Media}} Category:1997 software * Category:Android (operating system) software Instant Messenger Category:BlackBerry software Category:Classic Mac OS instant messaging clients Category:Cross-platform software Category:Defunct instant messaging clients Category:Instant messaging clients Category:Internet properties disestablished in 2017 Category:IOS software Category:MacOS instant messaging clients Category:Online chat Category:Symbian software Category:Unix instant messaging clients Category:Videotelephony Category:Windows instant messaging clients	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM_(software)	2025-04-05T18:26:12.233479
2925	Ackermann function	{{Short description\|Quickly growing function}} {{About\|the mathematical function\|\|Ackermann (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2024}} {{Use shortened footnotes\|date=November 2022}} In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest{{sfn\|Monin\|Hinchey\|2003\|p=61}} and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. After Ackermann's publication{{sfn\|Ackermann\|1928}} of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. This function is defined from the recurrence relation <math>\operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) = \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n)) </math> with appropriate base cases. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, <math>\operatorname{A}(4, 2)</math> results in <math>2^{65536} - 3</math>, an integer with 19,729 decimal digits.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDecimal expansion of A(4,2)\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100120134707/http://kosara.net/thoughts/ackermann42.html \|dateAugust 27, 2000\| url http://www.kosara.net/thoughts/ackermann42.html\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2010\|websitekosara.net }}</ref> History In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited{{sfn\|Calude\|Marcus\|Tevy\|1979}} with discovering total computable functions (termed simply "recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function <math>\varphi</math> (from Greek, the letter phi). Ackermann's three-argument function, <math>\varphi(m, n, p)</math>, is defined such that for <math>p=0,1,2</math>, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as <math display="block">\begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 0) &= m+n \\ \varphi(m, n, 1) &= m\times n \\ \varphi(m, n, 2) &= m^n \end{align}</math> and for <math>p > 2</math> it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations: <math display="block">\begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 3) &= m[4](n+1) \\ \varphi(m, n, p) &\gtrapprox m[p+1](n+1) && \text{for } p > 3 \end{align}</math> (Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose—such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.) In On the Infinite,{{sfn\|Hilbert\|1926\|p=185}} David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper ''On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers''.{{sfn\|Ackermann\|1928}}{{sfn\|van Heijenoort\|1977}} Rózsa Péter{{sfn\|Péter\|1935}} and Raphael Robinson{{sfn\|Robinson\|1948}} later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors. The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e.g. <math>G(m, a, b) a[m]b</math>, is a version of the Ackermann function as well.{{sfn\|Ritchie\|1965\|p1028}} In 1963 R.C. Buck based an intuitive two-variable <ref group"n" name"letop3">with parameter order reversed</ref> variant <math>\operatorname{F}</math> on the hyperoperation sequence:{{sfn\|Buck\|1963}}{{sfn\|Meeussen\|Zantema\|1992\|p=6}} <math display"block">\operatorname{F}(m,n) 2[m]n.</math> Compared to most other versions, Buck's function has no unessential offsets: <math display="block">\begin{align} \operatorname{F}(0,n) &2[0]n n + 1 \\ \operatorname{F}(1,n) &2[1]n 2 + n \\ \operatorname{F}(2,n) &2[2]n 2 \times n \\ \operatorname{F}(3,n) &2[3]n 2^n \\ \operatorname{F}(4,n) &2[4]n 2^{2^{2^{{}^{.^{.^{{}_.2}}}}}} \\ &\quad\vdots \end{align}</math> Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated.{{sfn\|Munafo\|1999a}}{{sfn\|Ritchie\|1965}} Definition Definition: as m-ary function Ackermann's original three-argument function <math>\varphi(m, n, p)</math> is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers <math>m,n,</math> and <math>p</math>: <math display="block">\begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 0) &= m + n \\ \varphi(m, 0, 1) &= 0 \\ \varphi(m, 0, 2) &= 1 \\ \varphi(m, 0, p) &= m && \text{for } p > 2 \\ \varphi(m, n, p) &= \varphi(m, \varphi(m, n-1, p), p - 1) && \text{for } n, p > 0 \end{align}</math> Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called "the" Ackermann function by most authors) is defined for nonnegative integers <math>m</math> and <math>n</math> as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lcl} \operatorname{A}(0, n) & = & n + 1 \\ \operatorname{A}(m+1, 0) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, 1) \\ \operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n)) \end{array} </math> The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence:{{sfn\|Sundblad\|1971}}{{sfn\|Porto\|Matos\|1980}} <math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2[m](n+3)-3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases}</math> or, written in Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices <math>\geq -2</math>): <math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2\uparrow^{m-2} (n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases}</math> or, equivalently, in terms of Buck's function F:{{sfn\|Buck\|1963}} <math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases}</math> Definition: as iterated 1-ary function Define <math>f^{n}</math> as the n-th iterate of <math>f</math>: <math display="block">\begin{array}{rll} f^{0}(x) & = & x \\ f^{n+1}(x) & = & f(f^{n}(x)) \end{array}</math> Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation, so <math>f(f^{n}(x)) = f^{n}(f(x))</math>. Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions, one can set <math>\operatorname{A}_{m}(n) = \operatorname{A}(m,n)</math>. The function then becomes a sequence <math>\operatorname{A}_0, \operatorname{A}_1, \operatorname{A}_2, ...</math> of unary<ref group"n" name"letop4">'curried'</ref> functions, defined from iteration: <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lcl} \operatorname{A}_{0}(n) & = & n+1 \\ \operatorname{A}_{m+1}(n) & = & \operatorname{A}_{m}^{n+1}(1) \\ \end{array} </math> Computation The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system (TRS). TRS, based on 2-ary function The definition of the <u>2-ary</u> Ackermann function leads to the obvious reduction rules{{sfn\|Grossman\|Zeitman\|1988}}{{sfn\|Paulson\|2021}} <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r1)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r2)} & A(S(m),0) & \rightarrow & A(m,S(0)) \\ \text{(r3)} & A(S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & A(m,A(S(m),n)) \end{array} </math> Example Compute <math>A(1,2) \rightarrow_{} 4</math> The reduction sequence is <ref group"n" name"letop5">In each step the underlined redex is rewritten.</ref> {\| style="border-collapse:collapse" \|style="text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|Leftmost-outermost (one-step) strategy:{{space\|12}} \|style="text-align:left; padding-left: 0.5em"\|Leftmost-innermost (one-step) strategy: \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{{A(S(0),S(S(0)))}}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{{A(S(0),S(S(0)))}}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} \underline{{A(0,A(S(0),S(0))}})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,\underline{{A(S(0),S(0))}})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(\underline{{A(S(0),S(0))}})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,\underline{{A(S(0),0)}}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} S(\underline{{A(0,A(S0,0))}})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(0,A(0,\underline{{A(0,S(0))}}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(\underline{{A(S(0),0)}}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,\underline{{A(0,S(S(0)))}})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r2} S(S(\underline{{A(0,S(0))}}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline{{A(0,S(S(S(0))))}}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(S(S(0))))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(S(S(0))))</math> \|- \|} To compute <math>\operatorname{A}(m, n)</math> one can use a stack, which initially contains the elements <math>\langle m,n \rangle</math>. Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rules<ref group"n" name"letop2">here: leftmost-innermost strategy!</ref> <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lllllllll} \text{(r1)} & 0 &,& n & \rightarrow & (n+1) \\ \text{(r2)} & (m+1) &,& 0 & \rightarrow & m &,& 1 \\ \text{(r3)} & (m+1) &,& (n+1) & \rightarrow & m &,& (m+1) &,& n \end{array} </math> Schematically, starting from <math>\langle m,n \rangle</math>: WHILE stackLength <> 1 { POP 2 elements; PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, applying the rules r1, r2, r3 } The pseudocode is published in {{harvtxt\|Grossman\|Zeitman\|1988}}. For example, on input <math>\langle 2,1 \rangle</math>, {\| style="border-collapse:collapse" \|style="text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|the stack configurations{{space\|4}} \|style"text-align:left; padding-left: 0.5em"\|reflect the reduction<ref group"n" name="letop1">For better readability<br/>S(0) is notated as 1,<br />S(S(0)) is notated as 2,<br />S(S(S(0))) is notated as 3,<br/>etc...</ref> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{2,1}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{A(2,1)}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{2,0}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(1,\underline{A(2,0)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{1,1}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(1,\underline{A(1,1)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 1,0,\underline{1,0}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(1,A(0,\underline{A(1,0)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 1,0,\underline{0,1}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(1,A(0,\underline{A(0,1)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{0,2}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(1,\underline{A(0,2)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow \underline{1,3}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline{A(1,3)}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,\underline{1,2}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,\underline{A(1,2)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,0,\underline{1,1}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,\underline{A(1,1)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,0,0,\underline{1,0}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,A(0,\underline{A(1,0)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,0,0,\underline{0,1}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(0,A(0,A(0,\underline{A(0,1)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,0,\underline{0,2}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,A(0,\underline{A(0,2)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 0,\underline{0,3}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,\underline{A(0,3)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow \underline{0,4}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline{A(0,4)}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow 5</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r1} 5</math> \|} Remarks The leftmost-innermost strategy is implemented in 225 computer languages on Rosetta Code. For all <math>m,n</math> the computation of <math>A(m,n)</math> takes no more than <math>(A(m,n) + 1)^m</math> steps.{{sfn\|Cohen\|1987\|p56\|locProposition 3.16 (see in proof)}} {{harvtxt\|Grossman\|Zeitman\|1988}} pointed out that in the computation of <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math> the maximum length of the stack is <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math>, as long as <math>m>0</math>.<p> Their own algorithm, inherently iterative, computes <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math> within <math>\mathcal{O}(m \operatorname{A}(m,n))</math> time and within <math>\mathcal{O}(m)</math> space.</p> TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function The definition of the iterated <u>1-ary</u> Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rules <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r4)} & A(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r5)} & A(S(0),S(m),n) & \rightarrow & A(S(n),m,S(0)) \\ \text{(r6)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(0),m,A(S(x),m,n)) \end{array} </math> As function composition is associative, instead of rule r6 one can define <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r7)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(x),m,A(S(0),m,n)) \end{array} </math> Like in the previous section the computation of <math>\operatorname{A}^1_m(n)</math> can be implemented with a stack. Initially the stack contains the three elements <math>\langle 1,m,n \rangle</math>. Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rules<ref group"n" name"letop2"/> <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lllllllll} \text{(r4)} & 1 &, 0 &, n & \rightarrow & (n+1) \\ \text{(r5)} & 1 &, (m+1) &, n & \rightarrow & (n+1) &, m &, 1 \\ \text{(r6)} & (x+2) &, m &, n & \rightarrow & 1 &, m &, (x+1) &, m &, n \\ \end{array} </math> Schematically, starting from <math>\langle 1, m,n \rangle</math>: WHILE stackLength <> 1 { POP 3 elements; PUSH 1 or 3 or 5 elements, applying the rules r4, r5, r6; } Example On input <math>\langle 1,2,1 \rangle</math> the successive stack configurations are <math display="block">\begin{align} & \underline{1,2,1} \rightarrow_{r5} \underline{2,1,1} \rightarrow_{r6} 1,1,\underline{1,1,1} \rightarrow_{r5} 1,1,\underline{2,0,1} \rightarrow_{r6} 1,1,1,0,\underline{1,0,1} \\ & \rightarrow_{r4} 1,1,\underline{1,0,2} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{1,1,3} \rightarrow_{r5} \underline{4,0,1} \rightarrow_{r6} 1,0,\underline{3,0,1} \rightarrow_{r6} 1,0,1,0,\underline{2,0,1} \\ & \rightarrow_{r6} 1,0,1,0,1,0,\underline{1,0,1} \rightarrow_{r4} 1,0,1,0,\underline{1,0,2} \rightarrow_{r4} 1,0,\underline{1,0,3} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{1,0,4} \rightarrow_{r4} 5 \end{align}</math> The corresponding equalities are <math display="block">\begin{align} & A_2(1) A^2_1(1) A_1(A_1(1)) A_1(A^2_0(1)) A_1(A_0(A_0(1))) \\ & A_1(A_0(2)) A_1(3) A^4_0(1) A_0(A^3_0(1)) = A_0(A_0(A^2_0(1))) \\ & A_0(A_0(A_0(A_0(1)))) A_0(A_0(A_0(2))) A_0(A_0(3)) A_0(4) = 5 \end{align}</math> When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the replacements in the stack will follow <math display="block">\begin{array}{lllllllll} \text{(r7)} & (x+2) &, m &, n & \rightarrow & (x+1) &, m &, 1 &, m &, n \end{array}</math> The successive stack configurations will then be <math display="block">\begin{align} & \underline{1,2,1} \rightarrow_{r5} \underline{2,1,1} \rightarrow_{r7} 1,1,\underline{1,1,1} \rightarrow_{r5} 1,1,\underline{2,0,1} \rightarrow_{r7} 1,1,1,0,\underline{1,0,1} \\ & \rightarrow_{r4} 1,1,\underline{1,0,2} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{1,1,3} \rightarrow_{r5} \underline{4,0,1} \rightarrow_{r7} 3,0,\underline{1,0,1} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{3,0,2} \\ & \rightarrow_{r7} 2,0,\underline{1,0,2} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{2,0,3} \rightarrow_{r7} 1,0,\underline{1,0,3} \rightarrow_{r4} \underline{1,0,4} \rightarrow_{r4} 5 \end{align}</math> The corresponding equalities are <math display="block">\begin{align} & A_2(1) A^2_1(1) A_1(A_1(1)) A_1(A^2_0(1)) A_1(A_0(A_0(1))) \\ & A_1(A_0(2)) A_1(3) A^4_0(1) A^3_0(A_0(1)) = A^3_0(2) \\ & A^2_0(A_0(2)) A^2_0(3) A_0(A_0(3)) A_0(4) = 5 \end{align}</math> Remarks On any given input the TRSs presented so far converge in the same number of steps. They also use the same reduction rules (in this comparison the rules r1, r2, r3 are considered "the same as" the rules r4, r5, r6/r7 respectively). For example, the reduction of <math>A(2,1)</math> converges in 14 steps: 6 × r1, 3 × r2, 5 × r3. The reduction of <math>A_2(1)</math> converges in the same 14 steps: 6 × r4, 3 × r5, 5 × r6/r7. The TRSs differ in the order in which the reduction rules are applied. When <math>A_{i}(n)</math> is computed following the rules {r4, r5, r6}, the maximum length of the stack stays below <math>2 \times A(i,n)</math>. When reduction rule r7 is used instead of rule r6, the maximum length of the stack is only <math>2(i+2)</math>. The length of the stack reflects the recursion depth. As the reduction according to the rules {r4, r5, r7} involves a smaller maximum depth of recursion,<ref group"n" name"letop6">The maximum depth of recursion refers to the number of levels of activation of a procedure which exist during the deepest call of the procedure. {{harvtxt\|Cornelius\|Kirby\|1975}}</ref> this computation is more efficient in that respect. TRS, based on hyperoperators As {{harvtxt\|Sundblad\|1971}} &mdash; or {{harvtxt\|Porto\|Matos\|1980}} &mdash; showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence: <math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2[m](n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases}</math> or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck's function <math>A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases}</math> Buck's function <math>\operatorname{F}(m,n) = 2[m]n</math>,{{sfn\|Buck\|1963}} a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules: <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(b1)} & F(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(b2)} & F(S(0),S(0),0) & \rightarrow & S(S(0)) \\ \text{(b3)} & F(S(0),S(S(0)),0) & \rightarrow & 0 \\ \text{(b4)} & F(S(0),S(S(S(m))),0) & \rightarrow & S(0) \\ \text{(b5)} & F(S(0),S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & F(S(n),m,F(S(0),S(m),0)) \\ \text{(b6)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(0),m,F(S(x),m,n)) \end{array} </math> Instead of rule b6 one can define the rule <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(b7)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(x),m,F(S(0),m,n)) \end{array} </math> To compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rules <math display="block"> \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r8)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r9)} & A(S(m),n) & \rightarrow & P(F(S(0),S(m),S(S(S(n))))) \\ \text{(r10)} & P(S(S(S(m)))) & \rightarrow & m \\ \end{array} </math> These rules take care of the base case A(0,n), the alignment (n+3) and the fudge (-3). Example Compute <math>A(2,1) \rightarrow_{} 5</math> {\| style="border-collapse:collapse" \|style"text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|using reduction rule <math>\text{b7}</math>:<ref group"n" name="letop1"/>{{space\|4}} \|style"text-align:left;padding-left: 0.5em"\|using reduction rule <math>\text{b6}</math>:<ref group"n" name="letop1"/> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{A(2,1)}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|<math>\underline{A(2,1)}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r9} P(\underline{F(1,2,4)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r9} P(\underline{F(1,2,4)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(4,1,\underline{F(1,2,0)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(4,1,\underline{F(1,2,0)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b3} P(\underline{F(4,1,0)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b3} P(\underline{F(4,1,0)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(3,1,\underline{F(1,1,0)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(3,1,0)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(\underline{F(3,1,2)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,\underline{F(2,1,0)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(2,1,\underline{F(1,1,2)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(1,1,\underline{F(1,1,0)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(2,1,F(2,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)})))</math>{{space\|10}} \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,\underline{F(1,1,2)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(F(2,1,\underline{F(2,0,2)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(2,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(2,1,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)})))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,\underline{F(2,0,2)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(2,1,\underline{F(1,0,3)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(2,1,4)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,F(1,1,\underline{F(1,0,3)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(1,1,4)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(1,1,4)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(1,1,F(4,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)})))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(1,1,F(4,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(4,0,2)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(4,0,2)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(1,1,F(3,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)})))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,\underline{F(3,0,2)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(3,0,3)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(2,0,2)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(1,1,F(2,0,\underline{F(1,0,3)})))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)})))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(2,0,4)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,3)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,4)})))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,4)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(1,0,5)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,1,\underline{F(1,0,5)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(1,1,6)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(1,1,6)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(6,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b5} P(F(6,0,\underline{F(1,1,0)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(\underline{F(6,0,2)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b2} P(\underline{F(6,0,2)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(5,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,0,\underline{F(5,0,2)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(5,0,3)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(4,0,2)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(4,0,\underline{F(1,0,3)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(3,0,2)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(4,0,4)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(2,0,2)})))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(3,0,\underline{F(1,0,4)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b6} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,2)}))))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(3,0,5)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,3)})))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(2,0,\underline{F(1,0,5)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,4)}))))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(2,0,6)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,0,F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,5)})))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b7} P(F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,6)}))</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(F(1,0,\underline{F(1,0,6)}))</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(1,0,7)})</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} P(\underline{F(1,0,7)})</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} \underline{P(8)}</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{b1} \underline{P(8)}</math> \|- \|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r10} 5</math> \|style="padding-left: 0.5em"\|{{space\|4}}<math>\rightarrow_{r10} 5</math> \|} The matching equalities are when the TRS with the reduction rule <math>\text{b6}</math> is applied: <math display="block">\begin{align} & A(2,1) +3 F(2,4) \dots F^6(0,2) F(0,F^5(0,2)) = F(0,F(0,F^4(0,2))) \\ & F(0,F(0,F(0,F^3(0,2)))) F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F^2(0,2))))) = F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,2)))))) \\ & F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,3))))) F(0,F(0,F(0,F(0,4)))) F(0,F(0,F(0,5))) F(0,F(0,6)) F(0,7) 8 \end{align}</math> when the TRS with the reduction rule <math>\text{b7}</math> is applied: <math display="block">\begin{align} & A(2,1) +3 F(2,4) \dots F^6(0,2) F^5(0,F(0,2)) F^5(0,3) F^4(0,F(0,3)) = F^4(0,4) \\ & F^3(0,F(0,4)) F^3(0,5) F^2(0,F(0,5)) F^2(0,6) F(0,F(0,6)) F(0,7) = 8 \end{align}</math> Remarks The computation of <math>\operatorname{A}_{i}(n)</math> according to the rules {b1 - b5, b6, r8 - r10} is deeply recursive. The maximum depth of nested <math>F</math>s is <math>A(i,n)+1</math>. The culprit is the order in which iteration is executed: <math>F^{n+1}(x) = F(F^{n}(x))</math>. The first <math>F</math> disappears only after the whole sequence is unfolded. The computation according to the rules {b1 - b5, b7, r8 - r10} is more efficient in that respect. The iteration <math>F^{n+1}(x) F^{n}(F(x))</math> simulates the repeated loop over a block of code.<ref group"n" name="letop7">LOOP n+1 TIMES DO F</ref> The nesting is limited to <math>(i+1)</math>, one recursion level per iterated function. {{harvtxt\|Meyer\|Ritchie\|1967}} showed this correspondence. These considerations concern the recursion depth only. Either way of iterating leads to the same number of reduction steps, involving the same rules (when the rules b6 and b7 are considered "the same"). The reduction of <math>A(2,1)</math> for instance converges in 35 steps: 12 × b1, 4 × b2, 1 × b3, 4 × b5, 12 × b6/b7, 1 × r9, 1 × r10. The modus iterandi only affects the order in which the reduction rules are applied. A real gain of execution time can only be achieved by not recalculating subresults over and over again. Memoization is an optimization technique where the results of function calls are cached and returned when the same inputs occur again. See for instance {{harvtxt\|Ward\|1993}}. {{harvtxt\|Grossman\|Zeitman\|1988}} published a cunning algorithm which computes <math>A(i,n)</math> within <math>\mathcal{O}(i A(i,n))</math> time and within <math>\mathcal{O}(i)</math> space. Huge numbers To demonstrate how the computation of <math>A(4, 3)</math> results in many steps and in a large number:<ref group"n" name"letop1"/> <math display="block">\begin{align} A(4, 3) & \rightarrow A(3, A(4, 2)) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(4, 1))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(4, 0)))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(3, 1)))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(3, 0))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(2, 1))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(2, 0)))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(1, 1)))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(1, 0))))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(0, 1))))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, 2)))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, 3))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(1, 2)))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(1, 1))))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(1, 0)))))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(0, 1)))))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, 2)) )) )) ) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, 3)))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, 4))))) \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, 5)))) \\ & \qquad\vdots \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, 13))) \\ & \qquad\vdots \\ & \rightarrow A(3, A(3, 65533)) \\ &\qquad\vdots \\ & \rightarrow A(3, 2^{65536} - 3) \\ &\qquad\vdots \\ & \rightarrow 2^{2^{65536}} - 3. \\ \end{align}</math> Table of values Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed "1" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Values of A(m,&nbsp;n) \|- ! {{diagonal split header\|m\|n}} ! 0 ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! n \|- ! 0 \| 1 \|\| 2 \|\| 3 \|\| 4 \|\| 5 \|\| <math>n + 1</math> \|- ! 1 \| 2 \|\| 3 \|\| 4 \|\| 5 \|\| 6 \|\| <math>n + 2 = 2 + (n + 3) - 3</math> \|- ! 2 \| 3 \|\| 5 \|\| 7 \|\| 9 \|\| 11 \|\| <math>2n + 3 = 2\cdot(n + 3) - 3</math> \|- ! 3 \| 5 \|\| 13 \|\| 29 \|\| 61 \|\| 125 \|\| <math>2^{(n + 3)} - 3</math> \|- style="vertical-align:top" ! rowspan"3" style"vertical-align:middle" \| 4 \| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" \| 13 \| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" \| 65533 \| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" \| 2<sup>65536</sup>&nbsp;−&nbsp;3 \| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{65536}}} - 3</math> \| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2^{65536}}}} - 3</math> \| rowspan"2" style"border-bottom:0" \| <math>\begin{matrix}\underbrace{{2^2}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^2}}}}_{n+3} - 3\end{matrix}</math> \|- style="vertical-align:bottom" \| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math> \| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math> \| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math> \| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math> \| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" \| <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math> \|- \| rowspan"1" style"border-top:0" \| <math>=2\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math> \|- style="vertical-align:bottom" ! style="vertical-align:middle" \| 5 \| 65533 <br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow(2\uparrow\uparrow 2) - 3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math> \|- ! 6 \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math> \| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math> \|- ! m \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 3)-3</math> \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 4)-3</math> \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 5)-3</math> \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 6)-3</math> \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 7)-3</math> \| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2}(n+3))-3</math> \|} The numbers here which are only expressed with recursive exponentiation or Knuth arrows are very large and would take up too much space to notate in plain decimal digits. Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively. This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Values of A(m,&nbsp;n) \|- ! {{diagonal split header\|m\|n}} ! 0 ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! n \|- ! 0 \| 0+1 \|\| 1+1 \|\| 2+1 \|\| 3+1 \|\| 4+1 \|\| n + 1 \|- ! 1 \| A(0, 1) \|\| A(0, A(1, 0))<br />A(0, 2) \|\| A(0, A(1, 1))<br /> A(0, 3) \|\| A(0, A(1, 2))<br />A(0, 4) \|\| A(0, A(1, 3))<br /> A(0, 5) \|\| A(0, A(1, n−1)) \|- ! 2 \| A(1, 1) \|\| A(1, A(2, 0))<br />A(1, 3) \|\| A(1, A(2, 1))<br /> A(1, 5) \|\| A(1, A(2, 2))<br />A(1, 7) \|\| A(1, A(2, 3))<br /> A(1, 9) \|\| A(1, A(2, n−1)) \|- ! 3 \| A(2, 1) \|\| A(2, A(3, 0))<br />A(2, 5) \|\| A(2, A(3, 1))<br /> A(2, 13) \|\| A(2, A(3, 2))<br />A(2, 29) \|\| A(2, A(3, 3))<br /> A(2, 61) \|\| A(2, A(3, n−1)) \|- ! 4 \| A(3, 1) \|\| A(3, A(4, 0))<br />A(3, 13) \|\| A(3, A(4, 1))<br /> A(3, 65533) \|\| A(3, A(4, 2)) \|\| A(3, A(4, 3)) \|\| A(3, A(4, n−1)) \|- ! 5 \| A(4, 1) \|\| A(4, A(5, 0)) \|\| A(4, A(5, 1)) \|\| A(4, A(5, 2)) \|\| A(4, A(5, 3)) \|\| A(4, A(5, n−1)) \|- ! 6 \| A(5, 1) \|\| A(5, A(6, 0)) \|\| A(5, A(6, 1)) \|\| A(5, A(6, 2)) \|\| A(5, A(6, 3)) \|\| A(5, A(6, n−1)) \|} Properties General remarks It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of <math>A(m, n)</math> always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either <math>m</math> decreases, or <math>m</math> remains the same and <math>n</math> decreases. Each time that <math>n</math> reaches zero, <math>m</math> decreases, so <math>m</math> eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair <math>(m,n)</math> decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when <math>m</math> decreases there is no upper bound on how much <math>n</math> can increase — and it will often increase greatly. For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For <math>m\geq 4</math>, however, it grows much more quickly; even <math>A(4,2)</math> is about 2.00353{{e\|19728}}, and the decimal expansion of <math>A(4, 3)</math> is very large by any typical measure, about 2.12004{{e\|6.03123{{e\|19727}}}}. An interesting aspect is that the only arithmetic operation it ever uses is addition of 1. Its fast growing power is based solely on nested recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see above. A single-argument version <math>f(n)A(n,n)</math> that increases both <math>m</math> and <math>n</math> at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that <math>f(n)</math> is roughly comparable to <math>f_{\omega}(n)</math> in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that <math>f</math> which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. Not primitive recursive The Ackermann function grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore is not itself primitive recursive. Proof sketch: primitive recursive function defined using up to k recursions must grow slower than <math>f_{k+1}(n)</math>, the (k+1)-th function in the fast-growing hierarchy, but the Ackermann function grows at least as fast as <math>f_\omega(n)</math>. Specifically, one shows that, for every primitive recursive function <math>f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)</math>, there exists a non-negative integer <math>t</math>, such that for all non-negative integers <math>x_1,\ldots,x_n</math>,<math display"block">f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)<A(t,\max_i x_i).</math>Once this is established, it follows that <math>A</math> itself is not primitive recursive, since otherwise putting <math>x_1x_2=t</math> would lead to the contradiction <math>A(t,t)<A(t,t).</math> The proof proceeds as follows: define the class <math>\mathcal{A}</math> of all functions that grow slower than the Ackermann function <math display"block">\mathcal{A}\left\{ f\,\bigg\|\,\exists t\ \forall x_1\cdots \forall x_n:\ f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)<A(t, \max_i x_i) \right\} </math> and show that <math>\mathcal{A}</math> contains all primitive recursive functions. The latter is achieved by showing that <math>\mathcal{A}</math> contains the constant functions, the successor function, the projection functions and that it is closed under the operations of function composition and primitive recursion. Inverse Since the function {{nowrap\|1f(n) A(n, n)}} considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f{{i sup\|−1}}, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f<sup>−1</sup> is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since {{nowrap\|A(4, 4)}} is on the order of <math>2^{2^{2^{2^{16}}}}</math>. This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms. A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where <math>\lfloor x \rfloor</math> is the floor function: <math display"block">\alpha(m,n) \min\{i \geq 1 : A(i,\lfloor m/n \rfloor) \geq \log_2 n\}.</math> This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of {{nowrap\|α(m, n)}} exist; for example, {{nowrap\|log<sub>2</sub> n}} is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling. Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row.{{sfn\|Pettie\|2002}} The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive, since it is graph primitive recursive, and it is upper bounded by a primitive recursive function.{{sfn\|Matos\|2014}} Usage In computational complexity The Ackermann function appears in the time complexity of some algorithms,{{sfn\|Brubaker\|2023}} such as vector addition systems{{sfn\|Czerwiński\|Orlikowski\|2022}} and Petri net reachability, thus showing they are computationally infeasible for large instances.{{sfn\|Leroux\|2022}} The inverse of the Ackermann function appears in some time complexity results. For instance, the disjoint-set data structure takes amortized time per operation proportional to the inverse Ackermann function,{{sfn\|Tarjan\|1975}} and cannot be made faster within the cell-probe model of computational complexity.{{sfn\|Fredman\|Saks\|1989}} In discrete geometry Certain problems in discrete geometry related to Davenport–Schinzel sequences have complexity bounds in which the inverse Ackermann function <math>\alpha(n)</math> appears. For instance, for <math>n</math> line segments in the plane, the unbounded face of the arrangement of the segments has complexity <math>O(n\alpha(n))</math>, and some systems of <math>n</math> line segments have an unbounded face of complexity <math>\Omega(n\alpha(n))</math>.{{sfn\|Wiernik\|Sharir\|1988}} As a benchmark The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida{{sfn\|Vaida\|1970}} and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad.{{sfn\|Sundblad\|1971}} Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.{{sfn\|Wichmann\|1976}}{{sfn\|Wichmann\|1977}}{{sfn\|Wichmann\|1982}} See also {{wikifunctions\|Z14742\|Ackermann}} <!-- keep alphabetical --> Computability theory * Double recursion * Fast-growing hierarchy * Goodstein function * Primitive recursive function * Recursion (computer science) <!-- keep alphabetical --> Notes {{reflist\|group"n"}}References{{reflist}}Bibliography {{Refbegin}} {{cite journal \|last= Ackermann \|first= Wilhelm \|author-link= Wilhelm Ackermann \|journal= Mathematische Annalen \|title= Zum Hilbertschen Aufbau der reellen Zahlen \|language=de \|trans-title=On the Hilbertian construction of the real numbers \|year= 1928 \|volume= 99 \|pages= 118–133 \|urlhttp://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/en/dms/loader/img/?PPNPPN235181684_0099&DMDID=DMDLOG_0009 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01459088 \|s2cid= 123431274 }} {{cite journal \|last= Buck \|first= R. C. \|author-link= Robert Creighton Buck \|title= Mathematical Induction and Recursive Definitions \|journal= American Mathematical Monthly \|year= 1963 \|volume= 70 \|issue= 2 \|pages= 128–135 \|doi= 10.2307/2312881 \|jstor= 2312881 \|doi-access= }} {{cite journal \|last1= Calude \|first1= Cristian \|author-link1= Cristian S. Calude \|last2= Marcus \|first2= Solomon \|author-link2= Solomon Marcus \|last3= Tevy \|first3= Ionel \|journal= Historia Math. \|title= The first example of a recursive function which is not primitive recursive \|date= November 1979 \|pages= 380–84 \|volume= 6 \|issue= 4 \|doi= 10.1016/0315-0860(79)90024-7 \|doi-access= free }} {{cite book \|last= Cohen \|first= Daniel E. \|title= Computability and logic \|publisher= Halsted Press \|date= January 1987 \|isbn=9780745800349 }} {{cite journal \|last1= Cornelius \|first1= B. J. \|last2= Kirby \|first2= G. H. \|journal = BIT Numerical Mathematics \|title= Depth of recursion and the Ackermann function \|year= 1975 \|pages= 144–150 \|volume= 15 \|issue= 2 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01932687 \|s2cid= 120532578 }} {{cite conference \|last1= Czerwiński \|first1= Wojciech \|last2= Orlikowski \|first2= Łukasz \|title= Reachability in Vector Addition Systems is Ackermann-complete \|conference= Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 62nd Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science \|date= 7 February 2022 \|url= https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9719806 \|doi= 10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00120 \|arxiv= 2104.13866 }} {{cite book\|first1M.\|last1Fredman\|author-linkMichael Fredman\|first2M.\|last2Saks\|titleProceedings of the twenty-first annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing – STOC '89 \|chapterThe cell probe complexity of dynamic data structures \|pages345&ndash;354\|dateMay 1989\|doi10.1145/73007.73040\|isbn0897913078\|s2cid13470414\|doi-access=free}} {{cite journal \|last1= Grossman \|first1= Jerrold W. \|last2= Zeitman \|first2= R. Suzanne \|journal = Theoretical Computer Science \|title= An inherently iterative computation of ackermann's function \|date= May 1988 \|pages= 327–330 \|volume= 57 \|issue= 2–3 \|doi= 10.1016/0304-3975(88)90046-1 \|doi-access= }} {{cite book \|last= van Heijenoort \|first= Jean \|title= From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931 \|publisher= Harvard University Press \|orig-year= reprinted with corrections, first published in 1967 \|year= 1977 }} {{cite journal \|last= Hilbert \|first= David \|author-link= David Hilbert \|journal= Mathematische Annalen \|title= Über das Unendliche \|language=de \|trans-title=On the infinite \|year= 1926 \|volume= 95 \|pages= 161–190 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01206605 \|s2cid= 121888793 }} {{cite conference \|last= Leroux \|first= Jérôme \|title= The Reachability Problem for Petri Nets is Not Primitive Recursive \|conference= Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 62nd Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science \|date= 7 February 2022 \|url= https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9719763 \|doi= 10.1109/FOCS52979.2021.00121 \|arxiv= 2104.12695 }} {{cite web \|last= Matos \|first= Armando B \|title= The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive \|date= May 7, 2014 \|urlhttp://www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/PRinv.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/PRinv.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive }} {{cite report \|last1= Meeussen \|first1= V. C. S. \|last2= Zantema \|first2= H. \|title= Derivation lengths in term rewriting from interpretations in the naturals \|publisher= University of Utrecht Department of Computer Science \|urlhttps://research.tue.nl/files/4245011/398270.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://research.tue.nl/files/4245011/398270.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|year= 1992 \|issn= 0924-3275 }} {{cite conference \|last1= Meyer \|first1= Albert R. \|author-link1= Albert R. Meyer \|last2= Ritchie \|first2= Dennis MacAlistair \|title= Proceedings of the 1967 22nd national conference \|author-link2= Dennis Ritchie \|chapter= The complexity of loop programs \|conference= ACM '67: Proceedings of the 1967 22nd national conference \|year= 1967 \|pages= 465–469 \|doi= 10.1145/800196.806014 \|doi-access= free }} {{cite book \|last1= Monin \|first1= Jean-Francois \|last2= Hinchey \|first2= M. G. \|title= Understanding Formal Methods \|publisher= Springer \|year= 2003 \|isbn= 9781852332471 \|page= 61 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrUudIPZD-B0C&pg=PA61 }} {{cite web \|last= Munafo \|first= Robert \|title= Versions of Ackermann's Function \|url= http://www.mrob.com/pub/math/ln-2deep.html#ack \|work= Large Numbers at MROB \|date= 1999a \|access-date= 2021-11-06 }} {{cite web \|last= Munafo \|first= Robert \|title= Inventing New Operators and Functions \|url= http://www.mrob.com/pub/math/largenum-3.html \|work= Large Numbers at MROB \|date= 1999b \|access-date= 2021-11-06 }} {{cite web \|last= Paulson \|first= Lawrence C. \|title= Ackermann's Function in Iterative Form: A Proof Assistant Experiment \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351063906 \|date= 2021 \|access-date= 2021-10-19 }} {{cite journal \|last= Péter \|first= Rózsa \|author-link= Rózsa Péter \|journal= Mathematische Annalen \|title= Konstruktion nichtrekursiver Funktionen \|language=de \|trans-title=Construction of non-recursive functions \|year= 1935 \|volume= 111 \|pages= 42–60 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01472200 \|s2cid= 121107217 }} {{cite book \|last= Pettie \|first= S. \|title= The 43rd Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 2002. Proceedings. \|chapter= An inverse-Ackermann style lower bound for the online minimum spanning tree verification problem \|year= 2002 \|pages= 155–163 \|doi= 10.1109/SFCS.2002.1181892 \|isbn= 0-7695-1822-2 \|s2cid= 8636108 }} {{cite journal \|last1= Porto \|first1= António \|last2= Matos \|first2= Armando B. \|title= Ackermann and the superpowers \|journal= ACM SIGACT News \|date= 1 September 1980 \|volume= 12 \|issue= 3 \|pages= 90–95 \|urlhttps://www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/ack.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.dcc.fc.up.pt/~acm/ack.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|doi= 10.1145/1008861.1008872 \|s2cid= 29780652 }} Original version 1980, published in ACM SIGACT News, modified on 20 October 2012 and 23 January 2016 (working paper) {{cite journal \|last= Ritchie \|first= Robert Wells \|title= Classes of recursive functions based on Ackermann's function \|journal= Pacific Journal of Mathematics \|date= November 1965 \|volume= 15 \|issue= 3 \|pages= 1027–1044 \|url= https://msp.org/pjm/1965/15-3/p25.xhtml \|doi= 10.2140/pjm.1965.15.1027 \|doi-access= free }} {{cite journal \|last= Robinson \|first= Raphael Mitchel \|author-link= Raphael M. Robinson \|title= Recursion and Double Recursion \|journal= Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society \|year= 1948 \|volume= 54 \|pages= 987–93 \|urlhttp://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?verbDisplay&version1.0&serviceUI&handleeuclid.bams/1183512393&pagerecord \|doi= 10.1090/S0002-9904-1948-09121-2 \|issue= 10 \|doi-access= free }} {{cite journal \|last= Sundblad \|first= Yngve \|date= March 1971 \|title= The Ackermann function. A theoretical, computational, and formula manipulative study \|journal= BIT Numerical Mathematics \|volume= 11 \|issue= 1 \|pages= 107–119 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01935330 \|s2cid= 123416408 }} {{cite journal\|last1Tarjan\|first1Robert Endre\|author1-linkRobert E. Tarjan\|year1975\|titleEfficiency of a Good But Not Linear Set Union Algorithm\|journalJournal of the ACM\|volume22\|issue2\|pages215&ndash;225\|doi10.1145/321879.321884\|hdl1813/5942\|s2cid11105749\|hdl-access=free }} {{cite journal \|last= Vaida \|first= Dragoș \|date= 1970 \|title= Compiler Validation for an Algol-like Language \|journal= Bulletin Mathématique de la Société des Sciences Mathématiques de la République Socialiste de Roumanie \|series= Nouvelle série \|volume= 14 (62) \|issue= 4 \|pages= 487–502 \|jstor= 43679758 }} {{citation\|mode=cs1 \|last= Ward \|first= Martin P. \|date= 16 July 1993 \|title= Iterative Procedures for Computing Ackerman's Function \|citeseerx= 10.1.1.35.9907 }} {{cite journal \|last= Wichmann \|first= Brian A. \|date= March 1976 \|title= Ackermann's function: A study in the efficiency of calling procedures \|journal= BIT Numerical Mathematics \|volume= 16 \|pages= 103–110 \|doi= 10.1007/BF01940783 \|s2cid= 16993343 \|citeseerx= 10.1.1.108.4125 }} {{cite journal \|last= Wichmann \|first= Brian A. \|date= July 1977 \|title= How to call procedures, or second thoughts on Ackermann's function \|journal= BIT Numerical Mathematics \|volume= 16 \|issue= 3 \|pages= 103–110 \|doi= 10.1002/spe.4380070303 \|s2cid= 206507320 }} {{cite web \|last= Wichmann \|first= Brian A. \|date= July 1982 \|title= Latest results from the procedure calling test, Ackermann's function \|urlhttp://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/Imp_Benchmarks/acklt.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/Imp_Benchmarks/acklt.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}} {{Refend}} External links * {{springer\|titleAckermann function\|idp/a120110\|mode=cs1}} * {{MathWorld \| urlname AckermannFunction \| title Ackermann function}} * {{DADS\|Ackermann's function\|ackermann}} * [http://www.gfredericks.com/main/sandbox/arith/ackermann An animated Ackermann function calculator] * {{Cite web\|lastAaronson\|firstScott \|author-linkScott Aaronson\|urlhttp://www.scottaaronson.com/writings/bignumbers.html\|titleWho Can Name the Bigger Number?\|date1999}} * [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/ackermnn.htm Ackermann functions]. Includes a table of some values. * {{Cite web\|lastBrubaker\|firstBen\|urlhttps://www.quantamagazine.org/an-easy-sounding-problem-yields-numbers-too-big-for-our-universe-20231204/\|titleAn Easy-Sounding Problem Yields Numbers Too Big for Our Universe\|date=2023-12-04}} * {{Cite web\|lastMunafo\|firstRobert\|urlhttp://www.mrob.com/pub/math/largenum.html\|titleLarge Numbers}} describes several variations on the definition of A. * {{Cite web\|lastNivasch\|firstGabriel\|titleInverse Ackermann without pain\|urlhttp://www.gabrielnivasch.org/fun/inverse-ackermann\|dateOctober 2021\|access-date18 June 2023\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070821224819/http://yucs.org/~gnivasch/alpha/index.html\|archive-date=2007-08-21}} * {{Cite web\|lastSeidel\|firstRaimund\|urlhttp://cgi.di.uoa.gr/~ewcg06/invited/Seidel.pdf\|titleUnderstanding the inverse Ackermann function}} * [http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Ackermann_Function The Ackermann function written in different programming languages], (on Rosetta Code) * {{Cite web\|lastSmith\|firstHarry J.\|urlhttp://www.geocities.com/hjsmithh/Ackerman/index.html\|titleAckermann's Function\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091026171012/http://www.geocities.com/hjsmithh/Ackerman/index.html\|archive-date=2009-10-26}}) Some study and programming. *{{cite journal \| last1 Wiernik \| first1 Ady \| last2 Sharir \| first2 Micha \| authorlink2 = Micha Sharir \| title = Planar realizations of nonlinear Davenport–Schinzel sequences by segments \| journal = Discrete & Computational Geometry \| volume 3 \| issue 1 \| year 1988 \| pages 15–47 \| mr 0918177 \| doi 10.1007/BF02187894\| doi-access = free }} {{Hyperoperations}} {{Large numbers}} {{Authority control}} Category:Arithmetic Category:Large integers Category:Special functions Category:Theory of computation Category:Computability theory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function	2025-04-05T18:26:12.415393
2926	Antarctic	{{About\|the region\|the continent\|Antarctica\|other uses\|Antarctic (disambiguation)}} {{Short description\|Polar region around Earth's South Pole}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2024}} and the 60th parallel south]] ]] The Antarctic ({{IPAc-en\|æ\|n\|ˈ\|t\|ɑr\|t\|ɪ\|k\|,_\|-\|k\|t\|ɪ\|k}}, {{IPAc-en\|USalso\|æ\|n\|t\|ˈ\|ɑr\|t\|ɪ\|k\|,_\|-\|k\|t\|ɪ\|k}}; commonly {{IPAc-en\|æ\|ˈ\|n\|ɑr\|t\|ɪ\|k}}){{refn\|The word was originally pronounced without the first {{IPA\|/k/}}, but the spelling pronunciation has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation without the first k sound and the first t sound is however widespread and a typical phenomenon of English in many other similar words too.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?qAntarctica\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208004718/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?qAntarctica\|url-statusdead\|titleThe American Heritage Dictionary entry: Antarctica\|firstHarperCollins\|lastPublishers\|archivedate8 December 2015\|websitewww.ahdictionary.com}}</ref> The "c" was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.<ref>{{cite book \|lastCrystal \|firstDavid \|date2006 \|titleThe Fight for English \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-920764-0 \|page[https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172 172] \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastHarper \|firstDouglas \|titleAntarctic \|workOnline Etymology Dictionary \|urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termantarctic&allowed_in_frame0 \|access-date16 November 2011 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120111152745/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termantarctic&allowed_in_frame0 \|archive-date11 January 2012}}</ref>\|group="Note"}} is a polar region around Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau, and other island territories located on the Antarctic Plate or south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic region includes the ice shelves, waters, and all the island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, a zone approximately {{convert\|32\|to\|48\|km\|mi\|abbron}} wide and varying in latitude seasonally.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.scar.org/ \|titleScientific Committee on Antarctic Research website \|publisherSCAR \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131214094758/http://www.scar.org/ \|archive-date14 December 2013 \|url-statuslive \|access-date}}</ref> The region covers some 20 percent of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5.5 percent (14&nbsp;million km<sup>2</sup>) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administered under the Antarctic Treaty System. Biogeographically, the Antarctic realm is one of eight biogeographic realms on Earth's land surface. Climate change in Antarctica is particularly important because the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet has a high potential to add to the global sea level rise. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which would have significant effects on the local climate and marine ecosystem functioning. There is no permanent country in Antarctica. Geography satellite image of the Antarctic without its periphery of unattached sea ice]] ]] As defined by the Antarctic Treaty System, the Antarctic region is everything south of the 60°S latitude. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the archipelagos of the Balleny Islands, Peter I Island, Scott Island, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Antarctic Treaty {{!}} NSF \|urlhttps://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp \|access-date7 October 2020 \|publisherNational Science Foundation \|websitewww.nsf.gov \|archive-date11 May 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130511130543/http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However, this area does not include the Antarctic Convergence, a transition zone where the cold waters of the Southern Ocean collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCommission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources – Department of Agriculture \|urlhttps://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/international/ccamlr \|access-date7 October 2020 \|websitewww.agriculture.gov.au \|archive-date20 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200920181241/https://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/international/ccamlr \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ccamlr.org/pu/e/e_pubs/bd/pt1.pdf\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100505214806/http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/bd/pt1.pdf\|url-statusdead\|titleConvention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources\|archivedate5 May 2010}}</ref> The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSchedule of Conservation Measures in Force 2023/24 \|urlhttps://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-schedule2023-24.pdf \|websiteCCAMLR \|access-date15 April 2024 \|archive-date8 February 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240208225737/https://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-schedule2023-24.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the Antarctic Convergence to the north and their respective {{convert\|200\|nmi\|km\|adj=on}} exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom), Bouvet Island (Norway), and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia). Kerguelen Islands (France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Isla de los Estados, Hornos Island with Cape Horn, Diego Ramírez Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Gough Island, and Tristan da Cunha group remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region. Ecology {{See also\|Antarctic realm\|Antarctic microorganism\|Wildlife of Antarctica}} Antarctica A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including:<ref>{{cite web \|titlePolar Wildlife \|urlhttps://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230801003734/https://www.bas.ac.uk/web/20230801003734/https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/ \|archive-date1 August 2023 \|access-date \|publisherNatural Environment Research Council \|websiteBritish Antarctic Survey}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|authorVanessa Woods \|date14 October 2011 \|titleAntarctic wildlife \|urlhttp://www.csiro.au/Portals/Education/Kids/Read-it/Polar-eyes/About-Antarctica/Antarctic-wildlife.aspx \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131214120508/http://www.csiro.au/Portals/Education/Kids/Read-it/Polar-eyes/About-Antarctica/Antarctic-wildlife.aspx \|archive-date14 December 2013 \|access-date20 November 2012 \|publisher=Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation}}</ref> * Seals * Penguins * South Georgia pipits * Albatrosses * Antarctic petrels * Whales * Fish, such as Antarctic icefish, Antarctic toothfish * Squid, including the colossal squid * Antarctic krill Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePlants \|urlhttps://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/plants/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926072301/https://www.bas.ac.uk/web/20230926072301/https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/plants/ \|archive-date26 September 2023 \|access-date \|publisherNatural Environment Research Council \|websiteBritish Antarctic Survey}}</ref> Sub-Antarctic Islands Biodiversity among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chown \|last2Gremmen \|last3Gaston \|date1998 \|titleEcological Biogeography of Southern Ocean Islands: Species-Area Relationships, Human Impacts, and Conservation \|urlhttps://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/472624/Chown_ea_2534.pdf \|journalThe American Naturalist\|volume152 \|issue4 \|pages562–75 \|doi10.2307/2463357 \|jstor2463357 \|pmid18811364 \|issn0003-0147}}</ref> * {{Flagdeco\|Argentina}} Isla de los Estados (Argentina) * {{Flagdeco\|Chile}} Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Chile) Conservation and Mount Herschel in Eastern Antarctica]] The Antarctic hosts the world's largest protected area comprising 1.07&nbsp;million&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Marine%20Protected%20Area/MPA%20Management%20Plan%20v2.0.pdf \|titleSGSSI Marine Protection Area (Management Plan). \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161029111949/http://www.gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Marine%20Protected%20Area/MPA%20Management%20Plan%20v2.0.pdf \|archive-date29 October 2016 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the Greenland National Park's {{Convert\|972,000\|km2\|sqmi\|abbron\|spus}}.<ref>{{cite web \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100428161458/http://www.stat.gl/LinkClick.aspx?linkIntranet%2fGIF_2009_WEB.pdf&tabid57&mid473&languageen-US \|titleGreenland in figures 2009 \|date2009 \|urlhttp://www.stat.gl/LinkClick.aspx?linkIntranet%2fGIF_2009_WEB.pdf&tabid57&mid473&languageen-US \|archive-date28 April 2010 \|publisherStatistics Greenland}}</ref> (While the Ross Sea Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170423204236/https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/ccamlr-create-worlds-largest-marine-protected-area CCAMLR to create world's largest Marine Protected Area.] CCAMLR Website</ref><ref name"Guardian Slezak 2016">{{cite web \|last1Slezak \|first1Michael \|date26 October 2016 \|titleWorld's largest marine park created in Ross Sea in Antarctica in landmark deal \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/28/worlds-largest-marine-park-created-in-ross-sea-in-antarctica-in-landmark-deal \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161028152059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/28/worlds-largest-marine-park-created-in-ross-sea-in-antarctica-in-landmark-deal \|archive-date28 October 2016 \|access-date28 October 2016 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|languageen-GB}}</ref>) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the Polar Code, adopted by the International Maritime Organization (in force since 1 January 2017).<ref name"IMOPolar">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx \|titleShipping in polar waters \|publisherIMO \|access-date2 August 2021 \|archive-date2 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210802101244/https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"IMOPolar1Year">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on \|titleThe Polar Code, One Year On \|publisherThe Maritime Executive \|access-date2 August 2021 \|archive-date2 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210802101829/https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Climate change {{excerpt\|Climate change in Antarctica\|paragraphs1,2}} {{excerpt\|Climate change in Antarctica\|paragraphs3,4\|filesno}} Society and others in the Southern Ocean]] People The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, visited by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Although such myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of Antarctica is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny. The Australian James Kerguelen Robinson (1859–1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the sealing ship Offley in the Gulf of Morbihan (Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859.<ref>{{cite report \|lastRobinson \|firstJames \|year1906 \|chapterAppendix&nbsp;B: Log of the Offley \|titleReminiscences \|pages98–99 \|editor-firstD. \|editor-lastCerchi \|publisherArchives Office of Tasmania \|placeHobart, Tasmania, AU \|chapter-urlhttp://www.cerchi.net/destinations/2002_sioe/sioe_kerguelen.html \|archive-date6 February 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120206155915/http://www.cerchi.net/destinations/2002_sioe/sioe_kerguelen.html}}</ref><ref>L. Ivanov and N. Ivanova. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364087925_The_World_of_Antarctica The World of Antarctica.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221101200659/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364087925_The_World_of_Antarctica \|date1 November 2022 }} Generis Publishing, 2022. 241 pp. {{ISBN\|979-8-88676-403-1}}</ref> The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia.<ref>{{cite book \|lastHeadland \|firstRobert \|titleThe Island of South Georgia \|locationCambridge \|publisherCambridge University Press \|date1984 \|isbn9780521424745}}</ref> in Argentina is the most active gateway to Antarctica.]] Emilio Marcos Palma (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the Esperanza Base.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.diarioc.com.ar/inf_general/Emilio_Palma_argentino_y-Adan-de_la_Antartida/2029\|titleEmilio Palma, argentino y "Adán" de la Antártida &#124; Información General\|websitewww.diarioc.com.ar\|access-date2 April 2021\|archive-date25 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225015801/http://www.diarioc.com.ar/inf_general/Emilio_Palma_argentino_y-Adan-de_la_Antartida/2029\|url-status=live}}</ref> His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma's birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed Argentine Antarctica. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican. , the geographic South Pole, with its signpost in the background]] The Antarctic region had no indigenous population when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient scientific and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen research stations maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://image.zenn.net/REPLACE/CLIENT/1000037/1000116/application/pdf/touristsbynationality_total2.pdf\|titleIAATO tourist statistics 2007/08\|access-date20 July 2009\|archive-date1 August 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130801191534/http://image.zenn.net/REPLACE/CLIENT/1000037/1000116/application/pdf/touristsbynationality_total2.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the Antarctic Peninsula area (especially the South Shetland Islands) and South Georgia Island. In December 2009, the growth of tourism, with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010.<ref>[http://www.680news.com/news/world/article/5976 Antarctic Nations Considering New Controls On Ships Amid Tourism Explosion.] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120118154613/http://www.680news.com/news/world/article/5976 \|date18 January 2012 }} Ray Lilley, The Associated Press, 8 December 2009.</ref> Time zones {{Main\|Time in Antarctica}} Because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on territorial claims or the time zone of a station's owner country or supply base.<ref>{{cite web \|authorNational Geographic Spciety\|titleSouth Pole \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-pole/ \|websiteNational Geographic Society \|access-date9 April 2022 \|languageen \|date14 August 2012 \|archive-date28 March 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328154532/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-pole/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> List of offshore islands {{Wide image\|061212-nordkapp.jpg\|590px\|A Norwegian cruise ship at Petermann Island with Kyiv Peninsula of Graham Land in the background}} North of 60°S latitude , Grytviken]] {{Columns-list\|colwidth=30em\| * {{Flag\|Bouvet Island}} (Norway) * {{Flag\|Heard Island and McDonald Islands}} (Australia) Heard Island McDonald Islands * {{Flagdeco\|French Southern Territories}} Kerguelen Islands (France) * {{Flag\|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands}} (United Kingdom) South Georgia Islands * Shag Rocks * South Georgia South Sandwich Islands }} South of 60°S latitude {{Columns-list\|colwidth=30em\| * {{Flagdeco\|Antarctic Treaty}} Balleny Islands (Antarctic Treaty System) * {{Flagdeco\|Antarctic Treaty}} Peter I Island (Antarctic Treaty System) * {{Flagdeco\|Antarctic Treaty}} Scott Island (Antarctic Treaty System) * {{Flagdeco\|Antarctic Treaty}} South Orkney Islands (Antarctic Treaty System) * {{Flagdeco\|Antarctic Treaty}} South Shetland Islands (Antarctic Treaty System) }} See also * Anthony de la Roché * Antarctic Circle * Antarctic ice sheet * History of Antarctica Notes {{reflist\|groupNote}} References {{reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{main\|Bibliography of Antarctica}} * Krupnik, Igor; Michael A. Lang; Scott E. Miller (eds). [http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?seriesIPY&toplevel1 Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science]. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009. External links * [http://www.bsae2012.co.uk/ British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012] * [http://www.cep.aq/ Committee for Environmental Protection of Antarctica] * [http://www.ats.aq/ Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty] * [http://www.ccamlr.org/ CCAMLR Commission] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090106182938/http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/AHT/HistoryHutPointCrew/ Antarctic Heritage Trusts] * [http://www.iaato.org/ International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318122231/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/the_antarctic_convergence Map of the Antarctic Convergence] * [http://www.subantarctic.org.uk/ The South Atlantic and Subantarctic Islands] * [https://adventuresallaround.com/ushuaia-gateway-to-antarctica-a-beginners-guide/ Ushuaia is the most popular gateway to Antarctica] {{Antarctica\|expanded}} {{Regions of the world}} {{Polar regions}} {{Antarctic claims}} {{Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories}} {{Polar exploration \|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Geography}} {{Coord\|90\|00\|S\|00\|00\|W\|region:AQ_type:landmark_source:kolossus-dewiki\|display=title}} Category:Geography of Antarctica	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic	2025-04-05T18:26:12.431302
2927	Albanians	{{Short description\|Ethnic group native to Southern Europe}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox ethnic group \| group = Albanians \| native_name = {{lang\|sq\|Shqiptarët}} \| image = Map of the Albanian Diaspora in the World.svg \| native_name_lang = sq \| pop {{circa}} 7 to 10 million<ref name"seven million">Carl Skutsch, Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities, Routledge, 2013 {{ISBN\|1135193886}}, p. 65.</ref><ref name"seven million2">Steven L. Danver, Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues:, Routledge, 2015, {{ISBN\|1317463994}}, p. 260.</ref><ref name"eight million">{{Cite book \|authorMary Rose Bonk \|titleWorldmark Yearbook, Band 1 \|publisherGale Group, 2000 \|page37 }}</ref><ref name"eight million 2">{{Cite book \|publisherNational Geographic Society, 2000 \|titleNational Geographic, Band 197 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ICBAAAAMAAJ&qalbanians+worldwide+8+million \|page59 \|editionUniversity of Michigan \|year2000 \|access-date27 September 2020}}</ref><ref name"ten million albanian speaker">{{Cite book \|publisherJeffrey Frank Jones \|titleOver 20 Peace Corps Language Training Publications–Country Pre-departure Materials \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idG9NEDwAAQBAJ&pgPA4 \|access-date=27 September 2020}}</ref> \| popplace {{flag\|Albania}} 2,182,917 (2023)<ref name"Census 2023">{{cite web \|publisherInstituti i Statistikës (INSTAT) \|titlePopulation and Housing Census 2023\|urlhttps://shqiptarja.com/uploads/ckeditor/667eb96647c4bcens-2023.pdf}}</ref><br />{{flag\|Kosovo}} 1,454,963 (2024)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKosovo 2024\|urlhttps://askapi.rks-gov.net/Custom/31bc24d2-45e4-4eb5-a567-405f4bdd197f.pdf \|access-date2025-03-04}}</ref> \| tablehdr = Other regions {{collapsed infobox section begin\|td=yes\|Southern Europe}} \| region1 = {{flag\|Italy}} \| pop1 = 970,000 \| ref1 <ref name"Kosovari in Italia" /><ref name"ethnologue1976">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ethnologue.com/language/aae/%2A%2A%2AEDITION%2A%2A%2A\|titleArbëreshiski language of Italy – Ethnic population: 260,000 (Stephens 1976)\|websiteEthnologue}}</ref><ref name"istat">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.istat.it/it/archivio/129854 \|titleCittadini non-comunitari regolarmente presenti \|publisheristat.it \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141113203531/http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/129854 \|archive-date13 November 2014 \|date4 August 2014 }}</ref> \| region2 = {{flag\|Greece}} \| pop2 = 500,000–600,000 \| ref2 <ref name"researchgate.net">{{Cite journal \|last1Gemi \|first1Eda \|titleAlbanian Migration in Greece: Understanding Irregularity in a Time of Crisis \|journalEuropean Journal of Migration and Law \|dateFebruary 2017 \|volume19 \|issue1 \|page18 \|doi10.1163/15718166-12342113 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/313593101}}</ref><ref name"auto">{{Cite book \|last1Cela \|display-authorsetal \|titleALBANIA AND GREECE: UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLAINING \|dateJanuary 2018 \|publisherFriedrich-Ebert-Stiftung \|locationTirana \|pages20–36 \|urlhttps://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/albanien/14698.pdf}}</ref><ref name"ssoar.info">{{Cite journal \|last1Adamczyk \|first1Artur \|titleAlbanian Immigrants in Greece From Unwanted to Tolerated? \|journalJournal of Liberty and International Affairs \|dateJune 15, 2016 \|volume2 \|issue1 \|page53 \|urlhttps://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/47088/ssoar-jlibertyintaff-2016-1-adamczyk-Albanian_immigrants_in_Greece_from.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy&lnknamessoar-jlibertyintaff-2016-1-adamczyk-Albanian_immigrants_in_Greece_from.pdf}}</ref><ref>Vathi, Zana. Migrating and settling in a mobile world: Albanian migrants and their children in Europe. Springer Nature, 2015.</ref><ref>Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation. By Philip L. Martin, Susan Forbes Martin, Patrick Weil</ref><ref name"populationbycitizenship">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF \|titleAnnouncement of the demographic and social characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population – Housing Census. \|trans-titleGraph 7 Resident population with foreign citizenship \|publisherGreek National Statistics Agency \|date23 August 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131225192921/http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF \|archive-date25 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|author1Julie Vullnetari \|titleAlbania on the Move: Links Between Internal and International Migration \|publisherAmsterdam University Press, 2012 \|isbn9789089643551 \|page73 \|urlhttps://library.oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/34526/419372.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy \|languageen\|year2012 \|quote=To this, weneed to add an estimate of irregular migrants; some Greek researchers haveargued that Albanians have a rate of 30 per cent irregularity in Greece, butthis is contested as rather high by others (see Maroukis 2009: 62). If we accept a more conservative share than that–e.g. 20 per cent–we come toa total of around 670,000 for all Albanian migrants in Greece in 2010, which is rather lower than that supplied by NID (Table 3.2). In a countrywith a total population of around eleven million, this is nevertheless a con-siderable presence: around 6 per cent of the total population}}</ref> \| region3 = {{flag\|North Macedonia}} \| pop3 = 446,245 \| ref3 <ref name"MKDCensus">{{Cite web \|websitestat.gov.mk \|publisherState Statistical Office of the Republic of North Macedonia \|titleCensus of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of North Macedonia, 2021 \|urlhttps://www.stat.gov.mk/PrikaziSoopstenie.aspx?rbrtxt146 \|page \|language=en, mk }}</ref> \| region36 = {{flag\|Turkey}} \| pop36 = 500,000–6,000,000 {{smallsup\|b}} \| ref36 <ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.todayszaman.com/national_albanians-in-turkey-celebrate-their-cultural-heritage_254383.html \|titleAlbanians in Turkey celebrate their cultural heritage \|workToday's Zaman \|date21 August 2011 \|access-date4 November 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151031102644/https://www.todayszaman.com/national_albanians-in-turkey-celebrate-their-cultural-heritage_254383.html \|archive-date31 October 2015 }}</ref><!--gives 0.5 to 1.3 mil--><ref name"Saunders98" /><!--gives 5 mil for ancestry--><ref name"Yenigun184">{{Cite journal\|lastYenigun\|firstCuneyt\|titleGCC Model: Conflict Management for the "Greater Albania"\|urlhttps://sablon.sdu.edu.tr/dergi/sosbilder/dosyalar/27/OS_16.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150927134953/https://sablon.sdu.edu.tr/dergi/sosbilder/dosyalar/27/OS_16.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date27 September 2015\|journalSDU Faculty of Arts and Sciences Journal of Social Sciences\|volume2\|year2009\|pages175–185}}. Page 184: "Turkey contains 5–6&nbsp;million Albanians (more than in the Balkan area)"</ref> \| region4 = {{flag\|Montenegro}} \| pop4 = 30,439 \| ref4 <ref name"Monstat">{{Cite web \|publisherStatistical Office of Montenegro \|urlhttp://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf \|titleOfficial Results of Monenegrin Census 2011 \|daten.d.\|access-date=24 December 2013}}</ref> \| region5 = {{flag\|Serbia}} \| pop5 = 61,687 \| ref5 <ref name"Почетна 2023 l788">{{cite web \| titleFinal results - Ethnicity \| websiteПочетна \| date2023-07-14 \| urlhttps://popis2022.stat.gov.rs/en-US/5-vestisaopstenja/news-events/20230428-konacnirezpopisa \| ref{{sfnref \| Почетна \| 2023}} \| access-date2023-12-07}}</ref> \| region6 = {{flag\|Croatia}} \| pop6 = 17,513 \| ref6 <ref name"Census 2011 Grad_02">{{Croatian Census 2011\|E}}</ref> \| region7 = {{flag\|Slovenia}} \| pop7 = 6,186 \| ref7 <ref name"Slovenia">{{Cite web \|title7. Prebivalstvo po narodni pripadnosti, Slovenija, popisi 1953, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 in 2002 \|urlhttps://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?terSLO&st7 \|websitestat.si \|languagesl \|access-date13 January 2019 \|archive-date26 April 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426055815/http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?terSLO&st7 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> \| region8 = {{flag\|Spain}} \| pop8 = 3,998 \| ref8 <ref name"AlbSpa">{{Cite web \|publisherInstituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) \|titlePoblación y edad media por nacionalidad y sexo \|urlhttp://www.ine.es/jaxi/Datos.htm?path/t20/e245/p04/provi/l0/&file00000010.px \|access-date11 August 2021 \|language=es}}</ref> \| region9 = {{flag\|Portugal}} \| pop9 = 99 \| ref9 {{smallsup\|c}}<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePOPULAÇÃO ESTRANGEIRA RESIDENTE EM TERRITÓRIO NACIONAL – 2022 \|url=https://www.sef.pt/pt/Documents/RIFA2022%20vF2a.pdf}}</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Northern Europe}} \| region10 = {{flag\|Sweden}} \| pop10 = 54,000 \| ref10 <ref name"Sweden">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ethnologue.com/country/SE\|titleTotal Population of Albanians in the Sweden\|website=Ethnologue}}</ref> \| region11 = {{flag\|Norway}} \| pop11 = 19,891 \| ref11 {{smallsup\|c}}<ref name"Norway">{{Cite web \|publisherStatistisk Sentralbyrå (SSB) \|title05183: Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, by sex and country background \|urlhttps://www.ssb.no/en/innvbef \|access-date11 August 2021}}</ref> \| region12 = {{flag\|United Kingdom}} \| pop12 13,000<ref>{{2011CensusEngWalCoB\|access-date7 January 2017}}</ref> \| ref12 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://unitedkingdom.iom.int/sites/default/files/doc/mapping/IOM_ALBANIA.pdf\|titleAlbanians in the UK\|websiteunitedkingdom\|access-date10 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151014230457/http://unitedkingdom.iom.int/sites/default/files/doc/mapping/IOM_ALBANIA.pdf\|archive-date=14 October 2015}}</ref> \| region14 = {{flag\|Finland}} \| pop14 = 10,391 \| ref14 <ref name"Finland">{{Cite web \|websitestat.fi \|publisherStatistics Finland \|titlePopulation by language on 31 December \|urlhttp://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html \|url-statusdead \|date29 December 2018 \|access-date29 December 2018 \|archive-date11 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200611010801/https://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/Saveshow.asp \|titleDemographics of Finland \|websitepxweb2.stat.fi}}{{dead link\|dateJune 2017 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> \| region15 = {{flag\|Denmark}} \| pop15 = 8,223 \| ref15 <ref name"Denmark">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.dst.dk \|titleNational statistics of Denmark \|publisherDst.dk \|access-date22 September 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100926003207/http://www.dst.dk/\| archive-date 26 September 2010 \| url-status= live}}</ref> \| region16 = {{flag\|Ireland}} \| pop16 = 953–2,133 \| ref16 <ref name"All non-Irish">{{Cite web \|websitecso.ie \|publisherCentral Statistics Office \|titleCensus of Population 2016 – Profile 7 Migration and Diversity All non-Irish nationals in Ireland \|urlhttps://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp7md/p7md/p7anii/ }}</ref><ref name"Mother Tongue">{{Cite web \|websitecso.ie \|publisherCentral Statistics Office \|titlePopulation Usually Resident and Present in the State who Speak a Language other than English or Irish at Home 2011 to 2016 by Birthplace, Language Spoken, Age Group and Census Year \|urlhttp://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?maintableEY025&PLanguage=0 }}</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Central Europe and Baltics}} \| region17 = {{flag\|Romania}} \| pop17 = 10,000 \| ref17 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.divers.ro/albanezi_date_demografice_ro\|titleDate demografice\|access-date18 August 2010\|languagero\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100811212110/http://www.divers.ro/albanezi_date_demografice_ro\|archive-date11 August 2010\|url-statusdead}}</ref> \| region18 = {{flag\|Ukraine}} \| pop18 = 5,000 \| ref18 = <ref>Olson, James S., An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994) p. 28–29</ref> \| region19 = {{flag\|Czech Republic}} \| pop19 = 1,512 \| ref19 <ref>{{Cite web \|websiteczso.cz \|publisherČeský statistický úřad \|titleT14 Cizinci podle kategorií pobytu, pohlaví a občanství k 31 December 2016 \|urlhttps://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version1.0 \|languagesk, en \|access-date22 December 2018 \|archive-date12 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180112214925/https://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version1.0 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> \| region20 = {{flag\|Latvia}} \| pop20 = 17 - 31 \| ref20 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/en/OSP_PUB/START__POP__IR__IRE/IRE010/table/tableViewLayout1/\|titlePopulation by ethnicity at the beginning of year – Time period and Ethnicity &#124; National Statistical System of Latvia \|websitedata.stat.gov.lv}}</ref><ref>[https://www.pmlp.gov.lv/lv/media/9756/download?attachment Latvijas iedzīvotāju sadalījums pēc nacionālā sastāva un valstiskās piederības, 01.01.2023. - PMLP]</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Western Europe}} \| region21 = {{flag\|Germany}} \| pop21 = 200,000–300,000 \| ref21 <ref name"albde">Hans-Peter Bartels: [http://www.hans-peter-bartels.de/pdf/267.pdf?titleBT-Plenarprotokoll_05.06.2008_-_Ausschnitt_Bartels_-_Kosovo Deutscher Bundestag – 16. Wahlperiode – 166. Sitzung. Berlin, Donnerstag, den 5. Juni 2008] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130103000048/http://www.hans-peter-bartels.de/pdf/267.pdf?titleBT-Plenarprotokoll_05.06.2008_-_Ausschnitt_Bartels_-_Kosovo \|date3 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name"SB1" /><ref name"SB2" /> \| region22 = {{flag\|Switzerland}} \| pop22 = 200,000 \| ref22 <ref name"albsuisse">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.schweiz-albanien.ch/fileadmin/Dokumente/Informationen/090808_albsuissealbanerch.pdf \|titleDie Albaner in der Schweiz: Geschichtliches – Albaner in der Schweiz seit 1431 \|access-date22 September 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110707002637/http://www.schweiz-albanien.ch/fileadmin/Dokumente/Informationen/090808_albsuissealbanerch.pdf \|archive-date7 July 2011 }}</ref><ref name"albsuisse2">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.infowilplus.ch/_iu_write/artikel/2007/KW_21/Region/Artikel_8116/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706234401/http://www.infowilplus.ch/_iu_write/artikel/2007/KW_21/Region/Artikel_8116/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-date6 July 2011 \|titleIm Namen aller Albaner eine Moschee? \|publisherInfowilplus.ch \|date25 May 2007 }}</ref> \| region23 = {{flag\|Austria}} \| pop23 = 28,212 \| ref23 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/volkszaehlungen_registerzaehlungen/bevoelkerung_nach_demographischen_merkmalen/index.html \|archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20101113145800/http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/volkszaehlungen_registerzaehlungen/bevoelkerung_nach_demographischen_merkmalen/index.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date13 November 2010 \|titleStatistik Austria \|publisherStatistik.at \|access-date24 December 2013 }}</ref> \| region24 = {{flag\|France}} \| pop24 = 27,200 (2019) \| ref24 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6478089?sommaire6478362 \|titleÉtrangers – Immigrés: Publications et statistiques pour la France ou les régions \|languagefr \|publisherInsee.fr \|daten.d.\|access-date4 November 2019}}</ref> \| region25 = {{flag\|Netherlands}} \| pop25 = 12,969 \| ref25 {{smallsup\|c}}<ref name"Netherlands">{{Cite web \|publisherCentraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS) \|titleBevolking; generatie, geslacht, leeftijd en migratieachtergrond, 1 januari \|urlhttp://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DMSLNL&PA37325&D10&D20&D30&D40&D5a&D6l&VWT \|language=nl}}</ref> \| region26 = {{flag\|Belgium}} \| pop26 = 5,600–30,000 \| ref26 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://statbel.fgov.be/fr/modules/publications/statistiques/population/population_natio_sexe_groupe_classe_d_ges_au_1er_janvier_2010.jsp\|titlePopulation par nationalité, sexe, groupe et classe d'âges au 1er janvier 2010\|access-date12 January 2012\|languagefr\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111222192722/http://statbel.fgov.be/fr/modules/publications/statistiques/population/population_natio_sexe_groupe_classe_d_ges_au_1er_janvier_2010.jsp\|archive-date22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|titleAnderlecht, Molenbeek, Schaarbeek: repères du crime à Bruxelles\|urlhttp://www.cafebabel.fr/article/32786/trans-anderlecht-molenbeek-schaarbeek-spot-the-cri.html\|access-date12 January 2012\|newspapercafebabel.com\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111226102647/http://www.cafebabel.fr/article/32786/trans-anderlecht-molenbeek-schaarbeek-spot-the-cri.html\|archive-date26 December 2011\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \| region27 = {{flag\|Luxembourg}} \| pop27 = 2,155 \| ref27 {{smallsup\|c}}<ref name"Luxembourg">{{Cite web \|publisherStatistiques du Luxembourg \|titlePopulation by nationalities in detail 2011–2018 \|urlhttps://statistiques.public.lu/stat/TableViewer/tableViewHTML.aspx?ReportId12859&IF_Languageeng&MainTheme2&FldrName1 \|websitestatistiques.public.lu \|access-date13 January 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200425100607/https://statistiques.public.lu/stat/TableViewer/tableViewHTML.aspx?ReportId12859&IF_Languageeng&MainTheme2&FldrName1 \|archive-date25 April 2020 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Americas}} \| region28 = {{flag\|United States}} \| pop28 = 194,028 \| ref28 <ref name"United States Census Bureau">{{Cite web \|websitefactfinder.census.gov \|publisherUnited States Census Bureau (USCB) \|titleTOTAL ANCESTRY REPORTED Universe: Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates \|urlhttps://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pidACS_13_1YR_B04003&prodTypetable \|formatTable \|access-date9 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200212212204/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pidACS_13_1YR_B04003&prodTypetable \|archive-date12 February 2020 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> \| region29 = {{flag\|Argentina}} \| pop29 = 50,000 \| ref29 {{sfn\|Koinova\|2021\|p103}} \| region30 = {{flag\|Canada}} \| pop30 = 39,055 \| ref30 {{smallsup\|c}}<ref name"Statistics Canada">{{Cite web\|publisherStatistics Canada\|titleEthnic Origin (279), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age (12) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census \|date25 October 2017 \|urlhttps://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANGE&APATH3&DETAIL0&DIM0&FLA&FREE0&GC0&GID0&GK0&GRP1&PID110528&PRID10&PTYPE109445&S0&SHOWALL0&SUB0&Temporal2017&THEME120&VID0&VNAMEE&VNAMEF=}}</ref> \| region31 = {{flag\|Colombia}} \| pop31 = 348 \| ref31 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleColombia – Inmigración 1990, 1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2017 \|urlhttps://datosmacro.expansion.com/demografia/migracion/inmigracion/colombia \|websiteExpansión \|language=es}}</ref> \| region32 = {{flag\|Cuba}} \| pop32 = 101 \| ref32 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleCuba – International immigration \|urlhttps://countryeconomy.com/demography/migration/immigration/cuba?anio2015#geo \|website=countryeconomy.com }}</ref> \| region33 = {{flag\|Panama}} \| pop33 = 9 \| ref33 <ref>{{Cite web \|websitecontraloria.gob.pa \|publisherNational Institute of Statistics and Census of Panama \|titlePoblación nacida en el extranjero en la República, por grupos de edad, según sexo y país de nacimiento \|urlhttp://www.contraloria.gob.pa/inec/archivos/P3591Cuadro7.xls \|languagees}}</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Oceania}} \| region34 = {{flag\|Australia}} \| pop34 = 11,315 \| ref34 {{Small\|<ref name"ABS Ancestry">{{Cite web\| url http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumbPOLTD&methodPlace%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction-1&issue2006&producttypeCensus%20Tables&documentproductno0&textversionfalse&documenttypeDetails&collectionCensus&javascripttrue&topicAncestry&action404&productlabelAncestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order1&period2006&tabnameDetails&areacode0&navmapdisplayedtrue&\| title 20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex – Australia\| format Microsoft Excel download\| work 2006 Census\| publisher Australian Bureau of Statistics\| access-date 2 June 2008\| archive-date 10 March 2008\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080310121707/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumbPOLTD&methodPlace%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction-1&issue2006&producttypeCensus%20Tables&documentproductno0&textversionfalse&documenttypeDetails&collectionCensus&javascripttrue&topicAncestry&action404&productlabelAncestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order1&period2006&tabnameDetails&areacode0&navmapdisplayedtrue&\| url-status = dead}} Total responses: 25,451,383 for total count of persons: 19,855,288.</ref>}} \| region35 = {{flag\|New Zealand}} \| pop35 = 243 \| ref35 {{Small\|<ref>{{Cite web \|websitem.stats.govt.nz \|publisherStatistics New Zealand \|title2013 Census ethnic group profiles: Albanian \|urlhttp://m.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/ethnic-profiles.aspx?request_value24673&parent_id24650&tabname&py&printalltrue&py&printalltrue }}{{dead link\|dateJanuary 2021 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>}} {{collapsed infobox section end}} {{collapsed infobox section begin\|Asia and Africa}} \| region37 = {{flag\|Egypt}} \| pop37 = 18,000 \| ref37 <ref name"Saunders98" /> \| region38 = {{flag\|Qatar}} \| pop38 = 1,200 \| ref38 <ref name"Qatar">{{Cite web \|titleQatar: Some estimates of foreign residents in Qatar by country of citizenship (selected countries, c. 2015–2016) \|urlhttp://gulfmigration.org/qatar-estimates-foreign-residents-qatar-country-citizenship-selected-countries-c-2015-2016/ \|websitegulfmigration.org \|access-date6 January 2019 \|archive-date6 January 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190106204352/http://gulfmigration.org/qatar-estimates-foreign-residents-qatar-country-citizenship-selected-countries-c-2015-2016/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> \| region39 = {{flag\|Cyprus}} \| pop39 = 275 \| ref39 <ref>{{Cite web \|websitecystat.gov.cy \|publisherStatistical Service of Cyprus \|titlePopulation – Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, Religion, Ethnic/Religious Group, 2011 \|urlhttp://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_22main_en/populationcondition_22main_en?OpenForm&sub2&sel2 \|access-date2 January 2019 \|archive-date12 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612211105/http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_22main_en/populationcondition_22main_en?OpenForm&sub2&sel2 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> \| region40 = {{flag\|South Africa}} \| pop40 = 268 \| ref40 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleSube el número de inmigrantes que viven en Sudáfrica \|urlhttps://datosmacro.expansion.com/demografia/migracion/inmigracion/sudafrica \|websiteExpansión \|language=es}}</ref> \| region41 = {{flag\|United Arab Emirates}} \| pop41 = 200–300 \| ref41 <ref name"UAE">{{Cite web \|titleUAE's population – by nationality \|urlhttp://www.bqdoha.com/2015/04/uae-population-by-nationality \|websitebqdoha.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150711160839/http://www.bqdoha.com/2015/04/uae-population-by-nationality \|archive-date11 July 2015 \|url-statususurped \|date=6 January 2019}}</ref> {{collapsed infobox section end}} \| languages = Albanian \| rels = Majority:<br /> Islam<br />Sunni{{Small\|{{efn\|Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of the Albanian people in Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro and North Macedonia.}}}}{{·}}Bektashi{{·}}Non-denominational<br />Minority:<br /> Christianity<br />Catholicism{{Small\|{{efn\|Roman Catholicism (both Latin and Greek-Byzantine rites) is the largest Christian denomination of the Albanian people in northern Albania, Croatia and Italy.}}}} ({{Small\|Latin Church{{·}}Eastern Rites Albanian Greek-Catholic Church{{·}}Italo-Albanian Church}}){{·}}Eastern Orthodoxy{{Small\|{{efn\|Eastern Orthodoxy is the largest Christian denomination of the Albanian people in southern Albania, North Macedonia and Greece.}}}} ({{Small\|Albanian Orthodox Church{{·}}Albanian American Orthodox Church}}){{·}}Protestantism ({{Small\|Albanian Protestant Church}}{{·}}{{Small\|Kosovan Protestant Church}})<br />Other:<br />Irreligion \| footnotes {{smallsup\|a}} 502,546 Albanian citizens, an additional 43,751 Kosovar Albanians, 260,000 Arbëreshë people and 169,644 Albanians who have acquired the Italian citizenship<ref name"Kosovari in Italia">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.tuttitalia.it/statistiche/cittadini-stranieri/kosovo/\|titleKosovari in Italia – statistiche e distribuzione per regione\|websiteTuttitalia.it}}</ref><ref name"ethnologue1976" /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id31RhzMMTTdIC&pgPA18 Ethnobotany in the New Europe: People, Health and Wild Plant Resources], vol. 14, Manuel Pardo de Santayana, Andrea Pieroni, Rajindra K. Puri, Berghahn Books, 2010, {{ISBN\|1845458141}}, p. 18.</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-10-07 \|titleStranieri diventati italiani: prima i marocchini \|urlhttps://www.truenumbers.it/cittadinanza-italiana-per-stranieri/ \|access-date2022-04-11 \|websiteTruenumbers \|languageit-IT}}</ref> <br /> {{smallsup\|b}} Albanians are not recognized as a minority in Turkey. However approximately 500,000 people are reported to profess an Albanian identity. Of those with full or partial Albanian ancestry and others who have adopted Turkish language, culture and identity their number is estimated at 1,300,000–5,000,000 many whom do not speak Albanian.<ref name="Saunders98" /><br />{{smallsup\|c}} The estimation contains Kosovar Albanians. \| caption2 \| related_groups }} {{Indo-European topics}} {{Albanians}} The Albanians{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|æ\|l\|ˈ\|b\|eɪ\|n\|i\|ə\|n\|z\|,_\|ɔː\|l\|-}} {{respell\|a(w)l\|BAY\|nee\|ənz}}; {{langx\|sq\|Shqiptarët}}, {{IPA\|sq\|ʃcipˈtaɾət\|pron}}}} are an ethnic group native to the Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry, culture, history and language.<ref name"Ed">{{Cite web \|authorGëzim Krasniqi \|publisherUniversity of Edinburgh \|titleCitizenship in an emigrant nation-state: the case of Albania \|urlhttp://www.law.ed.ac.uk/file_download/series/277_citizenshipinanemigrantnationstatethecaseofalbania.pdf \|access-date7 August 2012 \|pages9–14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130602201035/http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/file_download/series/277_citizenshipinanemigrantnationstatethecaseofalbania.pdf \|archive-date2 June 2013 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> They are the main ethnic group of Albania and Kosovo, and they also live in the neighboring countries of North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia, as well as in Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Albanians also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe and the other continents. The language of the Albanians is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group. Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkanic origin, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians,<ref> {{cite book\|last1King\|first1Russell\|author-link1Russell King (geographer)\|last2Mai\|first2Nicola\|titleOut Of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_PUaNmz4Uc4C&pgPA28\|date15 January 2013\|publisherBerghahn Books\|isbn978-0-85745-390-7\|page=28}} {{cite book\|lastBiberaj\|firstElez\|titleAlbania in transition: the rocky road to democracy\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH7yZDwAAQBAJ&pgPT34\|year1998\|publisherWestview Press\|isbn=978-0-8133-3502-5}} {{cite book \|last1Bugajski \|first1Janusz \|titlePolitical Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-communist Era \|date10 September 2020 \|publisherRoutledge \|page81 \|isbn978-1-000-16135-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLRb8DwAAQBAJ&pgRA7-PT485}} {{cite book\|lastKaser\|firstKarl\|titlePatriarchy After Patriarchy: Gender Relations in Turkey and in the Balkans, 1500-2000\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_KEW6l-stCUC\|year2008\|publisherLIT Verlag Münster\|isbn978-3-8258-1119-8\|page=15}} {{cite book\|lastEllis\|firstLinda\|titleThe Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome\|volume1\|editorMichael Gagarin\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2010\|isbn9780195170726\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlNV6-HsUppsC\|page=54}}</ref> but besides the Illyrians which specific Paleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first mention of the ethnonym Albanoi occurred in the 2nd century AD by Ptolemy describing an Illyrian tribe who lived around present-day central Albania.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastLaw \|firstGwillim \|titleAdministrative Subdivisions of Countries \|year1999 \|isbn9781476604473 \|pages20 \|publisherMcFarland \|languageEn}}</ref><ref name"Plasari10">{{harvnb\|Plasari\|2020\|pp=10–11}}</ref> The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in the theme of Dyrrhachium. The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after the Great Schism, the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and the south with Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1190 Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in central Albania with the capital in Krujë. The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties.{{efn\|See:<ref name"Riehl238">{{harvnb\|Riehl\|2010\|p238}}. "Other interesting groups in the context of European migration include the Albanians who from the thirteenth century immigrated to Greece (i.e., the so-called "Arvanites", see Sasse 1998) and to Southern Italy (Calabria, Sicily, cf Breu 2005)."</ref><ref name"Nasse2426" /><ref name"Gogonas3" /><ref name"Hall2829" />}} Albanian population groups settled in Southern Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries and came to be known as Arvanites. Other Albanian population groups settled across Southern Italy and Sicily between the 11th and 16th centuries and came to be known as Arbëreshë.<ref name"Nasse2426" /> Albanians have also migrated to Romania since the late 16th century. In the 18th century smaller Albanian population groups settled in Southern Croatia (who came to be known as Arbanasi), and pockets of Southern Ukraine.<ref name"Barancic551">{{harvnb\|Barančić\|2008\|p551}}. {{hidden\|\|"Možemo reći da svi na neki način pripadamo nekoj vrsti etničke kategorije, a često i više nego jednoj. Kao primjer navodim slučaj zadarskih Arbanasa. Da bismo shvatili Arbanase i problem njihova etnojezičnog (etničkog i jezičnog) identiteta, potrebno je ići u povijest njihova doseljenja koje seže u početak 18. st., tj. točnije: razdoblje od prve seobe 1726., razdoblje druge seobe od 1733., pa sve do 1754. godine koja se smatra završnom godinom njihova doseljenja. Svi su se doselili iz tri sela s područja Skadarskog jezera – Briske, Šestana i Livara. Bježeći od Turaka, kuge i ostalih nevolja, generalni providur Nicola Erizzo II dozvolio im je da se nasele u područje današnjih Arbanasa i Zemunika. Jedan dio stanovništva u Zemuniku se asimilirao s ondašnjim stanovništvom zaboravivši svoj jezik. To su npr. današnji Prenđe, Šestani, Ćurkovići, Paleke itd. Drugi dio stanovništva je nastojao zadržati svoj etnički i jezični identitet tijekom ovih 280 godina. Dana 10. svibnja 2006. godine obilježena je 280. obljetnica njihova dolaska u predgrađe grada Zadra. Nije bilo lako, osobito u samom početku, jer nisu imali svoju crkvu, škole itd., pa je jedini način održavanja njihova identiteta i jezika bio usmenim putem."}} "We can say that all in some way belong to a kind of ethnic category, and often more than one. As an example, I cite the case of Zadar Arbanasi. To understand the problem of the Albanians and their ethnolinguistic (ethnic and linguistic) identity, it is necessary to go into the history of their immigration that goes back to the beginning of the 18th century., etc more precisely: the period from the first migration of 1726, the period of the second migration of 1733, and until 1754, which is considered to be the final year of their immigration. All they moved from three villages from the area of Lake Scutari – Briska, Šestan and Livara. Fleeing from the Ottomans, plague and other troubles, the general provider Nicola Erizzo II allowed them to settle in the area of today's Arbanasa and Zemunik. One part of the population in Zemunik became assimilated with the local population, forgetting their language. These are for example, today's Prenda, Šestani, Ćurkovići, Paleke etc. The second part of the population tried to maintain their ethnic and linguistic identity during these 280 years. On 10 May 2006 marked the 280th anniversary of their arrival in the suburb of Zadar. It was not easy, especially in the beginning, because they did not have their own church, school, etc., and is the only way to maintain their identity and language was verbally."</ref><ref name"Novik261262">{{harvnb\|Novik\|2015\|pp261–262}}. "Historical Facts. Four villages with Albanian population are located in the Ukraine: Karakurt (Zhovtnevoe) set up in 1811 (Odessa region), Tyushki (Georgievka), Dzhandran (Gammovka) and Taz (Devninskoe) set up in 1862 (Zaporizh’a region). Before migrating to the territory of the Russian empire, Albanians had moved from the south-east of the present day Albania into Bulgaria (Varna region) because of the Osmanli invasion (Державин, 1914, 1926, 1933, 1948, pp. 156–169). Three hundred years later they had moved from Bulgaria to the Russian empire on account of Turkish-Russian opposition in the Balkan Peninsula. Ethnic Albanians also live in Moldova, Odessa and St. Petersburg. Present Day Situation. Nowadays, in the Ukraine and Russia there are an estimated 5000 ethnic Albanians. They live mainly in villages situated in the Odessa and Zaporizh’a regions. The language and many elements of traditional culture are still preserved and maintained in four Albanian villages (Будина, 2000, pp. 239–255; Иванова, 2000, pp. 40–53). From the ethnolinguistic and linguistic point of view these Albanian villages are of particular interest and value since they are excellent examples of a "melting pot" (Иванова, 1995, 1999). Bulgarians and Gagauzes live side by side with Albanians in Karakurt; Russians and Ukrainians share the same space with Albanians in the Azov Sea region. It is worth mentioning that in these multi-lingual environments, the Albanian patois retains original Balkan features."</ref> By the 15th century, the expanding Ottoman Empire overpowered the Balkan Peninsula, but faced successful rebellion and resistance by the League of Lezhë, a union of Albanian principalities led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. By the 17th and 18th centuries, a substantial number of Albanians converted to Islam, which offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb\|Vickers\|2011\|pp17–24}}; {{harvnb\|Giakoumis\|2010\|pp87–88}}; {{harvnb\|Myhill\|2006\|p232}}; {{harvnb\|Koti\|2010\|pp16–17}}; {{harvnb\|Ramet\|1998\|pp203–204}}; {{harvnb\|Skendi\|1956\|pp321–323}}.</ref> Thereafter, Albanians attained significant positions and culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world.<ref name"Clayer" /> Innumerable officials and soldiers of the Ottoman State were of Albanian origin, including more than 40 Grand Viziers,<ref>{{Cite book\|lastMalcolm\|firstNoel\|titleRebels, Believers, Survivors: Studies in the History of the Albanians\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2020\|isbn978-0-19-259923-0\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idti7wDwAAQBAJ\|page320}}</ref> and under the Köprülü, in particular, the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest territorial extension.<ref>{{Cite book\|first1Suraiya\|last1Faroqhi\|first2Bruce\|last2McGowan\|first3Sevket\|last3Pamuk\|editor1Halil İnalcık\|editor2Donald Quataert\|titleAn Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire\|volume2\|publisherCambridge University Press\|year1997\|isbn978-0-521-57455-6\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc00jmTrjzAoC\|page420}}</ref> Between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century Albanian Pashaliks were established by Kara Mahmud pasha of Scutari, Ali pasha of Yanina, and Ahmet Kurt pasha of Berat, while the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century, a period in which Albanians formed a substantial community in Egypt. During the 19th century, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, Albanians declared the independence of their country. The demarcation of the new Albanian state was established following the Treaty of Bucharest and left about half of the ethnic Albanian population outside of its borders, partitioned between Greece, Montenegro and Serbia.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Bell\|first1Imogen \|titleCentral and South-Eastern Europe 2003\|date2002\|publisherPsychology Press\|isbn978-1-85743-136-0\|page66\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4CrpzRJCbckC&pgPA66\|languageen}}</ref> After the Second World War up until the Revolutions of 1991, Albania was governed by a communist government under Enver Hoxha where Albania became largely isolated from the rest of Europe. In neighbouring Yugoslavia, Albanians underwent periods of discrimination and systematic oppression that concluded with the War of Kosovo and eventually with Kosovar independence. Ethnonym {{See also\|Names of the Albanians and Albania}} {{further\|Albania (toponym)\|Shqiptar}} The Albanians ({{langx\|sq\|Shqiptarët}}) and their country Albania ({{langx\|sq\|Shqipëria}}) have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is "Shqiptar", plural "Shqiptarë"; the name "Albanians" (Byzantine Greek: Albanoi/Arbanitai/Arbanites; Latin: Albanenses/Arbanenses) was used in medieval documents and gradually entered European Languages from which other similar derivative names emerged,<ref name"Elsie200534" /> many of which were or still are in use,<ref name"Lloshi277" /><ref name"BardhylDemiraj534" /><ref name"Kamusella241" /> such as English "Albanians"; Italian "Albanesi"; German "Albaner"; Greek "Arvanites", "Alvanitis" (Αλβανίτης) plural: "Alvanites" (Αλβανίτες), "Alvanos" (Αλβανός) plural: "Alvanoi" (Αλβανοί); Turkish "Arnaut", "Arnavut"; South Slavic languages "Arbanasi" (Арбанаси), "Albanci" (Албанци); Aromanian "Arbinesh" and so on.{{efn\|See:<ref name"Liotta198">{{harvnb\|Liotta\|2001\|p198}}. "Among Greeks, the term "Alvanitis"—or "Arvanitis"—means a Christian of Albanian ancestry, one who speaks both Greek and Albanian, but possesses Greek "consciousness." Numerous "Arvanites" live in Greece today, although the ability to speak both languages is shrinking as the differences (due to technology and information access and vastly different economic bases) between Greece and Albania increase. The Greek communities of Elefsis, Marousi, Koropi, Keratea, and Markopoulo (all in the Attikan peninsula) once held significant Arvanite communities. "Arvanitis" is not necessarily a pejorative term; a recent Pan Hellenic socialist foreign minister spoke both Albanian and Greek (but not English). A former Greek foreign minister, Theodoros Pangalos, was an "Arvanite" from Elefsis."</ref><ref name"Lloshi277" /><ref name"BardhylDemiraj534">{{harvnb\|Demiraj\|2010\|p534}}. "The ethnic name shqiptar has always been discussed together with the ethnic complex: (tosk) arbëresh, arbëror, arbër — (gheg) arbënesh, arbënu(e)r, arbën; i.e. [arbën/r(—)]. p.536. Among the neighbouring peoples and elsewhere the denomination of the Albanians is based upon the root arb/alb, cp. Greek 'Αλβανός, 'Αρβανός "Albanian", 'Αρβανίτης "Arbëresh of Greece", Serbian Albanac, Arbanas, Bulg., Mac. албанец, Arom. arbinés (Papahagi 1963 135), Turk. arnaut, Ital. albanese, German Albaner etc. This basis is in use among the Arbëreshs of Italy and Greece as well; cp. arvanit, more rarely arbëror by the arbëreshs of Greece, as against arbëresh, arbëresh, bri(e)sh (beside gjegj — Altimari 1994 (1992) 53 s.). (Italy) (Kr. ?) árbanas, (Mandr.) allbanc, (Ukr.) allbanc(er) (Musliu – Dauti 1996) etj. For the various forms and uses of this or that variant see, inter alia, also Çabej SE II 6lss.; Demiraj 1999 175 ss. etj.</ref><ref name"Kamusella241" /><ref name"Murati71">{{harvnb\|Murati\|1991\|p71}}. "{{hidden\|\|emri etnik a nacional e shqiptarëve, përkundër trajtës së drejtë sllave Albanci, tash del të shqiptohet si Šiptari e Šipci me një konotacion përbuzës negativ, ashtu siç është përdorur në krye të herës te serbët edhe në kohën e Jugosllavisë së Vjetër bashkë dhe me formën Šiftari e Arnauti me po të njëtat konotacione pejorative.}} "ethnic name or the national one of Albanians, despite the right Slavic term Albanci, now appears to be pronounced as Šiptari of Šipci with a connotation that is contemptuously negative, as it is used in the very beginning of the Serbs era at the time of the old Yugoslavia together and the form Šiftari and Arnauti which have the same pejorative connotations."</ref><ref name"Koukoudis34">{{harvnb\|Koukoudis\|2003\|p34}}. "The Vlachs call the Albanian-speaking Orthodox Christians Arbinéši, and it was under this name that the ancestors of the modern Albanians first appeared in the Middle Ages."</ref>}} The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί) is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (2nd century CE)<ref name":0" /> also is encountered twice in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, and the term "Arvanitai" (Αρβανίται) is used once by the same author. He referred to the "Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043, and to the "Arbanitai" as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium (modern Durrës).<ref name"MadgearuGordon25b" /> These references have been disputed as to whether they refer to the people of Albania.<ref name"MadgearuGordon25b">{{harvnb\|Madgearu\|Gordon\|2008\|p25}}. "It is still disputed by scholars that those Albanoi from 1042 were Normans from Sicily, [Southern Italy], or if they are in fact the Albanoi [a large clan of that belongs to the many clans of Albanians] found in Albanian lands during this time frame."</ref><ref name"Pritsak5253">{{harvnb\|Pritsak\|1991\|pp52–53}}.</ref> Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners".<ref>[http://epublishing.ekt.gr/el/5374/%CE%92%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AC-%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B1/7455 Vranoussi Erasmia, "The terms Albanoi and Arvanitai and the first mention of the homonym people of the Balkans in the 11th century sources", Balkanika Symmikta, 1970, 2, p. 207 – 228.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181012014600/http://epublishing.ekt.gr/el/5374/%CE%92%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AC-%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B1/7455 \|date12 October 2018 }} For the meanings of Albanus, Albani, Albains etc., see pp 226–228, with footnotes to the lexicons Du Gange, Glossarium mediae el infimae Latinitatis, edition 1883, vol. 1, pp. 162 – 163, J. Niermeyer, Mediae Latinitatis Lexicon minus, Leiden 1960, pp. 32 – 33 and others. In Greek language.</ref> The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed.<ref name"MadgearuGordon25">{{harvnb\|Madgearu\|Gordon\|2008\|p25}}. "It was supposed that those Albanoi from 1042 were Normans from Sicily, called by an archaic name (the Albanoi were an independent tribe from Southern Italy). The following instance is indisputable. It comes from the same Attaliates, who wrote that the Albanians (Arbanitai) were involved in the 1078; rebellion of..."</ref> In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians.<ref>Mazaris 1975, pp. 76–79.</ref><ref>N. Gregoras (ed. Bonn) V, 6; XI, 6.</ref><ref name"Finlay37">{{harvnb\|Finlay\|1851\|p37}}.</ref> The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/87039/Earlies-Reference-to-the-{{Not a typo\|Exis\|tance}}-of-the-Albanian-Language \|titleRobert Elsie, The earliest reference to the existence of the Albanian Language \|viaScribd \|date28 May 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110207231306/http://www.scribd.com/doc/87039/Earlies-Reference-to-the-%7B%7BNot \|archive-date=7 February 2011 }}</ref> The national ethnonym Albanian and its variants are derived from Albanoi, first mentioned as an Illyrian tribe in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis, located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in the hinterland of Durrës.<ref>{{harvnb\|Malcolm\|1998\|p29\|ps: "Nor is there any mystery about the origin of this name. In the second century Ptolemy referred to a tribe called the 'Albanoi', and located their town, 'Albanopolis', somewhere to the east of Durres."}}</ref><ref name"Lloshi277" /><ref name"MënikuCampos2" /><ref name"Vasiliev613">{{harvnb\|Vasiliev\|1958\|p613}}.</ref><ref name"Jelavich25">{{harvnb\|Jelavich\|1983\|p25}}.</ref><ref name"ShabanDemiraj481">{{harvnb\|Demiraj\|1998\|p481}}.</ref> Linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as alps are derived.<ref name"Malcolm29">{{harvnb\|Malcolm\|1998\|p29}}. "Linguists believe that the 'Alb-’ element comes from the Indo-European word for a type of mountainous terrain, from which the word 'Alps' is also derived."</ref> Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban, albar, and arbar, the term in Albanian became rendered as Arbëneshë/Arbëreshë for the people and Arbënia/Arbëria for the country.<ref name"Elsie200534">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp3–4}}. "Their traditional designation, based on a root alban- and its rhotacized variants arban-, albar-, and arbar-, appears from the eleventh century onwards in Byzantine chronicles (Albanoi, Arbanitai, Arbanites), and from the fourteenth century onwards in Latin and other Western documents (Albanenses, Arbanenses)."</ref><ref name"Lloshi277" /> The Albanian language was referred to as Arbnisht and Arbërisht.<ref name"MënikuCampos2">{{harvnb\|Mëniku\|Campos\|2012\|p2}}. "Albanian is an Indo-European language, but like modern Greek and Armenian, it does not have any other closely related living language. Within the Indo-European family, it forms a group of its own. In Albanian, the language is called shqip. Albania is called Shqipëri, and the Albanians call themselves shqiptarë. Until the fifteenth century the language was known as Arbërisht or Arbnisht, which is still the name used for the language in Italy and Greece. The Greeks refer to all the varieties of Albanian spoken in Greece as Arvanitika. In the second century AD, Ptolemy, the Alexandrian mathematician, astronomer and geographer, used the name Albanoi to refer to an Illyrian tribe that used to live in what is now central Albania. During the Middle Ages the population of that area was referred to as Arbanori or Albanon. It is clear that the words Arbëresh, Arvanitika, and even Albanian and Albania are all related to the older name of the language."</ref> While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as Shqip(ë)tarë and to their country as Shqipëria.<ref name"Lloshi277" /> Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym: one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle (shqipe, var., shqiponjë).<ref name"Kamusella241" /> In Albanian folk etymology, this word denotes a bird totem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag.<ref name"Kamusella241" /><ref name"ej2-s">{{Cite encyclopedia \| titleALBANCI \| encyclopedia Enciklopedija Jugoslavije 2nd ed. \| volumeSupplement \| pages1 \| publisherJLZ \| locationZagreb \| year1984 }}</ref> The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' (me shqiptue) from the Latin "excipere".<ref name"Kamusella241" /> In this instance the Albanian endonym like Slav and others would originally have been a term connoting "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]".<ref name"Kamusella241">{{harvnb\|Kamusella\|2009\|p241}}. "Prior to the emergence of the modern self-ethnonym Shqiptarë in the mid-16th century (for the first time it was recorded in 1555 by the Catholic Gheg, Gjon Buzuku, in his missal), North Albanians (Ghegs) referred to themselves as Arbën, and South Albanians (Tosks) Arbër. Hence, the self-ethnonym Arbëreshë of the present-day Italo-Albanians (numbering about 100,000) in southern Italy and Sicily, whose ancestors, in the wake of the Ottoman wars, emigrated from their homeland in the 14th century. These self-ethnonyms perhaps influenced the Byzantine Greek Arvanites for 'Albanians,’ which was followed by similar ones in Bulgarian and Serbian (Arbanasi), Ottoman (Arnaut), Romanian (Arbănas), and Aromanian (Arbineş). It is clear that scholars and Albanians themselves agree that they do not agree on any single etymology of the ethnonym 'Albanian.' A similar predicament is faced by the self-ethnonym Shqiptarë. The most popular scholarly explanation is that it was formed by analogy to 'Slavs' (Slovene), believed to be derived from slovo ('word'), and by extension, from sluti ('to speak clearly.') The last explanation semantically contrasts with Slavic Niemiec ('mute,’'stammering,’'babbling'), and Greek 'barbarian' (from barbaros 'those who stammer, babble'). Hence, Shqiptarë could be derived from Albanian shqipoi (from Latin excipere) for 'to speak clearly, to understand.' The Albanian public favors the belief that their self-ethnonym stems from shqipe ('eagle') found on the Albanian national flag."</ref> The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward,<ref nameMatasović>{{Cite book\|lastMatasović\|firstRanko\|year2019\|titleA Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for Students of Indo European\|urlhttp://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|placeZagreb \|publisherRanko Matasović \|page39}}</ref> but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers.<ref name"Lloshi277" /><ref nameMatasović /> That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes.<ref name"Lloshi277" /> As such a new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and different Ottoman world emerging around them was a change in ethnonym.<ref name"Lloshi277">{{harvnb\|Lloshi\|1999\|p277}}. "The Albanians of today call themselves shqiptarë, their country Shqipëri, and their language shqipe. These terms came into use between the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. Foreigners call them albanesi (Italian), Albaner (German), Albanians (English), Alvanos (Greek), and Arbanasi (old Serbian), the country Albania, Albanie, Albanien, Alvania, and Albanija, and the language Albanese, Albanisch, Albanian, Alvaniki, and Arbanashki respectively. All these words are derived from the name Albanoi of an Illyrian tribe and their center Albanopolis, noted by the astronomer of Alexandria, Ptolemy, in the 2nd century AD. Alban could be a plural of alb- arb-, denoting the inhabitants of the plains (ÇABEJ 1976). The name passed over the boundaries of the Illyrian tribe in central Albania, and was generalised for all the Albanians. They called themselves arbënesh, arbëresh, the country Arbëni, Arbëri, and the language arbëneshe, arbëreshe. In the foreign languages, the Middle Ages denominations of these names survived, but for the Albanians they were substituted by shqiptarë, Shqipëri and shqipe. The primary root is the adverb shqip, meaning "clearly, intelligibly". There is a very close semantic parallel to this in the German noun Deutsche, "the Germans" and "the German language" (Lloshi 1984) Shqip spread out from the north to the south, and Shqipni/Shqipëri is probably a collective noun, following the common pattern of Arbëni, Arbëri. The change happened after the Ottoman conquest because of the conflict in the whole line of the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural spheres with a totally alien world of the Oriental type. A new and more generalised ethnic and linguistic consciousness of all these people responded to this."</ref> Historical records Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them.<ref name="Elsie3" /> It is preserved in a manuscript written in the Serbo-Croatian Language traced back to the 17th century but published in the 20th century by Radoslav Grujic. It is a fragment of a once longer text that endeavours to explain the origins of peoples and languages in a question-and-answer form similar to a catechism. The fragmented manuscript differentiated the world into 72 languages and three religious categories including Christians, half-believers and non-believers. Grujic dated it to the early 11th century and, if this and the identification of the Arbanasi as Albanians are correct, it would be the earliest written document referring to the Balkan Albanians as a people or language group.<ref name"Elsie3">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2003\|p3}}.</ref> <blockquote>It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian, Greek, Syrian, Iberian (Georgian) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian (Georgian). There are twelve languages of half-believers: Alamanians, Franks, Magyars (Hungarians), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians, Saxons, Lechs (Poles), Arbanasi (Albanians), Croatians, Hizi and Germans.</blockquote> Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080) mentions the term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term Arvanitai is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography.<ref name"Plasari41">{{harvnb\|Plasari\|2020\|p41}}</ref> The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed.<ref name"Plasari41" /> This debate has never been resolved.{{sfn\|Quanrud\|2021\|p1}} A newer synthesis about the second use of the term Albanoi by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term Albanoi may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon, while Arbanitai to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited.{{sfn\|Plasari\|2020\|p43}} Language {{Main\|Albanian language\|Albanian dialects}} {{Further\|Albanoid\|Proto-Albanian language}} of the Albanian language in Southern Europe]] Albanians speak the Albanian language, which is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group. It had its formative core in the Western Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region from about 3000 to 2500 BCE.<ref nameFriedman>{{cite book\|lastFriedman\|firstVictor\|titleThe Cambridge Handbook of Language Contact: Volume 1: Population Movement and Language Change\|seriesCambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics\|chapterThe Balkans\|editorSalikoko Mufwene, Anna Maria Escobar\|publisherCambridge University Press\|year2022\|isbn9781009115773\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjWB2EAAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref nameLazaridis_et_al.>{{cite journal \|author-last1 Lazaridis \|author-first1Iosif \|author-last2 Alpaslan-Roodenberg \|author-first2Songül \| display-authors et al. \| title The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe \| journal Science \| volume 377 \| issue 6609 \| date 26 August 2022 \|pages eabm4247 \| pmid 36007055 \| pmc 10064553\| doi 10.1126/science.abm4247 \| bibcode\|s2cid= 251843620 }}</ref> The Albanian language is spoken today by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia.<ref>{{Cite web \|websiteosce.org \|publisherOSCE \|titleConstitution of the Republic of Albania \|urlhttps://www.osce.org/albania/41888 \|languagesq, en \|quoteThe official language in the Republic of Albania is Albanian.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|websitekryeministri-ks.net \|publisherKryeministria e Kosovës \|titleConstitution of the Republic of Kosovo \|urlhttp://www.kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Constitution1Kosovo.pdf \|page8 \|quoteThe official languages in the Republic of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian. \|access-date23 December 2018 \|archive-date27 November 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191127002614/http://www.kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Constitution1Kosovo.pdf \|url-statususurped }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleCONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/mk/mk014en.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/mk/mk014en.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websitewipo.int \|page2 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbanian becomes the second official language in Macedonia \|urlhttps://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2019/01/15/albanian-becomes-second-official-language-macedonia/ \|websiteeuropeanwesternbalkans.com \|date15 January 2019}}</ref> The language is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia.<ref name"Minority language in Croatia" /><ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE CONSTITUTION OF MONTENEGRO \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/me/me004en.pdf \|websitewipo.int \|page6 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleLinguistic diversity among foreign citizens in Italy\|urlhttp://www.istat.it/en/archive/129304\|publisherStatistics of Italy\|date25 July 2014}}</ref> There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe Tribes of Albania,: History, Society and Culture\|publisherI.B.Tauris\|date2015\|isbn978-0-85773-932-2\|page2\|editionRobert Elsie\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi2IpDAAAQBAJ&pgPA2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|author1Robert Elsie\|titleGeographical location\|urlhttp://www.albanianlanguage.net/\|websitealbanianlanguage\|quoteThe Albanian language is divided into two basic dialect groups: Gheg in the north of the country and Tosk in the south. The Shkumbin River in central Albania, flowing past Elbasan into the Adriatic, forms the approximate boundary between the two dialect regions.}}</ref> The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin river, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken in Croatia (Arbanasi and Istrian), Kosovo, Montenegro and northwestern North Macedonia are classified as Gheg, while those spoken in Greece, southwestern North Macedonia and Italy as Tosk. in the Paleo-Balkanic branch as suggested by Brian D. Joseph and Adam Hyllested in "The Indo-European Language Family" (2022)]] The Arbëresh and Arvanitika dialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by the Arbëreshë and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece, respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified as endangered languages in the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages.<ref>{{Cite web \|author1UNESCO \|titleUNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger \|urlhttp://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap.html \|publisherUNESCO \|author1-linkUNESCO }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|titleHandbook of ethnotherapies \|publisherBoD – Books on Demand, 2002 \|isbn978-3-8311-4184-5 \|page110 \|editionChristine E. Gottschalk-Batschkus; Joy C. Green \|languageen\|year2002 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|author1Sarah G. Thomason \|titleEndangered Languages Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics \|publisherCambridge University Press, 2015 \|isbn978-0-521-86573-9 \|page28 \|languageen\|date23 April 2015 }}</ref> The Cham dialect is spoken by the Cham Albanians, a community that originates from Chameria in what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, while Cham communities in Albania and the diaspora have preserved it.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastWinnifrith \|firstTom J. \|date28 October 1995 \|titleSouthern Albania, Northern Epirus: Survey of a Disputed Ethnological Boundary \|magazineThe Newsletter of the Society Farsharotu \|volumeIX \|issue2 \|publisherSociety Farsharotu \|languageen \|quoteI tried unsuccessfully in 1994 to find Albanian speakers in Filiates, Paramithia and Margariti. The coastal villages near Igoumenitsa have been turned into tourist resorts. There may be Albanian speakers in villages inland, but as in the case with the Albanian speakers in Attica and Boeotia the language is dying fast. It receives no kind of encouragement.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastVickers \|firstMiranda \|titleThe Cham Issue – Where to Now? \|date2007 \|publisherConflict Studies Research Centre \|isbn978-1-905962-01-3 \|page2 \|languageen \|quoteWhereas in Albania and the diaspora Cham communities have managed to preserve their dialect, traditions and folk songs, in Greece itself those Orthodox Chams, now numbering around 40,000, who were allowed to remain in Greece, have suffered from assimilation and the public suppression of their Albanian heritage and language.{{nbsp}}... There are roughly 14,000 Chams or their descendants living in the southern Albanian town of Saranda and the villages north of the Albanian-Greek border.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|editor-last1Elsie \|editor-first1Robert \|titleThe Cham Albanians of Greece: A Documentary History \|editor-last2Destani \|editor-first2Bejtullah \|editor-last3Jasini \|editor-first3Rudina \|date2013 \|publisherI.B. Tauris \|isbn978-1-780760-00-1 \|pageXXIX \|languageen \|quote=Chameria is a mountainous region of the southwestern Balkan Peninsula that now straddles the Greek-Albanian border. Most of Chameria is in the Greek Province of Epirus, corresponding largely to the prefectures of Thesprotia and Preveza, but it also includes the southernmost part of Albania, the area around Konispol. It is approximately 10,000 square kilometres in size and has a current, mostly Greek-speaking population of about 150,000.{{nbsp}}... The core or central region of Chameria, known in Greek as Thesprotia, could be said to be the basins of the Kalamas and Acheron Rivers.}}</ref> Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language. As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania, 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) and Greek (22.9%).<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.instat.gov.al/media/4028/adult-education-survey-2017.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.instat.gov.al/media/4028/adult-education-survey-2017.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titlePress release of the Adult Education Survey\|date10 May 2018\|work=Albanian Institute of Statistics}}</ref> The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of the Illyrian languages (Messapic language) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred.<ref name"Hock54">{{harvnb\|Hock\|Joseph\|1996\|p54}}.</ref> History Late Antiquity {{Main\|Origin of the Albanians\|Komani-Kruja culture}} ]] The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs (Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.{{sfn\|Winnifrith\|2020\|pp98-99}}{{request quotation\|dateNovember 2021}} Middle Ages {{Main\|Albania under the Byzantine Empire\|Albanian principalities}} served as the royal seat of the Principality of Arbanon and later as the noble residence of the Kastrioti family.]] The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited a hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. They have Paleo-Balkan origins, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians,<ref>{{cite book\|last1King\|first1Russell\|author-link1Russell King (geographer)\|last2Mai\|first2Nicola\|titleOut Of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_PUaNmz4Uc4C&pgPA28\|date15 January 2013\|publisherBerghahn Books\|isbn978-0-85745-390-7\|page28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastBiberaj\|firstElez\|titleAlbania in transition: the rocky road to democracy\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH7yZDwAAQBAJ&pgPT34\|year1998\|publisherWestview Press\|isbn978-0-8133-3502-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Bugajski \|first1Janusz \|titlePolitical Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-communist Era\|date10 September 2020 \|publisherRoutledge \|page81 \|isbn978-1-000-16135-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLRb8DwAAQBAJ&pgRA7-PT485}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastKaser\|firstKarl\|titlePatriarchy After Patriarchy: Gender Relations in Turkey and in the Balkans, 1500-2000\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_KEW6l-stCUC\|year2008\|publisherLIT Verlag Münster\|isbn978-3-8258-1119-8\|page15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastEllis\|firstLinda\|titleThe Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome\|volume1\|editorMichael Gagarin\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2010\|isbn9780195170726\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlNV6-HsUppsC\|page54}}</ref> but besides the Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080).<ref name"Plasari41"/> Attaleiates mentions the term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term Arvanitai is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Ducellier-Vrannousi" debate, Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vrannousi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed.<ref name"Plasari41" /> The debate has never been resolved.{{sfn\|Quanrud\|2021\|p1}} A newer synthesis about the second use of the term Albanoi by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term Albanoi may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon, while Arbanitai to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited.{{sfn\|Plasari\|2020\|p43}} The name reflects the Albanian endonym Arbër/n + esh which itself derives from the same root as the name of the Albanoi{{sfn\|Demiraj\|2015\|p=481}} Historically known as the Arbër or Arbën by the 11th century and onwards, they traditionally inhabited the mountainous area to the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of the Shkumbin river.<ref name"Norris35">{{harvnb\|Norris\|1993 \|p35}}.</ref><ref name"Nicol160">{{harvnb\|Nicol\|1986\|p160}}. "The geographical location of the mysterious 'Arbanon' has at last no doubt been settled by the researches of Alain Ducellier. In the 11th century at least it was the name given to the mountainous area to the west of Lake Ohrid and the upper valley of the river Shkumbin..."</ref> Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon), with its seat based in Krujë.<ref name"Ducellier780a">{{harvnb\|Ducellier\|1999\|p780}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Komatina\|first1Ivana\|last2Komatina\|first2Predrag\|titleNastanak &quot;Mletačke Albanije&quot; i uspomena na vizantijsku vlast u srpskom Pomorju \|trans-titleThe establishment of &quot;Venetian Albania&quot; and the memory of Byzantine rule in the Serbian Littoral \|journalIstorijski časopis \|volume67 \|year2018 \|pages55–28 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/38237917}}</ref> Immediately after the decline of the Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Gregorios Kamonas and next his son-in-law Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philippe Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint.{{sfnp\|Setton\|1976\|p81}} In 1266 after defeating Manfred's forces and killing him, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania.{{sfnp\|Ducellier\|1999\|p793}}{{sfnp\|Nicol\|2010\|p12}} Local noblemen such as Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated.{{sfnp\|Anamali\|Prifti\|2002\|p=207}} {{multiple image \|alignleft\|total_width300\|image1Map of Arbanon (Arbëria).png\|caption1 The Principality of Arbanon in 1210\|height1\|width1 175\|image2Kingdom of Albania.png \|height2 \|width2125\|caption2Kingdom of Albania in 1272–1274, established by Charles I of Naples.}} In 1272 the Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles.{{sfnp\|Anamali\|Prifti\|2002\|p207}} Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint.{{sfnp\|Anamali\|Prifti\|2002\|p201}} Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as dowry. In 1302, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule.{{sfnp\|Nicol\|2010\|pp=67–68}} Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers,{{sfnp\|Norris\|1993\|p36}} and the Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë.{{sfnp\|Fine\|1994\|p290}} In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance with Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336.{{sfnp\|Anamali\|Prifti\|2002\|p252}} In 1336, Serbian king Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had captured Kanina and Valona in southern Albania.<ref name"Fine1994-290-">{{Cite book\|firstJohn V. A.\|lastFine\|titleThe Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLvVbRrH1QBgC&pgPA290\|year1994\|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press\|isbn978-0-472-08260-5\|pages290–291}}</ref> Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the Pelister mountain.<ref name"Fine1994-290-" /> After the death of Stefan Dušan in 1355 the Serbian Empire disintegrated, and Karl Thopia captured Durrës while the Muzaka family of Berat regained control over parts of southeastern Albania and over Kastoria{{sfnp\|Anamali\|Prifti\|2002\|p252}}<ref name"Gloyer2010">{{Cite book\|authorGillian Gloyer\|titleAlbania\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idksDYlFPUNLwC&pgPA103\|date1 June 2010\|publisherAlhena Media\|languagees\|isbn978-84-92963-50-8\|page103\|quoteTras la muerte de Stefan Dušan en 1355, el área que se corresponde con el sureste de la actual Albania y hasta Kastoria (que hoy en día pertenece a Grecia) cayó en manos de la familia Muzaka de Berati, uno de los poderosos clanes}}</ref> that Andrea II captured from Prince Marko after the Battle of Marica in 1371.<ref name"FineFine1994">{{Cite book\|author1John V. A. Fine\|author2John Van Antwerp Fine\|titleThe Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLvVbRrH1QBgC&pgPA668\|year1994\|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press\|isbn978-0-472-08260-5\|page380\|quote... Andrew Musachi .... took Kastoria from Marko...}}</ref><ref name="Barancic551" /> {{multiple image \|alignright\|total_width250 \|image_styleborder:none;\|image1Albanian Principalities, ca. 1390 (modern Albania).png \|caption1The Albanian principalities, ca. 1390.\|image1_width 250\|image2League of Lezhë, 1448-1468.png\|caption2The League of Lezhë in 1448–1468.}} The kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but in other parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Lala, Etleva (2008), Regnum Albaniae, the Papal Curia, and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility (PDF), Central European University, Department of Medieval Studies\|last Lala\|first Eleva\|publisher Central European University, Department of Medieval Studies\|year 2008\|location Budapest, Hungary\|pages 52\|url http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf\|access-date 20 February 2016\|archive-date 9 October 2022\|archive-url https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf\|url-status dead}}</ref> A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Regnum Albaiae, the Papal Curia and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility\|last Lala\|first Etleva\|publisher Central European Department for Medieval Studies\|year 2008\|location Budapes, Hungary\|pages 146\|url http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf\|access-date 20 February 2016\|archive-date 9 October 2022\|archive-url https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf\|url-status dead}}</ref> Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around Devoll river in what is now central Albania<ref name"Ducellier780781">{{harvnb\|Ducellier\|1999\|pp780–781}} "the Albanians dominated the central regions of what is now the Albanian republic, in the areas which are drained by the Devollit river"</ref> and the other around the region known as Arbanon.<ref name"Ducellier780781b">{{harvnb\|Ducellier\|1999\|pp780–781}}.</ref> Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the Late Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleEast European Quarterly, Band 15 \|publisherUniversity of Colorado, 1981 \|page471 \|languageen}}</ref> In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the Sorgo family who came from the Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to Dalmatia.<ref name"Sorgo family">{{Cite book\|author1Oleh Havrylyshyn\|author2Nora Srzentiæ\|titleInstitutions Always 'Mattered': Explaining Prosperity in Mediaeval Ragusa (Dubrovnik)\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-WSpBQAAQBAJ&pgPA59\|date10 December 2014\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|isbn978-1-137-33978-2\|page59}}{{Dead link\|dateJanuary 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Saraçi \|first1Alvin \|titleTregtia e Durrësit Dhe e Raguzës me Venedikun pas Shpërthimit të Luftës së Parë të Moresë (1684–1699) \|trans-titleTrade of Durrës and Ragusa with Venice after the Outbreak of the First Morea War (1684–1699) \|journalStudime Historike \|date2015 \|issue1–2 \|pages51–67 \|urlhttps://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id591211 \|languageAlbanian }}</ref> The upcoming invasion of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the death of Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries.<ref>{{Cite book \|author1Russell King, Nicola Mai \|titleOut of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy \|publisherBerghahn Books, 2013 \|isbn978-0-85745-390-7 \|pages66–67 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_PUaNmz4Uc4C&qalbanian+diaspora+dalmatia+middle+ages&pgPA67 \|languageen\|date15 January 2013 }}</ref> In the 14th century a number of Albanian principalities were created. These included Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Dukagjini, Princedom of Albania, and Principality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance called League of Lezha. Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as stratioti. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern).<ref>Downing 1992, p. 66.</ref> Ottoman Empire {{Main\|Albania under the Ottoman Empire\|Albanian-Turkish Wars (1432–1479)}} {{Further\|\|League of Lezhë}} {{multiple image \|alignright \|total_width275 \|image_styleborder:none; \|image1Gjergj Kastrioti.jpg\|alt1Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg \|caption1Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg led a successful rebellion to resist Ottoman expansion into Europe for 25 years. \|image2Ali Pascha von Janina.jpg \|alt2Ali Pasha Tepelena \|caption2=Ali Pasha Tepelena was one of the most powerful autonomous Ottoman Albanian rulers and governed over the Pashalik of Yanina.}} Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered kingdoms and principalities such as the Principalities of Arbanon, Kastrioti and Thopia. Before and after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from Albania, Epirus and Peloponnese escaped to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. Under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (Dominus Albaniae in Latin).<ref name"League of Lezhë">{{Cite book \|author1Rob Pickard \|titleAnalysis and Reform of Cultural Heritage Policies in South-East Europe \|date2008 \|isbn978-92-871-6265-6 \|page16 \|publisherCouncil of Europe \|editionEuroparat \|languageen}}</ref> Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa.<ref name"britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12472/Albania/42646/The-decline-of-Byzantium\|titleAlbania :: The decline of Byzantium \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Barletius, Marinus. De obsidione Scodrensi. Venice: Bernardino de Vitabilus, 1504.</ref><ref>Licursi, Emiddio Pietro (2011). Empire of Nations: The Consolidation of Albanian and Turkish National Identities in theLate Ottoman Empire, 1878–1913. New York: Columbia University. p. 19.</ref> The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy taxes such as the Devshirme system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the Balkans and elsewhere to compose the Janissary.<ref>{{Cite web \| authorRaymond Zickel and Walter R. Iwaskiw\|year 1994\|titleAlbania: A Country Study ("Albanians under Ottoman Rule")\|urlhttp://countrystudies.us/albania/18.htm \|access-date9 April 2008}}</ref> Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from Egypt to Algeria and the rest of the Maghreb.<ref name"Norris196">{{harvnb\|Norris\|1993\|p=196}}.</ref> in 1815–1821]] In the late 18th century, Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the Pashalik of Yanina within the Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern Albania, Epirus, Thessaly and southwestern Macedonia region. During his rule, the town of Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks. The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus.<ref>{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2010\|p8}}</ref> Thus, he obtained control of Arta and took control over the ports of Butrint, Preveza and Vonitsa. He also gained control of the pashaliks of Elbasan, Delvina, Berat and Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the British, French and Russians and formed alliances with them at various times.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleModern Türkiye Tarihi İslam, Milliyetçilik ve Modernlik 1789–2007\|lastFindley\|firstCarter V.\|publisherTimaş Yayınları\|year2012\|isbn978-605-114-693-5\|locationİstanbul\|pages=30}}</ref> In the 19th century, the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century.<ref name"Origin of Muhammad Ali">{{Cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ5U3AAAAIAAJ&pgPA266 \| page266 \| titleThe Encyclopaedia of Islam \| last1Gibb \| first1Sir Hamilton \| publisherBrill \| date1954}}</ref> After a brief French invasion led by Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt.<ref name"Elsie 303">{{Cite book \| titleA Biographical Dictionary of Albanian History \| authorRobert Elsie \| publisherI.B.Tauris \| year2012 \| isbn978-1-78076-431-3 \| page303 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpgf6GWJxuZgC&pgPA303}}</ref> As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries. Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name"Clayer">{{EI3\|lastClayer\|firstNathalie\|titleAlbania\|year2010\|urlhttp://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/albania-COM_23054}}</ref> The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. With the advent of increasing suppression on Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAlbania \|publisherTouring Club Italiano \|locationMilan \|page86 \|editionPirro Marconi, Sestilio Montanelli \|languageit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|author1August Kovačec \|titleArbanasi-Albanisch \|urlhttp://wwwg.uni-klu.ac.at/eeo/Arbanasi.pdf \|websiteuni-klu.ac.at \|languagede \|access-date3 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151123183336/http://wwwg.uni-klu.ac.at/eeo/Arbanasi.pdf \|archive-date23 November 2015 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> At this point, the urban centers of central and southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and takyas were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as Berat, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Shkodër started to flourish.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Manahasa\|first1Edmond\|last2Kolay\|first2Aktuğ\|titleObservations on the existing Ottoman mosques in Albania\|urlhttps://www.journalagent.com/itujfa/pdfs/ITUJFA-37450-DOSSIER_ARTICLE-MANAHASA.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.journalagent.com/itujfa/pdfs/ITUJFA-37450-DOSSIER_ARTICLE-MANAHASA.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture\|volume12\|issue2\|year2015\|pages70 & 78}}</ref> In the far north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain.<ref>{{harvnb\|Ramet\|1998\|pp209–210}}.</ref> {{multiple image\|align left\|total_width300\|image1 Mehmedpasha.jpg\|width1 150 \|height1 \|caption1 Köprülü Mehmed Pasha served as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century and started the Köprülü era.\|image2 ModernEgypt, Muhammad Ali by Auguste Couder, BAP 17996.jpg\|width2 150 \|height2 \|caption2 Muhammad Ali of Egypt was the governor of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and Hejaz in the 19th century.}} The motives for conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues.<ref name"Clayer" /> Reasons included the incentive to escape high taxes levied on non-Muslims subjects, ecclesiastical decay, coercion by Ottoman authorities in times of war, and the privileged legal and social position Muslims within the Ottoman administrative and political machinery had over that of non-Muslims.<ref name"Giakoumis8687">{{harvnb\|Giakoumis\|2010\|pp86–87}}.</ref><ref name"Koti1617">{{harvnb\|Koti\|2010\|pp16–17}}.</ref><ref name"Ramet203204">{{harvnb\|Ramet\|1998\|pp203–204}}.</ref><ref name"Skendi1956321323">{{harvnb\|Skendi\|1956\|pp321–323}}.</ref><ref name"Giakoumis8788">{{harvnb\|Giakoumis\|2010\|pp87–88}}.</ref><ref name"Vickers2011">{{harvnb\|Vickers\|2011\|pp17–24}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Myhill\|2006\|p 232}}</ref> As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them Zagan Pasha, Bayezid Pasha and members of the Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III were both Albanian on their maternal side.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastBabinger\|firstFranz\|titleMehmed the Conqueror and His Time\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPPxC6rO7vvsC&pgPA175\|year1992\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|isbn0-691-01078-1\|page51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|title The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire\|last Peirce\|first Leslie P.\|publisher Oxford University Press, Inc.\|year 1993\|isbn 0-19-507673-7\|location New York\|page94}}</ref> Areas such as Albania, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as Arnavudluk or Albania.<ref name"Anscombe200688">{{harvnb\|Anscombe\|2006\|pp88}}</ref><ref name"Anscombe772">{{harvnb\|Anscombe\|2006b\|p772}}</ref><ref name"Kolovos41">{{harvnb\|Kolovos\|2007\|p41}}</ref> {{Clear}} Albanian Renaissance {{Main\|Albanian Renaissance\|Albanian Declaration of Independence\|l1=Independence of Albania}} {{Further\|League of Prizren}} was one of the earliest figures of the early Albanian Renaissance.<ref>{{Cite book \|author1Robert Elsie \|author-link1Robert Elsie \|titleHistorical Dictionary of Albania \|publisherScarecrow Press, 2010 \|isbn978-0-8108-7380-3 \|page469 \|languageen\|date19 March 2010 }}</ref>]] The Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within the Albanian communities in Italy and Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles.<ref>{{Cite book \|author1Sarah Amsler \|titleTheorising Social Change in Post-Soviet Countries: Critical Approaches \|publisherPeter Lang, 2007 \|isbn978-3-03910-329-4 \|pages96105 \|editionBalihar Sanghera, Sarah Amsler, Tatiana Yarkova \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMzXP_r6oAxwC&pgPA96 \|languageen\|year=2007 }}</ref> Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them Naum Veqilharxhi, Girolamo de Rada, Dora d'Istria, Thimi Mitko, Naim and Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future.<ref name"Elsie6593">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp65–93}}.</ref> The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the Mësonjëtorja in Korçë, the first secular school in the Albanian language. was a well known rilindas and is considered to be the pioneer of modern Albanian literature.]] The Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of Albania, National Awakening and the Birth of Albania, 1876–1918 \|urlhttp://motherearthtravel.com/albania/history-7.htm \|access-date2022-04-11 \|websitemotherearthtravel.com}}</ref> The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition.<ref nameKaser>Karl Kaser, Frank Kressing. [http://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/volkskunde/veranstaltungen/ss07/Religion_als_Bestandteil_von_Ethnizit__tskonstruktionen/Downloads/Albtrania_A_Country_In_Transition.pdf Albania – A country in transition Aspects of changing identities in a south-east European country] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070613031928/http://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/volkskunde/veranstaltungen/ss07/Religion_als_Bestandteil_von_Ethnizit__tskonstruktionen/Downloads/Albtrania_A_Country_In_Transition.pdf \|date13 June 2007 }}. Baden-Baden: Nomos-Verlag Extracts, 2002, p. 15</ref><ref name"O'Brien">Tara Ashley O' Brien. [http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2008/obrien_tara.pdf Manufacturing Homogeneity in the Modern Albanian Nation-Building Project]. University of Budapest, 2008, p. 4-5</ref> It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity.<ref name"O'Brien" /> Even after the declaration of independence, national identity was fragmented and possibly non-existent in much of the newly proposed country.<ref name"O'Brien" /> The state of disunity and fragmentation would remain until the communist period following Second World War, when the communist nation-building project would achieve greater success in nation-building and reach more people than any previous regime, thus creating Albanian national communist identity.<ref name"O'Brien" /> Communism in Albania {{Main\|Communism in Albania\|Fall of communism in Albania}} {{Further\|Bunkers in Albania}} in the center, after the liberation of Tirana on 17 November 1944]] Enver Hoxha of the Communist Party of Labour took power in Albania in 1946. Albania established an alliance with the Eastern Bloc which provided Albania with many advantages in the form of economic assistance and military protection from the Western Bloc during the Cold War. The Albanians experienced a period of several beneficial political and economic changes. The government defended the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Albania, diversified the economy through a programme of industrialisation which led to a higher standard of living and followed improvements in areas such as health, education and infrastructure.<ref name"Albanian Nationalism">{{Cite encyclopedia\|titleAlbanian Nationalism\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/pla…/Albania/Albanian-nationalism\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|access-date=22 November 2016}}</ref> It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated churches, monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-186.html\|titleAlbania – Hoxha's Antireligious Campaign\|websitecountry-data.com\|access-date13 March 2019}}</ref> Protests coinciding with the emerging revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including Shkodër and Tirana which eventually lead to the fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as Greece and Italy followed. Bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concrete bunkers were built on strategic locations across Albania's territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBunkers of Albania\|urlhttp://www.atlasobscura.com/places/bunkers-of-albania\|websiteAtlas Obscura\|refAO\|access-date21 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312044555/http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/bunkers-of-albania\|archive-date12 March 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltering the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes. {{Clear}} Independence of Kosovo {{Main\|Independence of Kosovo}} {{See also\|Kosovo War}} Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and major European Union countries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it as Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244. The overwhelming majority of Kosovo's population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePolicy Brief: Minority Communities in the 2011 Kosovo Census Results: Analysis and Recommendations \|date18 December 2012 \|publisherEuropean Center for Minority Issues Kosovo \|urlhttp://www.ecmikosovo.org/wp-content/Publications/Policy_briefs/2012-12_ECMI_Kosovo_Policy_Brief_-_Minority_Communities_in_the_2011_Kosovo_Census_Results_Analysis_and_Recommendations/eng.pdf \|access-date3 September 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140103200754/http://www.ecmikosovo.org/wp-content/Publications/Policy_briefs/2012-12_ECMI_Kosovo_Policy_Brief_-_Minority_Communities_in_the_2011_Kosovo_Census_Results_Analysis_and_Recommendations/eng.pdf \|archive-date3 January 2014 }}</ref> Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of Toplica and Morava is recorded since the Middle Ages.<ref name"Anscombe767774785788">{{harvnb\|Anscombe\|2006b\|pp767–774}}</ref> As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878 Congress of Berlin had given to the Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo.<ref name"Jagodic">{{harvnb\|Jagodić\|1998}}. para. 1–71.</ref><ref name"Uka525354">{{harvnb\|Uka\|2004d\|p=52}}. {{hidden\|\|"Pra, këtu në vazhdim, pas dëbimit të tyre me 1877–1878 do të shënohen vetëm disa patronime (mbiemra) të shqiptarëve të Toplicës dhe viseve tjera shqiptare të Sanxhakut të Nishit. Kjo do të thotë se, shqiptaret e dëbuar pas shpërnguljes, marrin atributin muhaxhirë (refugjatë), në vend që për mbiemër familjar të marrin emrin e gjyshit, fisit, ose ndonjë tjetër, ato për mbiemër familjar marrin emrin e fshatit të Sanxhakut të Nishit, nga janë dëbuar."}} "So here next, after their expulsion 1877–1878 will be noted with only some patronymic (surnames) of the Albanians of Toplica and other Albanian areas of Sanjak of Nis. This means that the Albanians expelled after moving, attained the appellation muhaxhirë (refugees), which instead for the family surname to take the name of his grandfather, clan, or any other, they for their family surname take the name of the village of the Sanjak of Nis from where they were expelled from."; pp. 53–54.</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Jagodić\|1998}}</ref> in Pristina was unveiled at the celebration of the Independence of Kosovo.]] After being an integral section of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution.{{Citation needed\|dateMay 2022}} Rights to use the Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution of the later formed Socialist Yugoslavia and was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastClark\|firstHoward\|titleCivil Resistance in Kosovo\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOTW9XKUmrxsC&pgPA12\|year2000\|publisherPluto Press\|isbn978-0-7453-1569-0\|page=12}}</ref> In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part of Serbia and Montenegro. In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and Serb population of Kosovo culminated in the Kosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. NATO launched a 78-day air campaign in 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm\|titleOperation Allied Force\|publisherNATO\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160912233627/http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm\|archive-date12 September 2016}}</ref> {{Clear}} Distribution Balkans {{See also\|Albanians in Bulgaria\|Albanians in Croatia\|Albanians in Kosovo\|Albanians in North Macedonia\|Albanians in Montenegro\|Albanians in Romania\|Albanians in Serbia\|l2Croatia\|l3Kosovo\|l4North Macedonia\|l5Montenegro\|l6Romania\|l7Serbia}} Approximately five million Albanians are geographically distributed across the Balkan Peninsula with about half this number living in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro as well as to a more lesser extent in Croatia and Serbia. There are also significant Albanian populations in Greece. Approximately 1.8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognised Republic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of the municipality of North Mitrovica and constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory. In Montenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30,000 forming one of the constituent ethnic minority groups of the country.<ref name"Monstat" /><ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE CONSTITUTION OF MONTENEGRO \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/me/me004en.pdf \|websitewipo.int \|page1 \|quoteThe determination that we, as free and equal citizens, members of peoples and national minorities who live in Montenegro: Montenegrins, Serbs, Bosniacs, Albanians, Muslims, Croats and the others, are committed to democratic and civic Montenegro}}</ref> They predominantly live in the coastal region of Montenegro around the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar but also Tuz and around Plav in the northern region as well as in the capital city of Podgorica in the central region.<ref name="Monstat" /> is presently a neighborhood of Zadar in Croatia.<ref>{{Cite book\| titlePovijest Arbanasa kod Zadra\| authorMijo Čurković\| publisherE. Vitaliani\| year1922}}</ref>]] In North Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500,000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country.<ref name"FYROMAlb1">{{Cite web \|websitestat.gov.mk \|publisherState Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia \|titleCensus of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002 final data \|urlhttp://www.stat.gov.mk/Publikacii/knigaIX.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.stat.gov.mk/Publikacii/knigaIX.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|page591 \|languageen, mk }}</ref><ref name"FYROMAlb2">{{Cite web \|websitestat.gov.mk \|publisherState Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia \|titleCensus of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002 final data \|urlhttp://www.stat.gov.mk/Publikacii/knigaX.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.stat.gov.mk/Publikacii/knigaX.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|page62 \|languageen, mk }}</ref> The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar in the northwestern region, Struga and Debar in the southwestern region as well as around the capital of Skopje in the central region. In Croatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17.500 mostly concentrated in the counties of Istria, Split-Dalmatia and most notably in the capital city of Zagreb.<ref>{{Croatian Census 2011 \| url http://web.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/census2011/results/htm/E01_01_12/E01_01_12.html \| title 4. Population by ethnicity and religion }}</ref><ref name"Minority language in Croatia">{{Cite web \|titleCONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA (consolidated text) \|urlhttp://www.sabor.hr/fgs.axd?id17074 \|websitesabor.hr \|page2 \|access-date12 January 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180628140805/http://www.sabor.hr/fgs.axd?id17074 \|archive-date28 June 2018 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Arbanasi people who historically migrated to Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine live in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia and Southern Ukraine.<ref name"Novik261262" /> In Serbia, the Albanians are an officially recognised ethnic minority group with a population of around 70,000.<ref>{{Cite web \|author1Republic Statistical Office \|titleFINAL RESULTS OF THE CENSUS 2002 \|urlhttp://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/eSn31.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090306111312/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/eSn31.pdf \|archive-date6 March 2009 }}</ref> They are significantly concentrated in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preševo in the Pčinja District. In Romania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10,000 mainly distributed in Bucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented in Parliament of Romania.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleReservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 – European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages\|urlhttp://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth63PpH3zN\|websiteCouncil of Europe\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208122308/http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth63PpH3zN\|archive-date8 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleConstitution of Romania \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ro/ro021en.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ro/ro021en.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websitewipo.int/ \|page2 \|quoteThe State recognizes and guarantees the right of persons belonging to national minorities to the preservation, development and expression of their ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity.}}</ref> {{Clear}} Italy {{See also\|Albanians in Italy}} {{Further\|Arbëreshë people\|Stratioti\|l1=Arbëreshë}} was of Albanian origin and served as the Pope from 1700 to 1721.]] The Italian Peninsula across the Adriatic Sea has attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of the Albanian Renaissance and maintaining the Albanian culture. The Arbëreshë people came sporadically in several small and large cycles initially as Stratioti mercenaries in service of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Republic of Venice.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleGiornale enciclopedico di Napoli \|date1807 \|publisherOrsiniana \|pages152 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEtEAAAAAYAAJ&pgPA300 \|languageit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleGli arbëreshë e la Basilicata \|urlhttp://distoriadistorie.blogspot.it/2013/03/gli-arbereshe-e-la-basilicata.html \|websitedistoriadistorie.blogspot.it \|date18 March 2013 \|languageit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|author1Detrez Raymond, Plas Pieter \|titleDeveloping Cultural Identity in the Balkans: Convergence vs Divergence \|isbn978-90-5201-297-1 \|editionPeter Lang \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTRttHdXjP14C\|page134\|year2005 \|publisherPeter Lang }}</ref> Larger migration waves occurred after the death of Skanderbeg and the capture of Krujë and Shkodër by the Ottomans to escape the forthcoming political and religious changes.<ref>{{Cite web\|title LE MIGRAZIONI DEGLI ARBERESHE\|url http://www.arbitalia.it/storia/migrazioni.htm\|website arbitalia.it\|access-date 17 January 2016}}</ref> ]] Today, Arbëreshë constitute one of the largest ethnolinguistic minority groups and their language is recognized and protected constitutionally under the provisions of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Shkodra, arbëreshët dhe lidhjet italo-shqiptare\|url https://books.google.com/books?idEQAunwEACAAJ\|publisher Universiteti i Shkodrës "Luigj Gurakuqi"\|date 1 January 2013\|isbn 9789928413536\|language sq}}</ref><ref name"lang">{{Cite web\|titleLegge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482 "Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche" pubblicata nella Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297 del 20 dicembre 1999\|urlhttp://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm\|publisherItalian Parliament\|access-date2 December 2014\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150512051856/http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm\|archive-date12 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleNorme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche \|urlhttps://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/lavori_preparat_n_8.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.senato.it/application/xmanager/projects/leg18/file/lavori_preparat_n_8.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websitesenato.it \|languageit \|date15 December 2009}}</ref> The total number of Arbëreshës is approximately 260,000 scattered across Sicily, Calabria and Apulia.<ref name"Nasse2426">{{harvnb\|Nasse\|1964\|pp=24–26}}.</ref> There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Canada and the United States. After 1991, a mass migration of Albanians towards Italy occurred.<ref name"AlbCominIta">{{Cite web \|titleThe Albanian Community \|urlhttp://www.integrazionemigranti.gov.it/Areetematiche/PaesiComunitari-e-associazioniMigranti/Documents/ES_ALBANIA_en.pdf \|websiteintegrazionemigranti.gov.it \|pages2–7 \|year2016 \|access-date30 November 2018 \|archive-date30 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181130202119/http://www.integrazionemigranti.gov.it/Areetematiche/PaesiComunitari-e-associazioniMigranti/Documents/ES_ALBANIA_en.pdf \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence in Italy was numbered to be around 480,000 and 500,000.<ref name"AlbCominIta" /><ref>{{Cite web \|websiteistat.it \|publisherIstituto Nazionale di Statistica \|titleCITTADINI NON COMUNITARI: PRESENZA, NUOVI INGRESSI E ACQUISIZIONI DI CITTADINANZA Anni 2014–2015 \|urlhttps://www.istat.it/it/files//2015/10/CITTADINI-NON-COMUNITARI.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.istat.it/it/files//2015/10/CITTADINI-NON-COMUNITARI.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|page2 \|languageit }}</ref> Tuscany, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna represent the regions with the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy.<ref name"AlbCominIta" /> As of 2022, 433,000 Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence lived in Italy and were the second largest migrant community in Italy after Romanians.<ref>{{cite web \|titleItaly: 2022 IDOS statistical dossier on immigration \|date25 January 2024 \|urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/library-document/italy-2022-idos-statistical-dossier-immigration_en \|publisherEuropean Website on Integration \|page5}}</ref> As of 2018, an additional ca. 200,000 Albanian migrants have obtained Italian citizenship (children born in Italy not included).<ref>{{cite news \|last1Biçoku \|first1Keti \|titleCittadini italo-albanesi: la carica dei 200 mila \|urlhttps://www.balcanicaucaso.org/aree/Albania/Cittadini-italo-albanesi-la-carica-dei-200-mila-185685 \|publisherOsservatorio balcani e caucaso transeuropa \|date2018}}</ref> As of 2012, 41.5% of the Albanian in Italy population were counted as Muslim, 38.9% as Christian including 27.7% as Roman Catholic and 11% as Eastern Orthodox and 17.8% as Irreligious.<ref>{{Cite web \|websiteistat.it\|publisherIstituto Nazionale di Statistica \|urlhttp://www.istat.it/it/archivio/169710\|titleAppartenenza e pratica religiosa tra i cittadini stranieri\|date30 October 2014\|languageit}}</ref> Greece {{See also\|Albanians in Greece}} {{Further\|Arvanites\|Cham Albanians\|l2=Chams}} , London]] The Arvanites and Albanians of Western Thrace are a group descended from Tosks who migrated to southern and central Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries.<ref name"Gogonas3">{{harvnb\|Gogonas\|2010\|p3}}. "Arvanites originate from Albanian settlers who moved south at different times between the 14th and the 16th centuries from areas in what is today southern Albania The reasons for this migration are not entirely clear and may be manifold. In many instances the Arvanites were invited by the Byzantine and Latin rulers of the time. They were employed to resettle areas that had been largely depopulated through wars, epidemics and other reasons, and they were employed as soldiers. Some later movements are also believed to have been motivated to evade Islamisation after the Ottoman conquest. The main waves of the Arvanite migration into southern Greece started around 1300, reached a peak some time during the 14th century, and ended around 1600. Arvanites first reached Thessaly, then Attica and finally the Peloponnese (Clogg. 2002). Regarding the number of Arvanites in Greece, the 1951 census (the last census in Greece that included a question about language) gives a figure of 23,000 Arvaiithka speakers. Sociohinguistic research in the 1970s in the villages of Attica and Biotia alone indicated a figure of at least 30,000 speakers (Trudgill and Tzavaras 1977), while Lunden (1993) suggests 50,000 for Greece as a whole."</ref> They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect of Tosk Albanian known as Arvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians.<ref name"Hall2829">{{harvnb\|Hall\|1997\|pp28–29}}. "The permeability of ethnic boundaries is also demonstrated in many of the Greek villages of Attiki and Viotia (ancient Attika and Boiotia), where Arvanites often form a majority. These Arvanites are descended from Albanians who first entered Greece between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries (though there was a subsequent wave of immigration in the second half of the eighteenth century). Although still regarded as ethnically distinct in the nineteenth century, their participation in the Greek War of Independence and the Civil War has led to increasing assimilation: in a survey conducted in the 1970s, 97 per crnt of Arvanite informants despite regularly speaking in Arvanitika, considered themselves to be Greek. A similar concern with being identified as Greek is exhibited by the bilingual Arvanites of the Eastern Argolid."</ref><ref name"Bintliff137138">{{harvnb\|Bintliff\|2003\|pp137–138}}. "First, we can explain the astonishing persistence of Albanian village culture from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries through the ethnic and religious tolerance characteristic of Islamic empires and so lacking in their Christian equivalents. Ottoman control rested upon allowing local communities to keep their religion, language, local laws, and representatives, provided that taxes were paid (the millet system). There was no pressure for Greeks and Albanians to conform to each other's language or other behavior. Clear signs of change are revealed in the travel diaries of the German scholar Ludwig Ross (1851), when he accompanied the Bavarian Otto, whom the Allies had foisted as king upon the newly freed Greek nation in the aftermath of the War of Independence in the 1830s. Ross praises the well-built Greek villages of central Greece with their healthy, happy, dancing inhabitants, and contrasts them specifically with the hovels and sickly inhabitants of Albanian villages. In fact, recent scholarship has underlined how far it was the West that built modem Greece in its own fanciful image as the land of a long-oppressed people who were the direct descendants of Pericles. Thus from the late nineteenth century onward the children of the inhabitants of the new "nation-state" were taught in Greek, history confined itself to the episodes of pure Greekness, and the tolerant Ottoman attitude to cultural diversity yielded to a deliberate policy of total Hellenization of the populace—effective enough to fool the casual observer. One is rather amazed at the persistence today of such dual-speaking populations in much of the Albanian colonization zone. However, apart from the provinciality of this essentially agricultural province, a high rate of illiteracy until well into this century has also helped to preserve Arvanitika in the Boeotian villagers (Meijs 1993)."; p. 140. "In contrast therefore to the more openly problematic issue of Slav speakers in northern Greece, Arvanitic speakers in central Greece lack any signs of an assertive ethnicity. I would like to suggest that they possess what we might term a passive ethnicity. As a result of a number of historical factors, much of the rural population in central Greece was Albanian-speaking by the time of the creation of the modern Greek state in the 1830s. Until this century, most of these people were illiterate and unschooled, yet there existed sufficient knowledge of Greek to communicate with officials and townspeople, itinerant traders, and so on, to limit the need to transform rural language usage. Life was extremely provincial, with just one major carriage-road passing through the center of the large province of Boeotia even in the 1930s (beyond which horseback and cart took over; van Effenterre 1989). Even in the 1960s, Arvanitic village children could be figures of fun for their Greek peers in the schools of Thebes (One of the two regional towns) (K. Sarri, personal communication, 2000). It was not a matter of cultural resistance but simple conservatism and provinciality, the extreme narrowness of rural life, that allowed Arvanitic language and local historic memories to survive so effectively to the very recent period."</ref><ref name"VeremisKolipoulos2425">{{harvnb\|Veremis\|Kolipoulos\|2003\|pp24–25}}. "For the time being, the Greeks of free Greece could indulge in defining their brethren of unredeemed Greece, primarily the Slav Macedonians and secondarily the Orthodox Albanians and the Vlachs. Primary school students were taught, in the 1880s, that 'Greeks [are] our kinsmen, of common descent, speaking the language we speak and professing the religion we profess'." But this definition, it seems, was reserved for small children who could not possibly understand the intricate arguments of their parents on the question of Greek identity. What was essential to understand at that tender age was that modern Greeks descended from the ancient Greeks. Grown up children, however, must have been no less confused than adults on the criteria for defining modern Greek identity. Did the Greeks constitute a 'race' apart from the Albanians, the Slavs and the Vlachs? Yes and no. High school students were told that the 'other races', i.e. the Slavs, the Albanians and the Vlachs, 'having been Hellenized with the years in terms of mores and customs, are now being assimilated into the Greeks'. On the Slavs of Macedonia there seems to have been no consensus. Were they Bulgars, Slavicized Greeks or early Slavs? They 'were' Bulgars until the 1870s and Slavicized Greeks, or Hellenized Slavs subsequently, according to the needs of the dominant theory. There was no consensus, either, on the Vlachs. Were they Latinized Greek mountaineers of late immigrants from Vlachia? As in the case of the Slavs of Macedonia, Vlach descent shifted from the southern Balkans to the Danube, until the Romanians claimed the Vlachs for their brethren; which made the latter irrevocably indigenous to the southern Balkan mountains. The Albanians or 'Arvanites', were readily 'adopted' as brethren of common descent for at least three reasons. Firstly, the Albanians had been living in southern Greece, as far south as the Peloponnese, in considerable numbers. Secondly, Christian Albanians had fought with distinction and in considerable numbers in the War of Independence. Thirdly, credible Albanian claims for the establishment of an Albanian nation state materialized too Late for Greek national theorists to abandon well-entrenched positions. Commenting on a geography textbook for primary schools in 1901, a state committee found it inadequate and misleading. One of its principal shortcomings concerned the Albanians, who were described as 'close kinsmen of the Greeks'. 'These are unacceptable from the point of view of our national claims and as far as historical truth is concerned', commented the committee. 'it must have been maintained that they are of common descent with the Greeks (Pelasgians), that they speak a language akin to that of the Greeks and that they participated in all struggles for national liberation of the common fatherland.'"</ref> Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century. The Cham Albanians were a group that formerly inhabited a region of Epirus known as Chameria, nowadays Thesprotia in northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece during World War II, by an anti-communist resistance group (EDES). The causes of the expulsion were multifaceted and remain a matter of debate among historians. Different narratives in historiography argue that the causes involved pre-existing Greek policies which targeted the minority and sought its elimination, the Cham collaboration with the Axis forces and local property disputes which were instrumentalized after WWII.{{sfn\|Baltsiotis\|2011\|locParagraph 56, Note 95}}{{sfn\|Tsoutsoumpis\|2015\|pp119-120}} The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus to Albania and Turkey varies: figures include 14,000, 19,000, 20,000, 25,000 and 30,000.{{sfn\|Tsitselikis\|2012\|p311}}<ref>M. Mazower (ed.), After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960, Princeton University Press, 1960, {{ISBN\|9780691058412}}, p.&nbsp;25.</ref><ref name"Victor Roudometof p. 158">Victor Roudometof, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict. {{ISBN\|0-275-97648-3}}. p. 158</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastClose\|firstDavid H. \|titleThe Origins of the Greek Civil War \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHfocAAAAYAAJ&q%22300+of+the+Cham+population%22 \|access-date2008-03-29 \|year1995\|isbn978-0-582-06471-3\|quotep. 161 "EDES gangs massacred 200–300 of the Cham population, who during the occupation totalled about 19,000 and forced all the rest to flee to Albania"\|pages248\|publisherLongman }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|first1Aytaç \|last1Gizem Bilgin \|titleConflict areas in the Balkans \|date2020 \|publisherLexington Books \|locationLanham \|isbn978-1-4985-9920-7 \|page112 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW_v_DwAAQBAJ}}</ref> According to Cham reports this number should be raised to c.&nbsp;35,000.<ref name="Vickers, Miranda 2002">Vickers, Miranda. The Cham Issue – Albanian National & Property Claims in Greece. Paper prepared for the British MoD, Defence Academy, 2002. {{ISBN\|1-903584-76-0}}</ref> Large-scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. During this period, at least 500,000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700,000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500,000 Albanians in Greece at the very least without accounting for their children.<ref name"auto"/> The 2011 Greece census indicated that Albanians consisted the biggest group of migrants in Greece, numbered roughly 480,000, but taking into consideration the current population of Greece (11 million) and the fact that the census failed to account for illegal foreigners, it was estimated that Albanians consist of 5% of the population (at least 550,000).<ref name"ssoar.info"/> By 2005, around 600,000 Albanians lived in Greece, forming the largest immigrant community in the country.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastVathi\|firstZana\|titleMigrating and Settling in a Mobile World: Albanian Migrants and Their Children in Europe\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-3-319-13024-8\|date18 May 2015\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-3-319-13024-8\|page[https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-3-319-13024-8/page/n32 22] \|quoteAlbanians in Greece constitute the largest Albanian migrant community in Europe (600,000; Government of Albania 2005). They are also by far the largest immigrant group in Greece.}}</ref> They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania. {{As of\|2022}}, in total, there might have been more than 500,000 Albanian-born migrants and their children who received Greek citizenship over the years.<ref name"albanianresidents">{{cite web \|urlhttps://greekreporter.com/2022/09/29/albanian-residents-leaving-greece-wealthier-countries/ \|titleAlbanian Residents Leaving Greece for Wealthier Countries \|format\|accessdate \|quoteIn total, there could potentially be more than half a million Albanian-born individuals in Greece who along with their children have been granted Greek citizenship over the years.}}</ref> In recent years, many Albanian workers and their families have left Greece in search of better opportunities elsewhere in Europe.<ref name"albanianresidents"/> As of 2022, there c. 292,000 Albanian immigrants are holders of legal permits to live and work in Greece, down from c. 423,000 in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleUlet numri i emigrantëve shqiptarë në punët sezonale të Greqisë, pronarët rrisin pagat\|trans-titleThe number of Albanian immigrants in seasonal jobs in Greece decreases, the owners increase wages \|urlhttps://politiko.al/e-tjera/ulet-numri-i-emigranteve-shqiptare-ne-punet-sezonale-te-greqise-pronaret-i469730 \|websitepolitiko.al\|trans-quoteThe official data published by the Greek government for September of this year [2022] show that there are 291 thousand 868 Albanian emigrants with valid residence permits in Greece, which make up about 61.4 per cent of the legal migrants. The data on the number of Albanians with legal residence permits for this year's September, show a significantly lower number compared to last year's [2021] September, where 425 thousand and 740 Albanians were in Greece with valid legal residences, which constituted about 63 per cent of foreigners in this country.\|languageAlbanian\|access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref> in Filiates in 1915, by Fred Boissonas]] Albanians in Greece have a long history of Hellenisation, assimilation and integration.<ref>Gogonas, Nikos. "Language shift in second generation Albanian immigrants in Greece." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 30, no. 2 (2009): 95-110.</ref><ref>Lazaridis, Gabriella, and Iordanis Psimmenos. "Migrant flows from Albania to Greece: economic, social and spatial exclusion." In Eldorado or Fortress? Migration in Southern Europe, pp. 170-185. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000.</ref> Many ethnic Albanians have been naturalised as Greek nationals, others have self-declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated.<ref>Labrianidis, Lois, and Antigone Lyberaki. "Back and forth and in between: returning Albanian migrants from Greece and Italy." ''Journal of International Migration and Integration/Revue de l'integration et de la migration internationale 5, no. 1 (2004): 77-106.</ref> Diaspora {{Main\|Albanian diaspora}} Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population.<ref>Mai, Nicola, and Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. "Albanian migration and new transnationalisms." Journal of ethnic and migration studies 29, no. 6 (2003): 939-948.</ref> Europe {{See also\|Albanians in Austria\|Albanians in Belgium\|Albanians in France\|Albanians in Germany\|Albanians in Hungary\|Albanians in the Netherlands\|Albanians in the Nordic countries\|Albanians in Spain\|Albanians in Switzerland\|Albanians in the United Kingdom\|l2Belgium\|l3France\|l4Germany\|l5Hungary\|l6Netherlands\|l7Nordic countries\|l8Spain\|l9Switzerland\|l10=the United Kingdom}} celebrating the declaration of independence of Kosovo]] During the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the conflicts in the Balkans and the Kosovo War set in motion large population movements of Albanians to Central, Western and Northern Europe.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleMigration Waves in Eastern Europe [1990–2015]: A Selection from 16 Years of SEER \|publisherNomos Verlag, 2017 \|isbn978-3-8452-7939-8 \|page307 \|editionEuropean Trade Union Institute (ETUI) \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Zd4DwAAQBAJ&pgPA307 \|languageen\|date5 April 2017 }}</ref> The gradual collapse of communism in Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries as Greece and Italy.<ref name"foc">{{Cite book \|author1Clarissa De Waal \|titleAlbania: Portrait of a Country in Transition \|publisherI.B.Tauris, 2005 \|isbn978-0-85771-023-9 \|pages5–7 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaGoAAwAAQBAJ&qalbanian+mass+exodus&pgPA6 \|languageen\|date24 June 2005 }}</ref><ref name"Bari">{{Cite web \|author1Giovama Campani \|titleAlbanian Refugees in Italy \|urlhttps://refuge.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/refuge/article/viewFile/21669/20342 \|websiterefuge.journals.yorku.ca \|pages1–4 }}</ref><ref name"90s Greece and Italy">{{Cite web \|titleThe Integration of Albanian Immigrants in Greece. A comparative approach in three specific regions: Thessaloniki, Chalkidiki and Crete \|urlhttp://digitalarchive.maastrichtuniversity.nl/fedora/get/guid:f8acd55b-7a25-4a48-b8b2-566ea7db10ed/ASSET1 \|websitedigitalarchive.maastrichtuniversity.nl \|pages7–12 \|access-date10 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181110200201/http://digitalarchive.maastrichtuniversity.nl/fedora/get/guid:f8acd55b-7a25-4a48-b8b2-566ea7db10ed/ASSET1 \|archive-date10 November 2018 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In Central Europe, there are approximately 200,000 Albanians in Switzerland with the particular concentration in the cantons of Zürich, Basel, Lucerne, Bern and St. Gallen.<ref name"albsuisse" /><ref name"cantons">{{Cite web \|titleDie kosovarische Bevölkerung in der Schweiz \|urlhttps://www.sem.admin.ch/dam/data/sem/publiservice/publikationen/diaspora/diasporastudie-kosovo-d.pdf \|websitesem.admin.ch \|page25 \|languagede \|quoteDer grösste Teil der kosovarischen Bevölkerung lebt in der Deutschschweiz, vor allem in den städtischen Agglomerationen Zürich, Basel und Luzern, aber auch in den Kantonen Aargau, St. Gallen, Bern und Waadt.}}</ref> The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250,000 to 300,000 Albanians while in Austria there are around 40,000 to 80,000 Albanians concentrated in the states of Vienna, Styria, Salzburg, Lower and Upper Austria.<ref name"SB1">{{Cite web \|author1Statistisches Bundesamt \|titleAusländische Bevölkerung Ergebnisse des Ausländerzentralregisters \|urlhttps://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/AuslaendBevoelkerung2010200167004.pdf?__blobpublicationFile \|websitedestatis.de \|pages47–50 \|languagede\|year2016\|author1-linkStatistisches Bundesamt }}</ref><ref name"SB2">{{Cite web \|author1Statistisches Bundesamt \|titleBevölkerung, Familien, Lebensformen \|urlhttps://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/StatistischesJahrbuch/Bevoelkerung.pdf?__blobpublicationFile \|websitedestatis.de \|page25 \|languagede\|author1-linkStatistisches Bundesamt }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbanische Community in Österreich \|urlhttp://medienservicestelle.at/migration_bewegt/2012/11/26/albanische-community-in-osterreich/ \|websitemedienservicestelle.at \|languagede \|access-date8 November 2018 \|archive-date4 May 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160504203711/http://medienservicestelle.at/migration_bewegt/2012/11/26/albanische-community-in-osterreich/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|author1Statistik Austria \|titleBevölkerung am 1 January 2018 nach detailliertem Geburtsland und Bundesland \|urlhttp://www.statistik.at/wcm/idc/idcplg?IdcServiceGET_PDF_FILE&RevisionSelectionMethodLatestReleased&dDocName023841 \|websitestatistik.at \|languagede\|author1-linkStatistik Austria }}</ref> In Western Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10,000 people living in the Benelux countries is in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6,000 Albanian people living in Belgium and 2,800 in the nearby Netherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found in Luxembourg with a population of 2,100.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleStemplicht vreemdelingen 187 nationaliteiten in België \|urlhttp://www.npdata.be/BuG/159-Verkiezingen-2012/Verkiezingen-2012.htm \|websitenpdata.be \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name"Netherlands" /><ref name"Luxembourg" /> Within Northern Europe, Sweden possesses the most sizeable population of Albanians in Scandinavia however there is no exact answer to their number in the country. The populations also tend to be lower in Norway, Finland and Denmark with more than 18,000, 10,000 and 8,000 Albanians respectively.<ref name"Norway" /><ref name"Finland" /><ref name"Denmark" /> The population of Albanians in the United Kingdom is officially estimated to be around 39,000 whiles in Ireland there are less than 2,500 Albanians.<ref name"United Kingdom 2017-2018">{{Cite web \|publisherGovernment of the United Kingdom \|titleJuly 2017 to June 2018 \|urlhttps://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/datasets/populationoftheunitedkingdombycountryofbirthandnationality }}</ref><ref name"Mother Tongue" /> {{Clear}} Asia and Africa {{See also\|Albanians in Egypt\|Albanians in Syria\|Albanians in Turkey\|l2Syria\|l3Turkey}} by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1870s]] The Albanian diaspora in Africa and Asia, in such countries as Egypt, Syria or Turkey, was predominantly formed during the Ottoman period through economic migration and early years of the Republic of Turkey through migration due to sociopolitical discrimination and violence experienced by Albanians in Balkans.<ref name"GenisMaynard553555">{{harvnb\|Geniş\|Maynard\|2009\|pp553–555}}</ref> In Turkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1.300,000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey.<ref>Milliyet, Türkiyedeki Kürtlerin Sayısı. 6 June 2008.</ref> As of that report, more than 500,000 Albanian descendants still recognise their ancestry and or their language, culture and traditions.<ref name"Zamanheritage">"[http://www.todayszaman.com/national_albanians-in-turkey-celebrate-their-cultural-heritage_254383.html Albanians in Turkey celebrate their cultural heritage] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151031102644/http://www.todayszaman.com/national_albanians-in-turkey-celebrate-their-cultural-heritage_254383.html \|date=31 October 2015 }}". Today's Zaman. 21 August 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2015.</ref> in Cairo by Charles Bargue, 1877]] There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5&nbsp;million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to the German Americans.<ref name"Zamanheritage" /><ref name"Deliso38">{{harvnb\|Deliso\|2007\|p38}}.</ref><ref name"Saunders98" /> This was due to various degrees of either linguistic and or cultural assimilation occurring amongst the Albanian diaspora in Turkey.<ref name"Saunders98" /> Albanians are active in the civic life of Turkey.<ref name"Zamanheritage" /><ref nameTabak>Tabak, Hüsrev (3 March 2013). "[http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_albanian-awakening-the-worm-has-turnedby-husrev-tabak-_308705.html Albanian awakening: The worm has turned!] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150717210057/http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_albanian-awakening-the-worm-has-turnedby-husrev-tabak-_308705.html \|date=17 July 2015 }}". ''Today's Zaman''. Retrieved 17 July 2015.</ref> In Egypt there are 18,000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers.<ref name"Saunders98" /> Many are descendants of the Janissaries of Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian who became Wāli, and self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan.<ref name"Saunders98" /> In addition to the dynasty that he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanese aristocracy was of Albanian origin.<ref name"Saunders98">{{harvnb\|Saunders\|2011\|p98}}. "In addition to the recent emigrants, there are older diasporic communities around the world. There are upwards of 5 million ethnic Albanians in the Turkish Republic; however, the vast majority of this population is assimilated and no longer possesses fluency in the language, though a vibrant Albanian community maintains its distinct identity in Istanbul to this day. Egypt also lays claim to some 18,000 Albanians, supposedly lingering remnants of Mohammad Ali's army."</ref> Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included major Renaissance figures (Rilindasit), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time.<ref name"Norris209210" /> With the ascension of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and rise of Arab nationalism, the last remnants of Albanian community there were forced to leave.<ref name"Elsie125126">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2010\|pp125–126}}. "With the advent of Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Arab nationalization of Egypt, not only the royal family but also the entire Albanian community- some 4,000 families- were forced to leave the country, thus bringing the chapter of Albanians on the Nile to a swift close".</ref> Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon,<ref name"Norris209210">{{harvnb\|Norris\|1993\|pp=209–210}}; 244–245.</ref> Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule. {{Clear}} Americas and Oceania {{Main\|Albanian Canadians\|Albanian Americans\|Albanians in Australia\|Albanians in New Zealand\|l1Albanians in Canada\|l2the United States\|l3=Australia}} {{See also\|Albanians in South America}} Cathedral of St. George Historic District in South Boston, Massachusetts]] The first Albanian migration to North America began in the 19th and 20th centuries not long after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However the Arbëreshë people from Southern Italy were the first Albanian people to arrive in the New World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTowns of Our Italian Ancestors Our ancestors Italo-Albanian history \|urlhttp://www.vatrarberesh.it/bibliot…/ebooks/italoalbanian.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.vatrarberesh.it/bibliot…/ebooks/italoalbanian.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websitevatrarberesh.it \|page1 }}{{dead link\|dateSeptember 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|author1Stefano Fiorini \|author2Giuseppe Tagarelli \|author3Alessio Boattini \|author4Donata Luiselli \|author5Anna Piro \|author6Antonio Tagarelli \|author7Davide Pettener \|titleEthnicity and Evolution of the Biodemographic Structure of Arbëreshe and Italian Populations of the Pollino Area, southern Italy (1820–1984) \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/249423568 \|websiteresearchgate.net \|date=December 2007}}</ref> Since then several Albanian migration waves have occurred throughout the 20th century as for instance after the Second World War with Albanians mostly from Yugoslavia rather than from Communist Albania, then after the Breakup of Communist Albania in 1990 and finally following the Kosovo War in 1998.<ref name"Canadian Encyclopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/albanians/ "Albanians"]. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Published by Vladislav A. Tomovic. Retrieved 29 November 2011</ref><ref nameth24>{{Cite book \|titleHarvard encyclopedia of American ethnic groups \|publisherBelknap Press \|lastThernstrom \|firstStephan \|year1980 \|isbn 978-0-674-37512-3\|page[https://archive.org/details/harvardencyclope00ther/page/24 24] \|url https://archive.org/details/harvardencyclope00ther \|url-accessregistration \|access-date23 June 2010 }}</ref> The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States. New York metropolitan area in the State of New York is home to the most sizeable Albanian population of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.dhs.gov/files/statistics/publications/LPR11.shtm\|titleYearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2011 Supplemental Table 2\|publisherU.S. Department of Homeland Security\|access-date11 July 2012}}</ref> As of 2017, there are approximately 205,000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in the states of New York, Michigan, Massachusetts and Illinois.<ref>{{Cite web \|websiteUnited States Census Bureau \|titleTable S0201 – SELECTED POPULATION PROFILE IN THE UNITED STATES 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates \|urlhttps://www.census.gov \|access-date17 September 2019 }}</ref><ref name"United States Census Bureau" /> The number could be higher counting the Arbëreshë people as well; they are often distinguishable from other Albanian Americans with regard to their Italianized names, nationality and a common religion.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleName Statistics\|urlhttps://www.name-statistics.org/it/prenumecomune.php\|publisherName Statistics Italia\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180412001119/https://www.name-statistics.org/it/prenumecomune.php\|access-date11 April 2018\|archive-date12 April 2018\|quoteThis archived page of Name Statistics Italia shows the common name of most Italians. So, it is supposed to be reliable source.}}</ref> In Canada, there are approximately 39,000 Albanians in the country, including 36,185 Albanians from Albania and 2,870 Albanians from Kosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude of provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia.<ref name"Statistics Canada" /> Canada's largest cities such as Toronto, Montreal and Edmonton were besides the United States a major centre of Albanian migration to North America. Toronto is home to around 17,000 Albanians.<ref name"Toronto">{{Cite web\|publisherStatistics Canada\|titleEthnic Origin (279), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age (12) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census \|urlhttps://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID2&LANGE&APATH3&DETAIL0&DIM0&FLA&FREE0&GC0&GK0&GRP1&PID110528&PRID10&PTYPE109445&S0&SHOWALL0&SUB0&Temporal2017&THEME120&VID0&VNAMEE&VNAMEF}}</ref> Albanian immigration to Australia began in the late 19th century and most took place during the 20th century.<ref name="Jupp166167" /> People who planned to immigrate chose Australia after the US introduced immigration quotas on southern Europeans.<ref name"Jupp166167" /> Most were from southern Albania, of Muslim and Orthodox backgrounds and tended to live in Victoria and Queensland, with smaller numbers in Western and Northern Australia.<ref name"Jupp166167" /><ref name"Ahmeti44233">{{harvnb\|Ahmeti\|2017\|pp44, 233.}}</ref> Italy's annexation of Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat.<ref name"Amath99100">{{Cite book\|lastAmath\|firstNora\|chapter'We're serving the community, in whichever form it may be': Muslim Community Building in Australia\|editor1-lastPeucker\|editor1-firstMario\|editor2-lastCeylan\|editor2-firstRauf\|titleMuslim Community Organizations in the West: History, Developments and Future Perspectives\|year2017\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-3-658-13889-9\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFgynDgAAQBAJ&dqAlbanian+Australians&pgPA99\|pages99–100}}</ref> Post-war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by the communist government in Albania.<ref name"Ahmeti36">{{harvnb\|Ahmeti\|2017\|p=36.}}</ref> Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia (modern North Macedonia) arrived and settled in Melbourne in the 1960s-1970s.<ref name"ImmMuswii">{{Cite web\|titleAfter World War II\|urlhttp://museumsvictoria.com.au/immigrationmuseum/whatson/past-exhibitions/kurbet/after-world-war-ii/\|publisherImmigration Museum\|access-date16 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304135044/http://museumvictoria.com.au/immigrationmuseum/whatson/past-exhibitions/kurbet/after-world-war-ii/\|archive-date4 March 2016\|url-statuslive\|dfdmy-all}}</ref><ref name"Ahmeti38">{{harvnb\|Ahmeti\|2017\|p38.}}</ref> Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came from Montenegro and Serbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the Albanian nun and missionary Mother Teresa.<ref name"Jupp166167" /> Albanian refugees from Kosovo settled in Australia following the aftermath of the Kosovo conflict.<ref name"Jupp166167">{{Cite book\|lastJupp\|firstJames\|titleThe Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins\|year2001\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwgoFxfSTfYAC&qAlbanians\|isbn978-0-521-80789-0\|pages166–167}}</ref><ref name"Ahmeti39">{{harvnb\|Ahmeti\|2017\|p39.}}</ref> In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory.<ref name"Ahmeti4142445556202213232233260263267">{{Cite thesis\|lastAhmeti\|firstSharon\|date2017\|titleAlbanian Muslims in Secular, Multicultural Australia\|typePh.D.\|publisherUniversity of Aberdeen\|urlhttps://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uinuk.bl.ethos.723248\|access-date25 August 2020\|pages41-42, 44, 55-56, 202, 213, 232-233, 260, 263, 267\|archive-date23 January 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210123170344/https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uinuk.bl.ethos.723248\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Haveric27126139144153154159160199">{{Cite book\|lastHaveric\|firstDzavid\|titleMuslims making Australia home: Immigration and Community Building\|year2019\|publisherMelbourne University Publishing\|isbn978-0-522-87582-9\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQBemDwAAQBAJ&dqAlbanian+Australians&pgPT133\|pages27, 126, 139, 144, 153–154, 159–160, 199}}</ref> In 2016, approximately 4,041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born in Albania and Kosovo, while 15,901 persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web\| url http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumbPOLTD&methodPlace%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction-1&issue2006&producttypeCensus%20Tables&documentproductno0&textversionfalse&documenttypeDetails&collectionCensus&javascripttrue&topicAncestry&action404&productlabelAncestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order1&period2006&tabnameDetails&areacode0&navmapdisplayedtrue&\| title 20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex – Australia\| format Microsoft Excel download\| publisher Australian Bureau of Statistics\| work {{CensusAU\|2006}}\| access-date 2 June 2008\| archive-date 10 March 2008\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080310121707/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumbPOLTD&methodPlace%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction-1&issue2006&producttypeCensus%20Tables&documentproductno0&textversionfalse&documenttypeDetails&collectionCensus&javascripttrue&topicAncestry&action404&productlabelAncestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order1&period2006&tabnameDetails&areacode0&navmapdisplayedtrue&\| url-status dead}} Total responses: 25,451,383 for total count of persons: 19,855,288.</ref> Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following the Second World War.<ref name"Pratt744">{{Cite journal\|lastPratt\|firstDouglas\|titleAntipodean Ummah: Islam and Muslims in Australia and New Zealand\|journalReligion Compass\|volume5\|issue12\|year2011\|pages744\|doi10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00322.x}}</ref><ref name"Kolig23">{{Cite book\|lastKolig\|firstErich\|titleNew Zealand's Muslims and multiculturalism\|year2010\|publisherBrill\|isbn9789047440703\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYu15DwAAQBAJ&dqAlbanians+New+Zealand&pgPA23\|page23}}</ref><ref name"Dru7">{{harvnb\|Drury\|2020\|p7.}}</ref> A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland.<ref name"Dru7" /><ref name"Dru89">{{harvnb\|Drury\|2020\|pp8–9}}</ref><ref name"AbdSa" /> During the Kosovo crisis (1999), up to 400 Kosovo Albanian refugees settled in New Zealand.<ref name"Miller653">{{Cite book\|lastMiller\|firstRaymond\|titleNew Zealand Government & Politics\|year2006\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-558492-9\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK6oHAQAAMAAJ&qNew+Zealand+responded+by+accepting+for+resettlement+over+four+hundred+Kosovars+who+had+family+in+New+Zealand\|page653}}</ref><ref name"DruAbd165">{{Cite journal\|last1Drury\|first1Abdullah\|last2Pratt\|first2Douglas\|titleIslam in New Zealand – A Mixed Reception: Historical Overview and Contemporary Challenges\|urlhttps://journals.qu.edu.qa/index.php/sharia/article/download/1851/1346\|journalJournal of College of Sharia and Islamic Studies\|volume39\|issue1\|year2021\|pages165\|doi10.29117/jcsis.2021.0290\|s2cid237845218 \|doi-accessfree\|hdl10576/22316\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"DeMcVe343353">{{harvnb\|Devere\|McDermott\|Verbitsky\|2006\|pp343, 353.}}</ref> In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400-500 people and are mainly concentrated in Auckland.<ref name"Dru718">{{Cite journal\|lastDrury\|firstAbdullah\|titleMazharbeg: An Albanian in Exile\|urlhttps://www.waikato.ac.nz/fass/UWISG/review/Waikato-Islamic-Studies-Review-Vol-6-No-1.pdf#page4 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.waikato.ac.nz/fass/UWISG/review/Waikato-Islamic-Studies-Review-Vol-6-No-1.pdf#page4 \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalWaikato Islamic Studies Review\|volume6\|issue1\|year2020\|pages7, 18\|doi}}</ref><ref name"AbdSa">{{Cite news\|lastAbdyli\|firstSabit\|titleSi u vendosën shqiptarët në Zelandën e Re\|trans-titleHow Albanians settled in New Zealand\|urlhttps://diasporashqiptare.al/2021/07/20/historia-si-u-vendosen-shqiptaret-ne-zelanden-e-re/\|agencyDiaspora Shqiptare\|date20 July 2021\|access-date12 December 2021\|dfdmy-all\|languagesq\|archive-date6 January 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220106121349/https://diasporashqiptare.al/2021/07/20/historia-si-u-vendosen-shqiptaret-ne-zelanden-e-re/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> {{Clear}} Culture {{Main\|Albanian culture}} Traditions Tribal social structure The Albanian tribes ({{langx\|sq\|fiset shqiptare}}) form a historical mode of social organization (farefisní) in Albania and the southwestern Balkans characterized by a common culture, often common patrilineal kinship ties tracing back to one progenitor and shared social ties. The fis ({{lang-sq-definite\|fisi}}; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based on kinship relations, a concept which can be found among southern Albanians also with the term farë ({{lang-sq-definite\|fara}}). Inherited from ancient Illyrian social structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians.{{sfn\|Galaty\|2002\|pp109–121}}{{sfn\|Villar\|1996\|p316}} It also remained in a less developed system in southern Albania{{sfn\|Elsie\|2015\|p1}} where large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the Kanun, a code of Albanian oral customary laws.{{sfn\|Galaty\|2002\|pp109–121}} Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources.{{sfn\|Elsie\|2015\|p=1}} , 1890s]] Until the early years of the 20th century, the Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power of communist regime in 1944, and is considered as the only example of a tribal social system structured with tribal chiefs and councils, blood feuds and oral customary laws, surviving in Europe until the middle of the 20th century.{{sfn\|Elsie\|2015\|p1}}{{sfn\|De Rapper\|2012\|p1}}{{sfn\|Galaty\|2011\|p118}} Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism.<ref>{{harvnb\|Galaty\|2011\|pp119–120\|ps:... northern Albanians' belief about their own history, based on notions of isolationism and resistance}}</ref> Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality". Throughout history the territory northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and peripheral so northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways. This peripheral position also affected their national program which significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania.<ref>{{harvnb\|Galaty\|2011\|pp119–120\|ps:... "negotiated peripherality"... the idea that people living in peripheral regions exploit their... position in important, often profitable ways... The implications and challenges of their national program.... in the Albanian Alps .. are very different from those that obtain in the south}}</ref> Kanun , a Medieval Albanian lord, transcribed by Shtjefën Gjeçovi]] The Kanun is a set of Albanian traditional customary laws, which has directed all the aspects of the Albanian tribal society.<ref name"Co22">{{harvnb\|Cook\|2001\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idox_gXq2jpdYC&pgPA22 22]}}.</ref>{{sfn\|Galaty\|2002\|pp113–114}} For at least the last five centuries and until today, Albanian customary laws have been kept alive only orally by the tribal elders. The success in preserving them exclusively through oral systems highlights their universal resilience and provides evidence of their likely ancient origins.{{sfn\|Galaty\|2018\|pp101–102}} Strong pre-Christian motifs mixed with motifs from the Christian era reflect the stratification of the Albanian customary law across various historical ages.{{sfn\|Trnavci\|2010\|p205}} Over time, Albanian customary laws have undergone their historical development, they have been changed and supplemented with new norms, in accordance with certain requirements of socio-economic development.<ref name"Elezi">{{Cite web\|lastElezi\|firstIsmet\|titleZhvillimi historik i Kanunit të Labërisë, in Mbledhja e Normave të Kanunit të Labërisë\|urlhttps://kanunilaberise.tripod.com/id12.html\|accessdate12 November 2021\|websitekanunilaberise.tripod.com\|languagesq}}</ref> Besa and nderi (honour) are of major importance in Albanian customary law as the cornerstone of personal and social conduct.{{sfn\|Gawrych\|2006\|p115}} The Kanun is based on four pillars – Honour ({{langx\|sq\|Nderi}}), Hospitality ({{langx\|sq\|Mikpritja}}), Right Conduct ({{langx\|sq\|Sjellja}}) and Kin Loyalty ({{langx\|sq\|Fis}}). Besa {{Pull quote\|textAn Albanian who says besa once cannot in any way break [his] promise and cannot be unfaithful [to it].\|authorMehmed Ferid Pasha, Ottoman-Albanian grand vizier, 1903<ref name"Gawrych132">{{harvnb\|Gawrych\|2006\|p132.}}</ref> }} Besa (pledge of honor)<ref name"Gawrych19">{{harvnb\|Gawrych\|2006\|pp1, 9.}}</ref> is an Albanian cultural precept, usually translated as "faith" or "oath", that means "to keep the promise" and "word of honor".<ref name"wordorigin">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.opendemocracy.net/arts/article_2114.jsp\|titleBesa\|lastKushova\|firstAlma\|dateJuly 21, 2004\|publisherOpen Democracy\|access-date2009-11-08}}</ref> The concept is based upon faithfulness toward one's word in the form of loyalty or as an allegiance guarantee.<ref name"DiLellioSchwandersSievers519520" /> Besa contains mores toward obligations to the family and a friend, the demand to have internal commitment, loyalty and solidarity when conducting oneself with others and secrecy in relation to outsiders.<ref name"DiLellioSchwandersSievers519520" /> The besa is also the main element within the concept of the ancestor's will or pledge (amanet) where a demand for faithfulness to a cause is expected in situations that relate to unity, national liberation and independence that transcend a person and generations.<ref name="DiLellioSchwandersSievers519520" /> The concept of besa is included in the Kanun, the customary law of the Albanian people.<ref name"DiLellioSchwandersSievers519520">{{Cite journal\|last1Di Lellio\|first1Anna\|last2Schwanders-Sievers\|first2Stephanie\|titleThe Legendary Commander: The construction of an Albanian master-narrative in post-war Kosovo\|urlhttp://www.annadilellio.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Adem-Jashari-NN.pdf\|journal Nations and Nationalism\|volume12\|issue3\|year2006\|pages519–520\|doi10.1111/j.1469-8129.2006.00252.x}}</ref> The besa was an important institution within the tribal society of the Albanian tribes,{{sfn\|Gawrych\|2006\|p36}} who swore oaths to jointly fight against invaders, and in this aspect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy.{{sfn\|Gawrych\|2006\|p36}} The besa was used toward regulating tribal affairs between and within the Albanian tribes.{{sfn\|Gawrych\|2006\|pp36, 128}} Cuisine {{Main\|Albanian cuisine\|Kosovan cuisine}} {{See also\|Arbëreshë cuisine}} is a traditional welcoming custom traced back to medieval Albanian law.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRapsodë dhe rapsodi të alpeve shqiptare \|urlhttp://bukinist.al/kapitullipare/tek9e7.6Cj3Aw.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bukinist.al/kapitullipare/tek9e7.6Cj3Aw.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|publisherbukinist.al \|pages2 \|languagesq \|quoteMiku nderohet duke i nxjerrë përpara bukë, kripë e zemër}}</ref> The Albanian code of honour, called Besa, resulted to look after guests as an act of hospitality.<ref>{{Cite web\|author1Mirjona SADIKU\|titlePage 1 A Tradition of Honor, Hospitality and Blood Feuds: Exploring the Kanun Customary Law inContemporary Albania.\|urlhttp://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/861/833/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170705074108/http://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/861/833/\|url-statuslive\|archive-date5 July 2017\|websitejs.ugd.edu.mk\|pages=11–14}}</ref>]] The traditional cuisine of the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their varied environment in the Balkans and turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries.<ref name"Kanun">{{Cite journal\|author1Mirjona SADIKU \|titlePage 1 A Tradition of Honor, Hospitality and Blood Feuds:Exploring the Kanun Customary Law in Contemporary Albania \|urlhttp://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/view/861/833\|journalBalkan Social Science Review\|date10 July 2014 \|volume3 \|pages11–14}}</ref> There is a considerable diversity between the Mediterranean and Balkan-influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and the Italian and Greek-influenced cuisines of the Arbëreshës and Chams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebrating religious festivals such as Ramadan, Eid, Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah or Novruz Ingredients include many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs and olives, herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary and thyme and vegetables such as garlic, onion, peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to the Mediterranean Sea, Prespa Lake and Ohrid Lake are able to complement their diet with fish, shellfish and other seafood. Otherwise, lamb is often considered the traditional meat for different religious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply. Tavë Kosi is a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes and cottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë or mish. Desserts include Flia, consisting of multiple crepe-like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar to Berliner. {{Clear}} Visual arts Painting {{Main\|Albanian art}} is considered the most renowned painter of the Albanian Renaissance.]] The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people are sacred in nature and represented by numerous frescoes, murals and icons which has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries.<ref name"medieval">{{Cite web \|author1Ferid Hudhri \|titlePage 1 95 VISUAL ARTS 2.10. FINE /VISUAL ARTS \|urlhttp://www.seda.org.al/download/i/mark_dl/u/4012653116/4611166610/2.10-VisualArts.pdf \|websiteseda.org.al \|pages3–4 \|access-date2 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306043355/http://www.seda.org.al/download/i/mark_dl/u/4012653116/4611166610/2.10-VisualArts.pdf \|archive-date6 March 2019 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The rise of the Byzantines and Ottomans during the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art often apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania.<ref name"www.albanianart.net index_al">{{Cite web\|title Robert Elsie: Arti Shqiptar\|url http://www.albanianart.net/index_al.html\|website albanianart.net\|access-date 22 November 2015}}</ref> The Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism.<ref>{{Cite book\|author1MaryLee Knowlton\|titleAlbania – Band 23 von Cultures of the world\|publisherMarshall Cavendish, 2004\|isbn978-0-7614-1852-8\|pages102–103\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idalNsb0fpX9IC&qimpressionism+in+albania&pgPA102\|languageen\|year2005}}</ref><ref name"19th century">{{Cite web \|author1Ferid Hudhri \|titlePage 1 95 VISUAL ARTS 2.10. FINE /VISUAL ARTS \|urlhttp://www.seda.org.al/download/i/mark_dl/u/4012653116/4611166610/2.10-VisualArts.pdf \|websiteseda.org.al \|pages5–9 \|access-date2 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306043355/http://www.seda.org.al/download/i/mark_dl/u/4012653116/4611166610/2.10-VisualArts.pdf \|archive-date6 March 2019 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> by Kostandin and Athanas Zografi in the Monastery of Ardenica. It illustrates the seven saints Clement, Naum, Sava, Angelar, Gorazd, Cyril, Method and the Albanian Jan Kukuzeli.]] Onufri, founder of the Berat School, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others the Renaissance influenced artists such as Marco Basaiti, Viktor Karpaçi and Andrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece, Eleni Boukouras is noted as being the first great female painter of post independence Greece. In 1856, Pjetër Marubi arrived in Shkodër and established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entire Balkans, the Marubi Museum. The collection of 150,000 photographs, captured by the Albanian-Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history. The Kulla, a traditional Albanian dwelling constructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region of Kosovo and northern region of Albania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregular stone ashlars, river pebbles and chestnut woods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources. {{Clear}} Literature {{Main\|Albanian literature}} {{See also\|Arbëreshë people#Literature 2\|Cham Albanians#Literature and Media\|Kosovan literature\|l1Arbëreshë literature\|l2Cham literature}} is currently the earliest published book in the Albanian language written by Gjon Buzuku.]] The roots of literature of the Albanian people can be traced to the Middle Ages with surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from the Renaissance.<ref name"Elsie332">{{Cite book\|author1Robert Elsie\|titleAlbanian Literature: A Short History\|publisherI.B.Tauris, 2005\|isbn978-1-84511-031-4\|pages3–32\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idox3Wx1Nl_2MC&qTheodor+of+Shkodra&pgPA5\|languageen\|date29 July 2005\|author1-link=Robert Elsie}}</ref> The earliest known use of written Albanian is a baptismal formula (1462) written by the Archbishop of Durrës Paulus Angelus.<ref name"Elsie5">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|p5}}.</ref> In 1555, a Catholic clergyman Gjon Buzuku from the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titled Meshari (The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian.<ref name"Elsie914">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp9–14}}.</ref> Other Christian clergy such as Luca Matranga in the Arbëresh diaspora published (1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and included Pjetër Budi, Frang Bardhi, and Pjetër Bogdani.<ref name"Elsie1417212430">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp14–21, 24–30}}.</ref> In the 17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by the Arbëreshë people of Southern Italy who played an influential role in encouraging the Albanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such as Demetrio Camarda, Gabriele Dara, Girolamo de Rada, Giulio Variboba and Giuseppe Serembe who produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise the Albanian language.<ref name"Elsie4464">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp44–64}}.</ref> on Skanderbeg in Latin was translated into many different European languages.]] The Bejtexhinj in the 18th century emerged as the result of the influences of Islam and particularly Sufism orders moving towards Orientalism.<ref name"Elsie3643" /> Individuals such as Nezim Frakulla, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Shahin and Dalip Frashëri compiled literature infused with expressions, language and themes on the circumstances of the time, the insecurities of the future and their discontent at the conditions of the feudal system.<ref name"Elsie3643">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp=36–43}}.</ref> The Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century is important both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas of Romanticism and Enlightenment characterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind. Dora d'Istria, Girolamo de Rada, Naim Frashëri, Naum Veqilharxhi, Sami Frashëri and Pashko Vasa maintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works. The 20th century was centred on the principles of Modernism and Realism and characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature.<ref name"Elsie94161" /> Pioneers of the time include Asdreni, Faik Konica, Fan Noli, Lasgush Poradeci, Migjeni who chose to portray themes of contemporary life and most notably Gjergj Fishta who created the epic masterpiece {{lang\|sq\|Lahuta e Malcís}}.<ref name"Elsie94161">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp=94–161}}.</ref> After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene.<ref name"Elsie162196" /> Authors and poets emerged such as Sejfulla Malëshova, Dritero Agolli and Ismail Kadare who has become an internationally acclaimed novelist and others who challenged the regime through various sociopolitical and historic themes in their works.<ref name"Elsie162196">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp162–196}}.</ref> Martin Camaj wrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors like Adem Demaçi, Rexhep Qosja, Jusuf Buxhovi.<ref name"Elsie185186199205">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp185–186, 199–205}}.</ref> The literary scene of the 21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers.<ref name"Elsie19208211">{{harvnb\|Elsie\|2005\|pp=196, 208–211}}.</ref> {{Clear}} Performing arts Apparel {{Main\|Albanian national clothing\|l1=Albanian clothing}} {{See also\|Cham Albanians#Dress\|Traditional clothing of Kosovo\|l1Cham clothing\|l2Kosovan clothing}} dressed in the traditional Albanian costume traditionally consisting of the Fustanella and a Dollama decorated with filigree. Lord Byron in Albanian Dress by Thomas Phillips, 1813.]] The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source of attire, clothing and fabrics. Their traditional apparel was primarily influenced by nature, the lifestyle and has continuously changed since ancient times.<ref>{{Citation\| chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlazWAQAAQBAJ&qbrez+clothing&pgPA15\| page16\| titleEncyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World\| chapterAlbania\| publisherABC-CLIO\| year2013\|isbn 978-0-313-37636-8}}</ref> Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape. The traditional costume of Albanian men includes a white skirt called Fustanella, a white shirt with wide sleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as the Xhamadan or Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warm woolen or fur coat known as Flokata or Dollama made from sheepskin or goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felt trousers mostly white, sometimes dark brown or black. The Albanian women's costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women's clothing often has been decorated with filigree ironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is called Xhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part.<ref name"dtk.rks-gov.net">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://dtk.rks-gov.net/tkk_objekti_en.aspx?id9827 \|titleDatabase of Cultural Heritage of Kosovo \|access-date21 September 2019 \|archive-date21 September 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190921144438/https://dtk.rks-gov.net/tkk_objekti_en.aspx?id9827 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"PulahaMansaku1982">{{Cite book\|author1Selami Pulaha\|author2Seit Mansaku\|author3-linkAndromaqi Gjergji\|author3Andromaqi Gjergji\|titleShqiptarët dhe trojet e tyre\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWZ9IAQAAIAAJ\|year1982\|publisher8 Nëntori\|pages136–138}}</ref> Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people. Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn with Çorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks. Headdresses remain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is a Plis and Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver. Music {{Main\|Albanian music\|Traditional music in Kosovo}} is the first Albanian to ever win a Grammy Award.<ref>{{Cite web \|publisherRadio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) \|titleShqiptarja nga Kosova Dua Lipa, fiton për herë të parë në "Grammy Awards" \|urlhttps://www.rtsh.al/lajme/shqiptarja-nga-kosova-dua-lipa-fiton-per-here-te-pare-ne-grammy-awards/ \|access-date7 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201007085639/https://www.rtsh.al/lajme/shqiptarja-nga-kosova-dua-lipa-fiton-per-here-te-pare-ne-grammy-awards/ \|archive-date7 October 2020 \|languagesq \|date11 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|publisherTelegrafi \|titleDua Lipa shkruan historinë, bëhet shqiptarja e parë që fiton dy çmime 'Grammy' \|urlhttps://telegrafi.com/dua-lipa-shkruan-historine-behet-shqiptarja-e-pare-qe-fiton-nje-cmim-grammy/ \|access-date7 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201007085845/https://telegrafi.com/dua-lipa-shkruan-historine-behet-shqiptarja-e-pare-qe-fiton-nje-cmim-grammy/ \|archive-date7 October 2020 \|languagesq \|date10 February 2019}}</ref>]] For the Albanian people, music is a vital component to their culture and characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting the history, language and way of life.<ref>{{Cite web\|author1SPIRO J. SHETUNI\|titleAlbanian Traditional Music – An Introduction, with Sheet Music and Lyrics for 48 Songs\|urlhttps://www.galabri.com/foto/vallekeng/pdf/musicshetuni.pdf\|websitegalabri.com\|access-date21 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171226021850/https://www.galabri.com/foto/vallekeng/pdf/musicshetuni.pdf\|archive-date26 December 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of the Ghegs and Tosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanying instruments and dances. singers]] singing and playing an oud. Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1868.]] Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.gazetadita.al/muzika-tradicionale-shqiptare-origjina/\|titleMuzika tradicionale shqiptare\|lastShetuni\|firstSpiro J.\|date21 January 2018\|websitegazeradita.al\|publisherGazeta Dita\|access-date6 October 2019\|archive-date6 October 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191006190302/http://www.gazetadita.al/muzika-tradicionale-shqiptare-origjina/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Traditional iso-polyphony perhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web\|author1UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage\|titleAlbanian folk iso-polyphony\|urlhttps://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/albanian-folk-iso-polyphony-00155\|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry often about the tumultuous history of the Albanian people. There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such as Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Rita Ora, and rappers such as Action Bronson, Dardan, Gashi and Loredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the former Yugoslavia include Selma Bajrami and Zana Nimani. In international competitions, Albania participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest: Anna Oxa for Italy in 1989, Adrian Gaxha for North Macedonia in 2008, Ermal Meta for Italy in 2018, Eleni Foureira for Cyprus in 2018, as well as Gjon Muharremaj for Switzerland in 2020 and 2021. Kosovo has never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of the EBU and therefore debut in the contest. Religion {{Main\|Religion in Albania\|Religion in Kosovo\|l2=Kosovo}} {{See also\|Christianity in Albania\|Christianity in Kosovo\|l2and Kosovo\|Islam in Albania\|Islam in Kosovo\|l4and Kosovo\|Judaism in Albania\|Judaism in Kosovo\|l6=Kosovo}} {{Further\|Albanian folk beliefs\|Bektashism in Albania}} , Albania]] Many different spiritual traditions, religious faiths and beliefs are practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe.{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2019}} They are traditionally both Christians and Muslims—Catholics and Orthodox, Sunnis and Bektashis and—but also to a lesser extent Evangelicals, Protestants and Jews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe.<ref name"BogdaniLoughlin2007">{{Cite book\|last1Bogdani\|first1Mirela\|last2Loughlin\|first2John\|author-link2John Loughlin (political scientist)\|titleAlbania and the European Union: The Tumultuous Journey Towards Integration and Accession\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id32Wu8H7t8MwC&pgPA34\|year2007\|publisherI.B.Tauris\|isbn978-1-84511-308-7\|page=34}}</ref> Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church.<ref name"Ramet1989">{{Cite book\|lastRamet\|firstSabrina P.\|titleReligion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/religionnational01rame\|year1989\|publisherDuke University Press\|isbn0-8223-0891-6\|page[https://archive.org/details/religionnational01rame/page/381 381]\|quoteAlbanian Christianity lay within the orbit of the bishop of Rome from the first century to the eighth. But in the eighth century Albanian Christians were transferred to the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the schism of 1054, however, Albania was divided between a Catholic north and an Orthodox south. [..] Prior to the Turkish conquest, the ghegs (the chief tribal group in northern Albania) had found in Roman Catholicism a means of resisting the Slavs, and though Albanian Orthodoxy remained important among the tosks (the chief tribal group in southern Albania)}}</ref> Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope.<ref name"Murzaku">{{Cite book \|last1Murzaku \|first1Ines \|titleMonasticism in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics \|date2015 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-317-39104-3 \|page352 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjNdzCgAAQBAJ&pgPT352 \|access-date14 March 2020 \|refMurzaku \|quote The Albanian church north of Shkumbin River was entirely Latin and under the pope's jurisdiction. During the twelfth century, the Catholic church in Albania intensified efforts to strengthen its position in middle and southern Albania. The Catholic Church was organized in 20 dioceses.}}</ref> Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin Church and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states.<ref name"Lala">{{Citation \| titleRegnum Albaniae, the Papal Curia, and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility \| firstEtleva \| lastLala \| publisherCentral European University, Department of Medieval Studies \| year2008 \| page1 \| urlhttp://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf \| access-date20 February 2016 \| archive-date9 October 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf \| url-statusdead }}</ref> <ref name="Murzaku" /> After the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, Christianity began to be overtaken by Islam, and Catholicism and Orthodoxy continued to be practiced with less frequency. in Pristina, Kosovo]] During the modern era, the monarchy and communism in Albania as well as the socialism in Kosovo, historically part of Yugoslavia, followed a systematic secularisation of its people. This policy was chiefly applied within the borders of both territories and produced a secular majority of its population. All forms of Christianity, Islam and other religious practices were prohibited except for old non-institutional pagan practices in the rural areas, which were seen as identifying with the national culture. The current Albanian state has revived some pagan festivals, such as the Spring festival ({{langx\|sq\|Dita e Verës}}) held yearly on 14 March in the city of Elbasan. It is a national holiday.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://theculturetrip.com/europe/albania/articles/how-to-celebrate-dita-e-veres-in-albania-like-a-local/\|website Culture Trip\|title How to Celebrate Dita e Verës in Albania Like a Local\|last Masotti\|first Francesca\|date 9 March 2018\|access-date = 29 September 2018}}</ref> in Tetovo, North Macedonia]] The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime's change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country, Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country.<ref name"International Religious Freedom Report 2007">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90160.htm \|titleAlbania: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 \|publisherState.gov\|date=14 September 2007}}</ref> According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by the Council of Europe,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://rm.coe.int/09000016805cb496 \|titleCM(2012)36, 16 February 2012: Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: Third opinion of the Advisory Committee on Albania, adopted on 23 November 2011, For initial consideration by the Rapporteur Group on Human Rights (GR-H) \|websiteCouncil of Europe}}</ref> in Albania, 58.79% of the population adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.instat.gov.al/media/177358/njoftim_per_media_-_fjala_e_drejtorit_te_instat_ines_nurja_per_rezultatet_finale_te_census_2011.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170326091156/http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177358/njoftim_per_media_-_fjala_e_drejtorit_te_instat_ines_nurja_per_rezultatet_finale_te_census_2011.pdf\|url-statusdead\|title2011 Albanian Census\|archive-date26 March 2017}}</ref> Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics.<ref name"cia">{{Cite CIA World Factbook\|countryAlbania\|access-date21 June 2013\|year2013}}</ref> Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/128210/Gallup-Global-Reports.aspx \|titleGallup Global Reports \|publisherGallup.com \|access-date25 March 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131014034457/http://www.gallup.com/poll/128210/Gallup-Global-Reports.aspx \|archive-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation.<ref name="Sarner1997">{{harvnb\|Sarner\|1997}}.</ref> Many left for Israel {{Circa\|1990}}–1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania. {\| class="wikitable" ! Religion ! {{flagicon\|Albania}} Albanians in Albania{{#tag:ref\|Widely fluctuating numbers for groups in Albania are due to various overlapping definitions based on how groups can be defined, as religion can be defined in Albania either by family background, belief or practice\|group=lower-alpha}} ! {{flagicon\|Kosovo}} Albanians in Kosovo ! {{flagicon\|North Macedonia}} Albanians in North Macedonia ! {{flagicon\|Montenegro}} Albanians in Montenegro ! {{flagicon\|Serbia}} Albanians in Serbia<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/SRB/INT_CERD_ADR_SRB_24619_E.doc\|titlePopulation by national affiliation and religion, Census 2011\|access-date1 June 2020\|archive-date8 March 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308091439/https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/SRB/INT_CERD_ADR_SRB_24619_E.doc\|url-statusdead}}</ref> ! {{flagicon\|Croatia}} Albanians in Croatia ! {{flagicon\|Italy}} Albanians in Italy<ref name"ISTATreligion">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.istat.it/it/archivio/169710\|titleAppartenenza e pratica religiosa tra i cittadini stranieri\|date30 October 2014\|websiteistat.it\|languageit}}</ref> \|- \|Islam \|''' 21%<ref nameAutreRegard>{{Cite web\|titleInstantanés d'Albaníe, un autre regard sur les Balkans\|year2005\|quotationEtudiants en Tourisme et Actions Patrimoniales. (plus de 72% irréligieux ou non-pratiquants. 28% se répartissent en 21% musulmans, 6% orthodoxes, 3% catholiques. )\|urlhttp://www.membres.lycos.fr/instantanesdalbanie/image/dossierdepresse.pdf\|access-date20 July 2017\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070614121944/http://www.membres.lycos.fr/instantanesdalbanie/image/dossierdepresse.pdf\|archive-date14 June 2007}}</ref> to 82%<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/\|agencyPew Research Center\|titleTable: Muslim Population by Country\|date=27 January 2011}}</ref> \|88.8 to 95.60<ref nameSMRE>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.smre-data.ch/en/data_exploring/region_cockpit#/mode/dataset_comparison/region/-99/period/2010/presentation/bar\|titleSMRE\|websitesmre-data.ch\|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref> \|98.62<ref name="SMRE" /> \|73.15 \|71.06 \|54.78 \|41.49' \|- \|Sunni \|56.70 \|— \|— \|— \|— \|— \|— \|- \|Bektashi \|2.09 to 7.5<ref name="UNDP31" /> \| — \| — \| — \| - \| — \| - \|- \|Christians \|9<ref name"AutreRegard" /> to 28.64<ref name"UNDP31" /> \|3.69 to 6.20<ref name="SMRE" /> \|1.37 \|26.37 \|19.54 \|40.69 \|38.85 \|- \|Catholic \|3%<ref name"AutreRegard" /> to 13.82<ref name"UNDP31" /> \|2.20 to 5.80<ref name="SMRE" /> \|1.37 \|26.13 \|16.84 \|40.59 \|27.67 \|- \|Orthodox \|6<ref name"AutreRegard" /> to 13.08<ref name"UNDP31" /> \|1.48 \|— \|0.12 \|2.60 \|0.01 \|11.02 \|- \|Protestants \|0.14<!--census--> to 1.74<ref nameUNDP31>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/religious%20tolerance%20albanian.pdf\|titleTOLERANCA FETARE NË SHQIPËRI\|page31\|publisherUNDP\|authorInstitute of Democracy and Mediation\|year2018\|access-date20 March 2019\|archive-date19 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619164358/http://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/religious%20tolerance%20albanian.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \|0.16 \| — \| - \|0.03 \| — \| — \|- \|Other Christians \|0.07 \|— \|— \|0.12 \|0.07 \|0.09 \|— \|- \|Unaffiliated or Irreligious \|24.21% to 62.7%<ref nameUNDP32>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/religious%20tolerance%20albanian.pdf\|titleTOLERANCA FETARE NË SHQIPËRI\|page32\|publisherUNDP\|authorInstitute of Democracy and Mediation\|year2018\|access-date20 March 2019\|archive-date19 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619164358/http://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/religious%20tolerance%20albanian.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \|- \|Atheist \|2.50% to 9%''<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.diken.com.tr/arastirma-turkiyenin-yuzde-95i-tanriya-inaniyor-yuzde-74u-dindar/\|titleAraştırma: Türkiye'nin yüzde 95'i tanrıya inanıyor, yüzde 74'ü 'dindar'\|date19 April 2017\|websiteDiken}}</ref> \|0.07 to 2.9<ref name="SMRE" /> \|— \|0.11 \|2.95 \|1.80 \|17.81 \|- \|Prefer to not answer \|1%<ref name="UNDP31" /> to 13.79% \|0.55 \|0.19 \|2.36 \|1.58 \|— \|— \|- \|Agnostic \|5.58<ref name="UNDP32" /> \| \| \| \|0.02 \| \| \|- \|Believers without denomination \|5.49 \|— \|— \|— \|— \|— \|- \|Not relevant/not stated \|2.43 \|0.06 \|0.16 \|0.36 \|4.82 \|— \|- \|Other religion \|1.19<ref name="UNDP31" /> \| \| \| \|0.03 \| \|1.85 \|} {{Clear}} See also {{Portal\|Society}} Culture of Albania * Geography of Albania * History of Albania * Lists of Albanians Notes {{Reflist\|grouplower-alpha}} References Citations {{Reflist\|30em}} Cited sources {{refbegin\|30em\|indentyes}} <!-- A --> * {{Cite book \| last1Anamali \| first1Skënder \| last2Prifti \| first2Kristaq \| titleHistoria e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime \| publisherBotimet Toena \| year2002 \| isbn99927-1-622-3 \| oclc52411919 \| languagesq}} * {{Cite book\|lastAnscombe \|firstFrederick \|chapterAlbanians and "mountain bandits" \|pages87–113 \|editor1-lastAnscombe \|editor1-firstFrederick \|titleThe Ottoman Balkans, 1750–1830 \|year2006 \|locationPrinceton \|publisherMarkus Wiener Publishers \|isbn978-1-55876-383-8 \|chapter-urlhttp://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/578/1/578 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160125223702/http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/578/1/578 \|archive-date=25 January 2016 }} * {{Cite journal\|lastAnscombe\|firstFrederick\|titleThe Ottoman Empire in Recent International Politics – II: The Case of Kosovo\|jstor40109813\|journalThe International History Review\|volume28\|issue4\|year2006b\|pages758–793\|urlhttp://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/577/\|doi10.1080/07075332.2006.9641103\|s2cid154724667}} <!-- B --> * {{Cite journal\|lastBaltsiotis\|firstLambros\|date13 November 2011 \|titleThe Muslim Chams of Northwestern Greece: The grounds for the expulsion of a "non-existent" minority community \|journalEuropean Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey\|volume12\|pages1–31 \|doi10.4000/ejts.4444 \|doi-accessfree \|s2cid142733144}} [https://journals.openedition.org/ejts/4444#ftn95 Note 95] * {{Cite journal\|last1Belledi\|first1Michele\|last2Poloni\|first2Estella S.\|last3Casalotti\|first3Rosa\|last4Conterio\|first4Franco\|last5Mikerezi\|first5Ilia\|last6Tagliavini\|first6James\|last7Excoffier\|first7Laurent\|titleMaternal and paternal lineages in Albania and the genetic structure of Indo-European populations\|journalEuropean Journal of Human Genetics\|volume8\|issue7\|year2000\|pages480–486\|doi10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200443\|pmid10909846\|doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBarančić\|firstMaximilijana\|titleArbanasi i etnojezični identitet Arbanasi and ethnolinguistic identity\|journalCroatica et Slavica Iadertina\|volume4\|issue4\|year2008\|pages551–568\|doi10.15291/csi.627 \|doi-accessfree}} * {{Cite book\|lastBintliff\|firstJohn\|chapterThe Ethnoarchaeology of a "Passive" Ethnicity: The Arvanites of Central Greece\|pages129–144\|editor1-lastBrown\|editor1-firstK.S.\|editor2-lastHamilakis\|editor2-firstYannis\|titleThe Usable Past: Greek Metahistories\|year2003\|locationLanham\|publisherLexington Books\|isbn978-0-7391-0384-5\|chapter-urlhttp://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/8444/1_036_127.pdf?sequence=1.}} * {{Cite book\|lastBonnefoy\|firstYves\|titleAmerican, African, and old European mythologies\|year1993\|locationChicago\|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/americanafricano00bonn\|url-accessregistration\|isbn=978-0-226-06457-4}} <!-- C --> * {{Cite book\|lastCook\|firstBernard\|titleEurope Since 1945: An Encyclopedia\|volume1\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idox_gXq2jpdYC\|year2001\|publisherGarland Publishing\|isbn=0-8153-4057-5}} <!-- D --> {{Cite book\|lastDe Rapper\|firstGilles\|chapterBlood and Seed, Trunk and Hearth: Kinship and Common Origin in southern Albania\|editor1-lastHemming\|editor1-firstAndreas\|editor2-lastKera\|editor2-firstGentiana\|editor3-lastPandelejmoni\|editor3-firstEnriketa\|titleAlbania: Family, Society and Culture in the 20th century\|year2012\|publisherLIT Verlag Münster\|isbn978-3-643-50144-8\|chapter-urlhttps://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00400413/document\|pages=79–95}} {{Cite book\|lastDeliso\|firstChristopher\|titleThe Coming Balkan Caliphate: The Threat of Radical Islam to Europe and the West\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-7dq8mi0DWkC\|year2007\|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group\|isbn978-0-275-99525-6}} * {{Cite book\|lastDemiraj\|firstShaban\|chapterAlbanian\|pages480–501\|editor1-lastRamat\|editor1-firstAnna Giacalone\|editor2-lastRamat\|editor2-firstPaolo\|titleThe Indo-European languages\|year1998\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-0-415-06449-1\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvwUMNCYbLL0C&qAlbanoi}} * {{Cite book\|lastDemiraj\|firstBardhyl\|chapterShqiptar–The generalization of this ethnic name in the XVIII century\|pages533–565\|editor1-lastDemiraj\|editor1-firstBardhyl\|titleWir sind die Deinen: Studien zur albanischen Sprache, Literatur und Kulturgeschichte, dem Gedenken an Martin Camaj (1925–1992) gewidmet [We are his people: Studies on the Albanian language, literature and cultural history, dedicated to the memory of Martin Camaj (1925–1992)]\|year2010\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag\|isbn978-3-447-06221-3\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=bmIVOGu0WWEC}} {{Cite book \|last1Demiraj \|first1Shaban \|year2015 \|editor1-lastGiacalone Ramat \|editor1-firstAnna \|titleThe Indo-European Languages \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-134-92187-4 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPLa5CAAAQBAJ \|chapter=Albanian}} {{Cite book\|last1Devere\|first1Heather\|last2McDermott\|first2Keryn\|last3Verbitsky\|first3Jane\|chapter"Just a refugee": Rights and Status of Refugees in New Zealand\|editor1-lastCrépeau\|editor1-firstFrançois\|editor2-lastNakache\|editor2-firstDelphine\|editor3-lastCollyer\|editor3-firstMichael\|editor4-lastGoetz\|editor4-firstNathaniel H.\|editor5-lastHansen\|editor5-firstArt\|titleForced Migration and Global Processes: A View from Forced Migration Studies\|year2006\|publisherLexington Books\|isbn978-0-7391-5505-9\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOTI2AAAAQBAJ&dqKosovars+New+Zealand&pgPA365\|pages357, 359–360}} * {{New Cambridge Medieval History\|volume5\|lastDucellier\|firstAlain\|chapterAlbania, Serbia and Bulgaria\|pages779–795\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC}} <!-- E --> * {{Cite book\|last1Eliade\|first1Mircea\|last2Adams\|first2Charles J.\|titleThe Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 1\|year1987\|locationNew York\|publisherMacmillan\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY1rXAAAAMAAJ&q%22A+number+of+Albanian+mythological+figures+can+be+traced+back+to+Greece%3B+some+even+have+names+derived+from+their+Greek+originals.+%22\|isbn978-0-02-909480-8}} * {{Cite book\|lastElsie\|firstRobert\|titleEarly Albania: A reader of Historical texts, 11th–17th centuries\|year2003\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_sHmTRCEe7kC&qEarly+Albania:+A+reader+of+Historical+texts,+11th-17th+centuries\|isbn978-3-447-04783-8}} {{Cite book\|lastElsie\|firstRobert\|author-linkRobert Elsie\|titleThe Tribes of Albania: History, Society and Culture\|publisherI.B.Tauris\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi2IpDAAAQBAJ\|year2015\|isbn=978-0-85773-932-2}} {{Cite book\|lastElsie\|firstRobert\|titleAlbanian literature: A short history\|year2005\|locationLondon\|publisherI.B. Tauris\|isbn=978-1-84511-031-4}} * {{Cite book\|lastElsie\|firstRobert\|titleHistorical Dictionary of Albania\|year2010\|locationLanham\|publisherScarecrow Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhaFlGXIg8uoC\|isbn=978-0-8108-7380-3}} <!-- F --> * {{Cite book\|lastFinlay\|firstGeorge\|titleThe History of Greece: From Its Conquest by the Crusaders to Its Conquest by the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond: 1204–1461\|year1851\|locationLondon\|publisherBlackwood\|url=https://archive.org/details/historygreecefr02finlgoog}} * {{Cite book\|lastFrazee\|firstCharles\|titleCatholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923\|year2006\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX6DM4szwUpEC&qVincenzo+Zmajevic+Albani&pgPA168\|isbn=978-0-521-02700-7}} <!-- G --> {{Cite book\|editorWilliam A. Parkinson\|lastGalaty\|firstMichael L.\|titleThe Archaeology of Tribal Societies\|chapterModeling the Formation and Evolution of an Illyrian Tribal System: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analogs\|year2002\|publisherBerghahn Books\|isbn1-78920-171-3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8TR8DwAAQBAJ}} {{Cite book\|lastGalaty\|firstMichael L.\|editorHelaine Silverman\|titleContested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World\|chapterBlood of Our Ancestors\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHCM93pyDhMEC\|access-date31 May 2013\|year2011\|publisherSpringer\|isbn=978-1-4419-7305-4}} {{Cite book\|titleMemory and Nation Building: From Ancient Times to the Islamic State\|lastGalaty\|firstMichael L.\|publisherRowman & Littlefield\|year2018\|isbn978-0-7591-2262-8\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSEBiDwAAQBAJ}} {{Cite book\|lastGawrych\|firstGeorge\|titleThe Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913\|year2006\|locationLondon\|publisherIB Tauris\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwPOtzk-unJgC\|isbn978-1-84511-287-5\|pages36}} * {{Cite journal\|last1Geniş\|first1Şerife\|last2Maynard\|first2Kelly Lynne\|titleFormation of a Diasporic Community: The history of migration and resettlement of Muslim Albanians in the Black Sea Region of Turkey\|journalMiddle Eastern Studies\|volume45\|issue4\|year2009\|pages553–569\|doi10.1080/00263200903009619\|s2cid143742189}} * {{Cite book\|lastGiakoumis\|firstKonstantinos\|chapterThe Orthodox Church in Albania Under the Ottoman Rule 15th–19th Century\|pages69–110\|editor1-lastSchmitt\|editor1-firstOliver Jens\|titleReligion und Kultur im albanischsprachigen Südosteuropa &#91;Religion and culture in Albanian-speaking southeastern Europe&#93;\|year2010\|locationFrankfurt am Main\|publisherPeter Lang\|isbn978-3-631-60295-9\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaCdYHU9PtiIC&qGjirokast%C3%ABr+Muslims&pg=PA86}} * {{Cite book\|lastGogonas\|firstNikos\|titleBilingualism and multiculturalism in Greek education: Investigating ethnic language maintenance among pupils of Albanian and Egyptian origin in Athens\|year2010\|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrlUaBwAAQBAJ&pgPA3\|isbn=978-1-4438-2214-5}} * {{Cite book\|lastGroenendijk\|firstKees\|pages411–430\|editor1-lastBauböck\|editor1-firstRainer\|editor2-lastErsbøll\|editor2-firstEva\|editor3-lastGroenendijk\|editor3-firstKees\|editor4-lastWaldrauch\|editor4-firstHarald\|titleAcquisition and Loss of Nationality: Comparative Analyses – Policies and Trends in 15 European Countries\|year2006\|locationAmsterdam\|publisherAmsterdam University Press\|isbn9789053569207\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTW1ZAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA416}} <!-- H --> * {{Cite book\|lastHall\|firstJonathan\|titleEthnic Identity in Greek antiquity\|year1997\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF4Am6gcP0GsC&pgPA29\|isbn978-0-521-78999-8}} * {{Cite book\|last1Hock\|first1Hans Henrich\|last2Joseph\|first2Brian D.\|titleLanguage history, language change, and language relationship: An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics\|year1996\|locationBerlin \|publisherMouton de Gruyter\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoGH-RCW1fzsC&pgPA54\|isbn978-3-11-014784-1}} <!-- I --> <!-- J --> * {{Cite journal\|lastJagodić\|firstMiloš\|titleThe Emigration of Muslims from the New Serbian Regions 1877/1878\|urlhttp://balkanologie.revues.org/265\|journalBalkanologie\|volume2\|issue2\|year1998\|doi10.4000/balkanologie.265\|s2cid140637086 }} * {{Cite book\|lastJelavich\|firstBarbara\|titleHistory of the Balkans\|year1983\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela\|url-accessregistration\|quoteAlbanoi.\|isbn978-0-521-27459-3}} <!-- K --> * {{Cite book\|lastKamusella\|firstTomasz\|titleThe politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe\|year2009\|locationBasingstoke\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|isbn=978-0-230-55070-4}} * {{Cite book\|lastKolovos\|firstElias\|titleThe Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, the Greek lands: Toward a social and economic history: Studies in honor of John C. Alexander\|year2007\|locationIstanbul\|publisherIsis Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQT8MAQAAMAAJ&qArnavudluk+\|isbn9789754283464}} {{Cite book \|last1Koinova \|first1Maria \|titleDiaspora Entrepreneurs and Contested States \|date2021 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-884862-2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPIskEAAAQBAJ}} {{Cite book\|lastKoti\|firstDhori\|titleMonografi për Vithkuqin dhe Naum Veqilharxhin &#91;A monograph of Vithkuq and Naum Veqilharxhi&#93;\|year2010\|locationPogradec\|publisherDIJA Poradeci\|isbn=978-99956-826-8-2}} * {{Cite book\|lastKoukoudis\|firstAsterios\|titleThe Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora\|year2003\|locationThessaloniki\|publisherZitros Publications\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id01JoAAAAMAAJ&qfirst+appeared\|isbn9789607760869}} <!-- L --> * {{Cite book\|lastLiakos\|firstAntonis\|chapterHellenism and the making of Modern Greece: Time, Language, Space\|pages201–236\|editor1-lastZacharia\|editor1-firstKaterina\|titleHellenisms: culture, identity, and ethnicity from antiquity to modernity\|year2012\|locationAldershot\|publisherMartinus Nijhoff Publishers\|isbn9789004221529\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH1fGJRxUG6wC&qHellenism+and+the+making+of+Modern+Greece%22+Time,+Language,+Space&pg=PA201}} * {{Cite book\|lastLiotta\|firstPeter H.\|titleDismembering the state: The death of Yugoslavia and why it matters\|year2001\|locationLanham\|publisherLexington Books\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh_LBmnBl99QC&pgPA198\|isbn978-0-7391-0212-1}} * {{Cite book\|lastLloshi\|firstXhevat\|chapterAlbanian\|pages272–299\|editor1-lastHinrichs\|editor1-firstUwe\|editor2-lastBüttner\|editor2-first Uwe\|titleHandbuch der Südosteuropa-Linguistik\|year1999\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag\|isbn978-3-447-03939-0\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Phyvk2tPaYQC}} <!-- M --> * {{Cite book\|last1Madgearu\|first1Alexandru\|last2Gordon\|first2Martin\|titleThe wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their medieval origins\|year2008\|locationLanham\|publisherScarecrow Press\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/warsofbalkanpeni0000madg\|url-accessregistration\|page[https://archive.org/details/warsofbalkanpeni0000madg/page/43 43]\|quoteAlbanoi.\|isbn=978-0-8108-5846-6}} * {{Cite book\|lastMalcolm\|firstNoel\|titleKosovo: A short history\|year1998\|locationLondon\|publisherMacmillan\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGGQ_AQAAIAAJ&qAlbanian+word+alps\|isbn978-0-333-66612-8}} * {{Cite journal\|lastMatzinger\|first Joachim\|titleShqip bei den altalbanischen Autoren vom 16. bis zum frühen 18. Jahrhundert [Shqip within Old Albanian authors from the 16th to the early 18th century]\|urlhttp://www.zeitschrift-fuer-balkanologie.de/index.php/zfb/article/download/337/334\|year2013\|journalZeitschrift für Balkanologie\|access-date=31 October 2015}} * {{Cite book\|last1Mëniku\|first1Linda\|last2Campos\|first2Héctor\|titleColloquial Albanian: The complete course for beginners \|year2012\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqMBgCgAAQBAJ&pgPT9\|isbn978-1-317-30681-8}} * {{Cite book\|lastMurati\|firstQemal\|titleKonservacione dhe inovacione gjuhësore në fushë të shqipes [Conservation and innovations in the field of Albanian language] \|year1991\|publisherFlaka e Vëllazërimit\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrbFiAAAAMAAJ&qArnaut+pejorative}} * {{Cite book\|lastMyhill\|firstJohn\|titleLanguage, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: A historical study\|year2006\|locationAmsterdam\|publisherJohn Benjamins Publishing\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddJK3YxI1NM8C&qAlbanian+national+identity&pgPT241\|isbn=9789027227119}} <!-- N --> {{Cite book \|last1Nallbani \|first1Etleva \|editor1-lastGelichi \|editor1-firstSauro \|editor2-lastNegrelli \|editor2-firstClaudio \|titleAdriatico altomedievale (VI-XI secolo) Scambi, porti, produzioni \|date2017 \|publisherUniversità Ca’ Foscari Venezia \|isbn978-88-6969-115-7 \|urlhttps://edizionicafoscari.unive.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-114-0/978-88-6969-114-0_dhz0XaB.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://edizionicafoscari.unive.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-114-0/978-88-6969-114-0_dhz0XaB.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|chapter=Early Medieval North Albania: New Discoveries, Remodeling Connections: The Case of Medieval Komani}} {{Cite book\|lastNasse\|firstGeorge Nicholas\|titleThe Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy\|locationWashington, District of Columbia\|publisherNational Academy of Sciences-National Research Council\|year1964\|isbn978-0-598-20400-4\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVjArAAAAYAAJ&qThe+Italo-Albanian+Villages+of+Southern+Italy}} * {{Cite book\|lastNicol\|firstDonald MacGillivray\|titleStudies in late Byzantine history and prosopography\|year1986\|publisherVariorum Reprints\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXnKgAAAAMAAJ&qAlain+Ducellier\|isbn=978-0-86078-190-5}} * {{Citation \| titleThe Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages \| firstDonald MacGillivray \| lastNicol \| author-linkDonald Nicol \| publisherCambridge University Press \| year2010 \| isbn978-0-521-13089-9 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC}} * {{Cite book\|lastNorris\|firstHarry Thirlwall\|titleIslam in the Balkans: religion and society between Europe and the Arab world\|year1993\|locationColumbia\|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/islaminbalkansre00norr\|url-accessregistration\|page[https://archive.org/details/islaminbalkansre00norr/page/249 249]\|quoteAlbanians Arnaout Syria.\|isbn=978-0-87249-977-5}} * {{Cite journal\|lastNovik\|firstAlexander Alexandrovich\|titleLexicon of Albanian mythology: Areal studies in the polylingual region of Azov Sea\|journalSlavia Meridionalis\|volume15\|year2015\|pages261–273\|doi10.11649/sm.2015.022\|doi-access=free}} <!-- O --> <!-- P --> * {{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Stradioti.html\|titleStradioti: Balkan Mercenaries in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Italy\|lastPappas\|firstNicholas CJ.\|year2008\|publisherSam Houston State University\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924101628/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Stradioti.html\|archive-date=24 September 2015}} {{Cite journal \|last1Plasari \|first1Aurel \|titleThe Albanians in attestations from late antiquity until the early Middle Ages \|journalAlbanian Studies \|date2020 \|volume2 \|urlhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/1og8eP21jogwHXRdvgphXo-DyqpDWSz2E/view \|publisherAcademy of Sciences of Albania}} {{Cite book\|lastPritsak\|firstOmeljan\|chapterAlbanians\|editor1-lastKazhdan\|editor1-firstAlexander P.\|titleOxford Dictionary of Byzantium\|year1991\|locationOxford\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-504652-6\|oclc=311413460}} <!-- Q --> {{Cite journal \|last1Quanrud \|first1John \|titleThe Albanoi in Michael Attaleiates' History: revisiting the Vranoussi-Ducellier debate \|journalByzantine and Modern Greek Studies \|date2021 \|volume45 \|issue2 \|pages149–165 \|doi10.1017/byz.2021.11 \|s2cid237424879 \|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/byzantine-and-modern-greek-studies/article/abs/albanoi-in-michael-attaleiates-history-revisiting-the-vranoussiducellier-debate/E134AA6C7CB77580151F6CFB6BB1C5E7#}} <!-- R --> {{Cite book\|lastRagionieri\|firstRodolfo\|chapterMediterranean Geopolitics\|pages[https://archive.org/details/leuropemediterra0000unse/page/37 37–48]\|editor1-lastPetricioli\|editor1-firstMarta\|titleL'Europe Méditerranéenne [Mediterranean Europe]\|year2008\|locationBerlin\|publisherPeter Lang\|isbn9789052013541\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7Lfwutn-soQC&pgPA46\|url=https://archive.org/details/leuropemediterra0000unse/page/37}} * {{Cite book\|lastRamet\|firstSabrina P.\|titleReligion and nationalism in Soviet and East European politics\|year1989\|locationDurham\|publisherDuke University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id50GTIhntKvYC&qReligion+and+Nationalism+in+Soviet+and+East+European+Politics\|isbn978-0-8223-0891-1}} * {{Cite book\|lastRamet\|firstSabrina\|titleNihil obstat: religion, politics, and social change in East-Central Europe and Russia\|year1998\|locationDurham\|publisherDuke University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTrcnAAAAYAAJ\|isbn=978-0-8223-2070-8}} * {{Cite book\|lastRiehl\|firstClaudia Maria\|chapterDiscontinious language spaces (Sprachinseln)\|pages332–354\|editor1-lastAuer\|editor1-firstPeter\|editor2-lastSchmidt\|editor2-firstJürgen Erich\|titleLanguage and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and Methods\|year2010\|locationBerlin\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|isbn978-3-11-022027-8\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzuL5fCldNS4C&qArvanites+feudal}} <!-- S --> * {{Cite book\|lastSarner\|firstHarvey\|titleRescue in Albania: One Hundred Percent of Jews in Albania Rescued from Holocaust\|year1997\|locationCathedral City\|publisherBrunswick Press\|urlhttp://www.juedisches-archiv-chfrank.de/kehilot/albania/alban-resc.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080510075852/http://www.juedisches-archiv-chfrank.de/kehilot/albania/alban-resc.htm\|url-statusdead\|archive-date10 May 2008\|isbn=978-1-888521-11-5}} * {{Cite book\|lastSaunders\|firstRobert A.\|titleEthnopolitics in Cyberspace: The Internet, Minority Nationalism, and the Web of Identity\|year2011\|locationLanham\|publisherLexington Books\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvM5hZEsdz94C&pgPA98\|isbn978-0-7391-4194-6}} * {{The Papacy and the Levant\|volume=1}} * {{Cite journal\|lastSkendi\|firstStavro\|titleReligion in Albania during the Ottoman rule\|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/openview/69374b2aeb4f4380ae1364da4d940882/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl1817218\|journalSüdost Forschungen\|volume15\|year1956\|pages311–327}}← <!-- T --> {{Cite book\|lastTrnavci\|firstGenc\|editor-last1Sellers\|editor-first1Mortimer\|editor-last2Tomaszewski\|editor-first2Tadeusz\|titleThe Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective\|chapterThe Interaction of Customary Law with the Modern Rule of Law in Albania and Kosova\|year2010\|publisherSpringer Verlag\|isbn978-90-481-3748-0\|pages201–215\|volume3\|seriesIus Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9Rx7_KyUp7cC}} {{Cite book \|lastTsitselikis \|firstKonstantinos \|titleOld and New Islam in Greece: From historical minorities to immigrant newcomers \|publisherMartinus Nijhoff Publishers \|isbn9789004221529 \|year2012 \|page=311}} * {{Cite journal\|last1Tsoutsoumpis\|first1Spyros\|titleViolence, resistance and collaboration in a Greek borderland: the case of the Muslim Chams of Epirus \|journalQualestoria \|number2 \|dateDecember 2015 \|pages119–138 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/24269752\|access-date=14 June 2016}} <!-- U --> * {{Cite book\|lastUka\|firstSabit\|titleE drejta mbi vatrat dhe pasuritë reale dhe autoktone nuk vjetërohet: Të dhëna në formë rezimeje [The rights of homes and assets, real and autochthonous that does not disappear with time: Data given in the form of estate portions regarding inheritance]\|year2004d\|locationPrishtina\|publisherShoqata e Muhaxhirëvë të Kosovës\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idR8tSGQAACAAJ&qE+drejta+mbi+vatrat+dhe+pasurit%C3%AB+reale+dhe+autoktone+nuk+vjet%C3%ABrohet\|isbn9789951408097}} <!-- V --> * {{Cite book\|lastVasiliev\|firstAlexander A.\|titleHistory of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453\|year1958\|locationMadison\|publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU6PnAwAAQBAJ&qHistory+of+the+Byzantine+Empire+Albanians+Greece+Advance+of+the+Albanians+to+the+south&pgPA613\|isbn=978-0-299-80926-3}} * {{Cite book\|last1Veremis\|first1Thanos\|last2Kolipoulos\|first2John\|chapterThe evolving Content of the Greek Nation\|editor1-lastCouloumbis\|editor1-firstTheodore A. \|editor2-lastKariotis\|editor2-firstTheodore C.\|editor3-lastBello\|editor3-firstFotini\|titleGreece in the twentieth century\|year2003\|locationPortland\|publisherPsychology Press\|isbn978-1-136-34652-1\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxYMsBgAAQBAJ&qAssimilation+Arvanites&pgPA24}} * {{Cite book\|lastVickers\|firstMiranda\|titleThe Albanians: a modern history\|year2011\|locationLondon\|publisherIB Tauris\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvtQABAAAQBAJ&qThe+Albanians:+A+Modern+History+hapless&pgPA83\|isbn=978-0-85773-655-0}} {{Cite book\|lastVillar\|firstFrancisco\|titleLos indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa\|languagees\|publisherGredos\|placeMadrid\|year1996\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd5NbPAAACAAJ\|isbn84-249-1787-1}} <!-- W --> {{Cite book \|lastWinnifrith \|first Tom \|titleNobody's Kingdom: A History of Northern Albania \|year 2020 \|publisher = Signal Books }} <!-- X --> <!-- Y --> <!-- Z --> {{refend}} External links {{Commons}} * [https://www.scribd.com/doc/11444724/Books-about-Albania-and-the-Albanian-people Books about Albania and the Albanian people] (scribd.com)—Reference of books (and some journal articles) about Albania and the Albanian people; their history, language, origin, culture, literature, and so on public domain books, fully accessible online. * {{usurped\|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060706152233/https://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr77.html Albanians in the Balkans]}}—U.S. Institute of Peace Report, November 2001 * [https://archive.org/details/TheAlbaniansAndTheirTerritories The Albanians and Their Territories] by The Academy of Sciences of the PSR of Albania] {{Albania topics}}{{Kosovo topics}}{{Ethnic groups in Albania}} {{European Muslims}} {{Authority control}} Category:Ethnic groups divided by international borders Category:Ethnic groups in Albania Category:Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:Ethnic groups in Croatia Category:Ethnic groups in Greece Category:Ethnic groups in Italy Category:Ethnic groups in Kosovo Category:Ethnic groups in Montenegro Category:Ethnic groups in North Macedonia Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia Category:Ethnic groups in the Balkans Category:Ethnic groups in Turkey Category:History of the Albanians Category:Indo-European peoples Category:Muslim communities in Europe	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians	2025-04-05T18:26:12.628305
2928	Association for Computing Machinery	{{Short description\|US-based international learned society for computing}} {{Multiple issues\| {{Self-published\|date=August 2023}} {{POV\|date=December 2021}} }} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2012}} {{Infobox organization \| name = Association for Computing Machinery \| image = Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) logo.svg \| image_border \| size 100px \| alt = "acm" in blue circle with gray rim, surrounded by blue diamond \| caption \| formation {{start date and age\|1947}} \| type = 501(c)(3) not-for-profit membership corporation \| headquarters = 1601 Broadway, Times Square, <br />New York City \| membership = 110,000 \| leader_title = President \| leader_name = Yannis Ioannidis \| key_people \| num_staff \| budget \| website {{URL\|acm.org}} }} The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is a US-based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/20613.html \|titleIndiana University Media Relations \|publisherindiana.edu \|access-dateOctober 10, 2012 }}</ref> The ACM is a non-profit professional membership group,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://apps.irs.gov/app/eos/pub78Search.do?ein1&names%22association+for+computing+machinery%22&city&stateAll...&countryUS&deductibilityall&dispatchMethodsearchCharities&submitNameSearch \|titleACM 501(c)3 Status as a group \|publisherirs.gov \|access-dateOctober 1, 2012}}</ref> reporting nearly 110,000 student and professional members {{as of\|2022\|lc=y}}. Its headquarters are in New York City. The ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science (informatics). Its motto is "Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession". History In 1947, a notice was sent to various people:<ref>{{cite web \|titleNotice on Organization of an 'Eastern Association for Computing Machinery' \|urlhttp://gallery.lib.umn.edu/exhibits/show/cbi_acm/item/1731 \|websiteACM Records (CBI 205), Box 3, Folder 6 \|date25 June 1947}}</ref>{{r\|robertson}} <blockquote> On January 10, 1947, at the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery at the Harvard computation Laboratory, Professor Samuel H. Caldwell of Massachusetts Institute of Technology spoke of the need for an association of those interested in computing machinery, and of the need for communication between them. [...] After making some inquiries during May and June, we believe there is ample interest to start an informal association of many of those interested in the new machinery for computing and reasoning. Since there has to be a beginning, we are acting as a temporary committee to start such an association:<br> <br> :E. C. Berkeley, Prudential Insurance Co. of America, Newark, N. J. :R. V. D. Campbell, Raytheon Manufacturing Co., Waltham, Mass. :{{interlanguage link\|John H. Curtiss\|de\|J. H. Curtiss}}, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. :H. E. Goheen, Office of Naval Research, Boston, Mass. :J. W. Mauchly, Electronic Control Co., Philadelphia, Pa. :T. K. Sharpless, Moore School of Elec. Eng., Philadelphia, Pa. :R. Taylor, Mass. Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Mass. :C. B. Tompkins, Engineering Research Associates, Washington, D.C. </blockquote> The committee (except for Curtiss) had gained experience with computers during World War II: Berkeley, Campbell, and Goheen helped build Harvard Mark I under Howard H. Aiken, Mauchly and Sharpless were involved in building ENIAC, Tompkins had used "the secret Navy code-breaking machines", and Taylor had worked on Bush's Differential analyzers.<ref namerobertson>{{cite journal \|last1Robertson \|first1L. \|titleAnecdotes \|journalIEEE Annals of the History of Computing \|dateOctober 2005 \|volume27 \|issue4 \|pages89–92 \|doi10.1109/MAHC.2005.53}}</ref> The ACM was then founded in 1947 under the name Eastern Association for Computing Machinery, which was changed the following year to the Association for Computing Machinery.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.acm.org/about-acm/acm-history\|titleACM History\|websiteacm.org\|languageen\|access-date2018-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/sim_mathematics-of-computation_1948-01_3_21 \|titleMathematical Tables and other Aids to Computation 1948-01: Vol 3 Issue 21 \|dateJanuary 1948 \|publisherAmerican Mathematical Society \|languageEnglish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/sim_american-statistician_june-july-1950_4_3 \|titleThe American Statistician June-July 1950: Vol 4 Iss 3 \|dateJune–July 1950 \|publisherAmerican Statistical Association \|languageEnglish}}</ref> The ACM History Committee since 2016 has published the A.M.Turing Oral History project, the ACM Key Award Winners Video Series, and the India Industry Leaders Video project.<ref>{{cite news \|titleOral Histories \|urlhttps://history.acm.org/projects-and-initiatives/oral-histories/ \|websiteACM History Committee \|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery \|access-date27 April 2022}}</ref> Activities ACM is organized into over 180 local professional chapters<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleAbout Chapters \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/chapters/about-chapters \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231228171447/https://www.acm.org/chapters/about-chapters \|archive-date2023-12-28 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websitewww.acm.org \|languageen}}</ref> and 38 Special Interest Groups (SIGs),<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-11-04 \|titleAlphabetical Listing of ACM SIGs \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/special-interest-groups/alphabetical-listing \|access-date2023-12-28 \|archive-dateNovember 4, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231104174410/https://www.acm.org/special-interest-groups/alphabetical-listing \|url-statusbot: unknown }}</ref> through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 680 student chapters.<ref name":0" /> The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.<ref>Note: The school was then [1961] known as the "University of Southwestern Louisiana (USL)". (Its name was later changed [in 1999] to the "University of Louisiana at Lafayette".)</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2015-05-26 \|titleStudent Chapters \|urlhttps://computing.louisiana.edu/cacs-research/student-chapters \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926181101/https://computing.louisiana.edu/cacs-research/student-chapters \|archive-date2023-09-26 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websiteSchool of Computing & Informatics \|languageen}}</ref> Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGDA, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastVaggalis \|firstNikos \|date7 April 2020 \|titleAccess ACM Digital Library for Free \|urlhttps://www.i-programmer.info/news/99-professional/13603-access-acm-digital-library-for-free.html \|access-date2023-08-05 \|website=i-programmer.info}}</ref> ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHow IBM's Deep Blue Beat World Champion Chess Player Garry Kasparov – IEEE Spectrum \|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/how-ibms-deep-blue-beat-world-champion-chess-player-garry-kasparov \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websiteIEEE \|languageen}}</ref>ServicesPublications {{main category\|Association for Computing Machinery publications}} ACM publishes over 50 journals<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/publications/journals\|titleJournals & Magazines\|workacm.org}}</ref> including the prestigious<ref>{{cite journal \|first1Paul Benjamin \|last1Lowry \|first2Denton \|last2Romans \|first3Aaron \|last3Curtis \|titleGlobal Journal Prestige and Supporting Disciplines: A Scientometric Study of Information Systems Journals \|journalJournal of the Association for Information Systems \|volume5 \|issue2 \|pages29–80 \|year2004 \|ssrn666145\|doi10.17705/1jais.00045 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Journal of the ACM, and two general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM (also known as Communications or CACM) and Queue. Other publications of the ACM include: ACM XRDS, formerly "Crossroads", was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US. ACM Interactions, an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication.<ref>{{Cite journal\| last1 Wakkary \| first1 R.\| last2 Stolterman \| first2 E.\| doi 10.1145/1897239.1897240\| title WELCOME: Our first interactions \| journal Interactions\| volume 18\| pages 5\| year 2011\| s2cid = 6840587}}</ref> ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR) Computers in Entertainment (CIE) ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems (JETC) ACM Special Interest Group: Computers and Society (SIGCAS)<ref>{{cite web \| titleHome page \| url http://www.sigcas.org/newsletter \| website sigcas.org \| publisher Association for Computing Machinery \| access-date = 28 October 2017 }}</ref> A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. Some of the more notable transactions include: ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG) ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics (TCBB) ACM Transactions on Computational Logic (TOCL) ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS) ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS) ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON) ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS) Games: Research and Practice Although Communications no longer publishes primary research and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing ({{ISBN\|0897919602}}), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach. The book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWakkary \|firstR. \|date2011 \|titleWELCOME: Our first interactions \|urlhttps://uhamzah.p2k.co.id/IT/2411-2304/Association-for-Computing-Machinery_5791_uhamzah-p2k.html \|journalInteractions \|volume18 \|pages5 \|doi10.1145/1897239.1897240}}</ref><span id"Portal"></span><span id"Digital Library"></span>Portal and Digital LibraryThe ACM Portal is an online service of the ACM.<ref nameportal>{{cite web\|urlhttp://portal.acm.org/\|titleACM Digital Library\|workacm.org}}</ref> Its core are two main sections: ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.libs.uga.edu/research/subject/computer-science \|titleThe University of Georgia Guide to Online Resources \|access-dateJuly 12, 2015 \|archive-dateOctober 4, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004194857/http://www.libs.uga.edu/research/subject/computer-science \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The ACM Digital Library was launched in October 1997.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/dl/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19971013171604/http://www.acm.org/dl/\|archive-dateOctober 13, 1997\|titleACM Digital Library\|access-dateAugust 17, 2023}}</ref> It is the full-text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries.<ref nameportal/> The ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive starting in the 1950s of the organization's journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest. There is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe ACM Guide to Computing Literature \|urlhttps://libraries.acm.org/digital-library/acm-guide-to-computing-literature \|access-date2025-02-24 \|websitelibraries.acm.org \|language=en}}</ref> ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access (OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://authors.acm.org/ \| titleACM Author Rights \|publisher=Acm.org}}</ref> ACM was a "green" publisher before the term was invented.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleACM History \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/about-acm/acm-history \|access-date2024-07-13 \|websitewww.acm.org \|language=en}}</ref> Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library's permanently maintained Version of Record. All metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts, linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full-texts are accessed by subscription. In addition, starting on April 7, 2022, ACM made its publications from 1951 to 2000 open access through the Digital Library in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the organization's founding.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-04-07 \|titleWorld's Largest Computing Society Makes Thousands of Research Articles Freely Available; Opens First 50 Years Backfile \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/media-center/2022/april/50-years-backfile \|websiteACM}}</ref> In 2020, ACM launched a major push to become a fully open access publisher by 2026. ACM restructured its pricing for the ACM Digital Library on the basis of publishing activity by affiliated lead authors in ACM's journals, magazines, and conference proceedings. Under this model, termed "ACM Open," institutions pay set fees for full access to ACM Digital Library contents as well as unlimited open access publishing by their affiliated authors. Authors not affiliated with a participating institution will be expected to pay an article processing charge.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnderson \|firstRick \|date2020-02-10 \|titleACM's New Open Access Agreements: A Q&A with Scott Delman \|urlhttps://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2020/02/10/acms-new-open-access-agreements-a-qa-with-scott-delman/ \|access-date2024-05-28 \|websiteThe Scholarly Kitchen \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleACM OPEN (ACM's Transformative Model for Open Access Publication) \|urlhttps://libraries.acm.org/subscriptions-access/acmopen \|access-date2024-05-28 \|websiteACM \|languageen}}</ref> As of May 2024, ACM reported that more than 1,340 institutions worldwide had signed on for ACM Open, putting ACM at just over halfway to meeting its target of 2,500 participating institutions by 2026.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInstitutions Currently Participating in ACM OPEN \|urlhttps://libraries.acm.org/acmopen/open-participants \|access-date2024-05-28 \|websiteAssociation for Computing Machinery \|languageen}}</ref> Membership grades {{main category\|Members of the Association for Computing Machinery}} In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and "demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.acm.org/membership/membership/senior_members/ \|titleACM Senior Members–An Overview \|publisherAcm.org \|access-dateNovember 24, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120118200303/http://www.acm.org/membership/membership/senior_members/ \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2012 \|url-statusdead \|dfmdy-all }}</ref> The number of Fellows, Distinguished Members, and Senior Members cannot exceed 1%, 10%, and 25% of the total number of professional members, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/advanced-member-grades\|title ACM Advanced Grades of Membership}}</ref> Fellows {{main\|ACM Fellow}} {{main list\|List of Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery}} The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 "to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are 1,310 Fellows {{as of\|2020\|lcy}}<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/fellows/award-winners \|titleList of ACM Fellows \|publisherAwards.acm.org \|access-dateFebruary 10, 2021}}</ref> out of about 100,000 members.Distinguished Members In 2006, ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members (Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and "have made a significant impact on the computing field". In 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called "Distinguished Member" and was changed about two years later to "Distinguished Educator". Those who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles. List of Distinguished Members of the Association for Computing Machinery <ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/distinguished-members/award-winners\|titleList of ACM Distinguished Members\|publisherAwards.acm.org \|access-dateNovember 22, 2020}}</ref> Senior Members Also in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. According to the ACM, "The Senior Members Grade recognizes those ACM members with at least 10 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous Professional Membership who have demonstrated performance through technical leadership, and technical or professional contributions".<ref>[https://awards.acm.org/senior-members ACM Senior Members]</ref> Senior membership also requires 3 letters of reference Distinguished Speakers While not technically a membership grade, the ACM recognizes distinguished speakers on topics in computer science. A distinguished speaker is appointed for a three-year period. There are usually about 125 current distinguished speakers. The ACM website describes these people as 'Renowned International Thought Leaders'.<ref>{{cite web\|url https://speakers.acm.org/ \|title Homepage\|website ACM Distinguished Speakers\|publisher Association for Computing Machinery}}</ref> The distinguished speakers program (DSP) has been in existence for over 20 years and serves as an outreach program that brings renowned experts from Academia, Industry and Government to present on the topic of their expertise.<ref>{{cite web\|url https://speakers.acm.org/about/purpose\| title The History of the Distinguished Speakers Program \|website ACM Distinguished Speakers\|publisher Association for Computing Machinery}}</ref> The DSP is overseen by a committee <ref>{{cite web\|url https://speakers.acm.org/committee\| title ACM Speakers Committee\|website ACM Distinguished Speakers\|publisher Association for Computing Machinery}}</ref> Chapters ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups,<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.acm.org/sigs \| titleACM Special Interest Groups \| access-dateAugust 7, 2010 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100727190450/http://www.acm.org/sigs \| archive-dateJuly 27, 2010 \| url-statusdead \| dfmdy-all }}</ref> Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.acm.org/chapters/ \| titleACM Chapters \| access-dateAugust 7, 2010}}</ref> {{as of\|2022}}, ACM has professional & SIG Chapters in 56 countries.<ref>{{cite web \| title = Worldwide Professional Chapters \| url = http://www.acm.org/chapters/maps/ \| publisher = Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) \| access-date = 2012-12-27 \| archive-date = November 28, 2016 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161128093440/http://www.acm.org/chapters/maps/ \| url-status = dead }}</ref> {{as of\|2022}}, there exist ACM student chapters in 41 countries.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://campus.acm.org/public/chapters/geo_listing/index.cfm?ctStudent&inus0 \|titleChapters Listing by Geographic Region — Association for Computing Machinery \|publisherCampus.acm.org \|access-date2013-10-02}}</ref> Special Interest Groups {{main category\|Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Groups}} {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} SIGACCESS: Accessible Computing * SIGACT: Algorithms and Computation Theory * SIGAda: Ada Programming Language * SIGAI: Artificial Intelligence * SIGAPP: Applied Computing * SIGARCH: Computer Architecture * SIGBED: Embedded Systems * SIGBio: Bioinformatics * SIGCAS: Computers and Society * SIGCHI: Computer&ndash;Human Interaction * SIGCOMM: Data Communication * SIGCSE: Computer Science Education * SIGDA: Design Automation * SIGDOC: Design of Communication * SIGecom: Electronic Commerce * SIGEVO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation * SIGGRAPH: Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques * SIGHPC: High Performance Computing * SIGIR: Information Retrieval * SIGITE: Information Technology Education * SIGKDD: Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining * SIGLOG: Logic and Computation<ref> {{cite web \| url = http://siglog.acm.org/ \| title = ACM Special Interest Group on Logic and Computation \| publisher=acm.org \| access-date=2015-01-28 }}</ref> * SIGMETRICS: Measurement and Evaluation * SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture * SIGMIS: Management Information Systems * SIGMM: Multimedia * SIGMOBILE: Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing * SIGMOD: Management of Data * SIGOPS: Operating Systems * SIGPLAN: Programming Languages * SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control * SIGSAM: Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation * SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling * SIGSOFT: Software Engineering * SIGSPATIAL: Spatial Information * SIGUCCS: University and College Computing Services * SIGWEB: Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web {{div col end}} Conferences {{main category\|Association for Computing Machinery conferences}} ACM and its Special Interest Groups (SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences worldwide. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, SIGGRAPH 2007 attracted about 30000 attendees, while CIKM 2005 and RecSys 2022 had paper acceptance rates of only accepted 15% and 17% respectively.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://dl.acm.org/action/showFmPdf?doi10.1145%2F3523227\|titleProceedings of ACM RecSys 2022)\|year2022 \|doi10.1145/3523227 \|isbn9781450392785 \|access-dateMarch 7, 2023 \|editor-last1Golbeck \|editor-last2Harper \|editor-last3Murdock \|editor-last4Ekstrand \|editor-last5Shapira \|editor-last6Basilico \|editor-last7Lundgaard \|editor-last8Oldridge \|editor-first1Jennifer \|editor-first2F. Maxwell \|editor-first3Vanessa \|editor-first4Michael \|editor-first5Bracha \|editor-first6Justin \|editor-first7Keld \|editor-first8=Even }}</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} * AIES: Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society * ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems * CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems * CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cikmconference.org/ \|titleConference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) \|publisher=Cikmconference.org }}</ref> * COMPASS: International Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://acmcompass.org/\|titleACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (COMPASS)\|access-dateJune 1, 2019\|archive-dateJune 1, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190601054635/https://acmcompass.org/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> * DAC: Design Automation Conference * DEBS: Distributed Event Based Systems<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.debs.org/\|titleDistributed Event-Based Systems \|website = DEBS.org}}</ref> * FAccT: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency * FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference * GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://sig.sigevo.org/index.html/tiki-index.php?pageGECCOs\|titleGECCOs \|websiteSigevo.org \|publisher = ACM }}</ref> * HT: Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia * JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.jcdl.org/ \|titleJoint Conference on Digital Library (JCDL)&ndash;Home \|publisher=JCDL }}</ref> * MobiHoc: International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing * SC: Supercomputing Conference * SIGCOMM: ACM SIGCOMM Conference * SIGCSE: SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education * SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques * RecSys: ACM Conference on Recommender Systems * TAPIA: Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference {{div col end}} The ACM is a co&ndash;presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology.<ref>{{cite web\|titleGrace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing, Largest Gathering of Women in Computing, Attracts Researchers, Industry\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/press&ndash;room/news&ndash;releases&ndash;2008/hopper&ndash;08&ndash;preview/\|access-dateJune 27, 2011}}{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2018 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Some conferences are hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://acm.illinois.edu/conference\|titleACM@UIUC\|date2017\|access-dateJanuary 24, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180616215513/https://acm.illinois.edu/conference\|archive-dateJune 16, 2018\|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended. For additional non-ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences. Awards<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> The ACM presents or co&ndash;presents a number of awards for outstanding technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/\|titleACM's awards recognize excellence in computer science and information technology.\|websiteawards.acm.org\|languageen\|access-date2017-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/list-of-awards\|titleList of ACM Awards\|websiteawards.acm.org\|languageen\|access-date2017-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleACM Awards \|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/ \|access-date=February 10, 2021 }}</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} * ACM A. M. Turing Award * ACM – AAAI Allen Newell Award * ACM Athena Lecturer Award * ACM/CSTA Cutler-Bell Prize in High School Computing * ACM Distinguished Service Award * ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award<ref>{{cite web\|titleShun Receives ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award\|urlhttps://www.cs.cmu.edu/news/shun-receives-acm-doctoral-dissertation-award\|websiteSchool of Computer Science\|publisherCarnegie Mellon University\|access-date=7 June 2017}}</ref> * ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award * ACM Fellowship, awarded annually since 1993<ref>{{cite journal \| authorAnon \| journalCommunications of the ACM \|titleACM Inducts Fellows\| publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery \| volume59 \| issue2 \| year2016 \| pages24 \| doi=10.1145/2856228}}</ref> * ACM Gordon Bell Prize * ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award * ACM – IEEE CS George Michael Memorial HPC Fellowships * ACM – IEEE CS Ken Kennedy Award * ACM – IEEE Eckert–Mauchly Award * ACM India Doctoral Dissertation Award * ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award * ACM Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award * ACM Policy Award * ACM Presidential Award * ACM Prize in Computing (formerly: ACM – Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences) * ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://awards.acm.org/programming-systems-and-languages-paper \|title=ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award \|date\|publisherACM \|access-date=2022-08-17}}</ref> * ACM Student Research Competition * ACM Software System Award * International Science and Engineering Fair * Outstanding Contribution to ACM Award * SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering {{div col end}} Over 30 of ACM's Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://awards.acm.org/sig-awards\|titleSpecial Interest Group (SIG) Awards\|websiteawards.acm.org\|languageen\|access-date=2017-04-06}}</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} * ACM Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award * ACM Maurice Wilkes Award * ISCA Influential Paper Award {{div col end}} Leadership {{category see also\|Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery}} The President of ACM for 2022–2024 is Yannis Ioannidis, Professor at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleACM Elects New Officers for 2022-2024 \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/articles/bulletins/2022/may/acm-new-officers-2022 \|access-date2022-07-28 \|websitewww.acm.org \|languageen}}</ref> He is successor of Gabriele Kotsis (2020–2022), Professor at the Johannes Kepler University Linz; Cherri M. Pancake (2018–2020), professor emeritus at Oregon State University and Director of the Northwest Alliance for Computational Science and Engineering (NACSE); Vicki L. Hanson (2016–2018), Distinguished Professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology and visiting professor at the University of Dundee; Alexander L. Wolf (2014–2016), Dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz; Vint Cerf (2012–2014), American computer scientist and Internet pioneer; Alain Chesnais (2010–2012); and Dame Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton, UK (2008–2010).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/about/past-presidents \|titleACM Past Presidents \|publisheracm.org \|access-date=2014-10-12}}</ref> ACM is led by a council consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer, past president, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in Communications of the ACM. Infrastructure ACM has numerous boards, committees, and task forces which run the organization:<ref>{{Cite web \|titleACM Boards and Committees \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/about-acm/boards-and-committees \|access-date2023-08-07 \|websiteacm.org \|language=en}}</ref> # ACM Council # ACM Executive Committee # Digital Library Board # Education Board l Practitioner Board l Publications Board SIG Governing BoarDEI Council ACM Technology Policy Council ACM Representatives to Other Organizations Computer Science Teachers Association ACM Council on Women in Computing {{main\|ACM Council on Women in Computing}} ACM-W,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://women.acm.org/\|titleHome\|work=acm.org}}</ref> the ACM council on women in computing, supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM–W's main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM-W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM-W India and ACM-W Europe respectively. ACM-W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute, the National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT), and Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W). The ACM-W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://awards.acm.org/athena\|titleAbout ACM Athena Lecturer Award\|websiteawards.acm.org\|languageen\|access-date=2017-04-06}}</ref> This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers.<ref>{{cite web \| title = ACM-W Athena Lecturers Award Winners \| url = http://women.acm.org/ACM-W-Athena-Lectures \| publisher = ACM \| access-date = 2013-12-01 }}</ref> Partner organizations ACM's primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with ACM's agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards.<ref>{{cite web\|titleACM / IEEE-CS Cooperation — Association for Computing Machinery\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop\|websiteacm.org\|languageen\|access-dateFebruary 22, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170101141809/http://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop\|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2017\|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> ACM and its SIGs co-sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE-CS and other parts of IEEE.<ref>{{cite web\|titleACM / IEEE-CS Jointly Sponsored Conferences —Association for Computing Machinery\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop/conferences\|websiteacm.org\|languageen\|access-dateFebruary 22, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170101141814/http://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop/conferences\|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2017\|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Eckert–Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award, both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE-CS.<ref>{{cite web\|titleACM / IEEE-CS Joint Awards — Association for Computing Machinery\|urlhttp://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop/awards\|websiteacm.org\|languageen\|access-dateFebruary 22, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160406143733/http://www.acm.org/acm-ieeecs-coop/awards\|archive-dateApril 6, 2016\|url-statusdead\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id2534860 \|titleComputer Science Curricula 2013: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Science\|author1 Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula\|author2 Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)\|author3 IEEE Computer Society\|year2013\|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery\|isbn9781450323093\|author-link3=IEEE Computer Society}}</ref> ACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM).<ref>{{cite web\|titleSIAM: ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA17)\|urlhttps://www.siam.org/meetings/da17/\|websitesiam.org}}</ref>CriticismIn December 2019, the ACM co-signed a letter with over one hundred other publishers to President Donald Trump saying that an open access mandate would increase costs to taxpayers or researchers and hurt intellectual property. This was in response to rumors that he was considering issuing an executive order that would require federally funded research be made freely available online immediately after being published. It is unclear how these rumors started.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSubbaraman \|firstNidhi \|date2019-12-20 \|titleRumours fly about changes to US government open-access policy \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03926-1 \|journalNature \|languageen \|doi10.1038/d41586-019-03926-1\|pmid33340013 \|s2cid214378269 }}</ref> Many ACM members opposed the letter, leading ACM to issue a statement clarifying that they remained committed to open access,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleACM Letter to OSTP \|urlhttps://www.acm.org/articles/bulletins/2020/january/acm-letter-to-ostp \|access-date2023-08-07 \|websiteacm.org \|languageen}}</ref> and they wanted to see communication with stakeholders about the potential mandate. The statement did not significantly assuage criticism from ACM members.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLee \|firstTimothy B. \|date2019-12-27 \|titleTrump could mandate free access to federally funded research papers \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2019/12/publishers-blast-rumored-ban-on-paywalls-for-federally-funded-research/ \|access-date2023-08-07 \|websiteArs Technica \|languageen-us}}</ref> The SoCG conference, while originally an ACM conference, parted ways with ACM in 2014<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAbout ACM affiliation\|urlhttp://computational-geometry.org/about_acm_affiliation.html\|access-date2020-06-04\|websitecomputational-geometry.org}}</ref> because of problems when organizing conferences abroad.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastErickson\|firstJeff\|date2014-06-05\|titleA Brief History of SOCG and ACM\|urlhttps://makingsocg.wordpress.com/2014/06/05/a-brief-history-of-socg-and-acm/\|access-date2020-06-04\|websiteMaking SOCG\|languageen}}</ref> See also {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} * ACM Classification Scheme * Franz Alt, former president <!-- * Association of Information Technology Professionals --> * Edmund Berkeley, co-founder * Computer science * Computing * Bernard Galler, former president * Fellows of the ACM (by year) * Fellows of the ACM (category) * Grace Murray Hopper Award <!-- * Institution of Analysts and Programmers --> * Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery * Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 * Turing Award * List of academic databases and search engines {{div col end}} References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Commons category\|Association for Computing Machinery}} {{Official website}} {{cite book \|urlhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/proceedings/10.1145/1141880 \|publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery <!-- \|access-date27 April 2022 --> \|languageen \|doi10.1145/1141880 \|date2006 \|quoteFREE\|last1Unknown \|titleACM Oral History interviews on \|isbn9781450317719 }} [http://portal.acm.org/ ACM portal] for publications [http://portal.acm.org/dl.cfm ACM Digital Library] [http://purl.umn.edu/51982 Association for Computing Machinery Records, 1947–2009], Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. [http://upe.acm.org/about.html ACM Upsilon Phi Epsilon]. honor society. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409110208/http://upe.acm.org/about.html \|dateApril 9, 2018 }}. {{Association for Computing Machinery}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Association For Computing Machinery}} Category:1947 establishments in the United States Category:Computer science-related professional associations Category:International learned societies Category:Non-profit organizations based in New York City Category:Scientific organizations established in 1947 Category:501(c)(3) organizations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery	2025-04-05T18:26:12.654482
2934	Anabaptism	{{Short description\|Christian movement}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2020}} {{Anabaptist vertical}} {{Protestantism}} {{Christianity\|expanded=hide}} Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin {{lang\|la\|anabaptista}},<ref nameOED /> from the Greek {{lang \|grc\|ἀναβαπτισμός}}: {{lang\|grc\|ἀνά}} 're-' and {{lang\|grc\|βαπτισμός}} 'baptism';<ref name OED /> {{langx\|de\|Täufer}}, earlier also {{lang\|de\|Wiedertäufer}})<ref group"lower-alpha">Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term {{lang\|de\|Wiedertäufer}} (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. The term {{lang\|de\|Täufer}} (translation: "Baptizers") is now used, which is considered more impartial. From the perspective of their persecutors, the "Baptizers" baptized for the second time those "who as infants had already been baptized". The denigrative term Anabaptist, given to them by others, signifies rebaptizing and is considered a polemical term, so it has been dropped from use in modern German. However, in the English-speaking world, it is still used to distinguish the Baptizers more clearly from the Baptists, a Protestant sect that developed later in England. Compare their self-designation as "Brethren in Christ" or "Church of God": {{cite encyclopedia \|lastStayer \|firstJames M. \|author-linkJames M. Stayer \|date2001 \|titleTäufer \|encyclopediaTheologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE) \|language de \|volume32 \|location Berlin, New York \|publisherWalter de Gruyter \|pages597–617 \|isbn3-11-016712-3 \|quote{{lang\|de\|Brüder in Christo", "Gemeinde Gottes}}}}.</ref> is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith in 1527 called the Schleitheim Confession. Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can.<ref name"Bruening2017">{{cite book\|last Bruening\|firstMichael W.\|title A Reformation Sourcebook: Documents from an Age of Debate\|year2017\|publisher University of Toronto Press\|isbn978-1-44263570-8\|page134\|quoteIn 1527, Michael Sattler presided over a meeting at Schleitheim (in canton Schaffhausen, on the Swiss-German border), where Anabaptist leaders drew up the Schleitheim Confession of Faith (doc. 29). Sattler was arrested and executed soon afterwards. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can.}}</ref><ref name "Hershberger2001">{{cite book\|lastHershberger \|firstGuy F. \|titleThe Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision \|date2001\|publisherWipf & Stock Publishers \|isbn978-1-57910600-3 \|page65\|quoteThe Schleitheim articles are Anabaptism's oldest confessional document.}}</ref> Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though the Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed after the Radical Reformation, following their example.<ref name"Gertz2004">{{cite web \|last1 Gertz \|first1Steven \|title Outsider's Guide to America's Anabaptists \|urlhttps://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-84/outsiders-guide-to-americas-anabaptists.html \| workChristianity Today \|access-date20 May 2021 \| year 2004}}</ref><ref name"TW2021">{{cite web \|titleWhat about Old Orders, Hutterites, Conservatives, River Brethren and Others? \|urlhttp://thirdwaycafe.com/faq/what-about-old-orders-hutterites-conservatives-river-brethren-and-others/ \| workThird Way café \|access-date20 May 2021 \|date 2021}}</ref><ref name"Huffman1920">{{cite book \|last1 Huffman \|first1Jasper Abraham \|title History of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church \|date1920 \|publisherBethel Publishing Co. \|page59}}</ref> Though all Anabaptists share the same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life among them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren.<ref name"Gertz2004"/> In between the assimilated mainline denominations (such as Mennonite Church USA and the Church of the Brethren) and Old Order groups are Conservative Anabaptist groups. Conservative Anabaptists such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, Conservative Mennonites and Beachy Amish have retained traditional religious practices and theology, while allowing for judicious use of modern conveniences and advanced technology.<ref name"Guengerich2013">{{cite book \|last1 Guengerich \|first1Galen \|titleGod Revised: How Religion Must Evolve in a Scientific Age \|date2013 \|publisherSt. Martin's Publishing Group \|isbn978-1-137-35611-6 \|page3}}</ref><ref name"Scott1996">{{cite book \|last1 Scott \|first1Stephen \|title Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups \| series People's Place Book \| number 12 \|date1996 \|publisherGood Books \|isbn978-1-56148-101-9 \|page228 \|quote= Many writings have been made among conservative Mennonites supporting the Christian woman's veiling.}}</ref> Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity, as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and the holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions."<ref name"RedekopBeitzel2019">{{cite book \|last1Redekop \|first1Calvin \|last2Beitzel \|first2Terry \|title Service, The Path To Justice \|date2019 \|publisherFriesenPress \|isbn978-1-5255-3584-0 \|page165}}</ref><ref name"Kraybill2010">{{cite book \|last1 Kraybill \|first1Donald B. \|title Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites \|date2010 \|publisherJHU Press \|isbn978-0-8018-9911-9 \|page 107}}</ref><ref name"Hostetler1993">{{cite book \|last1 Hostetler \|first1John A. \|title Amish Society \|date1993 \|publisherJHU Press \|isbn978-0-8018-4442-3 \|page227}}</ref><ref name="Almila2017"/> The name Anabaptist originated as an exonym meaning "one who baptizes again," referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers."<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termAnabaptist \| title Anabaptist \| work Online Etymological Dictionary \| orig-year 2001 \| year 2010 \| first Douglas \| last Harper \| access-date = April 25, 2011}}</ref> Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism: {{Blockquote \|textI have never taught Anabaptism. …But the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ. \|author Hubmaier, Balthasar (1526) \|sourceShort apology.<ref>{{cite book \|lastVedder \|firstHenry Clay \|author-linkHenry Clay Vedder \|titleBalthasar Hübmaier: the Leader of the Anabaptists \|locationNew York \|publisherG. P. Putnam's Sons \|year1905 \|page204 \|modecs2}}.</ref>}} Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his.<ref>{{cite book \|titleDictionary of Scripture and Ethics \|date 2011 \|publisherBaker Books \|isbn 978-1-4412-3998-3 \|page=64}}</ref> Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society.<ref group"lower-alpha">For example, those of the Münster Rebellion or Balthasar Hubmaier.</ref> They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them."<ref name "Dyck">{{Harvnb \| Dyck \| 1967 \|p 45}}</ref> Lineage {{Christian denomination tree}} Medieval forerunners {{main\|Proto-Protestantism}} Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology.<ref>{{Cite book \| lastWagner \| first Murray L \| titlePetr Chelčický: A Radical Separatist in Hussite Bohemia \| place Scottdale, PA \| publisherHerald Press \| year1983 \| isbn0-8361-1257-1 \| page20}}</ref> Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists,<ref>{{cite web\|url http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/S2384.html \| last van der Zijpp \| first Nanne\|title Sacramentists\|publisherGlobal Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online\|access-dateApril 12, 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070227094841/http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/S2384.html \| archive-date February 27, 2007 \| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastFontaine \|firstPiet FM \|titleThe Light and the Dark: A Cultural History of Dualism \|placeUtrecht \|publisherGopher Publishers \|year2006 \|volumeXXIII. Postlutheran Reformation \|chapter-urlhttp://home.wanadoo.nl/piet.fontaine/volumes/vol23/index1.htm?vol23_ch1_part1.htm \|chapter I&nbsp;– part 1 Radical Reformation&nbsp;– Dutch Sacramentists \|urlhttp://home.wanadoo.nl/piet.fontaine/volumes/overview.htm \|url-status dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070509073919/http://home.wanadoo.nl/piet.fontaine/volumes/overview.htm \|archive-dateMay 9, 2007}}</ref> and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.{{Sfn \| van Braght \| 1950 \| p = 277}} Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: * The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with {{Bibleverse\|1 Corinthians\|6:1–11\|\|1 Corinthians 6:1–11}}. * The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right of the sword). {{Bibleverse \|Matthew\|5:39\|\|Matthew 5:39}} * Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. {{Bibleverse\|John\|18:36\|\|John 18:36}} {{Bibleverse\|Romans\|13:1–7\|\|Romans 13:1–7}} * Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated and excluded from the sacraments and from some level of interaction with believers until they repent, according to {{Bibleverse\|1 Corinthians\|5:9–13\|\|1 Corinthians 5:9–13}} and {{Bibleverse\|Matthew\|18:15\|\|Matthew 18:15 seq.}}, but no force is to be used towards them. Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War {{Main\|Zwickau prophets}} On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer{{snd}}Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising.{{Sfn \| Stayer \| 1994}} Views on origins {{more citations needed section\|date=July 2020}} Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of {{lang\|de\|Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs}} (The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman, who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897). Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following: * The movement began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (monogenesis); * It developed through several independent movements (polygenesis); and * It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity). Monogenesis Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann)<ref>{{cite web \|last1Moss \|first1Christina \|titleOn the Theological Uses of Anabaptist History: A Conversation \|url https://anabaptisthistorians.org/2017/11/16/on-the-theological-uses-of-anabaptist-history-a-conversation/ \|websiteAnabaptist Historians \|access-dateDecember 19, 2020 \|dateNovember 16, 2017}}</ref>{{sfn\|Estep\|1963}} consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists.{{Sfn \| Estep \| 1963 \| p 5 \| ps : 'Too much has been said of Münster. It belongs on the fringe of Anabaptist life which was completely divorced from the evangelical, biblical heart of the movement'}} In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement.{{Sfn \| Dyck \| 1967 \| p 49}} This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. Polygenesis James M. Stayer, {{Ill\|Werner O. Packull\|de}}, and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession.<ref name"monogenesis">{{Citation \| first1 James M \| last1 Stayer \| first2 Werner O \| last2 Packull \| first3 Klaus \| last3 Deppermann \| title From Monogenesis to Polygenesis: the historical discussion of Anabaptist origins \| journal Mennonite Quarterly Review \| volume 49 \| number 2 \|dateApril 1975}}</ref>{{Rp \| needed yes\|date October 2012}} The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony."<ref name= "monogenesis" />{{rp \|83}} After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating "points of departure": "South German Anabaptism, the Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites".{{Sfn\|Stayer\|1994\|p=86}} According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck's {{lang\|de\|Vermanung}} of 1542 was deeply influenced by the {{lang\|de\|Bekenntnisse}} of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. Others who have written in support of polygenesis include {{Ill\|Grete Mecenseffy\|de}} and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Müntzer and Hans Hut. In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull show the influence of Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment links Hut and Hans Denck with Müntzer, Sebastian Franck, and others. Author Calvin Pater shows how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. Several historians, including Thor Hall,<ref>Hall, Thor. "Possibilities of Erasmian Influence on Denck and Hubmaier in Their Views of Freedom of the Will." Mennonite Quarterly Review 35 (1961): 149–170.</ref> Kenneth Davis,<ref>Davis, Kenneth R. "Erasmus as a Progenitor of Anabaptist Theology and Piety." Mennonite Quarterly Review 47 (1973): 163–178.</ref> and Robert Kreider,<ref>Kreider, Robert. "Anabaptism and Humanism: an Inquiry Into the Relationship of Humanism to the Evangelical Anabaptists." Mennonite Quarterly Review 26 (1952): 123–141.</ref> have also noted the influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia.{{sfn\|Klager\|2011\|pp28–31}}{{sfn\|Klager\|2010\|pp5–65}} Apostolic succession Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from the time of Christ.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCarrol \|firstJM\|titleThe Trail of Blood\|publisherAshland Avenue Baptist Church\|locationLexington, KY\|year1931\|urlhttp://www.trailofblood.com/The%20Trail%20Of%20Blood.htm \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090221104428/http://www.trailofblood.com/The%20Trail%20Of%20Blood.htm\|archive-dateFebruary 21, 2009}}</ref> This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements.<ref group"lower-alpha">A "true church" movement is a part of the Protestant or Reformed group of Christianity that claims to represent the true faith and order of New Testament Christianity. Most only assert this in relation to their church doctrines, polity, and practice (e.g., the ordinances), while a few hold they are the only true Christians. Some examples of Anabaptistic true church movements are the Landmark Baptists and the Church of God in Christ, Mennonite. The Church of God, the Stone-Campbell restoration movement, and others represent a variation in which the "true church" apostatized and was restored, in distinction to this idea of apostolic or church succession. These groups trace their "true church" status through means other than those generally accepted by Roman Catholicism or Orthodox Christianity, both of which likewise claim to represent the true faith and order of New Testament Christianity.</ref> The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views,<ref group"lower-alpha">Such as the Adoptionism of the Paulicianists; some of the other groups often cited were in fact little different from the Catholics and bore little similarity to modern Baptists.</ref> or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place. A different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. History printed in 1550, displayed in the Anabaptist Room of the Local History Museum in Schleitheim, Switzerland.]] thumb\|Spread of the early anabaptists in Central Europe {{legend\|#DBB4F8\|Dutch Mennonites<br />(spread from [[Emden)}} {{legend\|#A5C8F8\|South and Central German Anabaptists<br />(spread from Königsberg in Franken)}} {{legend\|#BAFDA2\|Swiss Brethren<br />(spread from Zürich)}} {{legend\|#FFE57C\|Moravian Anabaptists<br />(spread from Nikolsburg)}}]] Switzerland Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg, answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God."<ref name"Ruth">{{cite book \| lastRuth \| firstJohn L.\|titleConrad Grebel, Son of Zurich \| publisherHerald Press \| locationScottdale, PA \| year1975\|page79 \|isbn = 0-8361-1767-0}}</ref> This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children. Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved".{{Sfn \| Dyck \| 1967 \| p = 46}} Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli.]] The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: {{Blockquote \|After prayer, George of the House of Jacob (George Blaurock) stood up and besought Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down with such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Chronicle of the Hutterian Brethren, Known as Das grosse Geschichtbuch der Hutterischen Brüder\|locationRifton, New York\|publisherPlough Pub. House\|date1987\|page=45}}</ref>}} Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-28/1525-anabaptist-movement-begins.html\|title1525, The Anabaptist Movement Begins\|access-dateDecember 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/anabaptist-beginnings\|titleA Fire That Spread Anabaptist Beginnings\|publisherChristian History Institute\|firstWalter\|lastKlaassen\|locationWaterloo, ON, Canada\|date1985\|issue5\|access-dateDecember 27, 2017}}</ref> Tyrol Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed.{{sfn\|Hoover\|2008\|pp14–66}} Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants.{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995 \| pp 169–175}} Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529.{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995 \| pp = 181–185}} Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution.{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995 \| p 280}} Low Countries and northern Germany Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons.{{Sfn \| Estep \| 1963 \| p 109}} For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the Münster rebellion, even though he was "of a different spirit".{{Sfn \| Estep \| 1963 \| p = 111}} Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster.{{Sfn\|Dyck\|1967\|p105}} Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons.{{Sfn\|Dyck\|1967\|p111}} Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture".{{Sfn\|Dyck\|1967\|p=111}} Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites. Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. Moravia, Bohemia and Silesia Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there.{{Sfn \| Estep \| 1963 \| p 89}}{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995 \| p 54}} Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together.{{Sfn \| Dyck \| 1967 \| p 67}} The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions.{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995 \| p 55}} Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the {{lang\|de\|Schwertler}} (sword-bearing) and the {{lang\|de\|Stäbler}} (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 {{lang\|de\|Stäbler}} withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz.{{Sfn\|Packull\|1995\|p=61}} Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874.{{Sfn \| Packull \| 1995}}{{Rp \| needed yes\|dateOctober 2012}}<ref>{{cite book\|titleUtopias in American History\|firstJyotsna\|lastSreenivasan\|publisherABC-CLIO\|date2008\|pages175–176}}</ref> South and central Germany, Austria and Alsace led the German peasants against the landowners]] South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations.{{sfn\|Packull\|1977\|pp35–117}}{{Sfn \| Stayer \| 1994}} Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists.<ref name"fireandwater">{{cite book\|last1Loewen\|first1Harry\|last2Nolt\|first2Steven\|titleThrough Fire & Water\|date1996\|publisherHerald Press\|locationScottdale, PA\|pages136–137}}</ref> Persecutions and migrations was executed by drowning within two years of his rebaptism]] of Anabaptist martyr Ursula, Maastricht, 1570; engraving by Jan Luyken from Martyrs Mirror<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://gameo.org/index.php?titleUrsel_(d._1570) \| titleUrsel (d. 1570) \| workGAMEO \| dateJanuary 10, 2018 \| access-dateJune 16, 2019}}</ref>]] Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| last1Bossert \| first1Gustav Jr. \|first2Harold S. \|last2Bender \|first3C. Arnold \|last3Snyder \|year2017 \|articleSattler, Michael (d. 1527) \|editor-firstJohn D. \|editor-lastRoth \|titleGlobal Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online \|chapter-urlhttp://gameo.org/index.php?titleSattler,_Michael_(d._1527)&oldid143732 \|postscript,}} reprinted from {{cite book \| last1Bossert \| first1Gustav Jr. \|first2Harold S. \|last2Bender \|first3C. Arnold \|last3Snyder\|year1989 \|editor-firstHarold S. \|editor-lastBender \|titleMennonite Encyclopedia \|atVol. 4, pp. 427–434, 1148; vol. 5, pp. 794–795 \|publisherHerald Press \|locationHarrisonburg, VA}}</ref> King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts."<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastShantz \|firstDouglas H. \|date2009 \|titleAnabaptist Women as Martyrs, Models of Courage, and Tools of the Devil \|urlhttps://historicalpapers.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/historicalpapers/article/download/39134/35491/47151 \|journalHistorical Papers 2009: Canadian Society of Church History \|pages23 \|viaYork University (Canada)}}</ref> Beliefs and practices {{Main\|Anabaptist theology}} Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy.{{Sfn \| Klaassen \| 1973}}<ref>{{citation \| url http://www.cbc4me.org/articles/Baptist/04-McGrath.pdf \| title The Anabaptists: Neither Catholic nor Protestant \| first William \| last McGrath \| location Hartville, OH \| publisher The Fellowship Messenger \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161227060547/http://www.cbc4me.org/articles/Baptist/04-McGrath.pdf \| archive-dateDecember 27, 2016 \| url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{citation \| chapter-url http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/15.html \| title Renaissance and Reformation \| chapter The Radicals of the Reformation \| first William \| last Gilbert \| date 1998 \| location Lawrence, KS \| publisher University of Kansas}}</ref><ref group"lower-alpha">According to the Martyrs Mirror, the Anabaptist movement has existed since the times of the apostles. It is not Protestant, according to this vital publication.</ref> Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians).<ref name"Bruening2017" /><ref name"Hershberger2001" /> Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God."<ref name"Sheldrake2005" /> In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by 'faith alone', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth, the heart having new love, which led to obedience."<ref name"Sheldrake2005" /> Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after the New Birth.<ref name"Sheldrake2005">{{cite book \|last1Sheldrake \|first1Philip \|titleThe New Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality \|year2005 \|publisherWestminster John Knox Press \|isbn978-0-664-23003-6 \|page104 \|languageEnglish}}</ref> Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer.<ref name"PaulsenMusser2007">{{cite book \|last1Paulsen \|first1David Lamont \|last2Musser \|first2Donald W. \|titleMormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies \|date2007 \|publisherMercer University Press \|isbn978-0-88146-083-4 \|page106 \|languageEnglish}}</ref> As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing, the holy kiss, and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance, forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living.<ref name"RedekopBeitzel2019" /><ref name"Almila2017">{{cite book \|last1Almila \|first1Anna-Mari \|last2Almila \|first2David \|titleThe Routledge International Handbook to Veils and Veiling \|date2017 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-1-317-04114-6 \|page296 \|languageEnglish}}</ref><ref name"Kraybill2010" /><ref name"Hostetler1993" /> Types Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer and Storch as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdés, Sebastian Castellio, and Faustus Socinus as rationalists. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, "The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus." Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use Anabaptist to define the larger movement and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term Anabaptist for those who rebaptized persons already "baptized" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define Anabaptists that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann. Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck). Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites and the Batenburgers, who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s. Spirituality {{Further\|Hymnody of continental Europe#Anabaptists}} quarter in Zürich for the Anabaptists executed in the early 16th century by the Zürich city government]] Charismatic manifestations Within the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit, "prophetic processions" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535),{{Sfn \| Klaassen \| 1973 \| p 63}} and speaking in tongues.<ref>{{Citation \| first Franklin H \| last Little \| title The Origins of Sectarian Protestantism \| place New York \| publisher Beacons \| year 1964 \| page 19}}</ref> In Germany some Anabaptists, "excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival".{{Sfn \| Williams \| 2000 \| p = 667}} The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations but did not totally reject the miraculous. Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men."{{Sfn \| Marpeck \| 1978 \| p 50}} The Hutterite Chronicle and the Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished".{{Sfn \| van Braght \| 1950 \| p 440}} Holy Spirit leadership The Anabaptists insisted upon the "free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures.<ref>{{Citation \| first John S \| last Oyer \| title Lutheran Reformers Against Anabaptists \| place The Hague \| publisher M Nijhoff \| year 1964 \| page 86}}</ref> The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists&nbsp;– Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying."<ref>{{Citation \| editor1-first Paul \| editor1-last Peachey \| editor2-first Shem \| editor2-last Peachey \| title Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists&nbsp;– Why They Do Not Attend the Churches \| journal Mennonite Quarterly Review \| volume 45 \| number 1 \| year 1971 \| pages 10, 11}}</ref> Today Anabaptists , Association of Evangelical Mennonite Churches of France.]] at The Meeting Place in Winnipeg, Canadian Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches]] In 2022, there were over 2.12 million baptized Anabaptists in 85 countries.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMWC World Map 2022 \|urlhttps://mwc-cmm.org/sites/default/files/resource-uploads/mwc_world_map_2022.pdf \|access-dateAugust 12, 2024 \|websiteMennonite World Conference}}</ref> Over 36% are found in Africa, another 30% in North America, 20% in Asia and the Pacific, 9% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and less than 3% in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMembership, map and statistics \|urlhttps://mwc-cmm.org/en/membership-map-and-statistics \|access-dateAugust 12, 2024 \|websiteMennonite World Conference}}</ref> The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof.<ref>Donald B. Kraybill, Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites, JHU Press, US, 2010, p. xiv</ref><ref name"RossLamport2022">{{cite book \|last1 Ross \|first1Melanie C. \|last2Lamport \|first2Mark A. \| series Worship Foundations \|titleHistorical Foundations of Worship: Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Perspectives \|date 2022 \|publisherBaker Academic \|isbn 978-1-4934-3498-5 \|quoteLater groups such as the Brethren in Christ (Be in Christ [Canada]), German Baptist Brethren, the Bruderhof Communities, and the Apostolic Christian Church are also included in the umbrella term "Anabaptist."}}</ref> Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets: (1) Old Order Anabaptists (2) Conservative Anabaptists and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the Old Order German Baptist Brethren (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the Dunkard Brethren (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress but use modern conveniences), and the Church of the Brethren (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population).<ref name"Bronner2015">{{cite book \|last1Bronner \|first1Simon J. \|titleEncyclopedia of American Folklife \|date2015 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn 978-1-317-47194-3 \|quote=Only a tiny minority within the Church of the Brethren continues some vestigates of plain dress, such as the prayer covering for women. The Old German Baptist Brethren and the Dunkard Brethren, however, have maintained standards of traditional plain dress.}}</ref> Although many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while Mennonites come from diverse backgrounds, with only a minority being classed as ethnic Mennonites. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness.{{citation needed\|date=February 2021}} The Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.plough.com/en/about-us \|titleAbout Us\|websitePlough\|access-dateMay 23, 2017}}</ref> establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II they moved to the United States.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.scribd.com/document/354366939/Church-Community-is-a-Gift-of-the-Holy-Spirit-The-Spirituality-of-the-Bruderhof\|title Church Community is a Gift of the Holy Spirit – The Spirituality of the Bruderhof \|websiteScribd \|access-dateSeptember 27, 2017}}</ref> Music Center in Goshen, Indiana, Mennonite Church USA.]] Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist because of their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism.<ref name"KurianLamport2016">{{cite book \|last1 Kurian \|first1George Thomas \|last2Lamport \|first2Mark A. \|titleEncyclopedia of Christianity in the United States \|date2016 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|isbn978-1-4422-4432-0 \|page322}}</ref> Neo-Anabaptists Neo-Anabaptism is a late 20th and early 21st century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty.<ref name"DeYoung">{{cite web\|last1DeYoung\|first1Kevin\|titleThe Neo-Anabaptists \|urlhttps://blogs.thegospelcoalition.org/kevindeyoung/2009/06/03/neo-anabaptists/\|website The Gospel Coalition\|dateJune 3, 2009 \|access-date March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hiebert \|first1Jared \|last2Hiebert \|first2Terry G. \|titleNew Calvinists and Neo-Anabaptists: A Tale of Two Tribes \|journalDirection: A Mennonite Brethren Forum \|dateFall 2013 \|volume42 \|issue2 \|pages178–194 \|urlhttp://www.directionjournal.org/42/2/new-calvinists-and-neo-anabaptists-tale.html \|access-date March 25, 2017}}</ref> The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Tooley \|first1Mark \|titleMennonite Takeover? \|url https://spectator.org/38818_mennonite-takeover/ \|websiteThe American Spectator \|access-date March 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170326141352/https://spectator.org/38818_mennonite-takeover/ \|archive-dateMarch 26, 2017 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Relationship with Baptists Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have advocated the view that General Baptists were influenced by Anabaptism. The similarities between these groups include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, similar perspectives on free will, predestination and original sin along with congregationalism.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKartman \|firstAlina \|date2022-04-04 \|titleThe Baptist Church and its contributions to religion \|urlhttps://st.network/religion/the-baptist-church.html \|access-date2023-01-09 \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleDo Baptists spring from Anabaptist seed? {{!}} Baptist Press \|urlhttps://www.baptistpress.com/resource-library/news/do-baptists-spring-from-anabaptist-seed/ \|access-date2023-01-09 \|websitewww.baptistpress.com \|dateJuly 3, 2017 \|languageen-US}}</ref> It is almost certain that the earliest Baptist church led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys interacted with the Mennonites and that Smyth borrowed ideas from Anabaptism. However, it has been debated if influences from Anabaptism ever found their way to the English General Baptists. Those who held closer views with the Anabaptists switched to the Mennonite movement along with Smyth, while those who identified as Baptists did so under Helwys who disagreed with Smyth and the Mennonites on multiple issues, denying Melchiorite Christology and Anabaptist views of the civil magistrate. These English General Baptists may have had secondary influences from Anabaptism, although it is a matter of debate among historians.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOrigins of the Particular Baptists \|urlhttps://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/origins-of-the-particular-baptists/ \|access-date2023-11-26 \|websiteThe Gospel Coalition \|languageen-US \|first1Gordon L. \|last1Belyea\| quote}}</ref> Despite the existing similarities between these two groups, the relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was strained in 1624 when five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists.<ref>{{citation\|lastMelton\|firstJG\|contributionBaptists\|titleEncyclopedia of American Religions\|year1994}}</ref> The theory that Anabaptism influenced Baptist theology has been believed by Philip Schaff,<ref>{{Cite web \|authorPhilip Schaff \|titleCreeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical notes\|volumeVolume I. The History of Creeds\|urlhttps://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.x.vi.html \|access-date2023-11-26 \|websitewww.ccel.org – Christian Classics Ethereal Library \|quoteThe English and American Baptists have inherited some of the principles without the eccentricities and excesses of the Continental Anabaptists and Mennonites.}}</ref> A.C. Underwood, and William R. Estep. Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback.<ref name="Gourley">Gourley, Bruce. "A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now." The Baptist Observer.</ref> Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Confession of Faith 1644, "Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/bc1644.htm \|titleLondon Baptist Confession of 1644 \|quoteOf those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists \|work Spurgeon.org \|url-statusdead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100617103253/http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/bc1644.htm \|archive-dateJune 17, 2010 }}</ref> Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists".<ref>{{citation \|lastTraffanstedt \|firstChris \|titleA Primer on Baptist History: The True Baptist Trail \|urlhttp://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/history/trail.htm \|year1994 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130911033859/http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/history/trail.htm \|url-statusdead \|contributionBaptists \|archive-dateSeptember 11, 2013}}</ref> There have been some discussions whether Anabaptist theology influenced Particular Baptists in a limited sense. This theory proposes that there existed a native Anabaptist population in England that may have given rise to ideas held by Particular Baptist theologians. There exists some evidence of there being native English Anabaptists during this time, however many historians have rejected the idea that Anabaptist influences gave rise to the Particular Baptists, and there appears to be no concrete evidence of any Anabaptist influence in Particular Baptists.<ref name"Origins of the Particular Baptists">{{Cite web \|titleOrigins of the Particular Baptists \|urlhttps://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/origins-of-the-particular-baptists/ \|access-date2023-11-26 \|websiteThe Gospel Coalition \|languageen-US}}</ref> According to Barrington Raymond White, the relationship between the English Separatists and the Radical Reformers was that of people coming to similar conclusions from their reading of the Bible based on the context of a similar situation.<ref name"Origins of the Particular Baptists" /><ref>{{Cite book \|lastWhite \|firstBarrington Raymond \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaXzZAAAAMAAJ \|titleThe English Separatist Tradition: from the Marian Martyrs to the Pilgrim Fathers \|date1971 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-826709-6 \|languageen}}</ref> In practice, Anabaptists have maintained a more literal obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, while Baptists generally do not require nonresistance, non-swearing of oaths, and no remarriage if the first legitimate spouse is living. Traditional Anabaptists also require a head covering for women, modest apparel, practical separation from the world, and plain dress, which most Baptists no longer require. However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-07-13 \|titleWhat's the Difference Between Anabaptists and Baptists? \|urlhttps://historyofchristianitypodcast.com/2019/07/13/whats-the-difference-between-anabaptists-and-baptists/ \|access-date2023-01-09 \|websiteHistory of Christianity \|languageen-US}}</ref> Influence on society Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society. Voluntary church membership and believer's baptism Freedom of religion&nbsp;– liberty of conscience Separation or nonconformity to the world Nonresistance, interpreted as pacifism by modernized groups Priesthood of all believers The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion.{{Refn \| group"lower-alpha" \| The origins of religious freedom in the United States are traced back to the Anabaptists.<ref>{{Citation \| last Verduin \| first Leonard \| title That First Amendment and The Remnant \| publisher The Christian Hymnary \| year 1998 \| isbn 1-890050-17-2}}</ref>}} When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin<ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitle Anarchism \|volume1 \|last Kropotkin \|firstPeter Alexeivitch \| pages 914–919}}</ref> traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. According to Estep: {{Blockquote\|Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy.{{Sfn \| Estep \| 1963 \|p = 232}}}} Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22; James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella Candide; Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera {{lang\|fr\|Le prophète}} (1849); and the central character in the novel Q, by the collective known as "Luther Blissett". See also {{div col}} Adrianists * Amish Mennonite * Christian anarchism * Christian communism * Christian socialism * Clancularii * Conservative Mennonites * Donatists (first historical occurrence of re-baptism) * Funkite * List of Anabaptist churches * Martyrs Mirror * Melchior Rink, a central-German Anabaptist leader during the 16th century * Peace churches * Plain people * Restorationism * Shtundists * Tabor College (Kansas) {{div col end}} References Explanatory notes {{Reflist \| group"lower-alpha" }} Citations {{Reflist\|refs <ref nameOED>{{citation\|title Anabaptist, n.\|workOxford English Dictionary\|publisherOxford University Press\|dateDecember 2012 \|urlhttp://www.oed.com/view/Entry/6865\|access-dateJanuary 21, 2013}}</ref>}} General and cited sources {{refbegin\|40em\|indentyes}} * Carroll, J. M. (1931). The Trail of Blood: Following the Christians Down Through the Ages, or, the History of Baptist Churches from the Time of Christ, Their Founder, to the Present Day. Lexington, KY: Ashland Avenue Baptist Church. 56 p. + fold. chart. Without ISBN * {{Citation \|lastDyck \|first Cornelius J \|titleAn Introduction to Mennonite History \|url https://books.google.com/books?idX78FAAAACAAJ \|year1967 \|placeScottdale, PA \|publisherHerald Press \|isbn=0-8361-1955-X}}. * {{Citation \|lastEstep \|first William R \|titleThe Anabaptist Story \|url https://books.google.com/books?idBF8D09JSfzwC \|year1963 \|placeGrand Rapids, MI \|publisher William B Eerdmans \|isbn= 0-8028-1594-4}}. * {{cite book\|lastHoover\|first Peter \|titleThe Mystery of the Mark: Anabaptist Mission Work Under the Fire of God\|url https://books.google.com/books?idS_EAaAEACAAJ\|year2008\|publisherElmendorf Books\|locationMountain Lake, MN \|isbn= 978-1-5172-5504-6}} * {{Citation \|lastKlaassen \|first Walter \|titleAnabaptism: Neither Catholic Nor Protestant \|url https://books.google.com/books?idSCnXAQAACAAJ \|year1973 \|placeWaterloo, ON \|publisher Conrad Press}}. * {{cite journal\|lastKlager\|first Andrew P. \|titleBalthasar Hubmaier's Use of the Church Fathers: Availability, Access and Interaction \|journalMennonite Quarterly Review\|volume84\|issue 1 \|date2010\|pages 5–65\|id={{gale\|A220412887}} }} * {{cite thesis\|lastKlager\|first Andrew P.\|titleTruth is immortal: Balthasar Hubmaier (c. 1480–1528) and the Church Fathers\|typePhD \|publisherUniversity of Glasgow\|date 2011\|url= http://theses.gla.ac.uk/id/eprint/2485}} * Knox, Ronald. Enthusiasm: a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1950. viii, 622 p. * {{Citation \|lastMarpeck \|first Pilgram \|titleCovenant and Community: The Life, Writings, and Hermeneutics \|url https://books.google.com/books?id1HWpGQAACAAJ \|year1978 \|editor-lastKlassen \|editor-first William \|placeScottdale, PA \|publisherHerald \|editor2-lastKlassen \|editor2-firstWalter}}. * {{cite book\|lastPackull\|first Werner O. \|titleMysticism and the Early South German-Austrian Anabaptist Movement, 1525–1531 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idrIrZAAAAMAAJ\|year1977\|publisherHerald Press\|isbn 978-0-8361-1130-9}} * {{Citation \|lastPackull \|first Werner O \|titleHutterite Beginnings: Communitarian Experiments During the Reformation \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhHW6nS0-DQQC \|year1995 \|placeBaltimore, MD \|publisherThe Johns Hopkins University Press \|isbn= 0-8018-6256-6}}. * {{Citation \|lastStayer \|first James M \|titleThe German Peasants' War and Anabaptist Community of Goods \|url https://books.google.com/books?idMeFSqubf6VAC \|year1994 \|orig-year1991 \|placeMontréal \|publisherMcGill-Queen's Press, MQUP \|isbn0-7735-0842-2 \|author-link= James M. Stayer}}. * {{Citation \|lastvan Braght \|firstThieleman J \|titleMartyrs Mirror \|url https://books.google.com/books?idSCnXAQAACAAJ \|year1950 \|orig-year1938 \|placeScottdale, PA \|publisherHerald Press \|isbn 978-0-8361-1390-7}}. * {{Citation \|lastWilliams \|first George Hunston \|titleThe Radical Reformation \|url https://books.google.com/books?id5Za7AAAACAAJ \|year2000 \|orig-year1962 \|edition3rd \|publisherTruman State University Press \|isbn 0-664-20372-8}}. {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|40em\|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book \|lastArthur \|first Anthony \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvFThGwAACAAJ \|titleThe Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster \|year1999 \|isbn= 0-312-20515-5}}) * {{Cite web \|lastBamford \|first Mary E. \|author-linkMary Ellen Bamford \|year1894 \|editor-lastHarrison \|editor-firstLarry \|titleIn Editha's Days. A Tale of Religious Liberty \|url https://books.google.com/books?idv5pUGwAACAAJ \|lccn06006296 \| publisher =The Bible Makes Us Baptists}} * {{Cite book \|lastBaylor \|first Michael G. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxAKM85a4EekC \|titleRevelation & Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Muntzer \|year1993 \|publisherLehigh University Press \|isbn 0-934223-16-5}} * {{Cite book \|lastBender \|first Harold S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1j-SHgAACAAJ \|titleThe Anabaptist Vision \|year1944 \|publisherMennoMedia \|isbn 0-8361-1305-5}}) * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4OI5AgAACAAJ \|titleMennonite Encyclopedia \|isbn0-8361-1018-8 \|editor-lastBender \|editor-first Harold S. \|editor-linkHarold S. Bender \|editor2-lastDyck \|editor2-firstCornelius J. \|editor3-lastMartin \|editor3-firstDennis D. \|editor4-lastSmith \|editor4-first=Henry C.}} * {{Cite book \|lastCohn \|first Norman \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/pursuitofmillenn00cohnrich \|title The Pursuit of the Millennium \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1970 \|isbn0-19-500456-6 \|url-accessregistration}} * {{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAnabaptists \|volume 1 \|lastConybeare \|first Frederick Cornwallis \|author-linkFrederick Cornwallis Conybeare \| pages 903–905}} * Dipple, Geoffrey, [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/confessional-migration/geoffrey-dipple-confessional-migration-anabaptists-mennonites-hutterites-baptists-etc Confessional Migration: Anabaptists – Mennonites, Hutterites, Baptists etc.], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/ Institute of European History], 2015, retrieved: March 11, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/112555682X/34 pdf]). * {{Cite encyclopedia \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Christianity \|publisherWm. B. Eerdmans \|locationGrand Rapids, MI \|url https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/45 \|lastFast \|firstHeinhold \|date1999 \|editor-lastErwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley \|volume1 \|pages [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/45 45–48] \|isbn0802824137 \|articleAnabaptists}} * {{Cite book \|lastHam \|firstPaul \|titleNew Jerusalem: The short life and terrible death of Christendom's most defiant sect \|publisherRandom House Australia \|year2018 \|isbn 978-0-14378133-2 \|locationSydney \|author-linkPaul Ham}} * {{Citation \|lastHillerbrand \|firstHans \|titleAnabaptist Bibliography 1520–1630 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idcYFAAQAACAAJ \|year1991 \|isbn= 0-910345-03-1}}. * {{Cite web \|lastHoover \|first Peter \|author-linkPeter Hoover \|titleThe Secret of the Strength \|urlhttp://www.elcristianismoprimitivo.com/The%20Secret%20of%20the%20Strength.pdf \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190412074556/http://www.elcristianismoprimitivo.com/The%20Secret%20of%20the%20Strength.pdf \|archive-dateApril 12, 2019 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2017}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=bBZYtwAACAAJ Alt URL] * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZnoYAAAAIAAJ \|titleThe Encyclopedia of American Religions \|year1978 \|isbn0-8103-6904-4 \|editor-last Melton \|editor-firstJ. Gordon \|editor-linkJ. Gordon Melton}} * {{Citation \|lastNewman \|first Albert H \|titleA History of Anti-Pedobaptism, From the Rise of Pedobaptism to AD 1609 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idDuVJAAAAMAAJ \|year1896 \|isbn= 1-57978-536-0}}. * {{Citation \|lastPearse \|first Meic \|titleThe Great Restoration: The Religious Radicals of the 16th and 17th Centuries \|url https://books.google.com/books?idFSoQAQAAIAAJ \|year1998 \|publisherPaternoster \|isbn 978-0-85364800-0}}. * {{Cite book \|lastStayer \|first James M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRec8AAAAIAAJ \|titleAnabaptists and the Sword \|year1976 \|publisherCoronado Press \|isbn 0-87291-081-4 \|author-link=James M. Stayer}} * {{Cite book \|lastSuitner \|first Riccarda \|urlhttps://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com/themen-entdecken/theologie-und-religion/kirchengeschichte/58400/venice-and-the-radical-reformation \|title Venice and the Radical Reformation. Italian Anabaptism and Antitrinitarianism in European Context \|year2024 \|publisher Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht \|isbn978-3-525-50019-4 \|author-linkRiccarda Suitner}} * {{Cite book \|lastvan Braght \|first Thieleman J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_g_cJgAACAAJ \|titleThe Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror \|isbn 0-8361-1390-X \|author-link=Thieleman J. van Braght}} * {{Cite book \|lastVerduin \|first Leonard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id26ZOAAAACAAJ \|titleThe Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church-State Relationships \|isbn0-8028-1615-0}} * {{Cite book \|lastVerduin \|first Leonard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLUM-FCtmCZAC \|titleThe Reformers and their Stepchildren \|date 2001 \|publisherThe Baptist Standard Bearer \|isbn0-8010-9284-1}} {{refend}} External links {{sister project links\|dQ165580\|commonscategory:Anabaptism\|qno\|nno\|vno\|voyno\|mno\|mwno\|speciesno\|sPortal:Anabaptists\|b=no}} {{Library resources box\|onlinebooksyes\|lccnBX4929-4946}} * {{cite web\| titleAnabaptism \| publisherGlobal Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online \| urlhttp://gameo.org/index.php?titleAnabaptism \| access-date=September 11, 2013}} * [https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php?/ Global Anabaptist Wiki] * [https://www.pilgrimministry.org/congregations/map Pilgrim Ministry: Anabaptist church directory] * [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLE47816EA3F83120A Anabaptist History Complete Playlist (Parts 1–20)] history of the movement from the Bible to present. (YouTube videos, 27 hours) * {{cite web\| titleThe Story of the Church: The Protestant Reformation: The Anabaptists and Other Radical Reformers \| workRitchie Family Page \| urlhttp://www.ritchies.net/p4wk4.htm \| access-dateDecember 15, 2005\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051217055801/http://www.ritchies.net/p4wk4.htm\| archive-date December 17, 2005 \| url-status= live}} * {{cite web\| titleThe Anabaptist Story \| workThe Reformed Reader \| urlhttp://www.reformedreader.org/history/anabaptiststory.htm \| access-dateDecember 15, 2005\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051215011644/http://www.reformedreader.org/history/anabaptiststory.htm\| archive-date December 15, 2005 \| url-status= live}} * [http://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1903/anabaptists/index.htm The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists], by E. Belfort Bax 1903 {{Anabaptist}} {{Beliefs condemned by the Catholic Church}} {{Christianity footer}} {{Authority control}} Category:Christian terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptism	2025-04-05T18:26:12.692717
2935	Ans	Ans or ANS or variation, may refer to: Places Ans, Belgium, a municipality in Belgium Ans, Denmark, a village in Denmark Angus, Scotland, UK; a council area by its Chapman code Ainsdale railway station, England, UK (by station code ANS) Andahuaylas Airport, Peru (by IATA airport code ANS) People Ans (given name), a Dutch feminine given name Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress Organizations Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, a Dutch satellite American Name Society American Nuclear Society American Numismatic Society, formerly the American Numismatic and Archaeological Society ANS Group of Companies, a news organization in Azerbaijan , a Cambodian resistance group; see Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea Audubon Naturalist Society, an American environmental organization Chemistry and biology Adrenergic nervous system, adrenaline and noradrenaline neurotransmitters distribution in human body 8-Anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid, a fluorescent chemical compound used as a molecular probe Anthocyanidin synthase, an enzyme in the leucocyanidin biosynthesis pathway Approximate number system, a hypothesized physiological basis for the sense of number Autonomic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system in the body L-Aspartate-nitro-succinate pathway for production of nitrite Technology , an unofficial file extension for ANSI art Advanced Network and Services, a non-profit network service provider in the 1990s American National Standards, defined by the American National Standards Institute ans, a variable in calculators referring to the most recent answer ANS carriage control characters (or ASA control characters), for computer line printers Asymmetric numeral systems, coding in data compression Authoritative name server, a DNS server Artificial neural system, or Artificial neural network Air Navigation Services, as delivered by an Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) Apple Network Server, a late 1990's AIX based server machine from Apple Inc. Music ANS (album), a box set from the British band Coil ANS synthesizer, a Russian photoelectric musical instrument Other uses Al Ansar FC, a Lebanese association football club Amman National School, in Amman, Jordan Ansvarlig selskap, a Norwegian personal responsibility company model Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, a Dutch student magazine Akademia Nauk Stosowanych, a vocational university in Nowy Targ, Poland See also AN (disambiguation) Answer (disambiguation), for which "Ans." may be an abbreviation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ans	2025-04-05T18:26:12.700327
2936	Southeast Alaska	{{Short description\|Region of Alaska}} {{use mdy dates\|date=May 2022}} {{Coord\|57\|34\|48\|N\|135\|29\|14\|W\|scale:8000000_region:US-AK_type:landmark_source:dewiki\|display=title}} photograph of Southeast Alaska, February 2002. Border lines with Yukon and British Columbia have been artificially added.]] Southeast Alaska, often abbreviated to southeast or southeastern,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTabbert \|firstRussell \|urlhttps://openlibrary.org/works/OL4454344W/Dictionary_of_Alaskan_English?editionkey%3A/books/OL1863986M \|titleDictionary of Alaska English \|publisherThe Denali Press \|year1991 \|isbn9780938737230 \|locationJuneau, Alaska \|page41 \|language=En}}</ref> and sometimes called the Alaska(n) panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east and north by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia (and a small part of Yukon). The majority of southeast Alaska is situated in Tlingit Aaní, much of which is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy climate. The largest cities in the region are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This region is also home to Hyder, the easternmost town in Alaska. Geography Southeast Alaska has a land area of {{convert\|35138\|sqmi\|sqkm}},<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/map/yakutatcityandboroughalaska,US/LND110210\|titleLand Area\|websiteUnited States Census Bureau\|access-date2020-07-02}}</ref> comprising much of the Alexander Archipelago. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. The archipelago is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Native peoples, as well as gold-rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. Demographics , the most populous borough in southeast Alaska.]] , the second most populous borough in southeast Alaska.]] Southeast Alaska includes seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of southeast Alaska was 71,616 inhabitants, representing approximately 10% of the state's total population. About 45% of residents in the southeast Alaska region were concentrated in the city of Juneau, the state capital. As of 2018, the number of settlements in southeast Alaska that have a population of at least 1,000 people has grown to nine. Boroughs * Haines Borough * Hoonah-Angoon Census Area * Juneau Borough * Ketchikan Gateway Borough * Petersburg Borough * Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area * Sitka Borough * Skagway Borough * Wrangell Borough * Yakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; {{convert\|12,506.53\|km2\|sqmi\|abbron}}, or about 63.12 percent of the borough)Major cities and townsPopulations are taken from the 2020 census.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov\|titleU.S. Census website\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau\|websiteUnited States Census Bureau\|languageen\|access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref> * Juneau - 32,255 inhabitants * Sitka - 8,458 inhabitants * Ketchikan - 8,192 inhabitants * Petersburg - 3,043 inhabitants * Wrangell - 2,127 inhabitants * Haines - 1,657 inhabitants * Metlakatla - 1,454 inhabitants * Skagway - 1,240 inhabitants * Craig - 1,036 inhabitants National protected areas {{Unsourced\|section\|date=January 2025}}, near Ketchikan]] Southeast Alaska includes the Tongass National Forest (which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, and Sitka National Historical Park. Glacier Bay is the sixth largest national park in the United States. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region. * Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve * Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park * Sitka National Historical Park * Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the most southeastern section only) * Admiralty Island National Monument * Misty Fjords National Monument Climate {{Unsourced\|section\|date=January 2025}} in southeast Alaska]] The climate of southeast Alaska is dominated by a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) in the south, an oceanic, marine sub-polar climate (Köppen Cfc) in the central region around Juneau, and a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) to the far northwest and the interior highlands of the archipelago. Southeast Alaska is also the only region in Alaska where the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months, except for in the southern parts of the Aleutian islands such as Unalaska. Ecology Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock. Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf packs, Sitka black-tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets. The [https://indd.adobe.com/view/bb243dff-5852-44c5-bdf5-4b1be96bdc53 Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska], published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region's landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources. Culture {{Unsourced\|section\|date=January 2025}} at Sitka National Historical Park]] This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. Industry Major industries in southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry). Logging Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as "desperate" in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.alaskajournal.com/business-and-finance/2011-11-03/ak-forest-association-se-timber-situation-desperate\|titleAK Forest Association: SE timber situation 'desperate'\|websiteThe Alaska Journal of Commerce\|date3 November 2011\|languageen-US\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160419053843/http://www.alaskajournal.com/business-and-finance/2011-11-03/ak-forest-association-se-timber-situation-desperate\|archive-date2016-04-19}}</ref> Its members include Alcan Forest Products (owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://grouptranspac.com/about/history/\|titleOur History - Trans-Pacific Energy Group\|websiteTrans-Pacific Energy Group\|languageen-US\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160317070844/http://grouptranspac.com/about/history/\|archive-date2016-03-17}}</ref>) and Viking Lumber, which is based in Craig, Alaska.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.timberassociation.com/listing/viking-lumber-company-inc/\|titleViking Lumber Company, Inc.\|websiteTPM\|languageen-US\|access-date2019-10-14}}</ref> Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.sitnews.us/0311News/030311/030311_forests.html\|titleSitNews: Murkowski Questions Forest Service Spending, Timber Sales;\|lastSitNews\|websitewww.sitnews.us\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161106151315/http://www.sitnews.us/0311News/030311/030311_forests.html\|archive-date2016-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://mobile.nytimes.com/2014/09/28/us/a-battle-to-keep-trees-or-an-industry-standing.html?_r0\|titleIn Alaska, a Battle to Keep Trees, or an Industry, Standing - NYTimes.com\|newspaperThe New York Times\|date27 September 2014\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161106151100/http://mobile.nytimes.com/2014/09/28/us/a-battle-to-keep-trees-or-an-industry-standing.html?_r0\|archive-date2016-11-06\|last1Wines\|first1Michael}}</ref> Mining Mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.conservationgateway.org/ConservationByGeography/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/alaska/seak/era/cfm/Documents/9.6_TimberIndustry.pdf\|titleThe Southeastern Alaska Timber Industry: Historical Overview and Current Status\|lastSisk\|firstJohn\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161106151630/http://www.conservationgateway.org/ConservationByGeography/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/alaska/seak/era/cfm/Documents/9.6_TimberIndustry.pdf\|archive-date=2016-11-06}}</ref> In the 2010s, mines increasingly began to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the dam breach at the Mount Polley mine focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.alaskapublic.org/2015/11/18/alaska-drafts-transboundary-agreement-with-b-c/\|titleAlaska drafts transboundary mine agreement with BC\|last1Schoenfeld\|first1Ed\|last2Juneau\|first2CoastAlaska-\|websiteAlaska Public Media\|date19 November 2015\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151119143417/http://www.alaskapublic.org/2015/11/18/alaska-drafts-transboundary-agreement-with-b-c/\|archive-date2015-11-19}}</ref> The proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company (Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/red-chris-mine-gets-green-light-from-b-c-government-1.3121297\|titleB.C. government approves permits for controversial Red Chris Mine\|websitewww.cbc.ca\|access-date2016-03-22\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160222192608/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/red-chris-mine-gets-green-light-from-b-c-government-1.3121297\|archive-date2016-02-22}}</ref> Healthcare {{Main\|Alaska#Healthcare_facilities}} Major hospitals include Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau and PeaceHealth Ketchikan Medical Center in Ketchikan. Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell;<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSouthEast Alaska Regional Health Consortium \|urlhttps://www.pmcak.org/uploads/3/1/1/0/31108911/searhc_slide_deck_3.24.22.pdf}}</ref> although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStremple \|firstClaire \|date2021-11-03 \|titleICYMI: Southeast Alaska's tribal health provider has expanded its service in Juneau \|urlhttp://www.ktoo.org/2021/11/03/searhc-expands-service-to-all-juneau-residents/ \|access-date2023-06-09 \|websiteKTOO \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastKCAW \|firstRobert Woolsey \|date2017-06-02 \|titleSEARHC takes on questions of ethnicity, access, and workplace values \|urlhttps://www.kcaw.org/2017/06/02/searhc-takes-questions-ethnicity-access-workplace-values/ \|access-date2023-06-09 \|websiteKCAW \|languageen-US}}</ref> Shipbuilding Due to the fishing and ferries in the region, ship building and maintenance are economically significant. Ketchikan hosts a shipbuilding yard owned by Vigor Industrial.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSentinel \|firstWrangell \|titleKetchikan shipyard operator sold to international private equity firm \|urlhttps://www.wrangellsentinel.com/story/2023/02/08/news/ketchikan-shipyard-operator-sold-to-international-private-equity-firm/11419.html \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websiteWrangell Sentinel \|languageen}}</ref> Tourism Tourists visit southeast Alaska primarily in the summer, and most visit via cruise ships, which run from April 15 to October 30.<ref>{{Cite web \|title2023 Cruise Season Underway in Seattle \|urlhttps://www.portseattle.org/news/2023-cruise-season-underway-seattle \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websitewww.portseattle.org}}</ref> In 2019, around 1.3 million people visited Alaska by cruise ship.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of the Alaska cruise industry {{!}} CLIA Alaska \|urlhttps://akcruise.org/economy/alaska-cruise-history/ \|access-date2023-06-12 \|website=akcruise.org}}</ref> The northbound Inside Passage cruise commonly starts from either Seattle or Vancouver, Canada and stops in various ports including Ketchikan, Juneau, and Skagway.<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleWhich Departure Port? \|urlhttps://www.alaska.org/advice/which-departure-port \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websiteALASKA.ORG \|languageen}}</ref> One-way trips will end in Whittier or Seward.<ref name=":0" /> An alternative Gulf of Alaska cruise starts in Whittier (Anchorage) and also passes through southeast Alaska's Inside Passage.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWhich Alaska Cruise Itinerary is Best? Find out now \|urlhttps://www.bellsalaska.com/which-alaska-cruise-itinerary-is-best/ \|access-date2023-06-12 \|website \|language=en-US}}</ref> The cruise ship industry became prominent in the 1960s after cruise ship entrepreneur Stanley B. McDonald repurposed a transport ship named Princess Pat, founding Princess Cruises to do leisure cruises which expanded into southeast Alaska by 1969.<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|titleSitNews: The 'King of Cruising' and the Princess Patricia By DAVE KIFFER \|urlhttp://www.sitnews.us/Kiffer/StanleyMacDonald/040120_stanley_macdonald.html \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websitewww.sitnews.us}}</ref> The TV series The Love Boat was set on a Princess cruise and featured episodes in Alaska;<ref name"cruisecritic.com">{{Cite web \|title50 Years of Cruising in Alaska: The Game Changers \|urlhttps://www.cruisecritic.com/articles/50-years-of-cruising-in-alaska-the-game-changers \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websitewww.cruisecritic.com \|languageen-us}}</ref> it also helped to popularize cruising generally which helped it grow rapidly between 1977 and 1987.<ref name":1" /> Prior to Princess cruises, Chuck West created a tourism agency in 1947 under the name Arctic Alaska Tours which was renamed Westours, which originally arranged trips for travelers on steamships.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHAL's roots date back to Westours {{!}} CLIA Alaska \|urlhttps://akcruise.org/2017/04/hals-roots-date-back-westours/ \|access-date2023-06-12 \|websiteakcruise.org}}</ref><ref name"cruisecritic.com"/> History {{Unsourced\|section\|dateJanuary 2025}} The border between Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia was the subject of the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States and the United Kingdom claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada.{{citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}Transportation ferry routes]] Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region. Air transportation Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of southeast, and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern southeast Alaska. Alaska's bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult to construct on the steep island slopes. Marine transportation Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships. See also {{Portal\|Alaska}} * Alexander Archipelago * Alexander Archipelago wolf * Climate change in Alaska * List of edible plants and mushrooms of Southeast Alaska References {{reflist}} External links * [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn123132311.pdf The regional economy of southeast Alaska: final report, 2007] / prepared for Alaska Conservation Foundation; prepared by Steve Colt, Darcy Dugan, Ginny Fay (EcoSystems). Hosted by [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program]. * [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn133148238.pdf Southeast Alaska energy export study: final report, 2006] / prepared for The Southeast Conference; by D. Hittle & Associates, Inc., in association with Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program]. * [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn123202025.pdf Swan - Tyee intertie economic analysis, 2006] / prepared for the Four Dam Pool Power Agency; prepared by Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630010352/http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/doc/reports/econ_15.pdf The Economic Impacts of the Alaska Marine Highway System, January 2016] / Prepared for Alaska Marine Highway System; Prepared by McDowell Group {{Alaska}} {{American panhandles}} Category:Geography of the Pacific Northwest Category:Pacific temperate rainforests Category:Regions of Alaska	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Alaska	2025-04-05T18:26:12.717414
2938	Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad	The Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia. Notable publications and controversies In 1989 ANS started to publish the monthly comic strip DirkJan, before it moved to SjoSji. The magazine has published controversial articles that attracted nation-wide media attention, such as on the benefits of marihuana consumption for studying. In 2010 the university refused to distribute the magazine among freshmen because it did not endorse the editorial. External links http://www.ans-online.nl/ (Flash required) References Category:1985 establishments in the Netherlands Category:Dutch-language magazines Category:Independent magazines Category:Magazines established in 1985 Category:Magazines published in the Netherlands Category:Radboud University Nijmegen Category:Student magazines Category:Student societies in the Netherlands	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemeen_Nijmeegs_Studentenblad	2025-04-05T18:26:12.722319
2939	Interior Alaska	thumb\|Interior Alaska. thumb\|Fall in Interior Alaska. Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy, and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154. __TOC__ Climate thumb\|Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September. Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects. Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over burned. thumb\|left\|Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range. On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter. The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached. Image:Fires in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009. Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska (natural).jpg\|The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009). Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Visible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009). Alaska Natives While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks. The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska: Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie). Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin. Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana. Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River. Notes References Category:Regions of Alaska Category:Tourism regions of Alaska Category:Alaskan Athabaskans	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Alaska	2025-04-05T18:26:12.736578
2940	And did those feet in ancient time	{{Short description\|1808 William Blake poem and popular hymn}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2017}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2017}} {{Infobox poem \| name = And did those feet in ancient time \| image = Milton preface.jpg \| image_size \| caption The preface to Milton, as it appeared in Blake's own illuminated version \| author = William Blake \| written = 1804 \| publication_date = 1808 \| country = United Kingdom \| language = English \| form = Epic poetry \| lines = 16 \|wikisource = And did those feet in ancient time }} "And did those feet in ancient time" is a poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic Milton: A Poem in Two Books, one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the title page is probably when the plates were begun, but the poem was printed {{circa\|1808}}.<ref name=cocel>Cox, Michael, editor, The Concise Oxford Chronology of English Literature, "1808", p 289, Oxford University Press, 2004, {{ISBN\|0-19-860634-6}}</ref> Today it is best known as the hymn "Jerusalem", with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. The famous orchestration was written by Sir Edward Elgar. It is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope and also by Blake, called Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion. It is often assumed that the poem was inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin merchant, travelled to what is now England and visited Glastonbury during his unknown years.<ref name"Icons1">Icons – a portrait of England. Icon: Jerusalem (hymn) [http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet Feature: And did those feet?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091212021243/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet \|date12 December 2009 }} Accessed 7 August 2008</ref> However, according to British folklore scholar A. W. Smith, "there was little reason to believe that an oral tradition concerning a visit made by Jesus to Britain existed before the early part of the twentieth century".<ref namewsmith>{{cite journal\| last Smith\| first A. W.\| title 'And Did Those Feet...?': The 'Legend' of Christ's Visit to Britain\| journal Folklore\| volume 100\| issue 1\| pages 63–83\| publisher Taylor and Francis\| date 1989\| doi 10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715752\| jstor 1260001}}</ref> Instead, the poem draws on an older story, repeated in Milton's History of Britain, that Joseph of Arimathea, alone, travelled to preach to the ancient Britons after the death of Jesus.<ref namewhittaker>{{cite news \|lastWhittaker \|firstJason \|titleAnti-empire, anti-fascist, pro-suffragist: the stunning secret life of Proms staple Jerusalem \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date5 September 2022 \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/sep/05/anti-empire-anti-fascist-pro-suffragette-last-night-of-the-proms-jerusalem-william-blake }}</ref> The poem's theme is linked to the Book of Revelation (3:12 and 21:2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a New Jerusalem. Churches in general, and the Church of England in particular, have long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace.{{efn\|The hymn 'Jerusalem the Golden with milk and honey blessed... I know not oh I know not what joys await me there....' uses Jerusalem for the same metaphor.}} In the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake asks whether a visit by Jesus briefly created heaven in England, in contrast to the "dark Satanic Mills" of the Industrial Revolution. Blake's poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christ's visit.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theoneshow/onepassions/2008/10/whats-your-anthem.html \|titleWhat's your anthem? \|workThe One Show \|publisherBBC \|date17 October 2008 \|access-date29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/voices/bring-no-spears-to-jerusalem-1347934.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121107084448/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/bring-no-spears-to-jerusalem-1347934.html \|archive-date2012-11-07 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive \|titleBring no spears to 'Jerusalem' \|date17 May 1996 \|websiteThe Independent }}</ref> The second verse is interpreted as an exhortation to create an ideal society in England, whether or not there was a divine visit.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://greatpoetryexplained.blogspot.com/2019/02/jerusalem-and-did-those-feet-by-william.html?m1\|access-date12 September 2020\|titleGreat Poetry Explained\|date25 February 2019}}</ref><ref name"Rowland">{{cite news \|lastRowland \|firstChristopher \|dateNovember 2007 \|urlhttps://www.opendemocracy.net/en/william_blake_a_visionary_for_our_time/ \|titleWilliam Blake: a visionary for our time \|workOpenDemocracy \|access-date19 April 2020 }}</ref>TextThe original text is found in the preface Blake wrote for inclusion with Milton, a Poem, following the lines beginning "The Stolen and Perverted Writings of Homer & Ovid: of Plato & Cicero, which all Men ought to contemn: ..."<ref name"blakearchive">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.blakearchive.org/copy/milton.b?descIdmilton.b.illbk.02\|firstWilliam\|lastBlake\|titleMilton a Poem, copy B object 2\|workThe William Blake Archive\|publisherEd. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi\|access-date8 June 2019}}</ref> '''Blake's poem'<!-- rendered literatim per WP:QUOTE; do not add apostrophes --> {{Blockquote\|<poem> And did those feet in ancient time, Walk upon Englands{{efn\|Blake wrote Englands here, and twice later, where standard English would normally use the spelling England's}} mountains green: And was the holy Lamb of God, On Englands pleasant pastures seen! And did the Countenance Divine, Shine forth upon our clouded hills? And was Jerusalem builded here, Among these{{efn\|Parry used those'' in his setting of the poem}} dark Satanic Mills? Bring me my Bow of burning gold: Bring me my Arrows of desire: Bring me my Spear: O clouds unfold: Bring me my Chariot of fire! I will not cease from Mental Fight, Nor shall my Sword sleep in my hand: Till we have built Jerusalem, In Englands green & pleasant Land. </poem>}} Beneath the poem Blake inscribed a quotation from the Bible:<ref name"Numbers">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchNumbers+11%3A29&versionKJV\|titleNumbers 11:29 \| workKing James Version \| publisher=biblegateway.com}}</ref> {{Blockquote\|<poem>"Would to God that all the Lords{{efn\|Again, Blake wrote the genitive without an apostrophe}} people were Prophets" Numbers XI. Ch 29.v<ref name"blakearchive"/></poem>}}"Dark Satanic Mills" , London]] The phrase "dark Satanic Mills", which entered the English language from this poem, is often interpreted as referring to the early Industrial Revolution and its destruction of nature and human relationships.<ref>Lienhard, John H. 1999 [http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1413.htm Poets in the Industrial Revolution.] The Engines of Our Ingenuity No. 1413: (Revised transcription)</ref> That view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills in Southwark, the first major factory in London. The rotary steam-powered flour mill, built by Matthew Boulton, assisted by James Watt, could produce 6,000 bushels of flour per week. The factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire. There were rumours of arson, but the most likely cause was a bearing that overheated due to poor maintenance.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe Albion Mills 1784–1791 \|firstJohn \|lastMosse \|date1967 \|journalTransactions of the Newcomen Society \|volume40 \|issue1 \|pages47–60 \|doi=10.1179/tns.1967.004}}</ref> London's independent millers celebrated, with placards reading, "Success to the mills of Albion but no Albion Mills."<ref name"ICONS1">ICONS – a portrait of England. Icon: Jerusalem (hymn) [http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet Feature: And did those feet?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091212021243/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/features/and-did-those-feet \|date=12 December 2009 }} Accessed 7 August 2008</ref> Opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the fire shows a devil squatting on the building.<ref>Brian Maidment, Reading Popular Prints, 1790–1870, Manchester University Press, 2001, p.40</ref> The mill was a short distance from Blake's home. Blake's phrase resonates with a broader theme in his works; what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually repressive ideology based on a quantified reality. Blake saw the cotton mills and collieries of the period as a mechanism for the enslavement of millions, but the concepts underpinning the works had a wider application:<ref name"PortKaz">Alfred Kazin: Introduction to a volume of Blake. 1946</ref><ref name"HallGen">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.21learn.org/archive/articles/hall_genius.php \|titleIn Defense of Genius \|lastHall \|firstErnest \|author-linkErnest Hall (businessman) \|date8 February 1996 \|workAnnual Lecture to the Arts Council of England \|publisher21st Century Learning Initiative \|access-date19 September 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081025003242/http://www.21learn.org/archive/articles/hall_genius.php \|archive-date25 October 2008 }}</ref> {{Blockquote\|And all the Arts of Life they changed into the Arts of Death in Albion./...{{efn\|Incipit of citation given in Hall, 1996: <poem>"And all the Arts of Life they changed into the Arts of Death in Albion. The hour-glass contemned because its simple workmanship Was like the workmanship of the Plowman and the water-wheel That raises water into cisterns, broken and burned with fire Because its workmanship was like the workmanship of the shepherd; And in their stead intricate wheels invented, wheel without wheel To perplex youth in their outgoings and to bind to labours in Albion."</poem>}}\|Jerusalem Chapter 3. William Blake}} , copy C, object 4)]] Another interpretation is that the phrase refers to the established Church of England, which, in contrast to Blake, preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system. Stonehenge and other megaliths are featured in Milton, suggesting they may relate to the oppressive power of priestcraft in general. Peter Porter observed that many scholars argue that the "[mills] are churches and not the factories of the Industrial Revolution everyone else takes them for".<ref>Peter Porter, The English Poets: from Chaucer to Edward Thomas, Secker and Warburg, 1974, p.198., quoted in Shivashankar Mishra, The Rise of William Blake, Mittal Publications, 1995, p.184.</ref> In 2007, the Bishop of Durham, N. T. Wright, explicitly recognised that element of English subculture when he acknowledged the view that "dark satanic mills" could refer to the "great churches".<ref nameDurhBish>N. T. Wright, Bishop of Durham (23 June 2007) "[http://www.ntwrightpage.com/sermons/Durham_Wisdom.htm Where Shall Wisdom be Found?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022005251/http://ntwrightpage.com/sermons/Durham_Wisdom.htm \|date22 October 2013 }}" Homily at the 175th anniversary of the founding of the University of Durham. ntwrightpage.com</ref> In similar vein, in 1967 the critic F. W. Bateson stated "the adoption by the Churches and women's organizations of this anti-clerical paean of free love is amusing evidence of the carelessness with which poetry is read".<ref>Quoted in {{cite book \|authorlinkYvor Winters \|lastWinters \|firstYvor \|titleForms of Discovery \|date1967 \|pages165–166 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/formsofdiscovery0000wint/page/164/mode/2up?viewtheater \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> An alternative theory is that Blake is referring to a mystical concept within his own mythology, related to the ancient history of England. Satan's "mills" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract: "the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell...To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of Shaddai / A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible".<ref>Blake, William, Milton: A Poem, plate 4.</ref> "Chariots of fire" The line from the poem "Bring me my Chariot of fire!" draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet Elijah is taken directly to heaven: "And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." The phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film Chariots of Fire, in which the hymn "Jerusalem" is sung during the final scenes. The plural phrase "chariots of fire" refers to 2 Kings 6:17. "Green and pleasant land" Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of Milton while living in a cottage, now Blake's Cottage, in the village of Felpham in Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake's "evident pleasure" in the Felpham countryside.<ref>{{cite book\| firstAmanda \| lastGilroy \| titleGreen and Pleasant Land: English Culture and the Romantic Countryside \| publisherPeeters Publishers \| year2004 \| page66}}</ref> However, local people say that records from Lavant, near Chichester, state that Blake wrote "And did those feet in ancient time" in an east-facing alcove of the Earl of March public house.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleThe history of the Earl of March public house\|urlhttps://theearlofmarch.com/about/\|date24 September 2019<!--from page source-->\|access-date28 May 2021\|archive-date15 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210515080329/https://theearlofmarch.com/about/\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleGreen and pleasant land\|firstMark\|lastCrosby\|urlhttps://www.goodwood.com/estate/estate-news/green-and-pleasant-land/\|date3 October 2019\|website=Goodwood}}</ref> The phrase "green and pleasant land" has become a common term for an identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub-title in numerous articles and books. Sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/eric-ravilious-green-and-pleasant-land-2025022.html "Eric Ravilious: Green and Pleasant Land," by Tom Lubbock, The Independent, 13 July 2010.]. Retrieved 7 January 2011</ref> In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle-class life.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/mar/06/britishidentity.features11 "This green and pleasant land," by Tim Adams, The Observer, 10 April 2005.]. Retrieved 7 January 2011</ref> Sometimes it is used ironically,<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/mar/06/britishidentity.features11 "Green and pleasant land?" by Jeremy Paxman, The Guardian, 6 March 2007.]. Retrieved 7 January 2011</ref> e.g. in the Dire Straits song "Iron Hand". Revolution Several of Blake's poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory. Even though the poem was written during the Napoleonic Wars, Blake was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution, and Napoleon claimed to be continuing this revolution.<ref>[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRblake.htm William Blake] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080705065137/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PRblake.htm \|date5 July 2008 }} Spartacus Educational (schoolnet.co) – Accessed 7 August 2008</ref> The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. In 1803 Blake was charged at Chichester with high treason for having "uttered seditious and treasonable expressions", but was acquitted. The trial was not a direct result of anything he had written, but comments he had made in conversation, including "Damn the King!".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/wblake.htm \|titleWilliam Blake \|websiteBooks and Writers \|firstPetri \|lastLiukkonen \|publisherKuusankoski Public Library \|locationFinland \|archive-urlhttp://arquivo.pt/wayback/20120126033604/http%3A//www%2Ekirjasto%2Esci%2Efi/wblake%2Ehtm \|archive-date26 January 2012 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from Numbers 11:29: <!-- rendered literatim per WP:QUOTE; do not add apostrophe -->"Would to God that all the Lords people were prophets." Christopher Rowland has argued that this includes <blockquote>everyone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an "honest persuasion" that with personal struggle, things could be improved. A human being observes, is indignant and speaks out: it's a basic political maxim which is necessary for any age. Blake wanted to stir people from their intellectual slumbers, and the daily grind of their toil, to see that they were captivated in the grip of a culture which kept them thinking in ways which served the interests of the powerful.<ref name="Rowland"/></blockquote> The words of the poem "stress the importance of people taking responsibility for change and building a better society <!-- rendered literatim per WP:QUOTE; do not add apostrophe -->'in Englands green and pleasant land.{{'"}}<ref name"Rowland"/>Popularisation {{See also\|William Blake in popular culture}} The poem, which was little known during the century which followed its writing,<ref>{{cite book\|url https://archive.org/details/jerusalemjerusal0000carr \|url-access registration \|page [https://archive.org/details/jerusalemjerusal0000carr/page/236 236]\|title Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World\|first James\|last Carroll\|publisher Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\|year 2011\|isbn 978-0-547-19561-2\|author-link James Carroll (novelist)}}</ref> was included in the patriotic anthology of verse The Spirit of Man, edited by the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Robert Bridges, and published in 1916, at a time when morale had begun to decline because of the high number of casualties in World War I and the perception that there was no end in sight.<ref>{{cite book\|title The Spirit of Man: An Anthology in English & French from the Philosophers & Poets\|date January 1916\|url https://archive.org/stream/spiritofmanantho00bridiala#page/n5/mode/2up\|chapter-url https://archive.org/stream/spiritofmanantho00bridiala#page/n335/mode/2up\|page 335\|publisher Longmans, Green & Co.\|access-date 10 September 2012\|editor-first Robert\|editor-last Bridges\|editor-link Robert Bridges\|chapter Index\|edition First}}</ref> Under these circumstances, Bridges, finding the poem an appropriate hymn text to "brace the spirit of the nation [to] accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary,"<ref>{{cite book\|url https://archive.org/details/jerusalemjerusal0000carr \|url-access registration \|page [https://archive.org/details/jerusalemjerusal0000carr/page/235 235]\|title Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World\|first James\|last Carroll\|publisher Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\|year 2011\|isbn 978-0-547-19561-2\|author-link James Carroll (novelist)}}</ref> asked Sir Hubert Parry to put it to music for a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's Queen's Hall. Bridges asked Parry to supply "suitable, simple music to Blake's stanzas – music that an audience could take up and join in", and added that, if Parry could not do it himself, he might delegate the task to George Butterworth.<ref>C. L.Graves, Hubert Parry, Macmillan 1926, p. 92</ref> The poem's idealistic theme or subtext accounts for its popularity across much of the political spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election; Clement Attlee said they would build "a new Jerusalem".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/tr_show01.html \|titleLink to PBS script quoting Attlee in 1945 – Accessed 7 August 2008 \|publisherPbs.org \|date24 October 1929 \|access-date29 April 2011\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110516015358/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/tr_show01.html\| archive-date16 May 2011 \| url-status live}}</ref> It has been sung at conferences of the Conservative Party, at the Glee Club of the British Liberal Assembly, the Labour Party and by the Liberal Democrats.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danhodges/100152734/what-does-it-really-mean-to-be-english-nothing-at-all-and-thats-how-it-should-be/ \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120426214426/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danhodges/100152734/what-does-it-really-mean-to-be-english-nothing-at-all-and-thats-how-it-should-be/ \| url-statusdead \| archive-date26 April 2012 \| workThe Daily Telegraph \| titleWhat does it really mean to be English? Nothing at all – and that's how it should be \| date24 April 2012}}</ref>Setting to musicBy Hubert Parry {{Infobox musical composition \| name = "Jerusalem" \| type = Anthem \| composer = Hubert Parry \| image = File:Hubert Parry.jpg \| caption = The composer, c. 1916 \| composed {{Start date\|1916\|03\|10\|dfy}} \| premiere_date {{Start date\|1916\|03\|28\|dfy}} \| premiere_location = Queen's Hall, Langham Place, London \| premiere_conductor = Hubert Parry \| text = "And did those feet in ancient time" by William Blake (1804) \| duration = 2:45 \| language = English \| key = D major \| scoring = {{Hlist\|Organ (or orchestra)\|Chorus}} \| misc = {{Audio sample \| type = song \| file = HWW And Did Those Feet.ogg \| description = Parry's arrangement rendered electronically }}}} In adapting Blake's poem as a unison song, Parry deployed a two-stanza format, each taking up eight lines of Blake's original poem. He added a four-bar musical introduction to each verse and a coda, echoing melodic motifs of the song. The word "those" was substituted for "these" before "dark satanic mills". Parry was initially reluctant to supply music for the campaign meeting, as he had doubts about the ultra-patriotism of Fight for Right; but knowing that his former student Walford Davies was to conduct the performance, and not wanting to disappoint either Robert Bridges or Davies, he agreed, writing it on 10 March 1916, and handing the manuscript to Davies with the comment, "Here's a tune for you, old chap. Do what you like with it."<ref>Benoliel, Bernard, Parry Before Jerusalem, Ashgate, Aldershot, 1997</ref> Davies later recalled, {{blockquote\|We looked at [the manuscript] together in his room at the Royal College of Music, and I recall vividly his unwonted happiness over it&nbsp;... He ceased to speak, and put his finger on the note D in the second stanza where the words 'O clouds unfold' break his rhythm. I do not think any word passed about it, yet he made it perfectly clear that this was the one note and one moment of the song which he treasured&nbsp;...<ref name="dibble">Dibble, Jeremy, C. Hubert H. Parry: His life and music, Oxford University Press, 1992</ref>}} Davies arranged for the vocal score to be published by Curwen in time for the concert at the Queen's Hall on 28 March and began rehearsing it.<ref name="Wilt">Christopher Wiltshire (Former archivist, British Federation of Festivals for Music, Speech and Dance), [https://www.theguardian.com/letters/story/0,3604,408355,00.html Guardian newspaper 8 December 2000 Letters: Tune into Jerusalem's fighting history] The Guardian 8 December 2000.</ref> It was a success and was taken up generally. But Parry began to have misgivings again about Fight for Right, and in May 1917 wrote to the organisation's founder Sir Francis Younghusband withdrawing his support entirely. There was even concern that the composer might withdraw the song from all public use, but the situation was saved by Millicent Fawcett of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The song had been taken up by the Suffragists in 1917 and Fawcett asked Parry if it might be used at a Suffrage Demonstration Concert on 13 March 1918. Parry was delighted and orchestrated the piece for the concert (it had originally been for voices and organ). After the concert, Fawcett asked the composer if it might become the Women Voters' Hymn. Parry wrote back, "I wish indeed it might become the Women Voters' hymn, as you suggest. People seem to enjoy singing it. And having the vote ought to diffuse a good deal of joy too. So they would combine happily".<ref name="dibble"/> Accordingly, he assigned the copyright to the NUWSS. When that organisation was wound up in 1928, Parry's executors reassigned the copyright to the Women's Institutes, where it remained until it entered the public domain in 1968.<ref name="dibble"/> The song was first called "And Did Those Feet in Ancient Time" and the early scores have this title. The change to "Jerusalem" seems to have been made about the time of the 1918 Suffrage Demonstration Concert, perhaps when the orchestral score was published (Parry's manuscript of the orchestral score has the old title crossed out and "Jerusalem" inserted in a different hand).<ref>The manuscripts of the song with organ and with orchestra, and of Elgar's orchestration, are in the library of the Royal College of Music, London</ref> However, Parry always referred to it by its first title. He had originally intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice (this is marked in the score), but this is rare in contemporary performances. Sir Edward Elgar re-scored the work for very large orchestra in 1922 for use at the Leeds Festival.<ref name"ICONS2">ICONS – a portrait of England. Icon: Jerusalem (hymn) [http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/biography/sir-hubert-parry Sir Hubert Parry] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110809003129/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/jerusalem/biography/sir-hubert-parry \|date9 August 2011 }}, "Jerusalem" and Elgar's orchestration.</ref> Elgar's orchestration has overshadowed Parry's own, primarily because it is the version usually used now for the Last Night of the Proms (though Sir Malcolm Sargent, who introduced it to that event in the 1950s, always used Parry's version).By WallenIn 2020 a new musical arrangement of the poem by Errollyn Wallen, a British composer born in Belize, was sung by South African soprano Golda Schultz at the Last Night of the Proms. Parry's version was traditionally sung at the Last Night, with Elgar's orchestration; the new version, with different rhythms, dissonance, and reference to the blues, caused much controversy.<ref namewhittaker/> Use as a hymn Although Parry composed the music as a unison song, many churches have adopted "Jerusalem" as a four-part hymn; a number of English entities, including the BBC, the Crown, cathedrals, churches, and chapels regularly use it as an office or recessional hymn on Saint George's Day.<ref>On its being played at King George V opening the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley, "British Table Talk", Christian Century (22 May 1924): 663; and Rubert Speaight, "England and St. George: A programme for St. George's Day [3 May], 1943", London Calling 169 (May 1943), iv.</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleAnd did those feet in ancient time \|urlhttps://solarspell-dls.sfis.asu.edu/mea/wikipedia/wp/a/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time.htm \|access-date2025-03-02 \|website=solarspell-dls.sfis.asu.edu}}</ref> However, some clergy in the Church of England, according to the BBC TV programme Jerusalem: An Anthem for England, have said that the song is not technically a hymn as it is not a prayer to God;<ref>{{cite video \|titleJerusalem: An Anthem for England \|date8 July 2007 \|publisherBBC Four \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0074rmy}}</ref> consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England.<ref>{{Cite news \|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584578/Cathedral-bans-popular-hymn-Jerusalem.html \|title=Cathedral bans popular hymn Jerusalem \|date=10 April 2008 \|work=The Daily Telegraph \|location=London \|access-date=11 April 2008 \|first=Sophie \|last=Borland \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080411001808/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml%2Fnews%2F2008%2F04%2F10%2Fnjerusalem110.xml \|archive-date=11 April 2008 \|url-status=live }} </ref><ref name=":0" /> It was sung as a hymn during the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton in Westminster Abbey.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8479507/Royal-wedding-Prince-William-and-Kate-Middleton-choose-popular-hymns.html "Royal Wedding: Prince William and Kate Middleton choose popular hymns"], The Telegraph, 29 April 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.</ref> Many schools use the song, especially public schools in Great Britain (it was used as the title music for the BBC's 1979 series Public School about Radley College), and several private schools in Australia, New Zealand, New England and Canada. In Hong Kong, diverted version of "Jerusalem" is also used as the school hymn of St. Catherine's School for Girls, Kwun Tong and Bishop Hall Jubilee School. "Jerusalem" was chosen as the opening hymn for the London Olympics 2012, although "God Save the Queen" was the anthem sung during the raising of the flag in salute to the Queen. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words; examples include the state funeral of President Ronald Reagan in Washington National Cathedral on 11 June 2004, and the state memorial service for Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam on 5 November 2014.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-06-14 \|titleJerusalem – The Methodist Church, Ipswich Circuit \|urlhttps://methodistic.org.uk/jerusalem/ \|access-date2025-03-11 \|language=en-GB}}</ref> It has been sung on BBC's Songs Of Praise for many years; in a countrywide poll to find the UK's favourite hymn in 2019, it was voted top, relegating previous favourite "How Great Thou Art" into second place.<ref>{{Cite web \|title‘Jerusalem’ voted the UK's favourite hymn \|urlhttps://www.classicfm.com/music-news/jerusalem-named-britains-favourite-hymn/#:~:textBritain's%20favourite%20hymn%20has%20been,of%20members%20of%20the%20public. \|access-date2025-03-02 \|websiteClassic FM \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date2019-09-29 \|titleWorld War One hymn is nation's favourite \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-49871456 \|access-date2025-03-02 \|workBBC News \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Proposal as English anthem {{See also\|National anthem of England}}Upon hearing the orchestral version for the first time, King George V said that he preferred "Jerusalem" over the British national anthem "God Save the King". "Jerusalem" is considered to be England's most popular patriotic song; The New York Times said it was "fast becoming an alternative national anthem,"<ref name"nytimes.com">{{Cite news\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/theater/20time.html?refarts \| workThe New York Times \| titleTime, and the Green and Pleasant Land \| firstBen \| lastBrantley \| date20 July 2009 \| access-date23 April 2010}}</ref> and there have been calls to give it official status.<ref>[http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID31408&SESSION875 Parliamentary Early Day Motion 2791] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090821141152/http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID31408&SESSION875 \|date21 August 2009 }}, UK Parliament, 18 October 2006</ref> England has no official anthem and uses the British national anthem "God Save the King", also unofficial, for some national occasions, such as before English international football matches. However, some sports, including rugby league, use "Jerusalem" as the English anthem. "Jerusalem" is the official hymn of the England and Wales Cricket Board,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://anthem4england.co.uk/category/correspondence/ \|titleCorrespondence \|publisherAnthem 4 England \|locationUK \|date8 May 2007 \|access-date29 April 2011 \|archive-date20 July 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720030917/http://anthem4england.co.uk/category/correspondence/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> although "God Save the Queen" has been sung before England's games on several occasions, including the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, the 2010–11 Ashes series and the 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup. Questions in Parliament have not clarified the situation, as answers from the relevant minister say that since there is no official national anthem, each sport must make its own decision. As Parliament has not clarified the situation, Team England, the English Commonwealth team, held a public poll in 2010 to decide which anthem should be played at medal ceremonies to celebrate an English win at the Commonwealth Games. "Jerusalem" was selected by 52% of voters over "Land of Hope and Glory" (used since 1930) and "God Save the Queen".<ref>{{cite web\|authorSir Andrew Foster \|urlhttp://www.weareengland.org/news.asp?itemid327&itemTitleEngland+announce+victory+anthem+for+Delhi+chosen+by+the+public%21&section115&sectionTitleNews \|titleEngland announce victory anthem for Delhi chosen by the public! – Commonwealth Games England \|publisherWeare England \|date30 May 2010 \|access-date29 April 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110611162431/http://www.weareengland.org/news.asp?itemid327&itemTitleEngland+announce+victory+anthem+for+Delhi+chosen+by+the+public%21&section115&sectionTitleNews \|archive-date11 June 2011 \|dfdmy }}</ref> In 2005 BBC Four produced Jerusalem: An Anthem For England highlighting the usages of the song/poem and a case was made for its adoption as the national anthem of England. Varied contributions come from Howard Goodall, Billy Bragg, Garry Bushell, Lord Hattersley, Ann Widdecombe and David Mellor, war proponents, war opponents, suffragettes, trade unionists, public schoolboys, the Conservatives, the Labour Party, football supporters, the British National Party, the Women's Institute, London Gay Men's Chorus, London Community Gospel Choir, Fat Les and naturists.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt1071222/ \| titleJerusalem: An Anthem for England (TV 2005) \| websiteInternet Movie Database \| access-date27 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/sep/09/broadcasting.tvandradio \| titleGet me to the clink on time \|workThe Guardian \|locationUK \| date9 September 2005 \| access-date28 September 2011 \| authorSam Wollaston}}</ref>Cultural significanceEnduring popularity <!--PLEASE DO NOT TRY TO LIST PERFORMANCES OF JERUSALEM ON RECORD, FILM, TV OR THEATRE. LINKS TO MONTY PYTHON, BILLY BRAGG AND EMERSON, LAKE & PALMER HAVE ALREADY BEEN PROVIDED--> The popularity of Parry's setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. The song has also had a large cultural impact in Great Britain. It is sung every year by an audience of thousands at the end of the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall and simultaneously in the Proms in the Park venues throughout the country. Similarly, along with "The Red Flag", it is sung each year at the closing of the annual Labour Party conference. The song was used by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (indeed Parry transferred the copyright to the NUWSS in 1918; the Union was wound up in 1928 after women won the right to vote).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id8553\|titleJerusalem\|websiteSongFacts\|access-date5 September 2022}}</ref> During the 1920s many Women's Institutes (WI) started closing meetings by singing it, and this caught on nationally. Although it was never adopted as the WI's official anthem, in practice it holds that position, and is an enduring element of the public image of the WI.<ref>The "Jam and Jerusalem" caricature of the WI is still current enough that they have a FAQ about it on their site at [http://www.thewi.org.uk/standard.aspx?id12466] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090111082408/http://www.thewi.org.uk/standard.aspx?id12466\|date=11 January 2009}}</ref> A rendition of "Jerusalem" was included in the 1973 album Brain Salad Surgery by the progressive rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer. The arrangement of the hymn is notable for its use of the first polyphonic synthesizer, the Moog Apollo. It was released as a single, but failed to chart in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/album/brain-salad-surgery-mw0000462279\|titleBrain Salad Surgery - Emerson, Lake & Palmer \|viawww.allmusic.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/keith-emerson-talks-elps-brain-salad-surgery-track-by-track-594681 \|titleKeith Emerson talks ELP's Brain Salad Surgery track-by-track \|firstJoe\|lastBosso \|date17 February 2014 \|websiteMusicRadar \|access-date1 March 2022}}</ref> An instrumental rendition of the hymn was included in the 1989 album "The Amsterdam EP" by Scottish rock band Simple Minds.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/931106-Simple-Minds-The-Amsterdam-EP \| titleSimple Minds - the Amsterdam EP \| websiteDiscogs \| date2 September 1989 }}</ref> Iron Maiden singer Bruce Dickinson incorporated the full text of the poem into his 6:42 track Jerusalem (co-written with Roy Z), a part of his William Blake inspired 1998 solo album The Chemical Wedding. Dickinson performed the track live in 2023 as part of the Jon Lord Concerto for Group and Orchestra tour.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vHTnBlV7R1eE \| titleBruce Dickinson - Jerusalem (Zagreb 24.3.2023) \| websiteYouTube \| date=25 March 2023}}</ref> "Jerusalem" is traditionally sung before rugby league's Challenge Cup Final, along with "Abide with Me", and before the Super League Grand Final, where it is introduced as "the rugby league anthem". Before 2008, it was the anthem used by the national side, as "God Save the Queen" was used by the Great Britain team: since the Lions were superseded by England, "God Save the Queen" has replaced "Jerusalem". Since 2004, it has been the anthem of the England cricket team, being played before each day of their home test matches. It was also used in the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London and inspired several of the opening show segments directed by Danny Boyle.<ref>{{cite news\|titleNavigating the 'Isles of Wonder': A guide to the Olympic opening ceremony\|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2012/07/27/sport/decoding-olympic-opening-ceremony/index.html\|publisherCNN\|access-date28 July 2012}}</ref> It was included in the ceremony's soundtrack album, Isles of Wonder. Use in film, television and theatre <!--PLEASE DO NOT TRY TO LIST PERFORMANCES OF JERUSALEM ON RECORD, FILM, TV OR THEATRE. LINKS TO MONTY PYTHON, BILLY BRAGG AND EMERSON, LAKE & PALMER HAVE ALREADY BEEN PROVIDED--> "Bring me my Chariot of fire" inspired the title of the film Chariots of Fire.<ref name="welland">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082158/trivia IMDb trivia – Origin of title] – Accessed 11 August 2008</ref> The hymn has featured in many other films and television programmes including Four Weddings and a Funeral, How to Get Ahead in Advertising, The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, Saint Jack, Calendar Girls, Season 3: Episode 22 of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Goodnight Mister Tom, Women in Love, The Man Who Fell to Earth, Shameless, Jackboots on Whitehall, Quatermass and the Pit, ''Monty Python's Flying Circus, Spud 2: The Madness Continues, and Collateral (UK TV series). An extract was heard in the 2013 Doctor Who'' episode "The Crimson Horror" although that story was set in 1893, i.e., before Parry's arrangement. A bawdy version of the first verse is sung by Mr Partridge in the third episode of Series 1 of Hi-de-Hi!. A punk version is heard in Derek Jarman's 1977 film Jubilee. In an episode of Peep Show, Jez (Robert Webb) records a track titled "This Is Outrageous" which uses the first and a version of the second line in a verse.<ref>{{YouTube\|ySqtuxadnn4}}</ref> A modified version of the hymn, replacing the word "England" with "Neo", is used in Neo Yokio as the national anthem of the eponymous city state.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/neo-yokio/.121543\|titleNeo Yokio Review\|firstMike\|lastToole\|workAnime News Network\|dateSeptember 19, 2017\|access-dateSeptember 26, 2017\|quoteNeo Yokio's national anthem is William Blake's 'Jerusalem,' and fight scenes are underpinned by tunes by the likes of Mingus.}}</ref> In the theatre it appears in Jerusalem,<ref name"nytimes.com" /> Calendar Girls and in Time and the Conways.<ref name"nytimes.com"/> British band The Verve reworks lines from "Jerusalem" in their song "Love Is Noise", asking, "Will those feet in modern times/Walk on soles that are made in China?", and alludes to "bright prosaic malls". Another version of "Jerusalem" was produced by the British post-punk band The Fall in 1988.<ref>{{Citation \|titleThe Fall - Jerusalem \|date1988 \|urlhttps://www.discogs.com/release/1315930-The-Fall-Jerusalem?srsltidAfmBOop-B7Hr_LdzXNNf03oZumep6Hl-sd36sFNZN2OoeH7W4u6KVqGN \|access-date2025-02-24 \|languageen}}</ref> See also * Civil religion * Romanticism and the Industrial Revolution * List of British anthems Notes {{Notelist\|30em}} References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Wikisource\|Milton (Blake)/Preface}} [http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/comparison.xq?selectioncompare&copiesall&bentleynumB2&copyidmilton.a&java= Comparisons of the Hand Painted copies of the Preface] on the William Blake Archive {{Cantorion\|music/651/Jerusalem_Sheet_music\|Jerusalem}} * [http://www.hymnary.org/text/and_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time And did those feet in ancient time] at Hymnary.org * {{librivox book \| titleJerusalem \| authorBlake}} (Multiple versions) {{William Blake\|lit}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:And Did Those Feet In Ancient Time}} Category:1804 poems Category:1916 songs Category:English Christian hymns Category:English patriotic songs Category:National symbols of England Category:Anthems of non-sovereign states Category:Poetry by William Blake Category:British Israelism Category:Musical settings of poems by William Blake Category:British anthems Category:Joseph of Arimathea Category:Hymns in The New English Hymnal Category:Works based on the Book of Revelation Category:1800s neologisms Category:1800s quotations Category:Quotations from literature Category:Quotations from music	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time	2025-04-05T18:26:12.758927
2941	The Bush (Alaska)	In Alaska, the Bush typically refers to any region of the state that is not connected to the North American road network and does not have ready access to the state's ferry system. A large proportion of Alaska Native populations live in the Bush, often depending on subsistence hunting and fishing. Geographically, the Bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior. Some of the hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Utqiagvik, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor. Most parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities or to and from hub communities is typically accomplished by snowmobiles, boats, or ATVs. References Category:Regions of Alaska Category:Rural geography Category:Decolonization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bush_(Alaska)	2025-04-05T18:26:12.763169
2942	A Little Night Music	{{Short description\|1973 musical}} {{About\|\|the Mozart serenade\|Eine kleine Nachtmusik\|the film adaptation of this play\|A Little Night Music (film)\|other uses\|A Little Night Music (disambiguation)}} {{Infobox musical \| name = A Little Night Music \| image = Pnight.jpeg \| caption = Original Broadway windowcard \| music = Stephen Sondheim \| lyrics = Stephen Sondheim \| book = Hugh Wheeler \| basis = Smiles of a Summer Night <br /> by Ingmar Bergman \| productions = 1973 Broadway<br />1974 North American Tour<br />1975 West End<br />1977 Film<br />1989 West End revival<br />1990 New York City Opera<br />1995 Royal National Theatre <br /> 2000 Barcelona <br />2002 John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts<br />2003 NYCO revival<br />2008 Off-West End Revival<br />2009 West End Revival<br />2009 Broadway revival<br />2024 Lincoln Center<br />International productions<!-- Please do not include production-specific (acting, directing, etc.) awards --> \| awards = Tony Award for Best Musical<br />Tony Award for Best Book <br /> Tony Award for Best Original Score }} A Little Night Music is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the 1955 Ingmar Bergman film Smiles of a Summer Night, it involves the romantic lives of several couples. Its title is a literal English translation of the German name for Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525, Eine kleine Nachtmusik. The musical includes the popular song "Send In the Clowns", written for Glynis Johns. Since its original 1973 Broadway production, the musical has enjoyed professional productions in the West End, by opera companies, in a 2009 Broadway revival, and elsewhere, and it is a popular choice for regional groups. It was adapted for film in 1977, with Harold Prince directing and Elizabeth Taylor, Len Cariou, Lesley-Anne Down, and Diana Rigg starring. Synopsis Act One The setting is Sweden, around the year 1900. One by one, the Quintet – five singers who comment like a Greek chorus throughout the show – enter, tuning up. Gradually, their vocalizing becomes an overture blending fragments of "Remember," "Soon," and "The Glamorous Life." The other characters enter waltzing, each uncomfortable with their partner ("Night Waltz"). After they drift back off, the aging and sardonic Madame Armfeldt, a wealthy former courtesan, and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Madame Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night "smiles" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to watch the smiles occur. Middle-aged, successful lawyer Fredrik Egerman has recently married an 18-year-old trophy wife, Anne, a naive girl who loves Fredrik but is not attracted to him. The two have been married for eleven months, and Anne still protects her virginity. Upon coming home from work, Fredrik surprises Anne with tickets to a play, starring Desiree Armfeldt, a glamorous actress whom Anne greatly admires. Anne giddily fantasizes about what it would be like to be as beautiful and beloved as Desiree, and starts talking at Fredrik about her day. Fredrik, distracted by his lust, considers various ways he might seduce his wife but ultimately rules each one out and elects to take a nap instead ("Now"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, a seminary student a year older than his stepmother, is frustrated and ignored ("Later"). Anne promises her husband that shortly she will consent to have sex even though she can't help recoiling at his touch ("Soon"), and all three of them lament at once. The number concludes with Fredrik sighing Desiree's name in his sleep, which Anne overhears. Anne's maidservant Petra, an experienced and forthright girl, slightly older than the teen herself, offers her worldly but crass advice. Desiree Armfeldt, although once prominent, is now a fading flower clinging onto what's left of her past fame. Desiree tours in small, obscure towns with her theatre troupe. Madam Armfeldt, Desiree's mother, has taken over the care of Desiree's daughter Fredrika. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually delays seeing her, preferring, somewhat ironically, her life on tour ("The Glamorous Life"). As Fredrik and Anne take their seats at Desiree's play, Anne's previous excitement quickly devolves into anxiety, suspicious that Fredrik and Desiree have a romantic history that he never disclosed to her. The play begins and Desiree immediately notices Fredrik in the audience, and the Quintet reveals their shared memories and passionate relationship ("Remember"). Desiree, ironically playing a sexually irresistible countess, exchanges amorous glances with Fredrik and delivers her lines in an overtly suggestive tone, confirming Anne's suspicions as true. Anne, upset and overwhelmed, demands that Fredrik take her home. Meanwhile, Petra tries to seduce a nervous and petulant Henrik. That night, as Fredrik remembers his past with Desiree, he sneaks out to see her. The two have a happy but strained reunion, reflecting on their new lives. Desiree sarcastically boasts of her own adultery, as she has been seeing the married dragoon, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm. Following, Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne, fending off Desiree's interjecting quips, but he ultimately reveals his sexual frustration ("You Must Meet My Wife"). Upon learning that Fredrik has gone for eleven months without sex, she agrees to accommodate him as a favor for an old friend. Madam Armfeldt offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past and wonders what happened to prior refined styles of living ("Liaisons"). In Desiree's apartment, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm proclaims his unannounced arrival in his usual booming tones. Fredrik and Desiree fool the Count with an innocent explanation for their disheveled appearance, but he is still suspicious. He boasts of his many duels and the various wounds he has suffered before demonstrating his skills in knife-throwing. Fredrik responds sarcastically, causing the dragoon to dislike him immediately. Carl-Magnus returns to his wife, Countess Charlotte. Charlotte knows of her husband's infidelity, but Carl-Magnus is too absorbed in his suspicions of Desiree to talk to her ("In Praise of Women"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed&mdash;Charlotte's little sister is a schoolfriend of Anne's. Charlotte visits Anne and describes Fredrik's tryst with Desiree. Anne is shocked and saddened, but Charlotte explains that such is the lot of a wife, and love brings pain ("Every Day a Little Death"). Meanwhile, Desiree asks Madam Armfeldt to host a party for Fredrik, Anne, and Henrik. Madam Armfeldt reluctantly agrees and sends out a personal invitation; its receipt sends Anne into a frenzy, imagining Desiree further seducing Fredrik at the estate. Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to heighten the contrast between the older Desiree and the young and beautiful teenager. Charlotte relates this to the Count, who (much to her chagrin) decides to visit the Armfeldts, uninvited, as well. Carl-Magnus plans to challenge Fredrik to a duel, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer to make her husband jealous and end his philandering. The act ends as all characters head to Madam Armfeldt's estate ("A Weekend in the Country"). Act Two Madam Armfeldt's country estate is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual summer sunset at this high latitude ("Night Waltz One and Two"). Everyone arrives, each with their own amorous purposes and desires—even Petra, who catches the eye of Armfeldt's fetching manservant, Frid. The women begin to quarrel with one another. Fredrik is astonished to learn the name of Desiree's daughter. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses to her he deeply loves Anne. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl-Magnus reflect on the difficulty of being annoyed with Desiree, contrasting her immoral actions with her physical beauty ("It Would Have Been Wonderful"). Dinner is served, and the female Quintet singers comment on the characters’ suspense regarding the coming meal ("Perpetual Anticipation"). At dinner, Charlotte attempts to flirt with Fredrik and trades insults with Desiree. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else, except for Henrik, who finally speaks up. He accuses the whole company of being amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik's secret love and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be "rescued" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly that he loves Desiree but cannot bring himself to hurt Anne. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reflect on the nature of her life and relationship with Fredrik ("Send In the Clowns"). Anne finds Henrik, who is attempting to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him she loves him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne's first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away, Frid sleeps in Petra's lap. The maid imagines advantageous marriages but concludes that in the meantime, "a girl ought to celebrate what passes by" ("The Miller's Son"). Charlotte confesses her plan to Fredrik, and both watch Henrik and Anne, happy together, run away to start their new life. The two commiserate on a bench. Carl-Magnus, preparing to sleep with Desiree, sees this and challenges Fredrik to Russian Roulette; Fredrik nervously misfires and simply grazes his own ear. Feeling victorious, Carl-Magnus reaffirms his love for Charlotte, finally granting her wish. After the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madam Armfeldt discuss the recent chaotic turns of events. The elderly woman asks Fredrika a surprising question: "What is it all for?" Fredrika thinks about this and decides that love, for all of its frustrations, "must be worth it." Madam Armfeldt is surprised, ruefully noting that she rejected love for material wealth at Fredrika's age. She praises her granddaughter and remembers true love's fleeting nature. Fredrik finally confesses his love for Desiree, acknowledging that Fredrika is his daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together ("Send in the Clowns" (Reprise)). Madam Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika, who tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully but still has not seen the night smile. Madam Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: first on Henrik and Anne, the young, and second on Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the "third smile... on the old", it occurs: Madam Armfeldt closes her eyes and dies peacefully with Fredrika beside her ("Last Waltz"). Musical numbers {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} ; Act I * Overture – Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom (the "Quintet") * "Night Waltz" – Company * "Now" – Fredrik Egerman * "Later" – Henrik Egerman * "Soon" – Anne Egerman * "Soon/Later/Now" – Anne, Henrik and Fredrik * "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika Armfeldt, Desiree Armfeldt, Madam Armfeldt and Quintet * "Remember?" – Quintet * "You Must Meet My Wife" – Desiree and Fredrik * "Liaisons" – Madam Armfeldt * "In Praise of Women" – Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm * "Every Day a Little Death" – Countess Charlotte Malcolm and Anne * "A Weekend in the Country" – Company {{col-2}} ; Act II * Entr'acte – Orchestra * "Night Waltz I (The Sun Won't Set)" – Quintet * "Night Waltz II (The Sun Sits Low)" – Quintet * "It Would Have Been Wonderful" – Fredrik and Carl-Magnus * "Perpetual Anticipation" – Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Segstrom and Mrs. Anderssen * "Dinner Table Scene" – Orchestra * "Send In the Clowns" – Desiree * "The Miller's Son" – Petra * "The World Won't End/Every Day a Little Death (reprise)" – Desiree and Charlotte * Reprises <small>("Soon", "You Must Meet My Wife", "A Weekend in the Country" and "Every Day a Little Death")</small> – Quintet * "Send in the Clowns" (Reprise) – Desiree and Fredrik * "Last Waltz" – Orchestra {{col-end}} ; Additional musical numbers Stage: * "Two Fairy Tales" – Henrik and Anne <small>(cut in rehearsals when the tone of the musical changed)</small> * "Silly People" – Frid <small>(cut for time when "The Miller's Son" was added in Boston)</small> * "Bang!" – Carl-Magnus <small>(replaced by "In Praise of Women")</small> * "My Husband the Pig" – Charlotte <small>(replaced by the second half of "In Praise of Women")</small> Screen: * "Love Takes Time" – Company <small>(lyrics added to Night Waltz)</small> * "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika <small>(solo version; later used combined with the original in the RNT revival)</small> * A new introductory verse to "Every Day a Little Death" * Additional lyrics for "A Weekend in the Country", including a short section for Mme. Armfeldt Characters * Fredrik Egerman: A successful widowed middle-aged lawyer. He is married to the 18-year-old Anne and has one son, Henrik, from his previous marriage. In the past, he and Desiree were lovers. Bass-Baritone A<sub>2</sub>–E<sub>4</sub><ref>[https://stageagent.com/characters/119/a-little-night-music/fredrik-egerman "Key information: Fredrik Egerman"], stageagent.com</ref> Anne Egerman: Fredrik's new, naive wife, who is still a virgin after 11 months of marriage. Soprano G{{music\|#}}<sub>3</sub>–A<sub>5</sub> Henrik Egerman: Fredrik's son, 20 years old and Anne's stepson. He is serious but confused; he reads the works of philosophers and theologians whilst studying for the Lutheran priesthood. His sexual repression is a great cause of his turmoil, as he lusts after Anne and attempts to have a sexual encounter with Petra. Tenor G<sub>2</sub>–B<sub>4</sub> Petra: Anne's maid and closest confidante, brash, bold and flirtatious. She has relations with Henrik. Mezzo-soprano F{{music\|#}}<sub>3</sub>–F<sub>5</sub> Desiree Armfeldt: Self-absorbed, once-successful actress, now touring the countryside in what is clearly not the "glamorous life". Harboured love for Fredrik for years since their affair. Mezzo-soprano F{{music\|#}}<sub>3</sub>–E<sub>5</sub><ref>[https://stageagent.com/characters/118/a-little-night-music/desiree-armfeldt "Key information: Desiree Armfeldt"], stageagent.com</ref> Fredrika Armfeldt: Desiree's thirteen-year-old daughter, who may or may not be the product (unbeknownst to Fredrik) of the actress's and Fredrik's affair. Soprano C<sub>4</sub>–E<sub>5</sub> Madame Armfeldt: Desiree's mother, a former courtesan who has had "liaisons" with royalty. Contralto C<sub>3</sub>–F{{music\|#}}<sub>4</sub> Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm: A military dragoon who is Desiree's latest lover. Hypocritically places value on fidelity, being hugely possessive when it comes to both his wife and mistress. Comedic role. Operatic Baritone G<sub>2</sub>–F{{music\|#}}<sub>4</sub> Countess Charlotte Malcolm: Carl-Magnus' wife, to whom he flaunts his infidelities. She despises her husband for his behaviour, but obeys his orders due to her hopeless love for him. Self-loathing and borderline alcoholic, yet the more intelligent half of the Malcolm couple. Mezzo-soprano G<sub>3</sub>–F<sub>5</sub> Frid: Madame Armfeldt's manservant. Has a tryst with Petra. The Quintet: Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom. A group of five singers that act as a Greek chorus. Sometimes referred to as the Liebeslieder Singers (love song singers) although Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler did not script them to have that title, using Quintet instead. The first usage of Liebeslieder for the Quintet came during the 1990 New York City Opera production. Prince said that these characters represent "people in the show who aren't wasting time ... the play is about wasting time."<ref>{{cite news\|lastGussow\|firstMel\|author-linkMel Gussow\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/27/archives/prince-revels-in-a-little-night-music-setting-off-sparks-untrying.html\|titlePrince Revels in A Little Night Music\|page54\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateMarch 27, 1973\|access-date=May 15, 2019}}</ref> Malla: Desiree's maid, who is with her constantly. Silent part Osa: Maid at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part Bertrand: Page at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part Casts and characters {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! rowspan"2" style"width:10%;" \| Character ! style="width:10%;" \| Broadway ! style="width:10%;" \| US National Tour ! style="width:10%;" \| West End !First West End Revival<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Little Night Music (London Revival, 1989) {{!}} Ovrtur \|urlhttps://ovrtur.com/production/2883452 \|access-date2024-02-01 \|websiteovrtur.com}}</ref> !Off-West End Revival<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Little Night Music (Menier Chocolate Factory Revival, 2008) {{!}} Ovrtur \|urlhttps://ovrtur.com/production/2886474 \|access-date2024-02-01 \|websiteovrtur.com}}</ref> !Second West End Revival<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCredits for A Little Night Music (London Revival, 2009) {{!}} Ovrtur \|urlhttps://ovrtur.com/production/2900442/credits \|access-date2024-02-01 \|websiteovrtur.com}}</ref> ! style="width:10%;" \| First Broadway Revival ! Lincoln Center Concert \|- !<small>1973</small> !<small>1974</small> !<small>1975</small> !<small>1989</small> !<small>2008</small> ! colspan="2" \|<small>2009</small> !<small>2024</small> \|- ! Desiree Armfeldt \| style="text-align:center;" \| Glynis Johns \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Jean Simmons \| style="text-align:center;" \| Dorothy Tutin \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Hannah Waddingham \| style="text-align:center;" \| Catherine Zeta-Jones \| style="text-align:center;" \| Susan Graham \|- ! Fredrik Egerman \| style="text-align:center;" \| Len Cariou \| style="text-align:center;" \| George Lee Andrews \| style="text-align:center;" \| Joss Ackland \| style="text-align:center;" \| Peter McEnery \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center;" \| Alexander Hanson \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ron Raines \|- ! Madame Armfeldt \| style="text-align:center;" \| Hermione Gingold \| style="text-align:center;" \| Margaret Hamilton \| style="text-align:center;" \| Hermione Gingold \| style="text-align:center;" \| Lila Kedrova \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Maureen Lipman \| style="text-align:center;" \| Angela Lansbury \| style="text-align:center;" \| Marsha Mason \|- ! Fredrika Armfeldt \| style="text-align:center;" \| Judy Kahan \| style="text-align:center;" \| Marti Morris \| style="text-align:center;" \| Christine McKenna-Tirella \| style="text-align:center;" \| Debra Beaumont \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Holly Hallam<hr />Grace Link \| style="text-align:center;" \| Katherine Leigh Doherty<hr />Keaton Whittaker \| style="text-align:center;" \| Addie Harrington \|- ! Petra \| style="text-align:center;" \| D'Jamin Bartlett \| style="text-align:center;" \| Mary Ann Chinn \| style="text-align:center;" \| Diane Langton \| style="text-align:center;" \| Sara Weymouth \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Kaisa Hammarlund \| style="text-align:center;" \| Leigh Ann Larkin \| style="text-align:center;" \| Cynthia Erivo \|- ! Henrik Egerman \| style="text-align:center;" \| Mark Lambert \| style="text-align:center;" \| Stephen Lehew \| style="text-align:center;" \| Terry Mitchell \| style="text-align:center;" \| Alexander Hanson \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Gabriel Vick \| style="text-align:center;" \| Hunter Ryan Herdlicka \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jason Gotay \|- ! Anne Egerman \| style="text-align:center;" \| Victoria Mallory \| style="text-align:center;" \| Virgina Pulos \| style="text-align:center;" \| Veronica Page \| style="text-align:center;" \| Deborah Poplett \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Jessie Buckley \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ramona Mallory \| style="text-align:center;" \| Kerstin Anderson \|- ! Countess Charlotte Malcolm \| style="text-align:center;" \| Patricia Elliott \| style="text-align:center;" \| Andra Akers \| style="text-align:center;" \| Maria Aitken \| style="text-align:center;" \| Susan Hampshire \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Kelly Price \| style="text-align:center;" \| Erin Davie \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ruthie Ann Miles \|- ! Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm \| style="text-align:center;" \| Laurence Guittard \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ed Evanko \| style="text-align:center;" \| David Kernan \| style="text-align:center;" \| Eric Flynn \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Alistair Robins \| style="text-align:center;" \| Aaron Lazar \| style="text-align:center;" \| Shuler Hensley \|} Notable replacements ;Broadway (1973–74) Fredrik Egerman: William Daniels ;West End (1975) Desiree Armfeldt: Virginia McKenna Madame Armfeldt: Angela Baddeley ;Broadway Revival (2009–11) Desiree Armfeldt: Bernadette Peters Madame Armfeldt: Elaine Stritch Fredrika Armfeldt: Katherine McNamara Count Carl-Magnus: Bradley Dean Productions Original Broadway production Subsequent to its January 23-February 10 tryout engagement at the Colonial Theatre (Boston),<ref>Boston Globe January 19, 1973 "What's Happening - Jan. 19 to Jan. 26" p.39</ref>A Little Night Music opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973. It played there until September 15, 1973, then moved to the Majestic Theatre, on September 17, and closed there on August 3, 1974, after 601 performances and 12 previews. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns (Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou (Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold (Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory (Anne Egerman), Judith Kahan (Fredrika Armfeldt), Mark Lambert (Henrik Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Carl-Magnus Malcolm), Patricia Elliott (Charlotte Malcolm), George Lee Andrews (Frid), and D'Jamin Bartlett (Petra). It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical. Australian premiere The first international production opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney, Australia in November 1973, with a cast including Taina Elg, Bruce Barry, Jill Perryman, Doris Fitton, Anna Russell and Geraldine Turner.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://ausstage.edu.au/pages/event/14910\|titleA Little Night Music\|websiteausstage.edu.au\|access-date2017-09-21\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170921144227/https://ausstage.edu.au/pages/event/14910\|archive-date2017-09-21}}</ref> Australian revivals have been presented by the Sydney Theatre Company (featuring Geraldine Turner and a young Toni Collette) in 1990, Melbourne Theatre Company (featuring Helen Morse and John O'May) in 1997, Opera Australia (featuring Sigrid Thornton and Anthony Warlow as Fredrik Egerman) in 2009, and Victorian Opera (featuring Ali McGregor, Simon Gleeson and Verity Hunt-Ballard) in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.sydneytheatre.com.au/magazine/posts/2017/may/archive-STC-musicals\|titleArchive: STC Musicals\|date2017-05-09\|workSydney Theatre Company\|access-date2017-09-21\|languageen\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170921095541/https://www.sydneytheatre.com.au/magazine/posts/2017/may/archive-STC-musicals\|archive-date2017-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/send-in-the-clones/2009/05/12/1241893977900.html?pagefullpage#contentSwap1\|titleSend in the clones\|date2009-05-13\|websitewww.theage.com.au\|languageen\|access-date2017-09-21\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170921095632/http://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/send-in-the-clones/2009/05/12/1241893977900.html?pagefullpage#contentSwap1\|archive-date2017-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/complicated-take-on-elusive-desire/2009/05/15/1242335879397.html\|titleComplicated take on elusive desire\|lastSlavin\|firstJohn\|date2009-05-16\|workThe Age\|access-date2017-09-21\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170921100729/http://www.theage.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/complicated-take-on-elusive-desire/2009/05/15/1242335879397.html\|archive-date2017-09-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.limelightmagazine.com.au/reviews/a-little-night-music-victorian-opera/\|titleA Little Night Music (Victorian Opera)\|lastMaunder\|firstPatricia\|dateJune 28, 2019\|workLimelight\|access-dateFebruary 19, 2020}}</ref> United States tour A US national tour began on February 26, 1974, at the Forrest Theatre, Philadelphia, and ended on February 13, 1975, at the Shubert Theatre, Boston. Jean Simmons as Desiree Armfeldt, George Lee Andrews as Fredrik Egerman and Margaret Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt headed the cast.<ref>[http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html#BWP "'A Little Night Music' tour, 1974"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170513233106/http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html \|date2017-05-13 }} sondheimguide.com, accessed March 13, 2011</ref> West End premiere The musical premiered in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975, and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons. 1989 West End revival A revival opened in the West End on October 6, 1989, at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery as Fredrik, and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990. 1995 London revival A revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995. It was directed by Sean Mathias, with set design by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench (Desiree), Siân Phillips (Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding (Anne Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Fredrik Egerman), Patricia Hodge (Countess Charlotte) and Issy van Randwyck (Petra). The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.officiallondontheatre.co.uk/olivier_awards/past_winners/view/item98530/Olivier-Winners-1996/ \|titleOlivier Winners 1996 \|access-date2011-06-29 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120213150059/http://www.officiallondontheatre.co.uk/olivier_awards/past_winners/view/item98530/Olivier-Winners-1996/ \|archive-dateFebruary 13, 2012 }}, OfficialLondonTheatre.com</ref> 2008 London revival The third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008, until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with musical supervision by Caroline Humphris, choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley (Anne), Maureen Lipman (Madame Armfeldt), Alistair Robins (the Count), Gabriel Vick (Henrik), Grace Link (Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund (Petra).<ref>Benedict, David.[https://variety.com/2008/legit/news/waddingham-to-star-in-night-music-1117993701/ "Waddingham to star in 'Night Music'"], Variety, October 10, 2008</ref> This critically acclaimed<ref>[http://www.nightmusiclondon.com/news_and_reviews/] nightmusiclondon.com {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120307175938/http://www.nightmusiclondon.com/news_and_reviews/\|dateMarch 7, 2012}}</ref><ref name"night">Nightingale, Benedict.[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article5289255.ece "'A Little Night Music' at the Menier Chocolate Factory, London SE1"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110615110124/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article5289255.ece \|date2011-06-15 }} December 5, 2008</ref><ref name"telegraph">Spencer, Charles.[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/drama/3687085/A-Little-Night-Music-at-the-Menier-Chocolate-Factory.html "'A Little Night Music' at the Menier Chocolate Factory"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091209015031/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/drama/3687085/A-Little-Night-Music-at-the-Menier-Chocolate-Factory.html \|date2009-12-09 }}The Telegraph, December 4, 2008</ref> production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a limited season, opening on March 28, 2009, and running until July 25, 2009.<ref>Shenton, Mark.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/127812.html "Isn't It Rich?: Menier 'A Little Night Music' Arrives in the West End March 28"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090501044015/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/127812.html \|date2009-05-01 }}, playbill.com, March 28, 2009</ref> The production then transferred to Broadway with a new cast. 2009 Broadway revival The 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production opened on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in previews on November 24, 2009, and officially on December 13, 2009, with the same creative team. The cast was led by Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt and, in her Broadway debut, Catherine Zeta-Jones as Desiree. Also featured were Alexander Hanson as Frederik,<ref>Hernandez, Ernio and Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/134767-A-Little-Night-Music-With-Zeta-Jones-and-Lansbury-Begins-on-Broadway "A Little Night Music, With Zeta-Jones and Lansbury, Begins on Broadway"]. Playbill.com, November 24, 2009 {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140305060514/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/134767-A-Little-Night-Music-With-Zeta-Jones-and-Lansbury-Begins-on-Broadway \|dateMarch 5, 2014 }}</ref> Ramona Mallory (the daughter of original Broadway cast members Victoria Mallory and Mark Lambert) as Anne, Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as Henrik, Leigh Ann Larkin as Petra, Erin Davie as the Countess, Aaron Lazar as the Count, and Bradley Dean as Frid. Zeta-Jones received the award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical at the 64th Tony Awards.<ref name"tony1">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/nominees/index.html \|titleTony Award nominees, 2009–2010 \|access-dateMay 13, 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100507080412/http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/nominees/index.html \|archive-date=May 7, 2010 }}</ref> Originally, Katherine Doherty and Keaton Whittaker played Fredrika in alternating performances, beginning with the November 2009 previews.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/production/a-little-night-music-walter-kerr-theatre-vault-0000010031\|title A Little Night Music Broadway @ Walter Kerr Theatre - Tickets and Discounts}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bothell-reporter.com/life/bothells-keaton-whittaker-to-hit-the-broadway-stage-in-a-little-night-music/\|titleBothell's Keaton Whittaker to hit the Broadway stage in 'A Little Night Music'\|date13 November 2009}}</ref> The official show album, which was recorded in January 2010, features both Doherty and Whittaker as Fredrika (on different songs).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/article/a-little-night-music-cast-album-gets-recorded-jan-4-com-164619\|title A Little Night Music Cast Album Gets Recorded Jan. 4\|date 4 January 2010}}</ref> However, Katherine McNamara replaced Doherty in February 2010.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/person/katherine-mcnamara-vault-0000047916\|titleKatherine McNamara (Performer) &#124; Playbill}}</ref> McNamara and Whittaker stayed with the production until it ended in January 2011.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/article/broadways-little-night-music-with-bernadette-peters-and-elaine-stritch-ends-run-jan-9-com-174998\|title Broadway's Little Night Music, with Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch, Ends Run Jan. 9\|date = 9 January 2011}}</ref> When the contracts of Zeta-Jones and Lansbury ended, the production closed temporarily on June 20, 2010, and resumed on July 13, with new stars Bernadette Peters as Desiree Armfeldt and Elaine Stritch as Madame Armfeldt.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/141676-Isnt-It-Bliss-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Open-in-Night-Music-Revival-Aug-1 "'Isn't It Bliss?' Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch Open in Night Music Revival Aug. 1] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100802083112/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/141676-Isnt-It-Bliss-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Open-in-Night-Music-Revival-Aug-1 \|date2010-08-02 }}. Playbill, August 1, 2010</ref><ref>McBride, Walter.[http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Photo_Coverage_Bernadette_Peters_and_Elaine_Stritch_Open_in_A_LITTLE_NIGHT_MUSIC_20100714 "Photo Coverage: Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch Open in 'A Little Night Music'"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100716042246/http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Photo_Coverage_Bernadette_Peters_and_Elaine_Stritch_Open_in_A_LITTLE_NIGHT_MUSIC_20100714 \|date2010-07-16 }}. Broadwayworld.com, July 14, 2010</ref> In an interview, Peters said that Sondheim had "proposed the idea to her this spring and urged the producers of the revival to cast her."<ref>Healy, Patrick. [http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/peters-stritch-to-join-night-music-cast/ "Peters, Stritch to Join Night Music Cast"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100610205306/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/peters-stritch-to-join-night-music-cast/ \|date2010-06-10}}. The New York Times, June 7, 2010</ref> Trevor Nunn directed rehearsals with the two new stars, and the rest of the original cast remained.<ref>Rizzo, Frank. [http://www.courant.com/features/hc-rizzo-ticker-0610-20100610,0,1197922.column "Elaine Stritch: She's Still Here – in West Hartford"]. Hartford Courant, June 10, 2010 {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100819221901/http://www.courant.com/features/hc-rizzo-ticker-0610-20100610%2C0%2C1197922.column \|dateAugust 19, 2010 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.broadway.com/shows/little-night-music/buzz/153809/a-little-night-music-sets-closing-date-peters-and-stritch-extend/ "A Little Night Music Sets Closing Date; Peters and Stritch Extend"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101018021912/http://www.broadway.com/shows/little-night-music/buzz/153809/a-little-night-music-sets-closing-date-peters-and-stritch-extend/ \|date2010-10-18 }}. Broadway.com</ref> Peters and Stritch extended their contracts until January 9, 2011, when the production closed with 20 previews and 425 regular performances.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/143644-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Extend-Run-in-Broadways-A-Little-Night-Music "Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch Extend Run in Broadway's A Little Night Music"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101008055545/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/143644-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Extend-Run-in-Broadways-A-Little-Night-Music \|date2010-10-08 }}. Playbill.com, October 5, 2010</ref> Before the production closed, it recouped its initial investment.<ref>Gans, Andrew. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/146428-Broadways-A-Little-Night-Music-with-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Recoups Broadway's A Little Night Music, with Bernadette Peters and Elaine Stritch, Recoups"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110109165320/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/146428-Broadways-A-Little-Night-Music-with-Bernadette-Peters-and-Elaine-Stritch-Recoups \|date2011-01-09 }}. Playbill, January 6, 2011</ref> Europe Zarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging (in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978 (here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman). The successful Stockholm staging was directed by Stig Olin. In 2010 the musical was scheduled to return to Stockholm and the Stockholm Stadsteater. The cast included Pia Johansson, Dan Ekborg, Yvonne Lombard and Thérese Andersson.{{citation needed\|date=January 2013}} The Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris production ran from February 15, 2010, through February 20, 2010. Lee Blakeley directed and Andrew George was the choreographer.<ref>Gans, Andrew and Jones, Kenneth.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/130840-Kristin_Scott_Thomas_and_Leslie_Caron_to_Star_in_A_Little_Night_Music_in_France "Kristin Scott Thomas and Leslie Caron to Star in 'A Little Night Music' in France"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090709035032/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/130840-Kristin_Scott_Thomas_and_Leslie_Caron_to_Star_in_A_Little_Night_Music_in_France \|dateJuly 9, 2009 }} playbill.com, July 6, 2009</ref> Italian-born actress Greta Scacchi played Désirée, and Leslie Caron played Madame Armfeldt.<ref>Hetrick, Adam.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/136884-Scacchi-and-Caron-Sing-A-Little-Night-Music-in-Paris-Beginning-Feb-15 "Scacchi and Caron Sing 'A Little Night Music' in Paris Beginning Feb. 15"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100329042148/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/136884-Scacchi-and-Caron-Sing-A-Little-Night-Music-in-Paris-Beginning-Feb-15 \|dateMarch 29, 2010 }} playbill.com, February 15, 2010</ref> The Turku City Theatre staged the musical in 2011 with {{ill\|Kirsi Tarvainen\|fi}} in the role as Désirée. {{ill\|Tuomas Parkkinen\|fi}} directed and Jussi Vahvaselkä was musical director. In 2019, the Nederlands Reisopera staged a version directed by Zack Winokur, with Susan Rigvava-Dumas playing Désirée. Opera companies and concerts The musical has also become part of the repertoire of a few opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. Light Opera Works (Evanston, Illinois) produced the work in August 1983. New York City Opera staged it in 1990, 1991 and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, the Los Angeles Opera in 2004, and Hartford Opera Theater in 2014. New York City Opera's production in August 1990 and July 1991 (a total of 18 performances) won the 1990 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and was telecast on the PBS show Live at Lincoln Center on November 7, 1990.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2024}} The cast included both stage performers: Sally Ann Howes and George Lee Andrews as Desiree and Frederik and opera regular Regina Resnik as Madame Armfeldt (in 1991).<ref>[http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html#1990NYCO 1990 New York City Opera Production] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170513233106/http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html \|date2017-05-13 }} sondheimguide.com, accessed October 21, 2012</ref> The 2003 production featured a young Anna Kendrick as Fredrika Armfeldt, alongside Jeremy Irons as Frederik, Juliet Stevenson as Desiree, Claire Bloom as Madame Armfeldt, Danny Gurwin as Henrik, Michele Pawk as Charlotte, Jessiva Boevers as Petra, Kristin Huxhold as Anne and Marc Kudisch as Carl-Magnus.<ref>[http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html#2003NYCO 2003 New York City Opera Production] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170513233106/http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html \|date2017-05-13 }} sondheimguide.com, accessed October 21, 2012</ref> The 2003 production was revived at Los Angeles Opera in July 2004. Kudish, Pawk, Gurwin and Boevers returned alongside Judith Ivey as Desiree, Zoe Caldwell as Madame Armfeldt, Victor Garber as Frederik, Laura Benanti as Anne and Kristen Bell as Fredrika.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html#2003NYCO \| title=Sondheim Guide / A Little Night Music }}</ref> Opera Australia presented the piece in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt and Nancye Hayes as Madame Armfeldt. The production returned in 2010 at the Sydney Opera House with Anthony Warlow taking on the role of Fredrik Egerman. The production was directed by Stuart Maunder, designed by Roger Kirk, and conducted by Andrew Greene.<ref>[http://www.opera-australia.org.au/scripts/nc.dll?OPRA:PRODUCTION:0:pcPC_90107 A Little Night Music] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120303061205/http://www.opera-australia.org.au/scripts/nc.dll?OPRA:PRODUCTION:0:pcPC_90107 \|date2012-03-03 }}, Opera Australia</ref> Opera Theatre of Saint Louis performed the musical in June 2010. Designer Isaac Mizrahi directed and designed the production, with a cast that included Amy Irving, Siân Phillips, and Ron Raines as Fredrik Egerman.<ref>{{cite magazine\|lastHetrick\|firstAdam\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100609094448/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140075-Mizrahi-Helmed-Night-Music-with-Irving-Phillips-and-Raines-Opens-in-St-Louis\|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/news/article/140075-Mizrahi-Helmed-Night-Music-with-Irving-Phillips-and-Raines-Opens-in-St-Louis\|titleMizrahi-Helmed Night Music, with Irving, Phillips and Raines, Opens in St. Louis\|dateJune 9, 2010\|magazinePlaybill\|archive-dateJune 9, 2010}}</ref> The piece has also become a popular choice for amateur musical theatre and light opera companies. In 2017, the musical was performed by students at The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/life/2023/11/14/a-little-night-music-msu-opera-theatre/71583274007/ \| title'A Little Night Music' on tap for MSU Opera Theatre }}</ref> In June 2024, there was a concert presentation at David Geffen Hall in Lincoln Center. The production starred star Susan Graham (Desiree Armfeldt), Cynthia Erivo (Petra), Ron Raines (Fredrik Egerman), Kerstin Anderson (Anne Egerman), Jonathan Christopher (Mr. Erlanson), Jason Gotay (Henrik Egerman), Ellie Fishman (Mrs. Nordstrom), Jin Ha (Frid), Addie Harrington (Fredrika Armfeldt), Shuler Hensley (Count Carl Magnus), Samantha Hill (Mrs. Segstrom), Andrea Jones-Sojola (Mrs. Anderson), Ross Lekites (Mr. Lindquist), Marsha Mason (Madam Armfeldt), and Ruthie Ann Miles (Countess Charlotte). The concert was produced by Jeff Berger, in association with Doug and Stacey Meyer, David and Ryan Belenzon, and Michael Lamon.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://broadwaydirect.com/star-studded-a-little-night-music-concert-to-play-david-geffen-hall/\|titleStar-Studded A Little Night Music Concert to Play David Geffen Hall &#124; Broadway Direct\|date25 March 2024 }}</ref>Film adaptation {{Main\|A Little Night Music (film)}} A film version of A Little Night Music was released in 1977. Cariou, Gingold, and Guittard reprise their broadway roles alongside Elizabeth Taylor as Desiree, Lesley-Anne Down as Anne and Diana Rigg as Charlotte. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria. Sondheim wrote lyrics for the "Night Waltz" theme ("Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of "The Glamorous Life", which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. However, other songs, including "In Praise of Women", "The Miller's Son" and "Liaisons", were cut and remain heard only as background orchestrations. The film marked Prince's second (and final) time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, with much being made of Taylor's wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene.<ref>{{cite news\|lastCanby\|firstVincent\|author-linkVincent Canby\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1978/03/08/archives/film-a-little-night-musicbergmaninspired.html\|titleFilm: A Little Night Music: Bergman-Inspired\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateMarch 8, 1978}}</ref> Some critics talked more positively of the film, with Variety calling it "an elegant looking, period romantic charade".<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://variety.com/1976/film/reviews/a-little-night-music-4-1200424049/\|titleA Little Night Music\|magazineVariety\|access-dateMay 15, 2019}}</ref> There was praise for Diana Rigg's performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for his work on the score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and a DVD release was issued in June 2007.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2024}} Music analysis The score for A Little Night Music presents performance challenges more often seen in operetta or light opera pieces than in standard musical comedy. The demands made on the singing cast are considerable; although the vocal demands of the role of Desiree are rather small, most of the other singing roles require strong, legitimately-trained voices with fairly wide ranges. Sondheim's liberal use of counterpoint extends to the vocal parts, including a free-structured round (the trio "Perpetual Anticipation") as well as songs in which characters engage in interior monologues or even overt dialogue simultaneously ("Now/Later/Soon", "A Weekend in the Country"). Critic Rex Reed noted that "The score of 'Night Music' ...contains patter songs, contrapuntal duets and trios, a quartet, and even a dramatic double quintet to puzzle through. All this has been gorgeously orchestrated by Jonathan Tunick; there is no rhythm section, only strings and woodwinds to carry the melodies and harmonies aloft."<ref>Deutsch, Didier C.[http://www.masterworksbroadway.com/music/a-little-night-music "'A Little Night Music' Liner Notes, Song List and Synopsis"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110105094459/http://www.masterworksbroadway.com/music/a-little-night-music \|date2011-01-05 }} masterworksbroadway.com, retrieved June 9, 2010</ref> Sondheim's engagement with threes extends to his lyrics. He organizes trios with the singers separated, while his duets are sung together, about a third person.<ref name="tunick" /> The work is performed as an operetta in many professional opera companies. For example, it was added to the New York City Opera Company repertoire in 1990.<ref>Green, Kay. "Broadway Musicals, Show By Show" (1996). Hal Leonard Corporation. {{ISBN\|0-7935-7750-0}}, p. 237</ref> {{music\|time\|3\|4}} time Most of the music in the show is written in waltz meter ({{music\|time\|3\|4}} time). Some parts adopt compound meter, with a time signature such as {{music\|time\|12\|8}}.<ref name="tunick"> {{cite book \|url https://books.google.com/books?id90jK8A_nzqUC&q=A+Little+Night+Music \|title = A Little Night Music (Libretto) \|last1 = Sondheim \|first1 = Stephen \|last2 = Prince \|first2 = Hal \|last3 = Tunick \|first3 = Neal \|date = November 30, 1973 \|publisher = Applause Theater Book Publishers \|access-date = 15 December 2009 \|url-status = live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180209025532/https://books.google.com/books?id90jK8A_nzqUC&dqA+Little+Night+Music&printsecfrontcover \|archive-date = 9 February 2018 \|isbn = 9781557830708 }}</ref> Passages in "Overture", "Glamorous Life", "Liaisons", "Every Day A Little Death", and "The Miller's Son" are in duple meter.{{sfn\|Citron\|2001\|p204}}Counterpoint and polyphonyAt several points, Sondheim has multiple performers each sing a different song simultaneously. This use of counterpoint maintains coherence even as it extends the notion of a round, familiar in songs such as the traditional "Frère Jacques", into something more complex. Sondheim said: "As for the three songs ... going together well, I might as well confess. In those days I was just getting into contrapuntal and choral writing...and I wanted to develop my technique by writing a trio. What I didn't want to do is the quodlibet method...wouldn't it be nice to have three songs you don't think are going to go together, and they do go together ... The trick was the little vamp on "Soon" which has five-and six-note chords."<ref name"swayne">Swayne, Steve. How Sondheim Found His Sound, University of Michigan Press, 2007, {{ISBN\|0-472-03229-1}}, p. 251</ref> Steve Swayne comments that the "contrapuntal episodes in the extended ensembles ... stand as testament to his interest in Counterpoint."<ref name"swayne" />"Send In The Clowns"The show's best-known and Sondheim's biggest hit song was almost an afterthought, written several days before the start of out-of-town tryouts.{{sfn\|Citron\|2001\|p207}} Sondheim initially conceived Desiree as a role for a more or less non-singing actress. When he discovered that the original Desiree, Glynis Johns, was able to sing (she had a "small, silvery voice")<ref name"secrest">Secrest, Meryle. "Stephen Sondheim: A Life" (1998). Dell Publishing. {{ISBN\|0-385-33412-5}}, pp. 251–252</ref> but could not "sustain a phrase", he devised the song "Send in the Clowns" for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e.g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut-off.<ref name"secrest" /> "It is written in short phrases in order to be acted rather than sung ... tailor-made for Glynis Johns, who lacks the vocal power to sustain long phrases."<ref>Sondheim, S., Shevelove, B., Gelbart, L., Wheeler, H., and Lapine, J. "Four by Sondheim, Wheeler, Lapine, Shevelove and Gelbart" (2000). Hal Leonard Corporation. {{ISBN\|1-55783-407-5}}, p. 170</ref> In analyzing the text of the song, Max Cryer wrote that it "is not intended to be sung by the young in love, but by a mature performer who has seen it all before. The song remains an anthem to regret for unwise decisions in the past and recognition that there's no need to send in the clowns – they're already here."<ref>Cryer, Max. ''Love Me Tender: The Stories Behind the World's Best-loved Songs. Frances Lincoln Ltd, 2008, {{ISBN\|0-7112-2911-2}}, p. 171</ref> Graham Wolfe has argued, "What Desirée is referring to in the famous song is a conventional device to cover over a moment when something has gone wrong on stage. Midway through the second Act she has deviated from her usual script by suggesting to Fredrik the possibility of being together seriously and permanently, and, having been rejected, she falters as a show-person, finds herself bereft of the capacity to improvise and wittily cover. If Desirée could perform at this moment – revert to the innuendos, one-liners and blithe self-referential humour that constitutes her normal character – all would be well. She cannot, and what follows is an exemplary manifestation of Sondheim’s musico-dramatic complexity, his inclination to write music that performs drama. That is, what needs to be covered over (by the clowns sung about in the song) is the very intensity, ragged emotion and utter vulnerability that comes forward through the music and singing itself, a display protracted to six minutes, wrought with exposed silences, a shocked Fredrik sitting so uncomfortably before Desirée while something much too real emerges in a realm where he – and his audience – felt assured of performance."{{sfn\|Wolfe\|2014}} Influences There is a Mozart reference in the title&mdash;A Little Night Music is an occasionally-used translation of Eine kleine Nachtmusik'', the nickname of Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically-advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his Valses nobles et sentimentales{{sfn\|Citron\|2001\|pp200, 203}} (whose opening chord is borrowed for the opening chord of the song "Liaisons"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used. There is also a direct quotation in 'A Weekend in the Country' (just as it moves to A{{music\|b}} major for the last time in the final section of the number) of Octavian's theme from Strauss' 'Der Rosenkavalier', another comedy of manners with partner-swapping at its heart. Orchestration The original Broadway pit consisted of a 17 piece orchestra. * Strings: 2 violins 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp * Brass: 2 trumpets (1 player), 3 horns, 1 trombone * Keyboards: 1 piano/celesta * Woodwinds: Reed 1: alto flute, flute, piccolo Reed 2: clarinet, flute Reed 3: bass clarinet, clarinet Reed 4: English horn, oboe ** Reed 5: bassoon, clarinet * Percussion: (1 player) bells, crotales, snare drum, triangle, tympani, xylophone The 2008 revival of the show modified the orchestrations to an 8 piece pit, re-orchestrated by Jason Carr.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Little Night Music (Broadway, Walter Kerr Theatre, 2009) \|urlhttps://playbill.com/production/a-little-night-music-walter-kerr-theatre-vault-0000010031 \|access-date2022-03-16 \|websitePlaybill \|language=en}}</ref> * Strings: 1 violin 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp * Keyboards: 1 piano/synthesizer * Woodwinds: 1 player ** Bassoon: 1 player Cast recordings In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival (starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter.<ref>[http://www.sondheimguide.com/nightrecs.html "Recordings, 'A Little Night Music'"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100223163515/http://www.sondheimguide.com/nightrecs.html \|date2010-02-23 }} sondheimguide.com, retrieved June 8, 2010</ref> The 2009 Broadway revival with Catherine Zeta-Jones and Angela Lansbury recorded a cast album on January 4, 2010, which was released on April 6.<ref>Hetrick, Adam and Jones, Kenneth.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/138450-A-Little-Night-Music-CD-Released-April-6-Sondheim-and-Co-Host-Signing "'A Little Night Music' CD Released April 6; Sondheim and Co. Host Signing"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100611201228/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/138450-A-Little-Night-Music-CD-Released-April-6-Sondheim-and-Co-Host-Signing \|dateJune 11, 2010 }} playbill.com, April 6, 2010</ref> Critical response In his review of the original 1973 Broadway production, Clive Barnes in The New York Times called the musical "heady, civilized, sophisticated and enchanting." He noted that "the real triumph belongs to Stephen Sondheim...the music is a celebration of 3/4 time, an orgy of plaintively memorable waltzes, all talking of past loves and lost worlds...There is a peasant touch here." He commented that the lyrics are "breathtaking".<ref>Barnes, Clive, "The Theater: A Little Night Music", The New York Times, February 26, 1973, p. 26</ref> In its review of the 1989 London revival, the reviewer for The Guardian wrote that the "production also strikes me as infinitely superior to Harold Prince's 1975 version at the Adelphi. Mr Judge's great innovation is to transform the Liebeslieder Singers from the evening-dressed, after-dinner line-up into 18th century ghosts weaving in and out of the action...But Mr Judge's other great realisation is that, in Sondheim, the lyrics are not an adornment to a song but their very essence: understand them and the show will flow. Thus Dorothy Tutin as Desiree, the touring thesp eventually reunited with her quondam lover, is not the melting romantic of previous productions but a working mother with the sharpness of a hat-pin."<ref>Billington, Michael. "Arts: Night of the short memories - A Little Night Music", The Guardian (London). October 23, 1989{{page needed\|date=May 2021}}</ref> The Independent review of the 1995 National Theatre revival praised the production, writing "For three hours of gloriously barbed bliss and bewitchment, Sean Mathias's production establishes the show as a minor miracle of astringent worldly wisdom and one that is haunted by less earthy intimations." The review went on to state that "The heart of the production, in both senses, is Judi Dench's superb Desiree Armfeldt...Her husky-voiced rendering of "Send in the Clowns" is the most moving I've ever heard."<ref>Taylor, Paul and Seckerson, Edward.[https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/double-take-reviews-a-little-night-music-1603205.html "Double Take: Reviews: 'A Little Night Music'"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170116184311/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/double-take-reviews-a-little-night-music-1603205.html \|date2017-01-16 }}Independent, September 1995</ref> In reviewing the 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production, the Telegraph reviewer wrote that "Sondheim's lyrics are often superbly witty, his music here, mostly in haunting waltz-time, far more accessible than is sometimes the case. The score positively throbs with love, regret and desire." But of the specific production, the reviewer went on to note: "But Nunn's production, on one of those hermetic sets largely consisting of doors and tarnished mirrors that have become such a cliché in recent years, never penetrates the work's subtly erotic heart. And as is often the case with this director's work, the pace is so slow and the mood so reverent, that initial enchantment gives way to bored fidgeting."<ref name="telegraph" /> In his New York Times review of the 2009 Broadway production, Ben Brantley noted that "the expression that hovers over Trevor Nunn's revival...feels dangerously close to a smirk...It is a smirk shrouded in shadows. An elegiac darkness infuses this production." The production is "sparing on furniture and heavy on shadows", with "a scaled-down orchestra at lugubriously slowed-down tempos..." He goes on to write that "this somber, less-is-more approach could be effective were the ensemble plugged into the same rueful sensibility. But there is only one moment in this production when all its elements cohere perfectly. That moment, halfway through the first act, belongs to Ms. Lansbury, who has hitherto been perfectly entertaining, playing Madame Armfeldt with the overripe aristocratic condescension of a Lady Bracknell. Then comes her one solo, "Liaisons", in which her character thinks back on the art of love as a profession in a gilded age, when sex 'was but a pleasurable means to a measurable end.' Her face, with its glamour-gorgon makeup, softens, as Madame Armfeldt seems to melt into memory itself, and the wan stage light briefly appears to borrow radiance from her. It's a lovely example of the past reaching out to the present..."<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/theater/reviews/14little.html\|titleA Weekend in the Country With Eros and Thanatos\|lastBrantley\|firstBen\|author-linkBen Brantley\|date2009-12-14\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2017-07-14\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170313085109/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/theater/reviews/14little.html\|archive-date=2017-03-13}}</ref> Steven Suskin, reviewing the new Broadway cast for Variety, wrote "What a difference a diva makes. Bernadette Peters steps into the six-month-old revival of A Little Night Music with a transfixing performance, playing it as if she realizes her character's onstage billing -- "the one and only Desiree Armfeldt"—is clichéd hyperbole. By figuratively rolling her eyes at the hype, Peters gives us a rich, warm and comedically human Desiree, which reaches full impact when she pierces the façade with a nakedly honest, tears-on-cheek 'Send in the Clowns.'"<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://variety.com/2010/legit/news/a-little-night-music-1117943265/\|titleReview: 'A Little Night Music'\|lastSuskin\|firstSteven\|date2010-08-02\|workVariety\|access-date2017-07-14\|languageen-US\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180209025532/https://variety.com/2010/legit/news/a-little-night-music-1117943265/\|archive-date2018-02-09}}</ref> Awards and nominations Original Broadway production{\| class"wikitable" style="width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award Ceremony ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan"24" style"text-align:center;"\| 1973 \| rowspan="12"\| Tony Award \| colspan="2"\| Best Musical \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Book of a Musical \| Hugh Wheeler \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Original Score \| Stephen Sondheim \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical \| Len Cariou \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical \| Glynis Johns \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical \| Laurence Guittard \| {{nom}} \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical \| Patricia Elliott \| {{won}} \|- \| Hermione Gingold \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Costume Design \| Florence Klotz \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Scenic Design \| Boris Aronson \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Lighting Design \| Tharon Musser \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Direction of a Musical \| Harold Prince \| {{nom}} \|- \| rowspan="7"\| Drama Desk Award \| Outstanding Book of a Musical \| Hugh Wheeler \| {{won}} \|- \| Outstanding Music \| rowspan="2"\| Stephen Sondheim \| {{won}} \|- \| Outstanding Lyrics \| {{won}} \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Outstanding Actress in a Musical \| Glynis Johns \| {{won}} \|- \| Patricia Elliott \| {{nom}} \|- \| Outstanding Director \| Harold Prince \| {{won}} \|- \| Most Promising Performer \| D'Jamin Bartlett \| {{won}} \|- \| Grammy Award \| colspan="2"\| Best Musical Show Album \| {{won}} \|- \| rowspan"3" colspan"2"\| Theatre World Award \| Laurence Guittard \| {{won}} \|- \| Patricia Elliott \| {{won}} \|- \| D'Jamin Bartlett \| {{won}} \|- \| New York Drama Critics' Circle Award<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNew York Drama Critics' Circle Awards Past Winners\|urlhttps://www.dramacritics.org/dc_pastawards.html \|access-date31 January 2025 \|websiteNew York Drama Critics' Circle\|language=en}}</ref> \| Best Musical \| Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler \| {{won}} \|} 1995 London revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award Ceremony ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan"4" style"text-align:center;"\| 1995 \| rowspan="4"\| Laurence Olivier Award \| Best Actress in a Musical \| Judi Dench \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical \| Siân Phillips \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Theatre Choreographer \| Wayne McGregor \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Costume Design \| Nicky Gillibrand \| {{nom}} \|} 2009 London Revival {\| class"wikitable" width"95%" ! width="5%"\| Year ! width="20%"\| Award Ceremony ! width="45%"\| Category ! width="20%"\| Nominee ! width="10%"\| Result \|- \| rowspan="5" \|2010 \| rowspan="5" \|Laurence Olivier Award \| colspan="2" \|Best Revival of a Musical \|{{nom}} \|- \|Best Actress in a Musical \|Hannah Waddingham \|{{nom}} \|- \|Best Actor in a Musical \|Alexander Hanson \|{{nom}} \|- \|Best Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical \|Maureen Lipman \|{{nom}} \|- \|Best Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical \|Kelly Price \|{{nom}} \|} 2009 Broadway revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award Ceremony ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan"10" style"text-align:center;"\| 2010 \| rowspan="4"\| Tony Award \| colspan="2"\| Best Revival of a Musical \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical \| Catherine Zeta-Jones \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical \| Angela Lansbury \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Sound Design \| Dan Moses Schreier and Gareth Owen \| {{nom}} \|- \| rowspan="3"\| Drama Desk Award \| colspan="2"\| Outstanding Revival of a Musical \| {{nom}} \|- \| Outstanding Actress in a Musical \| Catherine Zeta-Jones \| {{won}} \|- \| Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical \| Angela Lansbury \| {{nom}} \|- \| rowspan="3"\| Outer Critics Circle Award \| colspan="2"\| Outstanding Revival of a Musical \| {{nom}} \|- \| Outstanding Actress in a Musical \| Catherine Zeta-Jones \| {{won}} \|- \| Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical \| Angela Lansbury \| {{nom}} \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2011 \| Grammy Award<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/145450-Idiot-Fela-Night-Music-Promises-and-Sondheim-Are-Grammy-Nominated "Idiot, Fela!, Night Music, Promises and Sondheim Are Grammy-Nominated"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101206000113/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/145450-Idiot-Fela-Night-Music-Promises-and-Sondheim-Are-Grammy-Nominated \|date2010-12-06 }} playbill.com, December 1, 2010</ref> \| colspan="2"\| Best Musical Show Album \| {{nom}} \|} References {{Reflist\|30em}} Sources * {{cite book\|lastCitron\|firstStephen\|author-linkStephen Citron\|titleSondheim and Lloyd-Webber: The New Musical\|year2001\|seriesThe Great Songwriters\|publisherOxford University Press US\|isbn0-19-509601-0}} * {{cite journal\|lastWolfe\|firstGraham\|titleSondheim's A Little Night Music: Reconciling the comic and the sublime\|journalStudies in Musical Theatre\|volume8\|number2\|dateJune 2014\|pages143–157\|doi10.1386/smt.8.2.143_1}}External links * {{ibdb show\|1162}} [https://www.sondheimdatabase.com/shows/a-little-night-music A Little Night Music] at the Sondheim Database [http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html A Little Night Music on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide] * [http://www.mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000048 A Little Night Music] at the Music Theatre International website * [https://stageagent.com/shows/musical/203/a-little-night-music "Show Information], plot summary and character descriptions, stageagent.com ([https://web.archive.org/web/20080122081621/http://stageagent.com/Shows/View/735 January 2008 archive]) * [http://www.nightmusiconbroadway.com/ A Little Night Music], Broadway revival {{Smiles of a Summer Night}} {{Navboxes \| title = Awards for A Little Night Music \| list = {{Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album}} {{TonyAward Musical}} {{TonyAward MusicalBook}} {{TonyAward MusicalScore}} }} {{Stephen Sondheim}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Little Night Music, A}} Category:1973 musicals Category:Broadway musicals Category:West End musicals Category:Musicals based on films Category:Musicals by Hugh Wheeler Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim Category:Adaptations of works by Ingmar Bergman Category:American plays adapted into films Category:Tony Award for Best Musical Category:Tony Award–winning musicals Category:Musicals set in Sweden Category:Musicals set in the 1900s	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Little_Night_Music	2025-04-05T18:26:12.826469
2943	Dual wield	thumb\|250px\|Mongolian soldiers dual wielding knives during skills display Dual wielding or Macedonian shooting is the technique of using two weapons, one in each hand, for training or combat. It is not a common combat practice. Although historical records of dual wielding in war are limited, there are numerous weapon-based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. The use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in European martial arts and fencing, such as a parrying dagger. Miyamoto Musashi, a Japanese swordsman and ronin, was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords. In terms of firearms, especially handguns, dual wielding is generally denounced by firearm enthusiasts due to its impracticality. Though using two handguns at the same time confers an advantage by allowing more ready ammunition, it is rarely done due to other aspects of weapons handling. Dual wielding, both with melee and ranged weapons, has been popularized by fictional works (film, television, and video games). History alt=A young boy in a black vest over a white shirt and a black hat raises a pistol high in his right hand and lets another hang from his left hand.\|thumb\|An urban proletariat boy dual wields pistols in Eugène Delacroix's painting La Liberté guidant le peuple. Dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon-based martial arts and fencing practices. The dimachaerus was a type of Roman gladiator that fought with two swords. Thus, an inscription from Lyon, France, mentions such a type of gladiator, here spelled dymacherus. The dimachaeri were equipped for close-combat fighting. A dimachaerus used a pair of siccae (curved scimitar) or gladius and used a fighting style adapted to both attack and defend with his weapons rather than a shield, as he was not equipped with one. The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. North American Indian tribes of the Atlantic northeast used a form involving a tomahawk in the primary hand and a knife in the secondary. It is practiced today as part of the modern Cree martial art Okichitaw. All the above-mentioned examples, involve either one long and one short weapon, or two short weapons. An example of a dual wield of two sabres is the Ukrainian cossack dance hopak. Asia During the campaign Muslim conquest in 6th to 7th century AD, a Rashidun caliphate general named Khalid ibn Walid was reported to favor wielding two broad swords, with one in each hand, during combat. Traditional schools of Japanese martial arts include dual wield techniques, particularly a style conceived by Miyamoto Musashi involving the katana and wakizashi, two-sword kenjutsu techniques he called Niten Ichi-ryū. Eskrima, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines teaches Doble Baston techniques involving the basic use of a pair of rattan sticks and also Espada y daga or Sword/Stick and Dagger. Okinawan martial arts have a method that uses a pair of sai. Chinese martial arts involve the use of a pair of butterfly swords and hook swords. Famed for his enormous strength, Dian Wei, a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China, excelled at wielding a pair of ji (a halberd-like weapon), each of which was said to weigh 40 jin. Chen An, a warlord who lived during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period, wielded a sword and a serpent spear in each hand, supposedly measuring at 7 chi and 1 zhang 8 chi respectively. During Ran Wei–Later Zhao war, Ran Min, emperor of the short-lived Ran Wei empire of China, wielded two weapons, one in each hand, and fought fiercely, inflicting many casualties on the Xianbei soldiers while mounted on the famous horse Zhu Long ("Red Dragon"). Gatka, a weapon-based martial art from the Punjab region, is known to use two sticks at a time. The Thailand weapon-based martial art Krabi Krabong involves the use of a separate Krabi in each hand. Kalaripayattu teaches advanced students to use either two sticks (of various sizes) or two daggers or two swords, simultaneously. Modern The use of a gun in each hand is often associated with the American Old West, mainly due to media portrayals. It was common for people in the era to carry two guns, but not to use them at the same time, as shown in movies. The second gun served as a backup weapon, to be used only if the main one suffered a malfunction or was lost or emptied. However, there were several examples of gunmen in the West who actually used two pistols at the same time in their gunfights: John Wesley Hardin killed a gunman named Benjamin Bradley who shot at him, by drawing both of his pistols and firing back. The Mexican vaquero Augustine Chacon had several gunfights in which he was outnumbered by more than one gunman and prevailed by equipping himself with a revolver in each hand. King Fisher once managed to kill three bandits in a shootout by pulling both of his pistols. During the infamous Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight, lawman Dallas Stoudenmire pulled both of his pistols as he ran out onto the street and killed one bystander and two other gunmen. Jonathan R. Davis, a prospector during the California Gold Rush, was ambushed by thirteen outlaws while together with two of his comrades. One of his friends was killed and the other was mortally wounded during the ambush. Davis drew both of his revolvers and fired, killing seven of the bandits, and killing four more with his bowie knife, causing the final two to flee. thumb\|Model dressed as Lara Croft dual wielding pistols Dual wielding two handguns has been popularized by film and television. Effectiveness MythBusters compared many firing stances, including having a gun in each hand, and found that, compared to the two-handed single-gun stance as a benchmark, only the one-handed shoulder-level stance with a single gun was comparable in terms of accuracy and speed. The ability to look down the sights of the gun was given as the main reason for this. In an episode the following year, they compared holding two guns and firing simultaneously—rather than alternating left and right shots—with holding one gun in the two-handed stance, and found that the results were in favor of using two guns and firing simultaneously. In media The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles features dual wielding being done by Leonardo with two katana swords, Raphael with two sais, and Michelangelo with two nunchucks. Sometimes, their arch enemy known as the Shredder dual wields with many weapons. Princess Mononoke features Lady Eboshi dual wielding with a katana sword and a hairpin. The Marvel Comics features dual wielding being done by Deadpool with two katana swords, Nightcrawler with two sabres, Elektra with two sais, and Black Widow with two pistols and two batons. The DC Comics features Dick Grayson and Barbara Gordon dual wielding two bastons. The Star Wars franchise features many characters dual wielding two lightsabers or more including Anakin Skywalker, Ahsoka Tano, and General Grievous. Star Wars: The Clone Wars features Palpatine and his former apprentice, Darth Maul, dual wielding two lightsabers each. Also, characters dual wielding two blaster pistols include Jango Fett and Bo-Katan Kryze. The Halo franchise allows dual-wielding weapons from Halo 2 and Halo 3 onwards. The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe features the noble centaur general Oreius dual wielding two longswords, and also the oppressive White Witch doing the same. It also features the Minotaur general Otmin dual wielding a falchion sword and a battle axe. Ip Man 3 features butterfly swords being dual wielded by Ip Man and Cheung Tin-chi. The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings features the virtuous wizard Gandalf dual wielding a magic staff and a mystic longsword. The Mummy Returns features the adventurous Egyptologist Evelyn O'Connell and the treacherous Anck-su-namun dual wielding two sais. The Pirates of the Caribbean features characters dual wielding two swords including Jack Sparrow, Will Turner, and Elizabeth Swann. The martial arts movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon features Michelle Yeoh as Yu Shu Lien dual wielding with a dao sword which split to two, and then with two hook swords. The Three Musketeers features many characters dual fighting with rapiers and daggers. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers features Tommy Oliver dual wielding a sword and a dagger. Robin of Sherwood features Nasir, a Saracen assassin who dual wields two scimitars. Avatar: The Legend of Aang features dual wielding done by Zuko with two dao swords, Jet with two hook swords, Suki with two war fans, and Sokka with a machete along a club or a boomerang. The Transformers features dual wielding being done by many characters including Optimus Prime and Optimus Primal with two swords. Kung Fu Hustle features iron rings being dual wielded by the humble tailor of Pigsty Alley. Power Rangers: Jungle Fury features dual wielding being done by Casey Rhodes with two nunchakus and also two dao-themed Shark Sabres, Theo Martin with two tonfas and then two tessan-themed Jungle Fans, and Camille with two sais. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) martial arts film Shang Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings features the Ten Rings be dual wielded by Wenwu, the MCU version of the Mandarin, and then by Shang Chi, his son. The musical version of The Lion King features Mufasa and his son Simba dual wielding two akrafena swords to fight. Lara Croft, the heroine of the Tomb Raider franchise, dual wields two pistols. Dante, the protagonist of the Devil May Cry series, dual wields two pistols, named Ebony and Ivory. Kirito, the protagonist of Sword Art Online, is famous for being able to wield two swords of a similar length at the same time. See also Ambidexterity Cross-dominance Dimachaerus Gun fu Swordsmanship References Category:Combat Category:Video game terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_wield	2025-04-05T18:26:12.840446
2944	Ariel Sharon	{{Short description\|Prime Minister of Israel from 2001 to 2006}} {{For\|the Israeli architect\|Arieh Sharon}} {{pp-extended\|expiry05:47, 26 December 2017\|smallyes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2023}} {{Infobox officeholder \| native_name = {{nobold\|אריאל שרון}} \| image = Ariel Sharon official portrait (D644-090) (cropped).jpg \| caption = Official portrait, 2001 \| order = 11th \| office = Prime Minister of Israel \| term_start = 7 March 2001 \| term_end = 14 April 2006{{ref label\|Acting\|nb}} \| president = Moshe Katsav \| predecessor = Ehud Barak \| successor = Ehud Olmert \| deputy = Ehud Olmert \| office2 = Ministerial portfolios \| subterm2 = 1977–1981 \| suboffice2 = Agriculture \| subterm3 = 1981–1983 \| suboffice3 = Defense \| subterm4 = 1984–1990 \| suboffice4 = Industry and Trade \| subterm5 = 1990–1992 \| suboffice5 = Housing and Construction \| subterm6 = 1996–1999 \| suboffice6 = National Infrastructure \| subterm7 = 1998–1999 \| suboffice7 = Minister of Foreign Affairs \| subterm8 = 2001–2003 \| suboffice8 = Immigrant Absorption \| subterm9 = 2002–2003 \| suboffice9 = Industry and Trade \| subterm10 = 2002 \| suboffice10 = Foreign Affairs \| subterm11 = 2003 \| suboffice11 {{hlist\|classnowraplinks\|Communications\|Religious Affairs}} \| birth_name = Ariel Scheinerman(n) \| birth_date {{Birth date\|1928\|2\|26\|dfyes}} \| birth_place = Kfar Malal, Mandatory Palestine \| death_date {{Death date and age\|2014\|1\|11\|1928\|2\|26\|dfyes}} \| death_place = Ramat Gan, Israel \| party = {{plainlist\| * Liberal (1973–1974)<ref>{{cite news \|url https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/13/world/man-in-the-news-laurels-for-israeli-warrior.html \|titleMan in the News; Laurels for Israeli Warrior \|authorHenry Kamm \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date=13 June 1982}}</ref> * Shlomtzion (1977) * Likud (1977–2005)<ref>{{cite news\|url https://apnews.com/e1434d89d1349fbb6922821697b55a83 \|titleNew Israeli Cabinet Approved by Parliament \|workAssociated Press \|date11 June 1990 }}</ref> * Kadima (from 2005) }} \| spouse = {{plainlist\| * {{marriage\|Margalit Zimmerman\|1953\|2 May 1962\|reason = died}} * {{marriage\|Lily Zimmerman\|1963\|25 March 2000\|reason = died}} }} \| children = 3 \| alma_mater = {{plainlist\| * Hebrew University <!-- of Jerusalem --> * Tel Aviv University}} \| profession = Military officer \| signature = Ariel Sharon signature.svg \| footnotes = n.b.&nbsp;{{note\|Acting\|\|Ehud Olmert served as acting prime minister from 4&nbsp;January 2006}} <!--Military service-->\| allegiance = <!-- Israel --> \| branch = {{plainlist\| * Haganah * Israel Defense Forces }} \| serviceyears = 1948–1974 \| rank = {{transliteration\|he\|Aluf}} (major general) \| unit = {{plainlist\| * Paratroopers Brigade * Unit 101 * Golani Brigade }} \| commands = {{plainlist\| * Southern Command * Paratroopers Brigade * Unit 101 * Golani Brigade }} \| battles = {{plainlist\| * 1947–1949 Palestine war * Reprisal operations * Suez Crisis * Six-Day War * Yom Kippur War }} \| native_name_lang = he }} Ariel Sharon ({{langx\|he\|אֲרִיאֵל שָׁרוֹן}} {{IPA\|he\|aʁiˈ(ʔ)el ʃaˈʁon\|\|He-Ariel Sharon.ogg}}; also known by his diminutive Arik, {{lang\|he\|אָרִיק}}; 26 February 1928{{snd}}11 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th prime minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006.<ref>{{cite news\|lastLis \|firstJonathan \|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.546747 \|titleAriel Sharon, former Israeli prime minister, dies at 85 \|newspaperHaaretz \|agencyNational Israel News \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111174341/http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.546747 \|archive-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref> Born in Kfar Malal in Mandatory Palestine to Russian Jewish immigrants, he rose in the ranks of the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948, participating in the 1948 Palestine war as platoon commander of the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in several battles. Sharon became an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations, including the 1953 Qibya massacre, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon "the greatest field commander in our history".<ref name"Israel page 19-24">"Israel's Man of War", Michael Kramer, New York, pp. 19–24, 9 August 1982: "the "greatest field commander in our history," says Yitzak Rabin"</ref> Upon leaving the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War. An official enquiry found that he bore "personal responsibility" for the Sabra and Shatila massacre of Palestinian refugees, for which he became known as the "Butcher of Beirut" among Arabs. He was subsequently removed as defense minister.<ref namebutcher /><ref>{{cite news \| lastMacFarquhar \| firstNeil \| titleTo Arabs in the Street, Sharon's a Butcher; Some Others Show a Kind of Respect \| newspaperThe New York Times \| date6 January 2006 \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/world/middleeast/to-arabs-in-the-street-sharons-a-butcher-some-others-show.html \| access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref> From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip. He became the leader of the Likud in 1999, and in 2000, amid campaigning for the 2001 prime ministerial election, made a controversial visit to the Al-Aqsa complex on the Temple Mount, triggering the Second Intifada. He subsequently defeated Ehud Barak in the election and served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier in 2002–2003 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Facing stiff opposition to the latter policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals.<ref nameRees>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.salon.com/2011/10/22/ariel_sharons_fascinating_appetite/ \|titleAriel Sharon's fascinating appetite \|firstMatt \|lastRees \|newspaperSalon \|date22 October 2011 \|archive-date18 November 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121118155226/http://www.salon.com/2011/10/22/ariel_sharons_fascinating_appetite/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"timesofisrael.com">{{cite news\|authorElhanan Miller \|urlhttp://www.timesofisrael.com/sharon-was-about-to-leave-two-thirds-of-the-west-bank \|titleSharon was about to leave two-thirds of the West Bank \|newspaperThe Times of Israel \|date19 February 2013 \|archive-date21 February 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130221140742/http://www.timesofisrael.com/sharon-was-about-to-leave-two-thirds-of-the-west-bank \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Terrorism 2013, page 9">{{cite book\|authorDerek S. Reveron, Jeffrey Stevenson Murer\|titleFlashpoints in the War on Terrorism \|publisherRoutledge\|year2013\|page9}}</ref> Following a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/world/scientists-say-comatose-former-israeli-leader-ariel-sharon-shows-robust-brain-activity/ \|titleScientists say comatose former Israeli leader Ariel Sharon shows 'robust' brain activity \|publisherFox News \|date28 January 2013 \|access-date12 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130129100008/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/01/28/scientists-say-comatose-former-israeli-leader-ariel-sharon-shows-robust-brain/ \|archive-date29 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|lastSoffer \|firstAri \|titleAriel Sharon Passes Away, Aged 85 \|urlhttp://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/176162 \|publisherArutz Sheva \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111182224/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/176162 \|archive-date11 January 2014 }}</ref><ref namebbcdeath>{{cite news\|authorYolande Knell \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25696601 \|titleIsrael's ex-PM Ariel Sharon dies, aged 85 \|workBBC News \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111152524/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25696601 \|archive-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref> Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle Eastern history. Israelis almost universally revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, whereas Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal, with the latter lamenting that he was never held accountable.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2014-01-11 \|titleAriel Sharon: Hero or butcher? Five things to know \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/11/world/meast/ariel-sharon-5-things/index.html \|publisherCNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2014-01-11 \|titleIsrael: Ariel Sharon's Troubling Legacy \|urlhttps://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/11/israel-ariel-sharons-troubling-legacy \|publisherHuman Rights Watch \|languageen}}</ref>Early life and educationAriel (Arik) Scheinerman (later Sharon) was born in Kfar Malal, an agricultural moshav, then in Mandatory Palestine, to Shmuel Scheinerman (1896–1956) of Brest-Litovsk and Vera (née Schneirov) Scheinerman (1900–1988) of Mogilev.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/12/world/middleeast/ariel-sharon-fierce-defender-of-a-strong-israel-dies-at-85.html \|authorEthan Bronner \|titleAriel Sharon, Israeli Hawk Who Sought Peace on His Terms, Dies at 85 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111131821/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/12/world/middleeast/ariel-sharon-fierce-defender-of-a-strong-israel-dies-at-85.html \|archive-date11 January 2014 }}</ref> His parents met while at university in Tiflis (now Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia), where Sharon's father was studying agronomy and his mother was studying medicine. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist government's growing persecution of Jews in the region.<ref name"google">{{cite book\|titleAriel Sharon\|author1Crompton, S.W.\|author2Worth, R.\|date2007\|publisherFacts on File, Incorporated\|isbn978-1-4381-0464-5\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZDnaWshrMwwC&pgPA20\|page20\|access-date6 January 2017}}</ref> In Palestine, Vera Scheinerman went by the name Dvora. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, a socialist, secular community.<ref name"ha'aretz obit">{{cite news\|authorLis, Jonathan \|titleAriel Sharon, former Israeli prime minister, dies at 85 \|newspaperHaaretz \|date11 January 2014 \|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.546747 \|access-date13 January 2014 \|archive-date11 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111174341/http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.546747 }}</ref> (Ariel Sharon himself would remain proudly secular throughout his life.<ref name"usatoday.com">[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/01/12/ariel-sharon-funeral/4439399 Thousands say farewell to Israel's Ariel Sharon] by Michele Chabin, Special for USA Today, 12 January 2014</ref>) Although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus: "The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism ... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevik-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce."<ref>{{cite web\|titleAnother tack: Yoni & the Scheinermans \|firstSarah \|lastHonig \|date15 February 2001 \|workThe Jerusalem Post \|urlhttp://www.netanyahu.org/antacyonsche.html \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130120134501/http://www.netanyahu.org/antacyonsche.html \|archive-date20 January 2013 }}</ref> Sharon spoke both Hebrew and Russian.<ref>[http://isrageo.com/2014/09/17/sharonbelarys ШАРОН ВЕРНУЛСЯ В БЕЛАРУСЬ] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107071410/http://www.isrageo.com/2014/09/17/sharonbelarys/ \|date7 November 2018 }} 17 September 2014</ref> Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit (Dita). Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed. As a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/>Military careerBattle for Jerusalem and 1948 WarSharon's unit of the Haganah became engaged in serious and continuous combat from the autumn of 1947, with the onset of the Battle for Jerusalem. Without the manpower to hold the roads, his unit took to making offensive hit-and-run raids on Arab forces in the vicinity of Kfar Malal. In units of thirty men, they would hit constantly at Arab villages, bridges and bases, as well as ambush the traffic between Arab villages and bases.{{cn\|dateOctober 2023}} Sharon wrote in his autobiography: "We had become skilled at finding our way in the darkest nights and gradually we built up the strength and endurance these kind of operations required. Under the stress of constant combat we drew closer to one another and began to operate not just as a military unit but almost as a family. ... [W]e were in combat almost every day. Ambushes and battles followed each other until they all seemed to run together."<ref>Ariel Sharon, with David Chanoff; Warrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon, Simon & Schuster, 2001, pp. 41, 44.</ref> For his role in a night-raid on Iraqi forces at Bir Adas, Sharon was made a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence and the onset of the War of Independence, his platoon fended off the Iraqi advance at Kalkiya. Sharon was regarded as a hardened and aggressive soldier, swiftly moving up the ranks during the war. He was shot in the groin, stomach and foot by the Jordanian Arab Legion in the First Battle of Latrun, an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the besieged Jewish community of Jerusalem. Sharon wrote of the casualties in the "horrible battle," and his brigade suffered 139 deaths.{{citation needed\|dateMarch 2017}} Jordanian field marshal Habis Majali said that Sharon was among 6 Israeli soldiers captured by the Jordanian 4th battalion during the battle, and that Majali took them to a camp in Mafraq and the 6 were later traded back.<ref name"google2">{{cite book\|titleالصهيونية: الغرب والمقدس والسياسة\|authorالكريم, حسني، عبد\|date2010\|publisherشمس للنشر والتوزيع،\|isbn978-977-493-028-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id49lFAQAAIAAJ\|access-date6 January 2017}}</ref> Sharon denied the claims, but Majali was adamant. "Sharon is like a grizzly bear," he assured. "I captured him for 9 days, I healed his wounds and released him due to his insignificance." A few fellow high-ranking Jordanian officers testified in favour of his account.<ref name"guardian">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/apr/27/guardianobituaries\|titleHabes al-Majali\|workThe Guardian\|accessdate29 November 2018\|date27 April 2001}}</ref>"<ref name"theguardian">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/apr/27/guardianobituaries\|workThe Guardian\|titleObituary: Habes al-Majali &#124; The Guardian\|access-date6 January 2017}}</ref> In 1994 and during the peace treaty signing ceremony with Jordan, Sharon wanted to get in touch with his former captor, but the latter determinedly refused to discuss the incident publicly.<ref name"telegraph">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1329691/Field-Marshal-Habis-al-Majali.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1329691/Field-Marshal-Habis-al-Majali.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|newspaperThe Telegraph\|titleField Marshal Habis al-Majali \|access-date=6 January 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> After recovering from the wounds received at Latrun, he resumed command of his patrol unit. On 28 December 1948, his platoon attempted to break through an Egyptian stronghold in Iraq-El-Manshia.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2014}} At about this time, Israeli founding father David Ben-Gurion gave him the Hebraized name "Sharon".<ref>Freedland, Jonathan (3 January 2014). [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jan/03/ariel-sharon-final-mission-peace-israel "Ariel Sharon's final mission might well have been peace"], The Guardian. ("Even his name was given to him by Israel's founding father, David Ben-Gurion – turning the young Scheinerman into Sharon as if he were King Arthur anointing a knight".)</ref> In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sharon's subsequent military career would be characterized by insubordination, aggression and disobedience, but also brilliance as a commander.<ref>A History of Modern Israel, by Colin Shindler, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 168 {{ISBN?}}</ref>Unit 101A year and a half later, on the direct orders of the Prime Minister, Sharon returned to active service in the rank of major, as the founder and commander of the new Unit 101, a special forces unit tasked with reprisal operations in response to Palestinian fedayeen attacks. The first Israeli commando unit, Unit 101 specialized in offensive guerrilla warfare in enemy countries.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> The unit consisted of 50 men, mostly former paratroopers and Unit 30 personnel. They were armed with non-standard weapons and tasked with carrying out special reprisals across the state's borders—mainly establishing small unit maneuvers, activation and insertion tactics. Training included engaging enemy forces across Israel's borders.<ref nameMorris>{{cite book\|titleIsrael's Border Wars, 1949–1956: Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation, and the Countdown to the Suez War\|authorBenny Morris\|year1993\|pages251–253\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-829262-3}}</ref> Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Unit 101: {{Blockquote \| stylefont-size:100% \| textThe new recruits began a harsh regimen of day and night training, their orientation and navigation exercises often taking them across the border; encounters with enemy patrols or village watchmen were regarded as the best preparation for the missions that lay ahead. Some commanders, such as Baum and Sharon, deliberately sought firefights. \|authorBenny Morris \|sourceIsrael's Border Wars<ref name"Border Wars">{{cite book\|lastMorris\|firstBenny\|titleIsrael's Border Wars 1949–1956\|publisherOxford University Press\|year1997\|isbn=978-0-19-829262-3}}</ref>}} Unit 101 undertook a series of raids against Jordan, which then held the West Bank. The raids also helped bolster Israeli morale and convince Arab states that the fledgling nation was capable of long-range military action. Known for raids against Arab civilians and military targets, the unit is held responsible for the widely condemned Qibya massacre in October 1953. After a group of Palestinians used Qibya as a staging point for a fedayeen attack in Yehud that killed a Jewish woman and her two children in Israel, Unit 101 retaliated on the village.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> By various accounts of the ensuing attack, 65 to 70 Palestinian civilians, half of them women and children, were killed when Sharon's troops dynamited 45 houses and a school.<ref name"SF Chronicle obit">{{cite news\|authorStannard, Matthew B. \|titleAriel Sharon, former Israel PM, dies at 85 \|newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle \|urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Ariel-Sharon-former-Israel-PM-dies-at-85-5134081.php \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date13 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140112151320/http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Ariel-Sharon-former-Israel-PM-dies-at-85-5134081.php \|archive-date12 January 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"NYT op-ed">{{cite news\|authorBergman, Ronen \|titleAriel Sharon, the Ruthless Warrior Who Could Have Made Peace \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/11/opinion/ariel-sharon-the-warrior-who-could-have-made-peace.html \|newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle \|date11 January 2014 \|access-date13 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111201758/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/11/opinion/ariel-sharon-the-warrior-who-could-have-made-peace.html \|archive-date11 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name"independent obit">{{cite news\|authorSilver, Eric \|titleAriel Sharon dies: Obituary – Unlike his right-wing predecessors, former Israeli PM was 'a pragmatist who could make concessions without feeling that he was committing sacrilege' \|newspaperThe Independent \|date11 January 2014 \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/ariel-sharon-dies-obituary--unlike-his-rightwing-predecessors-former-israeli-pm-was-a-pragmatist-who-could-make-concessions-without-feeling-that-he-was-committing-sacrilege-9034506.html \|access-date13 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-date12 January 2014 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112162851/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/ariel-sharon-dies-obituary--unlike-his-rightwing-predecessors-former-israeli-pm-was-a-pragmatist-who-could-make-concessions-without-feeling-that-he-was-committing-sacrilege-9034506.html }}</ref> Facing international condemnation for the attack, Ben-Gurion denied that the Israeli military was involved.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> In his memoir, Sharon wrote that the unit had checked all the houses before detonating the explosives and that he thought the houses were empty.<ref name"NYT op-ed"/> Although he admitted the results were tragic, Sharon defended the attack, however: "Now people could feel that the terrorist gangs would think twice before striking, now that they knew for sure they would be hit back. Kibbya also put the Jordanian and Egyptian governments on notice that if Israel was vulnerable, so were they."<ref name="SF Chronicle obit"/> , Maj. Arik Sharon, Lt. Gen Moshe Dayan, Capt. Dani Matt, Lt. Moshe Efron, Maj. Gen Asaf Simchoni; on ground, l to r: Capt. Aharon Davidi, Lt. Ya'akov Ya'akov, Capt. Raful Eitan]] A few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged with the 890 Paratroopers Battalion to create the Paratroopers Brigade, of which Sharon would also later become commander. Like Unit 101, it continued raids into Arab territory, culminating with the attack on the Qalqilyah police station in the autumn of 1956.<ref name"Unit 101 (history) - Specwar.info">{{cite web\|titleUnit 101 \|typeHistory \|urlhttp://en.specwar.info/special-forces/israel/unit-101/ \|publisherSpecwar \|access-date6 September 2009 \|archive-date13 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120713055034/http://en.specwar.info/special-forces/israel/unit-101/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Leading up to the Suez War, the missions Sharon took part in included:{{citation needed\|date=July 2014}} Operation Shoshana (now known as the Qibya massacre) Operation Black Arrow Operation Elkayam Operation Egged Operation Olive Leaves Operation Volcano Operation Gulliver (מבצע גוליבר) Operation Lulav (מבצע לולב) During a payback operation in the Deir al-Balah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, Sharon was again wounded by gunfire, this time in the leg.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> Incidents such as those involving Meir Har-Zion, along with many others, contributed to the tension between Prime Minister Moshe Sharett, who often opposed Sharon's raids, and Moshe Dayan, who had become increasingly ambivalent in his feelings towards Sharon. Later in the year, Sharon was investigated and tried by the Military Police for disciplining one of his subordinates. However, the charges were dismissed before the onset of the Suez War.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2014}} 1956 Suez War , stands with other paratroop commandos, before Operation Olive Leaves, 1955.]] Sharon commanded Unit 202 (the Paratroopers Brigade) during the 1956 Suez War (the British "Operation Musketeer"), leading the troop to take the ground east of the Sinai's Mitla Pass and eventually the pass itself against the advice of superiors, suffering heavy Israeli casualties in the process.<ref name"globes 1.11.14">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did1000908506 \|titleAriel Sharon dies \|newspaperGlobes \|date14 January 2014 \|access-date13 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-date15 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140115085638/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000908506 }}</ref> Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear. Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack to aid their comrades. Sharon was criticized by his superiors and was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Sharon had assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and had stormed the town with his armor through the Themed Gap.<ref>{{cite book\|lastVarble\|firstDerek\|titleThe Suez Crisis 1956\|publisherOsprey\|placeLondon\|year2003\|page90}}</ref> Sharon routed the Sudanese police company, and captured the settlement. On his way to the Nakla, Sharon's men came under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s. On the 30th, Sharon linked up with Eytan near Nakla.<ref name"Varble Derek">{{cite book\|lastVarble\|firstDerek\|titleThe Suez Crisis 1956\|publisherOsprey\|placeLondon \|year2003\|page32}}</ref> Dayan had no more plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon nonetheless decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan.<ref name"Varble Derek"/> Sharon sent his lightly armed paratroopers against dug-in Egyptians supported by aircraft, tanks and heavy artillery. Sharon's actions were in response to reports of the arrival of the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the 4th Egyptian Armored Division in the area, which Sharon believed would annihilate his forces if he did not seize the high ground. Sharon sent two infantry companies, a mortar battery and some AMX-13 tanks under the command of Mordechai Gur into the Heitan Defile on the afternoon of 31 October 1956. The Egyptian forces occupied strong defensive positions and brought down heavy anti-tank, mortar and machine gun fire on the IDF force.<ref nameautogenerated1>{{cite book\|lastVarble\|firstDerek\|titleThe Suez Crisis 1956\|publisherOsprey\|placeLondon\|year2003\|page33}}</ref> Gur's men were forced to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing of this, Sharon sent in another task force while Gur's men used the cover of night to scale the walls of the Heitan Defile. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptian and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed during the battle at Mitla. Due to these deaths, Sharon's actions at Mitla were surrounded in controversy, with many within the IDF viewing the deaths as the result of unnecessary and unauthorized aggression.<ref name"Varble Derek"/>Six-Day War, War of Attrition and Yom Kippur War {{Quote box \| quote = "It was a complex plan. But the elements that went into it were ones I had been developing and teaching for many years... the idea of close combat, nightfighting, surprise paratroop assault, attack from the rear, attack on a narrow front, meticulous planning, the concept of the 'tahbouleh', the relationship between headquarters and field command... But all the ideas had matured already; there was nothing new in them. It was simply a matter of putting all the elements together and making them work." \| source Ariel Sharon, 1989, on his command at the Battle of Abu-Ageila<ref>{{cite book\|authorAriel Sharon, with David Chanoff\|titleWarrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon\|publisherSimon & Schuster\|year2001\|pages190–191}}</ref> \| align = left \| width = calc(100%/3) \| bgcolor = #c6dbf7 }} The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. However, when Yitzhak Rabin became Chief of Staff in 1964, Sharon again began to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf (Major General). In the Six-Day War, Sharon, in command of an armored division on the Sinai front, drew up his own complex offensive strategy that combined infantry troops, tanks and paratroopers from planes and helicopters to destroy the Egyptian forces Sharon's 38th Division faced when it broke through to the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area.<ref name="ha'aretz obit"/> Sharon's victories and offensive strategy in the Battle of Abu-Ageila led to international commendation by military strategists; he was judged to have inaugurated a new paradigm in operational command. Researchers at the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command studied Sharon's operational planning, concluding that it involved a number of unique innovations. It was a simultaneous attack by a multiplicity of small forces, each with a specific aim, attacking a particular unit in a synergistic Egyptian defense network. As a result, instead of supporting and covering each other as they were designed to do, each Egyptian unit was left fighting for its own life.<ref>''Hollow Land: Israel's Architecture of Occupation'', by Eyal Weizman, Verso 2012, p. 76</ref> According to Sapir Handelman, after Sharon's assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him "The King of Israel".<ref>Conflict and Peacemaking in Israel-Palestine: Theory and Application, By Sapir Handelman, (Routledge 2011), p. 58: "for the majority of Israelis, Sharon became once more the "King of Israel".</ref> Sharon played a key role in the War of Attrition. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. As leader of the southern command, on 29 July Israeli frogmen stormed and destroyed Green Island, a fortress at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez whose radar and antiaircraft installations controlled that sector's airspace. On 9 September Sharon's forces carried out Operation Raviv, a large-scale raid along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Landing craft ferried across Russian-made tanks and armored personnel carriers that Israel had captured in 1967, and the small column harried the Egyptians for ten hours.<ref>Ariel Sharon, Warrior, Siomon & Shuster 1989, p. 223</ref> Following his appointment to the southern command, Sharon had no further promotions, and considered retiring. Sharon discussed the issue with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who strongly advised him to remain at his post.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.chabad.org/2458367/\|titleThe Rebbe to Sharon: Don't Leave the IDF! \|websiteChabad.org}}</ref> Sharon remained in the military for another three years, before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he helped found the Likud ("Unity") political party.<ref>{{cite web\|date17 June 2004 \|access-date15 April 2006 \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml \|titleIsrael's generals: Ariel Sharon \|workBBC Four \|locationUK \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060525150251/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml \|archive-date25 May 2006 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> '', Israel's ground maneuver, encircles the Egyptian Third Army, October 1973]] At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, Sharon was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. On his farm, before he left for the front line, the Reserve Commander, Zeev Amit, said to him, "How are we going to get out of this?" Sharon replied, "You don't know? We will cross the Suez Canal and the war will end over there." Sharon arrived at the front, to participate in his fourth war, in a civilian car.<ref>Ariel Sharon by {{Interlanguage link\|Uri Dan\|de}}</ref> His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness, Sharon's forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. In a move that again thwarted the commands of his superiors, Sharon's division crossed the Suez, effectively winning the war for Israel.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> He then headed north towards Ismailia, intent on cutting the Egyptian second army's supply lines, but his division was halted south of the Fresh Water Canal.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/download/csipubs/gawrych/gawrych_pt6.pdf \|titleThe Alabatross of Decisive Victory: The 1973 Arab-Israeli War \|author George W. Gawrych \|access-date3 March 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090325065236/http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/download/csipubs/gawrych/gawrych_pt6.pdf \|archive-date25 March 2009}} p. 72</ref> Abraham Adan's division passed over the bridgehead into Africa, advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army. Tensions between the two generals followed Sharon's decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. Sharon's complex ground maneuver is regarded as a decisive move in the Yom Kippur War, undermining the Egyptian Second Army and encircling the Egyptian Third Army.<ref>The Yom Kippur War 1973 (2): The Sinai, By Simon Dunstan, Osprey Publishing, 20 April 2003</ref> This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is widely viewed as the hero of the Yom Kippur War, responsible for Israel's ground victory in the Sinai in 1973.<ref name="ha'aretz obit"/> A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess. Sharon's political positions were controversial, and he was relieved of duty in February 1974. Bar Lev Line {{Main\|Bar Lev Line}} Following Israel's victory in the six-day war, the war of attrition at the Suez Canal began. The Egyptians began firing in provocation against the Israeli forces posted on the eastern part of the canal. Haim Bar Lev, Israel's chief of staff, suggested that Israel construct a border line to protect its southern border. A wall of sand and earth raised along almost the entire length of the Suez Canal would both allow observation of Egyptian forces and conceal the movements of Israeli troops on the eastern side. This line, named after the chief of staff Haim Bar Lev, became known as the Bar Lev Line. It included at least thirty strong points stretching over almost 200 kilometers.<ref>Ahron Bregman, ''Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. Routledge, 2000. p. 126</ref> Bar Lev suggested that such a line would defend against any major Egyptian assault across the canal, and was expected to function as a "graveyard for Egyptian troops". Moshe Dayan described it as "one of the best anti-tank ditches in the world."<ref>George W. Gawrych, [http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/download/csipubs/gawrych/gawrych_pt1.pdf The 1973 Arab-Israeli War: The Albatross of Decisive Victory] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110507130100/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/download/csipubs/gawrych/gawrych_pt1.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/download/csipubs/gawrych/gawrych_pt1.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|date=7 May 2011 }} pp. 16–18</ref> Sharon, and Israel Tal on the other hand, vigorously opposed the line. Sharon said that it would pin down large military formations that would be sitting ducks for deadly artillery attacks, and cited the opinion of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who explained him "the great military disaster such a line could bring."<ref>Joseph Telushkin, Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History. HarperCollins, 2014. pp. 289–290</ref><ref>Ariel Sharon, Warrior''. Simon & Schuster, 1989. p. 236</ref> Notwithstanding, it was completed in spring 1970. During the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian forces successfully breached the Bar Lev Line in less than two hours at a cost of more than a thousand dead and some 5,000 wounded.<ref>Israel Harel, {{cite news\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/from-the-bar-lev-line-to-sharon-s-1.51760 \|titleFrom the Bar-Lev Line to Sharon's \|workHaaretz \|date28 February 2002 \|archive-date20 November 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101120130938/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/from-the-bar-lev-line-to-sharon-s-1.51760 }}</ref> Sharon would later recall that what Schneerson had told him was a tragedy, "but unfortunately, that happened".<ref>{{cite web\|titleAriel Sharon and the Rebbe \|workJEM \|year2010 \|urlhttp://www.chabad.org/multimedia/media_cdo/aid/2451287/jewish/Prime-Minister-Ariel-Sharon-and-the-Rebbe.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141011122533/http://www.chabad.org/multimedia/media_cdo/aid/2451287/jewish/Prime-Minister-Ariel-Sharon-and-the-Rebbe.htm \|archive-date11 October 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Early political career, 1974–2001 Beginnings of political career In the 1940s and 1950s, Sharon seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he joined the Liberal Party and was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/><ref name"independent obit"/><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Sharon-The-life-of-a-lion-337867 \|titleSharon: The life of a lion \|authorTovah Lazaroff \|workThe Jerusalem Post \|date12 January 2014 \|access-date5 December 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141209114040/http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Sharon-The-life-of-a-lion-337867 \|archive-date9 December 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for that year's elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service. On the heels of being hailed as a war hero for crossing the Suez in the 1973 war, Sharon won a seat to the Knesset in the elections that year,<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> but resigned a year later. ]] From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He planned his return to politics for the 1977 elections; first, he tried to return to the Likud and replace Menachem Begin at the head of the party. He suggested to Simha Erlich, who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more able than Begin to win an election victory; he was rejected, however. He then tried to join the Labor Party and the centrist Democratic Movement for Change, but was rejected by those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, Shlomtzion, which won two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections, he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture. When Sharon joined Begin's government, he had relatively little political experience. During this period, Sharon supported the Gush Emunim settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of Palestinian Arabs' return to these territories. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure. After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. Under Sharon, Israel continued to build upon the unprecedented coordination between the Israel Defense Forces and the South African Defence Force, with Israeli and South African generals giving each other unfettered access to each other's battlefields and military tactics, and Israel sharing with South Africa highly classified information about its missions, such as Operation Opera, which had previously only been reserved for the United States.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa \|firstSasha \|lastPolakow-Suransky \|publisherRandom House \|year2010 \|pages145–147 \|isbn978-1-77009-840-4}}</ref> In 1981, after visiting South African forces fighting in Namibia for 10 days, Sharon argued that South Africa needed more weapons to fight Soviet infiltration in the region.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00714FF3E5C0C778DDDAB0994D9484D81 \|titleSouth Africa needs more arms, Israeli says \|date14 December 1981 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|firstDrew \|lastMiddleton}}</ref> Sharon promised that the relationship between Israel and South Africa would continue to deepen as they work to "ensure the National Defense of both our countries".<ref>[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116770 Letter from Israeli Defense Minister Ariel Sharon to South Africian Defense Minister Magnus Malan ] 7 December 1981</ref> The collaboration in carrying out joint-nuclear tests, in planning counter-insurgency strategies in Namibia and in designing security fences helped to make Israel, South Africa's closest ally in this period.<ref>Uzi Diplomacy, Victor Perera, Mother Jones Magazine, Jul 1985</ref>1982 Lebanon War and Sabra and Shatila massacre Sharon (right) with his US counterpart Caspar Weinberger, 1982]] As Defense Minister, Sharon launched an invasion of Lebanon called Operation Peace for Galilee, later known as the 1982 Lebanon War, following the shooting of Israel's ambassador in London, Shlomo Argov. Although this attempted assassination was in fact perpetrated by the Abu Nidal Organization, possibly with Syrian or Iraqi involvement,<ref>{{cite book\|lastBecker\|firstJillian\|titlePLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization\|publisherAuthorHouse\|year1984\|isbn978-1-4918-4435-9\|page362}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1Schiff\|first1Ze'ev\|last2Ya'ari\|first2Ehud\|titleIsrael's Lebanon War\|publisherSimon & Schuster\|year1985\|isbn978-0-671-60216-1\|pages[https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/99 99–100]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/99}}</ref> the Israeli government justified the invasion by citing 270 terrorist attacks by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Israel, the occupied territories, and the Jordanian and Lebanese border (in addition to 20 attacks on Israeli interests abroad).<ref>{{cite book\|lastBecker\|firstJillian\|titlePLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization\|publisherAuthorHouse\|year1984\|isbn978-1-4918-4435-9\|page257}}</ref> Sharon intended the operation to eradicate the PLO from its state within a state inside Lebanon, but the war is primarily remembered for the Sabra and Shatila massacre.<ref name"globe and mail">{{cite news\|authorMartin, Patrick\|titleIsrael must confront Sharon's legacy\|newspaperThe Globe and Mail\|date12 January 2014\|access-date13 January 2014\|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/israel-must-confront-sharons-legacy/article16294589/}}</ref> In a three-day massacre between 16 and 18 September, between 460<ref name"Lebanon War 282"/><ref name"Becker 265">{{cite book\|lastBecker\|firstJillian\|titlePLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization\|publisherAuthorHouse\|year1984\|isbn978-1-4918-4435-9\|page265}}</ref> and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp were killed by the Phalanges— Lebanese Maronite Christian militias.<ref namemalone>{{cite journal\|lastMalone\|firstLinda A.\|titleThe Kahan Report, Ariel Sharon and the SabraShatilla Massacres in Lebanon: Responsibility Under International Law for Massacres of Civilian Populations\|journalUtah Law Review\|year1985\|urlhttp://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1606&contextfacpubs&sei-redir1&refererhttp%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com.tr%2Fscholar%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dmassacres%2Bin%2Blebanon%26btnG%3D%26as_sdt%3D1%252C5%26as_sdtp%3D#search%22massacres%20lebanon%22\|access-date1 January 2013\|pages373–433}}</ref> Shatila had previously been one of the PLO's three main training camps for foreign terrorists and the main training camp for European terrorists;<ref>{{cite book\|lastBecker\|firstJillian\|titlePLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization\|publisherAuthorHouse\|year1984\|isbn978-1-4918-4435-9\|pages239, 356–357}}</ref> the Israelis maintained that 2,000 to 3,000 terrorists remained in the camps, but were unwilling to risk the lives of more of their soldiers after the Lebanese army repeatedly refused to "clear them out."<ref>{{cite book\|lastBecker\|firstJillian\|titlePLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization\|publisherAuthorHouse\|year1984\|isbn978-1-4918-4435-9\|page264}}</ref> The killings followed years of sectarian civil war in Lebanon that left 95,000 dead.<ref name"Becker 265"/> The Lebanese army's chief prosecutor investigated the killings and counted 460 dead, Israeli intelligence estimated 700–800 dead, and the Palestinian Red Crescent claimed 2,000 dead. 1,200 death certificates were issued to anyone who produced three witnesses claiming a family member disappeared during the time of the massacre.<ref name"Lebanon War 282">{{cite book\|last1Schiff\|first1Ze'ev\|last2Ya'ari\|first2Ehud\|titleIsrael's Lebanon War\|publisherSimon & Schuster\|year1985\|isbn978-0-671-60216-1\|page[https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/282 282]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/282}}</ref> Nearly all of the victims were men.<ref name"Lebanon War 282"/><ref name="Becker 265"/> The Phalange militia went into the camps to clear out PLO fighters while Israeli forces surrounded the camps,<ref name"NYT anziska">{{cite news\|authorAnziska, Seth \|titleA Preventable Massacre \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date16 September 2012 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/17/opinion/a-preventable-massacre.html \|access-date13 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140118012524/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/17/opinion/a-preventable-massacre.html \|archive-date18 January 2014 }}</ref> blocking camp exits and providing logistical support. The killings led some to label Sharon "the Butcher of Beirut".<ref namebutcher>{{cite news\|authorSaleh, Heba \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1156796.stm \|titleSharon victory: An Arab nightmare \|date6 February 2001 \|workBBC News \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121026101933/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1156796.stm \|archive-date26 October 2012 \|url-status=live }}</ref> An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated, "Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing of the Phalangist leader Bachir Gemayel to the PLO, saying 'it symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters'."<ref>{{citation\|authorRobert Fisk\|titleThe Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East \|publisherFourth Estate\|locationLondon\|year=2005}}</ref> Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Robert Maroun Hatem, Hobeika's bodyguard, stated in his book From Israel to Damascus that Phalangist commander Elie Hobeika ordered the massacre of civilians in defiance of Israeli instructions to behave like a "dignified" army.<ref>Robert Maroun Hatem, From Israel to Damascus, Chapter 7: "The Massacres at Sabra and Shatilla" [https://web.archive.org/web/20030330062741/http://www.free-lebanon.com/News/Documents_of_Note/DOC_chap8/doc_chap8.html online] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040512001055/http://www.free-lebanon.com/News/Documents_of_Note/DOC_chap8/doc_chap8.html \|date12 May 2004 }}. Retrieved 24 February 2006.</ref> Hatem claimed "Sharon had given strict orders to Hobeika....to guard against any desperate move" and that Hobeika perpetrated the massacre "to tarnish Israel's reputation worldwide" for the benefit of Syria. Hobeika subsequently joined the Syrian occupation government and lived as a prosperous businessman under Syrian protection; further massacres in Sabra and Shatilla occurred with Syrian support in 1985.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Alexander\|first1Edward\|last2Bogdanor\|first2Paul\|titleThe Jewish Divide Over Israel\|publisherTransaction\|year2006\|page90}}</ref> The massacre followed intense Israeli bombings of Beirut that had seen heavy civilian casualties, testing Israel's relationship with the United States in the process.<ref name"NYT anziska"/> America sent troops to help negotiate the PLO's exit from Lebanon, withdrawing them after negotiating a ceasefire that ostensibly protected Palestinian civilians.<ref name"NYT anziska"/> Legal findings After 400,000 Peace Now protesters rallied in Tel Aviv to demand an official government inquiry into the massacres, the official Israeli government investigation into the massacre at Sabra and Shatila, the Kahan Commission (1982), was conducted.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> The inquiry found that the Israeli Defense Forces were indirectly responsible for the massacre since IDF troops held the area.<ref name"NYT anziska"/> The commission determined that the killings were carried out by a Phalangist unit acting on its own, but its entry was known to Israel and approved by Sharon. Prime Minister Begin was also found responsible for not exercising greater involvement and awareness in the matter of introducing the Phalangists into the camps. The commission also concluded that Sharon bore personal responsibility<ref name"NYT anziska"/> "for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge [and] not taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". It said Sharon's negligence in protecting the civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control, amounted to a dereliction of duty of the minister.<ref name"Ref-1">{{cite book\|lastSchiff\|firstZe'ev\|author-linkZe'ev Schiff\|author2Ehud Ya'ari\|titleIsrael's Lebanon War\|publisherSimon & Schuster\|year1984\|pages[https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/283 283–284]\|isbn978-0-671-47991-6\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/283}}</ref> In early 1983, the commission recommended the removal of Sharon from his post as defense minister and stated: <blockquote stylefont-size:100%>We have found&nbsp;... that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office—and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority ...&nbsp;to&nbsp;... remove [him] from office.<ref>{{cite web\|publisherIsrael Ministry of Foreign Affairs\|date8 February 1983\|access-date15 April 2006\|titleReport of the Commission of Inquiry into the events at the refugee camps in Beirut&nbsp;– 8 February 1983\|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/mfadocuments/yearbook6/pages/104%20report%20of%20the%20commission%20of%20inquiry%20into%20the%20e.aspx}}</ref></blockquote> Sharon initially refused to resign as defense minister, and Begin refused to fire him. After a grenade was thrown into a dispersing crowd at an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: Sharon agreed to forfeit the post of defense minister but stayed in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio. Sharon's resignation as defense minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset.<ref>{{cite web \|access-date1 September 2011 \|titleKnesset 9-11 \|publisherGov.il \|urlhttp://www.gov.il/FirstGov/TopNavEng/EngSubjects/EngSElections/EngSEKnessets/EngSE9-11/ \|archive-date22 September 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110922044840/http://www.gov.il/FirstGov/TopNavEng/EngSubjects/EngSElections/EngSEKnessets/EngSE9-11/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In its 21 February 1983 issue, Time published an article implying that Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres.<ref>{{cite magazine\|lastSmith \|firstWilliam E. \|othersReported by Harry Kelly and Robert Slater \|titleThe Verdict Is Guilty: An Israeli commission and the Beirut massacre \|urlhttps://content.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,925886,00.html \|access-date28 September 2010 \|magazineTime \|volume121 \|issue8 \|date21 February 1983 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140423030943/http://content.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,925886,00.html \|archive-date23 April 2014 }}</ref> Sharon sued Time for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time article included false allegations, they found that the magazine had not acted with actual malice and so was not guilty of libel.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://brookekroeger.com/articles_newspaper/Sharonloses.html \|authorBrooke W. Kroeger \|titleSharon Loses Libel Suit; Time Cleared of Malice \|date25 January 1984 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030721130022/http://brookekroeger.com/articles_newspaper/Sharonloses.html \|archive-date21 July 2003 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> On 18 June 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have Sharon indicted on alleged war crimes charges.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Complaint Against Ariel Sharon for his involvement in the massacres at Sabra and Shatila \|urlhttp://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html \|access-date15 April 2006 \|publisherThe Council for the Advancement of Arab-British Understanding \|archive-date4 April 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060404060442/http://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Elie Hobeika, the leader of the Phalange militia who carried out the massacres, was assassinated in January 2002, several months before he was scheduled to testify trial. Prior to his assassination, he had "specifically stated that he did not plan to identify Sharon as being responsible for Sabra and Shatila."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.jcpa.org/art/brief1-17.htm \|titleElie Hobeika's Assassination: Covering up the Secrets of Sabra and Shatilla \|publisherJerusalem Issues Brief \|date30 January 2002 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030705182504/http://www.jcpa.org/art/brief1-17.htm \|archive-date5 July 2003 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Political downturn and recovery {{Quote box \|quote= "I begin with the basic conviction that Jews and Arabs can live together. I have repeated that at every opportunity, not for journalists and not for popular consumption, but because I have never believed differently or thought differently, from my childhood on. ... I know that we are both inhabitants of the land, and although the state is Jewish, that does not mean that Arabs should not be full citizens in every sense of the word." \| source = Ariel Sharon, 1989<ref>Ariel Sharon, with David Chanoff; Warrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon, Simon & Schuster, 2001, p. 543.</ref> \| align = right \| width = calc(100%/3) \| bgcolor = #c6dbf7 }} greeting United States President Bill Clinton in 1998]] After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, Sharon remained in successive governments as a minister without portfolio (1983–1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984–1990), and Minister of Housing Construction (1990–1992). In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense committee (1990–1992) and chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head in February 1990, when Sharon grabbed the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?"<ref namephilly>{{cite news\|titleSharon Quits Cabinet in Likud Scrap \|urlhttp://articles.philly.com/1990-02-13/news/25883895_1_likud-party-likud-meeting-sharon-and-shamir \|access-date11 January 2014 \|newspaperPhiladelphia Daily News \|date13 February 1990 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111174335/http://articles.philly.com/1990-02-13/news/25883895_1_likud-party-likud-meeting-sharon-and-shamir \|archive-date11 January 2014 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party. Sharon unsuccessfully challenged Shamir in the 1984 Herut leadership election and the 1992 Likud leadership election. In Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, Sharon was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996–98), and Foreign Minister (1998–99). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, Sharon became the interim leader of the Likud party and subsequently won the September 1999 Likud leadership election. Opposition to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia Ariel Sharon criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 as an act of "brutal interventionism".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130806033924/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/ariel-sharon-by-robert-fisk-521809.html Ariel Sharon... by Robert Fisk] Friday 6 January 2006, The Independent</ref> Sharon said both Serbia and Kosovo have been victims of violence. He said prior to the current Yugoslav campaign against Kosovo Albanians, Serbians were the targets of attacks in the Kosovo province. "Israel has a clear policy. We are against aggressive actions. We are against hurting innocent people. I hope that the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible." During the crisis, Elyakim Haetzni said the Serbs should be the first to receive Israeli aid. "There are our traditional friends," he told Israel Radio."<ref>Israel government refrains from supporting NATO attacks, By Steve Rodan, Tuesday, 30 March 1999</ref> It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the holocaust.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.585494 Russia or Ukraine? For some Israelis, Holocaust memories are key] Haaretz, By David Landau, 15 April 2014</ref> On Sharon's death, Serbian minister Aleksandar Vulin stated: The Serbian people will remember Sharon for opposing the 1999 NATO bombing campaign against the former Yugoslavia and advocating respect for sovereignty of other nations and a policy of not interfering with their internal affairs.<ref>[http://www.serbia-times.com/aleksandar-vulin-lays-wreath-at-ariel-sharons-grave Aleksandar Vulin lays wreath at Ariel Sharon's grave] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140521100600/http://www.serbia-times.com/aleksandar-vulin-lays-wreath-at-ariel-sharons-grave/ \|date21 May 2014 }} Published on 20 January 2014, Serbia Times</ref> Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000–2001 On 28 September 2000, Sharon and an escort of over 1,000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and Qibli Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks. On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U.S. State Department, "Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber-coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200." According to the government of Israel, 14 policemen were injured.{{citation needed\|date=July 2014}} Sharon's visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. Sharon's supporters claim that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the Second Intifada months prior to Sharon's visit.<ref>{{cite web\|authorKhaled Abu Toameh\|date19 September 2002\|urlhttp://www.mafhoum.com/press3/111P55.htm\|titleHow the war began}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleMiddle East Troubles \|date20 May 2001 \|publisherTownhall.com \|authorCharles Krauthammer \|urlhttp://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/charleskrauthammer/2001/05/20/166454.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051109052547/http://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/charleskrauthammer/2001/05/20/166454.html \|archive-date9 November 2005 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid3846 \|titlePA: Intifada Was Planned \|authorStewart Ain \|date20 December 2000 \|newspaperThe Jewish Week \|archive-date10 March 2005 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050310043812/http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid3846 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> According to the Mitchell Report, {{blockquote\|the government of Israel asserted that the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on 25 July 2000 and the "widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse." In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at "provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative."}} The Mitchell Report found that {{blockquote\|the Sharon visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada. But it was poorly timed and the provocative effect should have been foreseen; indeed, it was foreseen by those who urged that the visit be prohibited. More significant were the events that followed: The decision of the Israeli police on 29 September to use lethal means against the Palestinian demonstrators.}} In addition, the report stated, {{blockquote\|Accordingly, we have no basis on which to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the PA [Palestinian Authority] to initiate a campaign of violence at the first opportunity; or to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the GOI [Government of Israel] to respond with lethal force.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140823071635/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/6E61D52EAACB860285256D2800734E9A Report of The Sharm el-Sheikh Fact-Finding Committee]. On UNISPAL</ref>}} The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events, {{blockquote\|criticised the Israeli police for being unprepared for the riots and possibly using excessive force to disperse the mobs, resulting in the deaths of 12 Arab Israeli, one Jewish and one Palestinian citizens.}} Prime Minister (2001–2006) meeting in Israel.]] , center, discusses the Israeli–Palestinian peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority Mahmoud Abbas in Aqaba, Jordan, 4 June 2003.]] Mahmoud Abbas, United States President George W. Bush, and Ariel Sharon, Red Sea Summit, Aqaba, June 2003]] , April 2004]] After the collapse of Barak's government, Sharon was elected Prime Minister on 6 February 2001, defeating Barak 62 percent to 38 percent.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> Sharon's senior adviser was Raanan Gissin. In his first act as prime minister, Sharon invited the Labor Party to join in a coalition with Likud.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> After Israel was struck by a wave of suicide bombings in 2002, Sharon launched Operation Defensive Shield and led the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believed that the Israel Defense Forces had succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada.<ref>{{cite web\|dateMay 2004 \|urlhttp://spirit.tau.ac.il/socant/peace/peaceindex/2004/data/may2004d.pdf \|script-titlehe:מדד השלום \|publisherThe Tami Steinmetz Center for Peace Research \|languagehe \|url-statusbot: unknown \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061108082619/http://spirit.tau.ac.il/socant/peace/peaceindex/2004/data/may2004d.pdf \|archive-date8 November 2006 }}</ref> The election of the more pro-Russian Sharon, as well as the more pro-Israel Vladimir Putin, led to an improvement in Israel–Russia relations.<ref>[http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-maturing-of-israeli-russian-relations The Maturing of Israeli-Russian Relations] Anna Borshchevskaya, inFocus Quarterly, Spring 2016</ref> In September 2003, Sharon became the first prime minister of Israel to visit India, saying that Israel regarded India as one of the most important countries in the world. Some analysts speculated on the development of a three-way military axis of New Delhi, Washington, D.C., and Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3089466.stm \|titleIndia and Israel vow to fight terrorism \|workBBC News \|date9 September 2003 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110727134615/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3089466.stm \|archive-date27 July 2011 \|url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 July 2004, Sharon called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in antisemitism in France (94 antisemitic assaults were reported in the first six months of 2004, compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third-largest Jewish population in the world (about 600,000 people). Sharon observed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2014}}Unilateral disengagement {{Main\|Israel's unilateral disengagement plan}} In September 2001, Sharon stated for the first time that Palestinians should have the right to establish their own land west of the Jordan River.<ref name"ha'aretz obit"/> In May 2003, Sharon endorsed the Road Map for Peace put forth by the United States, the European Union and Russia, which opened a dialogue with Mahmud Abbas, and stated his commitment to the creation of a Palestinian state in the future.{{cn\|dateOctober 2023}} He embarked on a course of unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. Sharon's plan was welcomed by both the Palestinian Authority and Israel's left wing as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it was greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right wing Israelis, on national security, military, and religious grounds.{{cn\|dateOctober 2023}}Disengagement from GazaOn 1 December 2004, Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005, Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labor, and Meimad and Degel HaTorah as "out-of-government" supporters without any seats in the government (United Torah Judaism parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between 16 and 30 August 2005, Sharon controversially expelled 9,480 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza and four settlements in the northern West Bank. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead, a group of conservative Rabbis, led by Yosef Dayan, placed an ancient curse on Sharon known as the Pulsa diNura, calling on the Angel of Death to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former synagogues, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on 11 September 2005 and closed the border fence at Kissufim. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate, with more than 80 percent of Israelis backing the plans.<ref>{{cite news \|url-statuslive \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/12/09/israel.government/index.html \|titleSharon party agrees coalition plan \|publisherCNN \|date10 December 2004 \|access-date6 August 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090625000052/http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/12/09/israel.government/index.html \|archive-date25 June 2009 }}</ref> On 27 September 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52–48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by Sharon's main rival, Benjamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader.{{cn\|dateOctober 2023}} Founding of Kadima On 21 November 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima ("Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, Sharon's longtime rival Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud.<ref>{{cite news\|titleSharon recovers as chief rival wins control of Likud \|date20 December 2005 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/dec/20/israel \|firstConal \|lastUrquhart \|access-date25 April 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130829205312/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/dec/20/israel \|archive-date29 August 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Following Sharon's incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima's leader, for the nearing general elections. Likud, along with the Labor Party, were Kadima{{'}}s chief rivals in the March 2006 elections. Sharon's stroke occurred a few months before he had been expected to win a new election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals.<ref name"Rees"/><ref name"timesofisrael.com"/><ref name="Terrorism 2013, page 9"/> In the elections, which saw Israel's lowest-ever voter turnout of 64 percent<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.idi.org.il/sites/english/parliament/Pages/ElectionsfortheLocalAuthority.aspx \|titleElections for the Local Authority&nbsp;– Who, What, When, Where and How?&nbsp;– The Israel Democracy Institute \|dateMay 2008 \|publisherIdi.org.il \|access-date6 August 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110727134615/http://www.idi.org.il/sites/english/parliament/Pages/ElectionsfortheLocalAuthority.aspx \|archive-date27 July 2011 }}</ref> (the number usually averages on the high 70%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 included Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor (including Amir Peretz as Defense Minister), the Pensioners' Party (Gil), the Shas religious party, and Israel Beytenu. Alleged fundraising irregularities and Greek island affair During the latter part of his career, Sharon was investigated for alleged involvement in a number of financial scandals, in particular, the Greek island affair and irregularities of fundraising during the 1999 election campaign. In the Greek island affair, Sharon was accused of promising (during his term as Foreign Minister) to help Israeli businessman David Appel in his development project on a Greek island in exchange for large consultancy payments to Sharon's son Gilad. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence. In the 1999 election fundraising scandal, Sharon was not charged with any wrongdoing, but his son Omri, a Knesset member at the time, was charged and sentenced in 2006 to nine months in prison. To avoid a potential conflict of interest in relation to these investigations, Sharon was not involved in the confirmation of the appointment of a new attorney general, Menahem Mazuz, in 2005. On 10 December 2005, Israeli police raided Martin Schlaff's apartment in Jerusalem. Another suspect in the case was Robert Nowikovsky, an Austrian involved in Russian state-owned company Gazprom's business activities in Europe.<ref name"AFP Schlaff">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hF2cuPKuthlnLDUja9QFzqUv1CzQ \|titleAustrian tycoon may face Israel charges: report \|date7 September 2010 \|agencyAgence France-Presse \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100910110500/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hF2cuPKuthlnLDUja9QFzqUv1CzQ \|archive-date10 September 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/95989 \|authorHillel Fendel \|titlePolice Say There's Evidence Linking Sharon to $3&nbsp;Million Bribe \|publisherArutz Sheva \|date3 January 2006 \|archive-date19 July 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100719082601/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/95989 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref namegazoviki>{{cite news\|date13 September 2007 \|urlhttp://robertamsterdam.com/2007/09/the_gazoviki_in_germany/ \|titleA tale of gazoviki, money and greed \|workStern \|archive-date16 August 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110816065821/http://robertamsterdam.com/2007/09/the_gazoviki_in_germany/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/04/content_4004864.htm \|titlePolice have evidence Sharon's family takes bribes: TV \|agencyXinhua \|date4 January 2006 \|archive-date9 June 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110609215018/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/04/content_4004864.htm \|url-status=dead }}</ref> According to Haaretz, "The $3&nbsp;million that parachuted into Gilad and Omri Sharon's bank account toward the end of 2002 was transferred there in the context of a consultancy contract for development of kolkhozes (collective farms) in Russia. Gilad Sharon was brought into the campaign to make the wilderness bloom in Russia by Getex, a large Russian-based exporter of seeds (peas, millet, wheat) from Eastern Europe. Getex also has ties with Israeli firms involved in exporting wheat from Ukraine, for example. The company owns farms in Eastern Europe and is considered large and prominent in its field. It has its Vienna offices in the same building as Jurimex, which was behind the $1-million guarantee to the Yisrael Beiteinu party."<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/weekend/special-report-the-schlaff-saga/the-schlaff-saga-money-flows-into-the-sharon-family-accounts-1.312801 \|titleThe Schlaff Saga / Money flows into the Sharon family accounts \|newspaperHaaretz \|date7 September 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101105001347/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/special-report-the-schlaff-saga/the-schlaff-saga-money-flows-into-the-sharon-family-accounts-1.312801 \|archive-date5 November 2010 \|url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 December, police found evidence of a $3&nbsp;million bribe paid to Sharon's sons. Shortly afterwards, Sharon had a stroke.<ref name"AFP Schlaff"/>Illness, incapacitation and death (2006–2014) {{Main\|Death and state funeral of Ariel Sharon}} {{Quote box \| quote = "I love life. I love all of it, and in fact I love food." \| source —Ariel Sharon, 1982<ref name"Israel page 19-24"/> \| align = right \| width \| bgcolor #c6dbf7 }} Sharon had been obese since the 1980s, and also had suspected chronic high blood pressure and high cholesterol – at {{convert\|170\|cm\|ftin\|abbron}} tall, he was reputed to weigh {{convert\|115\|kg\|lbs\|abbron}}.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-12-26-sharon-procedure_x.htm \|titleAriel Sharon to undergo heart procedure \|newspaperUSA Today \|authorJim Hollander \|date26 December 2005 \|access-date16 April 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131213194143/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-12-26-sharon-procedure_x.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-date13 December 2013 }}</ref> Stories of Sharon's appetite and obesity were legendary in Israel. He would often joke about his love of food and expansive girth.<ref>{{cite news\|agencyAssociated Press \|urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/news/world/sharons-diet-becoming-a-weighty-matter/2005/12/21/1135032080315.html \|titleSharon's diet becoming a weighty matter \|authorRavi Nessman \|placeJerusalem \|date22 December 2005 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051224194856/http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/sharons-diet-becoming-a-weighty-matter/2005/12/21/1135032080315.html \|archive-date24 December 2005 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> His staff car would reportedly be stocked with snacks, vodka, and caviar.<ref name"Israel page 19-24"/> In October 2004, when asked why he did not wear a bulletproof vest despite frequent death threats, Sharon smiled and replied, "There is none that fits my size."<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1864940_1864939_1864902,00.html \|titleTop 10 Comas – The Big Sleep: Ariel Sharon \|magazineTime \|archive-date13 September 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130913043349/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0%2C28804%2C1864940_1864939_1864902%2C00.html }}</ref> He was a daily consumer of cigars and luxury foods. Numerous attempts by doctors, friends, and staff to impose a balanced diet on Sharon were unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite book \|title Ariel Sharon: A Life in Times of Turmoil \|authorFreddy Eytan and Robert Davies \|year 2006 \|page=146}}</ref> Sharon was hospitalized on 18 December 2005, following a minor ischemic stroke. During his hospital stay, doctors discovered a heart defect requiring surgery and ordered bed rest pending a cardiac catheterization scheduled for 5 January 2006. Instead, Sharon immediately returned to work and had a hemorrhagic stroke on 4 January. He was rushed to Hadassah Medical Center in Jerusalem. After two surgeries lasting 7 and 14 hours, doctors stopped the bleeding in Sharon's brain, but were unable to prevent him from entering into a coma.<ref>{{cite news\|titleSharon's stroke blood 'drained' \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4608100.stm \|archive-date11 February 2006 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060211215947/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4608100.stm \|date5 January 2006 }}</ref> Subsequent media reports indicated that Sharon had been diagnosed with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) during his December hospitalisation. Hadassah Hospital Director Shlomo Mor-Yosef declined to respond to comments that the combination of CAA and blood thinners after Sharon's December stroke might have caused his more serious subsequent stroke.<ref>{{cite book\|authorMark Willacy \|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2006/01/10/1545220.htm \|titleIsraeli PM Sharon moves left side \|workABC News \|date10 January 2006 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071013102120/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2006/01/10/1545220.htm \|archive-date=13 October 2007 }}</ref> Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister the night of Sharon's second stroke, while Sharon officially remained in office. Knesset elections followed in March, with Olmert and Sharon's Kadima party winning a plurality. The next month, the Israeli Cabinet declared Sharon permanently incapacitated and Olmert became Interim Prime Minister on 14 April 2006 and Prime Minister in his own right on 4 May. Sharon underwent a series of subsequent surgeries related to his state. In May 2006, he was transferred to a long-term care facility in Sheba Medical Center. In July of that year, he was briefly taken to the hospital's intensive care unit to be treated for bacteria in his blood, before returning to the long-term care facility on 6 November 2006. Sharon would remain at Sheba Medical Center until his death.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6120298.stm \|titleSharon leaves intensive care unit \|workBBC News \|date6 November 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070116112304/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6120298.stm \|archive-date16 January 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/07/26/sharon/\|titleHospital: Sharon taken to&nbsp;intensive care – Jul 26, 2006\|publisherCNN\|access-date5 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/ariel-sharon-transferred-to-long-term-treatment-in-tel-hashomer-1.188810\|titleAriel Sharon Transferred to Long-term Treatment in Tel Hashomer\|firstHaaretz\|lastService\|date28 May 2006\|access-date5 April 2018\|newspaperHaaretz}}</ref> Medical experts indicated that his cognitive abilities had likely been destroyed by the stroke.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://english.pravda.ru/world/asia/12-04-2006/79107-sharon-0/ \|titleAriel Sharon's sons to disconnect their father from life-support system \|newspaperPravda \|date12 April 2006 \|access-date6 August 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110605054545/http://english.pravda.ru/world/asia/12-04-2006/79107-sharon-0/ \|archive-date5 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/world/sharon-will-never-recover-doctors-20100105-ls9c.html \|location Melbourne \|workThe Age \|titleSharon will never recover: doctors \|date6 January 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100919025443/http://www.theage.com.au/world/sharon-will-never-recover-doctors-20100105-ls9c.html \|archive-date 19 September 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/ariel-sharon-transferred-to-long-term-treatment-in-tel-hashomer-1.188810 \|titleAriel Sharon transferred to long-term treatment in Tel HaShomer \|date28 May 2006 \|newspaperHaaretz \|access-date28 May 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101121204208/http://www.haaretz.com/news/ariel-sharon-transferred-to-long-term-treatment-in-tel-hashomer-1.188810 \|archive-date21 November 2010 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> His condition worsened from late 2013, and Sharon suffered from renal failure on 1 January 2014.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.timesofisrael.com/ariel-sharons-condition-deteriorates \|titleAriel Sharon's Condition Deteriorates \|newspaperThe Times of Israel \|access-date1 January 2014 \|archive-date2 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102195820/http://www.timesofisrael.com/ariel-sharons-condition-deteriorates }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleDoctors: End for Sharon Could Come 'Within Hours' \|urlhttp://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/175830 \|access-date2 January 2014 \|publisherArutz Sheva \|date2 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-date2 January 2014 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192658/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/175830 }}</ref> After spending eight years in a coma, Sharon died at 14:00 local time (12:00 UTC) on 11 January 2014.<ref namemourn>{{cite news\|titleIsrael mourns Sharon's passing; Netanyahu: He was a 'brave warrior' \|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.568006/1.568006 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|newspaperHaaretz \|date11 January 2014 \|archive-date11 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111183002/http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.568006/1.568006 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|date11 January 2014 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-sharon-death-idUSBREA0A09420140111 \|authorDan Williams \|titleFormer Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon dead at 85 \|archive-date11 January 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111132837/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/11/us-israel-sharon-death-idUSBREA0A09420140111 }}</ref> Sharon's state funeral was held on 13 January in accordance with Jewish burial customs, which require that interment take place as soon after death as possible. His body lay in state in the Knesset Plaza from 12 January until the official ceremony, followed by a funeral held at the family's ranch in the Negev Desert. Sharon was buried beside his wife, Lily.<ref>{{cite news\|titleObama: U.S. joins Israeli people in honoring Sharon's commitment to his country\|access-date11 January 2014\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.568018\|newspaperHaaretz\|date11 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleFormer prime minister Ariel Sharon dies at 85 \|urlhttp://www.jpost.com/National-News/Former-prime-minister-Ariel-Sharon-dies-at-85-337662 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|newspaperThe Jerusalem Post \|authorGil Hoffman, and Tovah Lazaroff \|date11 January 2014 \|archive-date11 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111165508/http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Former-prime-minister-Ariel-Sharon-dies-at-85-337662 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleIsrael's Ariel Sharon dies at 85 \|access-date11 January 2014 \|date11 January 2014 \|urlhttp://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/israel-ariel-sharon-dies-at-85-201411231338785176.html \|publisherAl Jazeera \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111182244/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/israel-ariel-sharon-dies-at-85-201411231338785176.html \|archive-date11 January 2014 }}</ref> Personal life Sharon was married twice, to two sisters, Margalit and Lily Zimmerman, who were from Romania. Sharon met Margalit in 1947 when she was 16, while she was tending a vegetable field, and married her in 1953, shortly after becoming a military instructor. Margalit was a supervisory psychiatric nurse.<ref name"about">{{cite web\|urlhttp://marriage.about.com/od/politics/p/arielsharon.htm\|publishermarriage.about.com\|titleMarriages of Ariel Sharon\|access-date6 January 2017\|archive-date16 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816043737/http://marriage.about.com/od/politics/p/arielsharon.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref> They had one son, Gur. Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962 and Gur died in October 1967, aged 11, after a friend accidentally shot him while the two children were playing with a rifle at the Sharon family home.<ref>{{cite news\|date15 February 2005 \|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/news/Middle-East-Conflict/Sharon-mourns-slain-son/2005/02/14/1108229937965.html \|titleSharon mourns slain son \|access-date15 April 2006 \|workThe Sydney Morning Herald \|archive-date6 May 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110506044705/http://www.smh.com.au/news/Middle-East-Conflict/Sharon-mourns-slain-son/2005/02/14/1108229937965.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/07/israel1 \|titleThe Bulldozer \|date7 November 2001 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date15 April 2006 \|firstEmma \|lastBrockes \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130825214643/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/07/israel1 \|archive-date25 August 2013 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|publisherCNN \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0306/14/pitn.00.html \|titleThe Quest for Peace \|typetranscript \|date14 June 2003 \|access-date28 March 2006 \|archive-date16 February 2006 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060216025138/http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0306/14/pitn.00.html }}</ref> After Margalit's death, Sharon married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gilad, and six grandchildren.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ariel-sharon-dies-at-85-former-israeli-prime-minister-epitomized-countrys-warrior-past/2014/01/11/8da0ce6c-ffd3-11df-b0ed-379d1148ca53_story.html\|authorGlenn Frankel\|titleAriel Sharon dies at 85: Former Israeli prime minister epitomized country's warrior past\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|date11 January 2014}}</ref> Lily Sharon died of lung cancer in 2000.<ref name"Stevens">{{cite news\|date12 January 2014 \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-11/ariel-sharon-israeli-bulldozer-who-vacated-gaza-dies-at-85.html \|titleAriel Sharon, Israeli Warrior Who Vacated Gaza, Dies at 85 \|access-date12 January 2014 \|authorBen-David, Calev \|author2Gwen \|newspaperBloomberg News \|archive-date12 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140112023513/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-11/ariel-sharon-israeli-bulldozer-who-vacated-gaza-dies-at-85.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Sharon's sister, Yehudit, known as "Dita", married Shmuel Mandel. In the 1950s, the couple permanently left Israel and emigrated to the United States. This caused a permanent rift in the family. Shmuel and Vera Scheinerman were greatly hurt by their daughter's choice to leave Israel. As a result, Vera Scheinerman willed only a small part of her estate to Dita, an act which enraged her. At one point, Dita decided to return to Israel, but after Vera was informed by the Israel Lands Administration that it would not be legally possible to split the family property between Ariel and Dita, and informed her that she would not be able to build a home there, Dita, believing she was being lied to, cut her family in Israel off and refused to attend the funerals of her mother and sister-in-law. She reestablished contact with the family after Sharon's stroke. Sharon's sister has rarely been mentioned in biographies of him: he himself rarely acknowledged her and only mentioned her twice in his autobiography.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.haaretz.com/his-sometime-sister-1.22852\|titleHis Sometime Sister\|date5 April 2018\|access-date5 April 2018\|newspaperHaaretz}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3198544,00.html\|titleSharon's 'lost sister' calls from America \|author Shiffer, Shimon \|date1 November 2006\|workYnetnews \|access-date5 April 2018}}</ref>LegacyA hugely consequential figure, Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure as well. While generally considered a great general and statesman among Israelis, Palestinians and numerous media and political sources revile Sharon as a war criminal.<ref>United Kingdom Parliament. [https://edm.parliament.uk/early-day-motion/21928/war-crimes-and-the-israeli-prime-minister-ariel-sharon War Crimes and the Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon]. Retrieved 27 April 2023</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastCarter\|firstChelsea J.\|date11 January 2014\|titleAriel Sharon: Hero or butcher? Five things to know\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2014/01/11/world/meast/ariel-sharon-5-things/index.html\|access-date20 July 2023\|publisherCNN\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|lastMuir\|firstHugh\|date4 March 2005\|titleSharon is war criminal says Livingstone\|languageen-GB\|workThe Guardian\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/mar/04/london.israel\|access-date20 July 2023\|issn0261-3077}}</ref> Human Rights Watch has contended that Sharon should have been held criminally accountable for his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacre, and other abuses.<ref name"Human Rights Watch-2014">{{Cite web \|date2014-01-11 \|titleIsrael: Ariel Sharon's Troubling Legacy \|urlhttps://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/11/israel-ariel-sharons-troubling-legacy \|access-date2022-07-22 \|publisherHuman Rights Watch \|languageen}}</ref><ref name"Human Rights Watch-2014-2">{{Cite web \|date2014-01-13 \|titleAriel Sharon's Legacy is Deeply Disturbing \|urlhttps://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/13/ariel-sharons-legacy-deeply-disturbing \|access-date2022-07-22 \|publisherHuman Rights Watch \|languageen}}</ref><ref name"The Guardian-2002">{{Cite web \|date2002-02-15 \|titleSharon cannot be tried in Belgium, says court \|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/feb/15/israelandthepalestinians.unitednations \|access-date2022-07-22 \|websiteThe Guardian \|language=en}}</ref> The Ariel Sharon Park, an environmental park near Tel Aviv, is named for him.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Ariel-Sharon-Park-transforms-eyesore-into-paradise \|titleAriel Sharon Park transforms 'eyesore' into 'paradise' \|newspaperThe Jerusalem Post\|authorSharon Udasin \|date16 May 2011 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130320014610/http://www.jpost.com/Enviro-Tech/Ariel-Sharon-Park-transforms-eyesore-into-paradise \|archive-date20 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|publisherIsrael Ministry of Foreign Affairs \|urlhttp://mfa.gov.il/MFA/InnovativeIsrael/Pages/Former_wasteland_future_ecological_wonderland-July_2011.aspx \|titleFormer wasteland, future ecological wonderland Ariel Sharon Park to be bigger than NYC's Central Park \|date20 July 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140309185107/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/InnovativeIsrael/Pages/Former_wasteland_future_ecological_wonderland-July_2011.aspx \|archive-date9 March 2014 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In the Negev desert, the IDF is currently building its city of training bases, Camp Ariel Sharon. In total, a NIS 50&nbsp;billion project,<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/.premium-1.583284 Israel to Issue Bonds to Pay for Mass Army Relocation] Meirav Arlosoroff 2 April 2014</ref> the city of bases is named after Ariel Sharon, the largest active construction project in Israel, it is to become the largest IDF base in Israel.{{cn\|dateOctober 2023}}Overview of offices heldSharon served as prime minister (Israel's head of government) from 7 March 2001 through 14 April 2006 (with Ehud Olmert serving as acting prime minister beginning 4 January 2006, after Sharon slipped into a coma).<ref>{{Cite news \|lastקליין \|firstזאב \|date11 April 2006 \|titleשרון הוגדר כבעל "נבצרות קבועה"; אהוד אולמרט - ראש הממשלה בפועל \|workGlobes \|urlhttps://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did1000082788 \|access-date=18 June 2022}}</ref> As prime minister he led the 12th government during the 15th Knesset and the 13th government during the 16th Knesset. Sharon served in the Knesset, first for several months in 1973, and later from 1977 through 2006. Sharon. From July 1999 through July 2000, Sharon served as the unofficial/honorary Knesset's opposition leader. Thereafter, from July 2000 through March 2001, he served as the first official designated Knesset opposition leader. Sharon was the leader of the Shlomtzion party from its 1976 founding until its 1977 merger into Likud. Sharon served as leader of the Likud party from 1999 through 2005, leaving to create Kadima which he led from 2005 through early 2006 (when he fell into a coma). In addition to these positions and his ministerial roles, Sharon also served as a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin from June 1975 through March 1976. Ministerial posts {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Ministerial posts \|- ! Ministerial post !! Tenure !! Prime Minister(s) !! Government(s) !! Predecessor !! Successor \|- \| Minister of Agriculture \|\| 20 June 1977 – 5 August 1981 \|\| Menachem Begin \|\| 18 \|\| Aharon Uzan \|\| Simha Erlich \|- \| Minister of Defense \|\| 5 August 1981 – 14 February 1983 \|\| Menachem Begin \|\| 19 \|\| Menachem Begin \|\| Menachem Begin \|- \| Minister without portfolio \|\| 14 February 1983 – 13 September 1984 \|\| Menachem Begin {{small\|(until 10 October 1983)}}<br>Yitzhak Shamir {{small\|(from 10 October 1983)}} \|\| 19, 20 \|\| {{N/A}} \|\| {{N/A}} \|- \| Minister of Industry and Trade \|\| 13 September 1984 – 20 February 1990 \|\| Yitzhak Rabin {{small\|(until 20 October 1986)}}<br>Yitzhak Shamir {{Small\|(from 20 October 1986)}} \|\| 21, 22, 23 \|\| Gideon Patt \|\| Moshe Nissim \|- \| Minister of Housing and Construction \|\| 11 June 1990 – 13 July 1992 \|\| Yitzhak Shamir \|\| 24 \|\| David Levy \|\| Binyamin Ben-Eliezer \|- \| Minister of National Infrastructure \|\| 8 July 1996 – 6 July 1999 \|\| Benjamin Netanyahu \|\| 27 \|\| Yitzhak Levy \|\| Eli Suissa \|- \| Minister of Foreign Affairs (first tenure) \|\| 13 October 1998 – 6 June 1999 \|\| Benjamin Netanyahu \|\| 27 \|\| Benjamin Netanyahu \|\| David Levy \|- \| Minister of Immigrant Absorption \|\| 7 March 2001 – 28 February 2003 \|\| Ariel Sharon \|\| 29 \|\| Yuli Tamir \|\| Tzipi Livni \|- \| Minister of Industry and Trade (second tenure) \|\| 2 November 2002 – 28 February 2003 \|\| Ariel Sharon \|\| 29 \|\| Dalia Itzik \|\| Ehud Olmert \|- \| Minister of Foreign Affairs (second tenure) \|\| 2 October 2002 – 6 November 2002 \|\| Ariel Sharon \|\| 29 \|\| Shimon Peres \|\| Benjamin Netanyahu \|- \| Minister of Communications \|\| 28 February 2003 – 17 August 2003 \|\| Ariel Sharon \|\| 30 \|\| Reuven Rivlin \|\| Ehud Olmert \|- \| Minister of Religious Affairs \|\| 28 February 2003 – 31 December 2003 \|\| Ariel Sharon \|\| 30 \|\| Asher Ohana \|\| Yitzhak Cohen \|} Electoral history 2001 direct election for Prime Minister {{Election box begin no change\|title=2001 Israeli prime ministerial election<ref>Dieter Nohlen, Florian Grotz & Christof Hartmann (2001) Elections in Asia: A Data Handbook, Volume I, p134 {{ISBN\|978-0-19-924958-9}}</ref>}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link no change \|candidate = Ariel Sharon \|party = Likud \|votes = 1,698,077 \|percentage = 62.38 }} {{Election box candidate with party link no change \|candidate = Ehud Barak (incumbent) \|party = Israeli Labor Party \|votes = 1,023,944 \|percentage = 37.62 }} {{Election box turnout no change \|votes = 2,722,021 \|percentage = 62.29 }} {{Election box end}} Party leadership elections {{Election box begin no party no change\|title1984 Herut leadership election<ref name"BeatsStrongSharonBid">{{cite web \|titleShamir Beats Strong SharonBid To Win Party's Prime Minister Candidacy \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/image/368893498 \|viaNewspapers.com \|publisherHartford Courant \|agencyUnited Press International \|access-date13 February 2022 \|languageen \|url-accesssubscription \|date=13 April 1984}}</ref>}} {{Election box winning candidate no party no change \|candidate = Yitzhak Shamir (incumbent) \|votes = 407 \|percentage = 56.45 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Ariel Sharon \|votes = 306 \|percentage = 42.44 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Aryeh Chertok \|votes = 8 \|percentage = 1.11 }} {{Election box total no party no change \|votes = 721 \|percentage = 100 }} {{Election box end}} {{Election box begin no party no change\|title1992 Likud leadership election<ref>{{cite web \|last1Burston \|first1Bradley \|titleShamir retains leadership of Likud as election nears \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/image/175147988 \|viaNewspapers.com \|workThe Philadelphia Inquirer \|agencyReuters \|access-date8 February 2022 \|languageen \|url-accesssubscription \|date21 February 1992}}</ref>}} {{Election box winning candidate no party no change \|candidate = Yitzhak Shamir (incumbent) \|votes \|percentage 46.4 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = David Levy \|votes \|percentage 31.2 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Ariel Sharon \|votes \|percentage 22.3 }} {{Election box end}} {{Election box begin no party no change\|titleSeptember 1999 Likud leadership election<ref name"Kenig">{{cite journal \|last1Kenig \|first1Ofer \|titleDemocratizing Party Leadership Selection in Israel: A Balance Sheet \|journalIsrael Studies Forum \|year2009 \|volume24 \|issue1 \|pages62–81 \|jstor41805011 \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41805011 \|access-date25 January 2022 \|issn1557-2455}}</ref>}} {{Election box winning candidate no party no change \|candidate = Ariel Sharon \|votes \|percentage 53 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Ehud Olmert \|votes \|percentage 24 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Meir Sheetrit \|votes \|percentage 22 }} {{Election box turnout no party no change \|votes \|percentage 34.8 }} {{Election box end}} {{Election box begin no party no change\|title2002 Likud leadership election<ref name"Kenig"/>}} {{Election box winning candidate no party no change \|candidate = Ariel Sharon (incumbent) \|votes \|percentage 55.9 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Benjamin Netanyahu \|votes \|percentage 40.1 }} {{Election box candidate no party no change \|candidate = Moshe Feiglin \|votes \|percentage 3.5 }} {{Election box turnout no party no change \|votes \|percentage 46.2 }} {{Election box end}} References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{refbegin\|40em}} Ben Shaul, Moshe (editor); Generals of Israel, Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968. Uri Dan; Ariel Sharon: An Intimate Portrait, Palgrave Macmillan, October 2006, 320 pages. {{ISBN\|978-1-4039-7790-8}}. Ariel Sharon, with David Chanoff; Warrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon, Simon & Schuster, 2001, {{ISBN\|978-0-671-60555-1}}. Gilad Sharon, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); Sharon: The Life of a Leader, HarperCollins Publishers, 2011, {{ISBN\|978-0-06-172150-2}}. Nir Hefez, Gadi Bloom, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); Ariel Sharon: A Life, Random House, October 2006, 512 pages, {{ISBN\|978-1-4000-6587-5}}. Freddy Eytan, (translated by Robert Davies); Ariel Sharon: A Life in Times of Turmoil, translation of Sharon: le bras de fer, Studio 8 Books and Music, 2006, {{ISBN\|978-1-55207-092-5}}. Abraham Rabinovich; The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East, 2005, {{ISBN\|978-0-8052-1124-5}}. Ariel Sharon, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703022204/http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2003/2/Ariel%20Sharon official biography], Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. {{cite book\|titleThe Suez Crisis 1956\|lastVarble\|firstDerek\|year2003\|publisherOsprey\|locationLondon\|isbn=978-1-84176-418-4}} Tzvi T. Avisar; Sharon: Five years forward, Publisher House, March 2011, 259 pages, [http://www.sharon.org.il/ Official website], {{ISBN\|978-965-91748-0-5}}. {{refend}} External links {{Sister project links\|voy=no}} {{MKlink\|id=125}} {{C-SPAN\|10001}} Three recordings from Sharon's Military Career, published by Israel State Archives: {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov_Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/ArikSharonMovies1/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305142020/http://archives.gov.il/archivegov_eng/publications/electronicpirsum/ariksharonmovies1\|url-statusdead\|archive-date5 March 2016\|titleארכיון המדינה\|access-date6 January 2017}} *{{webarchive \|title=The Kahan Commission on Sabra and Shatila massacre, published by Israel State Archives \|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911212745/https://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov_Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/KahanCommission/}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef\|before=Ehud Barak}} {{s-ttl\|titlePrime Minister of Israel\|years2001–2006}} {{s-aft\|after=Ehud Olmert}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef\|before=Benjamin Netanyahu}} {{s-ttl\|titleChairman of Likud\|years1999–2005}} {{s-aft\|after=Benjamin Netanyahu}} {{s-new\|reason=Party founded}} {{s-ttl\|titleChairman of Kadima\|years2005–2006}} {{s-aft\|after=Ehud Olmert}} {{s-end}} {{Navboxes \|title=Ariel Sharon \|list1= {{IsraelSouthernCommandChiefs}} {{Israeli Agriculture Ministers}} {{IsraelDefenseMin}} {{Israeli Industry, Trade and Labour Ministers}} {{Israeli Housing and Construction Ministers}} {{Israeli National Infrastructure Ministers}} {{IsraelForeignMin}} {{IsraelPMS}} {{Israeli Immigrant Absorption Ministers}} {{Israeli Health Ministers}} {{Israeli Ministers of Transportation}} {{Israeli Welfare and Social Services Ministers}} {{Israeli Ministers of Interior}} {{Israeli Communications Ministers}} {{Israeli Religious Services Ministers}} }} {{Authority control}} {{#related:Likud}} {{#related:Israel}} {{#related:Israeli disengagement from Gaza}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sharon, Ariel}} Category:1928 births Category:2014 deaths Category:21st-century prime ministers of Israel Category:Deaths from kidney failure Category:Haganah members Category:Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni Category:Israeli generals Category:Israeli Ashkenazi Jews Category:Leaders of political parties in Israel Category:Israeli people of Belarusian-Jewish descent Category:Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:Israeli people of the Yom Kippur War Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Jewish military personnel Category:Kadima leaders Category:Members of the 8th Knesset (1974–1977) Category:Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981) Category:Members of the 10th Knesset (1981–1984) Category:Members of the 11th Knesset (1984–1988) Category:Members of the 12th Knesset (1988–1992) Category:Members of the 13th Knesset (1992–1996) Category:Members of the 14th Knesset (1996–1999) Category:Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003) Category:Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006) Category:Ministers of agriculture of Israel Category:Ministers of defense of Israel Category:Ministers of foreign affairs of Israel Category:Ministers of health of Israel Category:Ministers of internal affairs of Israel Category:Moshavniks Category:Prime ministers of Israel Category:Shlomtzion (political party) politicians Category:Tel Aviv University alumni Category:People with disorders of consciousness Category:People with severe brain damage Category:Israeli autobiographers Category:Israeli military personnel of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War Category:Likud leaders Category:Ministers without Portfolio of Israel Category:People of the Second Intifada Category:Sabra and Shatila massacre	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon	2025-04-05T18:26:12.890617
2945	Romantic orientation	{{short description\|Classification of a person's romantic attraction towards others}} {{use mdy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{use American English\|date=April 2020}} {{Sexual orientation}} {{Distinguish\|Romantic friendship}} Romantic orientation, also called affectional orientation, is the classification of the sex or gender which a person experiences romantic attraction towards or is likely to have a romantic relationship with. The term is used alongside the term "sexual orientation", as well as being used alternatively to it, based upon the perspective that sexual attraction is only a single component of a larger concept.<ref>Crethar, H. C. & Vargas, L. A. (2007). Multicultural intricacies in professional counseling. In J. Gregoire & C. Jungers (Eds.), The counselor’s companion: What every beginning counselor needs to know. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. {{ISBN\|0-8058-5684-6}}. p.61.</ref> For example, although a pansexual person may feel sexually attracted to people regardless of gender, the person may experience romantic attraction and intimacy, for example, with women only. For asexual people, romantic orientation is often considered a more useful measure of attraction than sexual orientation.<ref name"Richards and Barker">{{cite book\|first1Christina\|last1Richards\|first2Meg\|last2Barker\|titleSexuality and Gender for Mental Health Professionals: A Practical Guide\|isbn978-1-4462-9313-3\|publisherSAGE\|year2013\|pages124–127\|access-dateJuly 3, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduSiXAgAAQBAJ&pgPT124\|archive-dateJuly 6, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230706223115/https://books.google.com/books?iduSiXAgAAQBAJ&pgPT124\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Cerankowski and Milks">{{cite book\|first1Karli June\|last1Cerankowski\|first2Megan\|last2Milks\|titleAsexualities: Feminist and Queer Perspectives\|isbn978-1-134-69253-8\|publisherRoutledge\|year2014\|pages89–93\|access-dateJuly 3, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzLgTAwAAQBAJ&pgPA89\|archive-dateJuly 6, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230706223122/https://books.google.com/books?idzLgTAwAAQBAJ&pgPA89\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The relationship between sexual attraction and romantic attraction is still under debate.<ref name":0"/><ref name":1">{{cite journal \|last1Van Houdenhove \|first1Ellen \|last2Gijs \|first2Luk \|last3T'Sjoen \|first3Guy \|last4Enzlin \|first4Paul \|titleAsexuality: A Multidimensional Approach \|journalThe Journal of Sex Research \|date24 July 2015 \|volume52 \|issue6 \|pages669–678 \|doi10.1080/00224499.2014.898015 \|pmid24750031 \|s2cid35875780 }}</ref> Sexual and romantic attractions are often studied in conjunction. Even though studies of sexual and romantic spectrums are shedding light onto this under-researched subject, much is still not fully understood.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hammack \|first1Phillip L. \|last2Frost \|first2David M. \|last3Hughes \|first3Sam D. \|titleQueer Intimacies: A New Paradigm for the Study of Relationship Diversity \|journalThe Journal of Sex Research \|date13 June 2019 \|volume56 \|issue4–5 \|pages556–592 \|doi10.1080/00224499.2018.1531281 \|pmid30362833 \|s2cid53102365 \|urlhttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/285899t4 }}</ref>Romantic identities{{Redirect-several\|daboff\|heterosexuality\|homosexuality\|bisexuality\|pansexuality\|polysexuality\|plurisexuality\|allosexuality\|monosexuality}} People may or may not engage in purely emotional romantic relationships. The main identities relating to this are:<ref name"Richards and Barker" /><ref name"Cerankowski and Milks" /><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://lgbtqia.ucdavis.edu/educated/glossary\|titleLGBTQIA Resource Center Glossary {{!}} LGBTQIA Resource Center\|websitelgbtqia.ucdavis.edu\|dateMay 5, 2015\|access-date2019-08-04\|archive-dateAugust 3, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190803144259/https://lgbtqia.ucdavis.edu/educated/glossary\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":10">{{Cite web \|date2021-07-01 \|titleAsexuality, Attraction, and Romantic Orientation \|urlhttps://lgbtq.unc.edu/resources/exploring-identities/asexuality-attraction-and-romantic-orientation/ \|access-date2022-03-11 \|websiteLGBTQ Center \|languageen-US \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211203043814/https://lgbtq.unc.edu/resources/exploring-identities/asexuality-attraction-and-romantic-orientation/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> * Aromantic, meaning someone who experiences little to no romantic attraction (aromanticism).<ref>{{cite thesis \|last1Bougie \|first1C. \|titleComposing aromanticism \|dateMay 2021 \|doi10.32469/10355/85832}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-02-18 \|title5 things you should know about aromantic people \|urlhttps://www.stonewall.org.uk/about-us/news/5-things-you-should-know-about-aromantic-people \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220226060725/https://www.stonewall.org.uk/about-us/news/5-things-you-should-know-about-aromantic-people \|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022 \|access-date2022-02-26 \|websiteStonewall \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2021-10-29 \|titleNever Been Interested in Romance? You Could Be Aromantic \|urlhttps://psychcentral.com/health/what-is-aromantic \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230325222124/https://psychcentral.com/health/what-is-aromantic \|archive-dateMarch 25, 2023 \|access-date2022-02-26 \|websitePsych Central \|languageen}}</ref><ref name"theguardian">{{cite news \|authorJosh Salisbury \|titleMeet the aromantics: 'I'm not cold – I just don't have any romantic feelings' &#124; Life and style \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/11/meet-the-aromantics-not-cold-dont-have-romantic-feelings-sex \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210407054453/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/11/meet-the-aromantics-not-cold-dont-have-romantic-feelings-sex \|archive-dateApril 7, 2021 \|access-date2018-04-15 \|newspaperThe Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Przybylo \|first1Ela \|last2Gupta \|first2Kristina \|date2020 \|titleEditorial Introduction: The Erotics of Asexualities and Nonsexualities: Intersectional Approaches \|journalFeminist Formations \|volume32 \|issue3 \|pagesvii–xxi \|doi10.1353/ff.2020.0034 \|s2cid235009367 \|id{{Project MUSE\|777127}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date11 February 2015 \|titleGLAAD - A is for Asexual, Agender, Aromantic \|urlhttps://www.glaad.org/blog/asexual-agender-aromantic \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326211810/https://www.glaad.org/blog/asexual-agender-aromantic \|archive-dateMarch 26, 2023 \|access-date26 March 2023}}</ref> ** For identities within the aromantic spectrum, see Aromantic spectrum. * Alloromantic or zedromantic:<ref>{{Cite journal \|urlhttps://read.dukeupress.edu/american-speech/article/98/1/104/360022/Among-the-New-Words \|access-date2024-04-17 \|journalAmerican Speech \|doi10.1215/00031283-10579494 \|titleAmong the New Words \|date2023 \|last1Zimmer \|first1Benjamin \|last2Wright \|first2Kelly E. \|last3Hughes \|first3Brianne \|last4Zhang \|first4Lynn \|last5McLean \|first5Jaidan \|last6Carson \|first6Charles E. \|volume98 \|pages104–119 }}</ref><ref name":6" /> Not aromantic (alloromanticism or zedromanticism).<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBarron \|firstVictoria \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBDSdEAAAQBAJ&dq%22omniromantic%22&pgPT4 \|titlePerfectly Queer: An Illustrated Introduction \|date2023-02-21 \|publisherJessica Kingsley Publishers \|isbn978-1-83997-409-0 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Tessler \|first1Hannah \|titleAromanticism, asexuality, and relationship (non-)formation: How a-spec singles challenge romantic norms and reimagine family life \|journalSexualities \|date23 August 2023 \|doi10.1177/13634607231197061 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Niemira \|first1Jan C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDcqPDwAAQBAJ&dq%22alloromantic%22&pgPA133 \|titleSex, Sexuality, and Trans Identities: Clinical Guidance for Psychotherapists and Counselors \|last2Jacobson \|first2Gary J. \|last3Violeta \|first3Karalyn J. \|date2019-09-19 \|publisherJessica Kingsley Publishers \|isbn978-1-78592-618-1 \|language=en}}</ref> Monoromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of only one gender (monoromanticism).<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSharmat \|firstMadeline \|date2023-06-08 \|titleAll Bi Myself: The Relationship Between Bisexuality and Self-Essentialism \|urlhttps://via.library.depaul.edu/csh_etd/474 \|journalCollege of Science and Health Theses and Dissertations}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Matheson \|first1Lauren P. \|last2Blair \|first2Karen L. \|titleFrom continua to kaleidoscopes: How plurisexuality challenges traditional conceptualizations of sexual orientation \|journalThe Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality \|dateSeptember 2023 \|volume32 \|issue2 \|pages151–163 \|doi10.3138/cjhs.2023-0022 }}</ref><ref name":6">{{Cite book \|lastDyer \|firstHarriet \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduVmuEAAAQBAJ&dq%22skolioromantic%22&pgPT6 \|titleFrom Ace to Ze: The Little Book of LGBT Terms \|date2018-05-10 \|publisherSummersdale \|isbn978-1-78685-696-8 \|language=en}}</ref> * Androromantic: Romantic attraction towards men or masculinity (androromanticism).<ref name":3" /><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Steelman \|first1Sarah M. \|last2Hertlein \|first2Katherine M. \|titleUnderexplored Identities: Attending to Asexuality in Therapeutic Contexts \|journalJournal of Family Psychotherapy \|date2 April 2016 \|volume27 \|issue2 \|pages85–98 \|doi10.1080/08975353.2016.1169014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastThurer \|firstShari \|date2023 \|titleBeyond the Binary : Essays on Gender \|urlhttps://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/5624597 \|journalPhoenix Publishing House \|languageen \|pages1–124}}</ref> * Gyneromantic or gynoromantic: Romantic attraction towards women or femininity (gyneromanticism or gynoromanticism).<ref>{{cite thesis \|last1Woodruff \|first1Elisa \|titleWellness in asexual-Identified individuals: The Impact of Social Support and Microaggressions \|date2019 \|urlhttps://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/allgraduate-thesesdissertations/7789/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Zamani-Gallaher \|first1Eboni M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL9CwDwAAQBAJ&dq%22gynoromantic%22&pgPT123 \|titleRethinking LGBTQIA Students and Collegiate Contexts: Identity, Policies, and Campus Climate \|last2Choudhuri \|first2Devika Dibya \|last3Taylor \|first3Jason L. \|date2019-09-20 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-429-82426-5 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Zosky \|first1Diane L. \|last2Alberts \|first2Robert \|titleWhat's in a name? Exploring use of the word queer as a term of identification within the college-aged LGBT community \|journalJournal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment \|date16 November 2016 \|volume26 \|issue7–8 \|pages597–607 \|doi=10.1080/10911359.2016.1238803 }}</ref> * {{Visible anchor\|Heteroromantic\|Heteroromanticism\|Heteromantic\|Heteromanticism\|textHeteroromantic}}: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the opposite gender (heteroromanticism).<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Steelman \|first1Sarah M. \|last2Hertlein \|first2Katherine M. \|titleUnderexplored Identities: Attending to Asexuality in Therapeutic Contexts \|journalJournal of Family Psychotherapy \|date2 April 2016 \|volume27 \|issue2 \|pages85–98 \|doi10.1080/08975353.2016.1169014 }}</ref> * {{Visible anchor\|Homoromantic\|Homoromanticism\|text=Homoromantic}}: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the same gender (homoromanticism). {{Anchor\|Multiromantic\|Pluriromantic}}Multiromantic or pluriromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of multiple genders (multiromanticism or pluriromanticism).<ref>{{cite thesis \|last1Gatewood \|first1Hunter \|date2023 \|titleDifferentiating Sexual Orientation and Romantic Orientation: Exploring Two Inventories of Sexual and Romantic Attraction \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/openview/f4e961c22ffc82729b76400866486ce1/1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Rucco \|first1Daniele \|last2Toffoli \|first2Greta \|last3Anzani \|first3Annalisa \|last4Prunas \|first4Antonio \|titleA Networked Model of Ecological Systems Theory to Discuss Concerns in Italian Bisexual+ and Transgender People After the Block of the 'Zan Bill' by Senate \|journalSexuality Research and Social Policy \|dateMarch 2024 \|volume21 \|issue1 \|pages313–338 \|doi10.1007/s13178-023-00906-z }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Zhang \|first1Yang Bo \|last2Mishra \|first2Shraddha \|last3Liang \|first3Emily \|last4Wekerle \|first4Christine \|titleAdverse Childhood Experiences, Mental Health, and Resilience in 2SLGBTQIA + Persons: a Scoping Review \|journalAdversity and Resilience Science \|dateSeptember 2023 \|volume4 \|issue3 \|pages211–233 \|doi=10.1007/s42844-023-00095-z }}</ref> * {{Visible anchor\|Biromantic\|Biromanticism\|textBiromantic}} or ambiromantic: Romantic attraction towards two genders, or person(s) of the same and other genders (biromanticism or ambiromanticism).<ref name":3">{{cite book \|last1Decker \|first1Julie Sondra \|titleThe Invisible Orientation: An Introduction to Asexuality \|date2015 \|publisherSimon and Schuster \|isbn978-1-5107-0064-2 }}{{pn\|dateApril 2024}}</ref><ref name":4">{{cite thesis \|last1Ghosh Lisbin \|first1Maya Katyajini \|titleA-Spec: Conceptualizing Asexual Identity, Experience, and Phenomenological Form \|date2023 \|doi10.48617/etd.1077 }}</ref> Sometimes used the same way as panromantic or multiromantic.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWhat Does Biromantic Mean? \|urlhttps://www.webmd.com/sex/what-does-biromantic-mean \|access-date2021-12-03 \|websiteWebMD \|languageen \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211203193041/https://www.webmd.com/sex/what-does-biromantic-mean \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name":10" /><ref name":03">{{cite journal \|last1Hayfield \|first1Nikki \|last2Křížová \|first2Karolína \|titleIt's Like Bisexuality, but It Isn't: Pansexual and Panromantic People's Understandings of Their Identities and Experiences of Becoming Educated about Gender and Sexuality \|journalJournal of Bisexuality \|date3 April 2021 \|volume21 \|issue2 \|pages167–193 \|doi10.1080/15299716.2021.1911015 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name":5"/> * {{Visible anchor\|Panromantic\|Panromanticism\|textPanromantic}} or omniromantic:<ref name":03"/> Romantic attraction towards person(s) regardless of gender or of any, every, and all genders (panromanticism or omniromanticism).<ref name":03" /><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hille \|first1Jessica J. \|last2Simmons \|first2Megan K. \|last3Sanders \|first3Stephanie A. \|title'Sex' and the Ace Spectrum: Definitions of Sex, Behavioral Histories, and Future Interest for Individuals Who Identify as Asexual, Graysexual, or Demisexual \|journalThe Journal of Sex Research \|dateSeptember 2020 \|volume57 \|issue7 \|pages813–823 \|doi10.1080/00224499.2019.1689378 \|pmid31799860 \|s2cid208623207 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titlePanromantic Asexuality: What Is It? \|urlhttps://www.webmd.com/sex/what-is-panromantic-asexuality \|access-date2021-12-01 \|websiteWebMD \|languageen \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211201235737/https://www.webmd.com/sex/what-is-panromantic-asexuality \|url-statuslive }}</ref> * {{Vanchor\|Polyromantic\|textPolyromantic\|Polyromanticism}}: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of various, but not all, genders (polyromanticism).<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Carrigan \|first1Mark \|last2Gupta \|first2Kristina \|last3Morrison \|first3Todd G. \|titleAsexuality special theme issue editorial \|journalPsychology and Sexuality \|dateMay 2013 \|volume4 \|issue2 \|pages111–120 \|doi10.1080/19419899.2013.774160 }}</ref> {{Anchor\|Ceteroromantic\|Skolioromantic}} Skolioromantic or ceteroromantic: Romantic attraction towards genderqueer or non-binary person(s) (skolioromanticism or ceteroromanticism).<ref name":4" /><ref>{{cite thesis \|last1Chessin \|first1Krista Ellise \|titleThe sexual and romantic orientation scale: a measure of sexual and romantic orientation as separate dimensions \|date2019 \|hdl10211.3/213654 }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Abroromantic: Fluid between romantic identities or in romantic attraction (abroromanticism).<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-02-22 \|titleThe experiences of UK LGBT+ communities during the COVID-19 pandemic \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/356109851 \|access-date2024-05-04 \|websiteNational Centre for Social Research \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis \|titleExploring the Experiences of South Asian Students in Undergraduate Programmes: A Case Study in a New Zealand University \|urlhttps://hdl.handle.net/10292/13228 \|publisherAuckland University of Technology \|date2020 \|languageen \|firstAli \|lastRasheed\|hdl10292/13228 }}</ref> Not to be confused with aroflux.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRendle \|firstSamantha \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYv6oEAAAQBAJ&dqaroflux+aromantic&pgPP1 \|titleHopeless Aromantic: An Affirmative Guide to Aromanticism \|date2023-07-21 \|publisherJessica Kingsley Publishers \|isbn978-1-83997-368-0 \|language=en}}</ref> Pomoromantic: Rejecting preexisting romantic labels (pomoromanticism).<ref name":4" /><ref name":3" /> Relationship with sexual orientation and asexuality {{Main\|Split attraction model}} {{see also\|Romantic attraction\|Sexual orientation\|Sexual attraction}} The implications of the distinction between romantic and sexual orientations have not been fully recognized, nor have they been studied extensively.<ref name":2">{{cite book \|last1Bogaert \|first1Anthony F. \|titleUnderstanding Asexuality \|date2012 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield Publishers \|isbn978-1-4422-0101-9 \|page14 }}</ref> It is common for sources to describe sexual orientation as including components of both sexual and romantic (or romantic equivalent) attractions.<ref name":1"/><ref name":2"/> Publications investigating the relationship between sexual orientation and romantic orientation are limited. Challenges in collecting information result from survey participants having difficulty identifying or distinguishing between sexual and romantic attractions.<ref name":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Savin-Williams\|first1Ritch C.\|last2Vrangalova\|first2Zhana\|date2013\|titleMostly heterosexual as a distinct sexual orientation group: A systematic review of the empirical evidence\|journalDevelopmental Review\|volume33\|issue1\|pages58–88\|doi10.1016/j.dr.2013.01.001 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Priebe\|first1Gisela\|last2Svedin\|first2Carl Göran\|date2013\|titleOperationalization of Three Dimensions of Sexual Orientation in a National Survey of Late Adolescents\|journalThe Journal of Sex Research\|volume50\|issue8\|pages727–738\|doi10.1080/00224499.2012.713147 \|pmid23136981\|s2cid27288714}}</ref> Asexual individuals experience little to no sexual attraction (see gray asexuality); however, they may still experience romantic attraction.<ref name"Helm">{{cite book\|vauthorsHelm KM\|titleHooking Up: The Psychology of Sex and Dating\|isbn978-1610699518\|publisherABC-CLIO\|year2015\|page32\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idO3K9CgAAQBAJ&pgPA32}}</ref><ref name"Fischer">{{cite book\|vauthorsFischer NL, Seidman S\|titleIntroducing the New Sexuality Studies\|isbn978-1317449188\|publisherRoutledge\|year2016\|page183\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSEmTDAAAQBAJ&pgPA183\|access-dateNovember 27, 2019\|archive-dateJuly 6, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230706223114/https://books.google.com/books?idSEmTDAAAQBAJ&pgPA183\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Lisa M. Diamond states that a person's romantic orientation can differ from whom the person is sexually attracted to.<ref name":0">{{cite journal \|last1Diamond \|first1Lisa M. \|titleWhat does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire \|journalPsychological Review \|dateJanuary 2003 \|volume110 \|issue1 \|pages173–192 \|doi10.1037/0033-295x.110.1.173 \|pmid12529061 }}</ref> While there is limited research on the discordance between sexual attraction and romantic attraction in individuals, the possibility of fluidity and diversity in attractions have been progressively recognized.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Lund \|first1Emily M. \|last2Thomas \|first2Katie B. \|last3Sias \|first3Christina M. \|last4Bradley \|first4April R. \|titleExamining Concordant and Discordant Sexual and Romantic Attraction in American Adults: Implications for Counselors \|journalJournal of LGBT Issues in Counseling \|dateOctober 2016 \|volume10 \|issue4 \|pages211–226 \|doi10.1080/15538605.2016.1233840 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Weinrich \|first1James D. \|last2Klein \|first2Fritz \|last3McCutchan \|first3J. Allen \|last4Grant \|first4Igor \|titleCluster Analysis of the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid in Clinical and Nonclinical Samples: When Bisexuality Is Not Bisexuality \|journalJournal of Bisexuality \|date3 July 2014 \|volume14 \|issue3–4 \|pages349–372 \|doi10.1080/15299716.2014.938398 \|pmc4267693 \|pmid25530727}}</ref> Researchers Bulmer and Izuma found that people who identify as aromantic often have more negative attitudes in relation to romance. While roughly 1% of the population identifies as asexual, 74% of those people reported having some form of romantic attraction.<ref name":5">{{cite journal \|last1Antonsen \|first1Amy N. \|last2Zdaniuk \|first2Bozena \|last3Yule \|first3Morag \|last4Brotto \|first4Lori A. \|titleAce and Aro: Understanding Differences in Romantic Attractions Among Persons Identifying as Asexual \|journalArchives of Sexual Behavior \|dateJuly 2020 \|volume49 \|issue5 \|pages1615–1630 \|doi10.1007/s10508-019-01600-1 \|pmid=32095971 }}</ref> A concept commonly used by people that experience discordant romantic and sexual attraction is the split attraction model, which tries to explain that romantic and sexual attractions are not exclusively tied together and is often used by people of the asexual and aromantic community to explain their differing romantic versus sexual orientations. The abbreviation aroace (or aro-ace) can be used for someone who is both aromantic ('aro') and asexual ('ace').<ref>{{cite web \|titlearo-ace \|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aro-ace \|websiteCollins Dictionary \|access-date11 September 2024}}</ref> See also * Bromance * Cross-sex friendship * Emotional affair * Heterosociality * Homosociality * Queerplatonic relationship * Romantic friendship * Womance References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book \|last1King \|first1Laura \|titleThe Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View \|date2010 \|publisherMcGraw Hill Professional \|isbn978-0-07-353206-6 }} {{cite book\|titleSex and Society\|volume1\|isbn978-0-7614-7905-5\|publisherMarshall Cavendish Reference\|year2009\|editorMarshall Cavendish Corporation\|contributionAsexuality\|pages82–83\|contribution-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaVDZchwkIMEC&pgPA82\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaVDZchwkIMEC\|access-date2020-04-24}} {{Cite journal \| author Wells, J. W. \| year 1989 \| title Teaching about Gay and Lesbian Sexual and Affectional Orientation Using Explicit Films to Reduce Homophobia \| journal Journal of Humanistic Education and Development \| volume 28 \| issue 1 \| pages 18–34 \| doi 10.1002/j.2164-4683.1989.tb00179.x }} {{Sexual identities}} Category:Sexual orientation Category:Aromanticism Category:Asexuality Category:LGBTQ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_orientation	2025-04-05T18:26:12.909011
2947	Anoa	{{Short description\|Dwarf buffalo from Sulawesi}} {{about\|the animal\|the Indonesian-made military vehicle\|Anoa (armoured personnel carrier)}} {{More citations needed\|date=March 2016}} {{Automatic taxobox \| image = Anoa Bubalus depressicornis Surabaya Zoo.jpg \| image_caption = Lowland anoa (B. depressicornis) at the Surabaya Zoo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia \| image2 = Mountain Anoa at Krefeld Zoo.jpg \| image2_caption = Mountain anoa (B. quarlesi) at the Krefeld Zoo, Krefeld, Germany \| status = E \| status_system = ESA \| status_ref <ref>{{cite web\| url https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?sId8361\| url-status dead\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20161226034611/http://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?sId8361\| archive-date 2016-12-26\| title Species Profile for Mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)}}</ref> \| taxon = Bubalus (Anoa) \| subdivision_ranks = Species \| subdivision = {{Linked species list \| Bubalus depressicornis \| Smith, 1827 (type) \| †Bubalus grovesi \| Rozzi, 2017<ref nameRozzi>{{cite journal \|last1Rozzi \|first1Roberto \|titleA new extinct dwarfed buffalo from Sulawesi and the evolution of the subgenus Anoa: An interdisciplinary perspective \|journalQuaternary Science Reviews \|date2017 \|volume157 \|pages188–205 \|doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.12.011\|doi-accessfree \|bibcode=2017QSRv..157..188R }}</ref> \| Bubalus quarlesi \| Ouwens, 1910 }} }} Anoa, also known as dwarf buffalo and sapiutan,{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2022}} are two species of the genus Bubalus, placed within the subgenus Anoa and endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) and the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis). Both live in undisturbed rainforests and are similar in appearance to miniature water buffaloes, weighing {{convert\|150\|-\|300\|kg\|lb\|abbron}}. 'Anoa' itself is Celebic in origin cognate to words in other related Philippine languages in the same Austronesian family that name the common water buffalo (anwáng in Tagalog, nuáng in Ilocano, nuwang in Ifugaw etc).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://acd.clld.org/cognatesets/27616#4/9.67/121.25\|websiteThe Austronesian Comparative Dictionary\|titleqaNuaŋ large ruminant species: carabao, water buffalo\|access-dateFeb 24, 2025\|last1Blust\|first1Robert\|last2Trussel\|first2Stephen\|year2020\|publisherMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology}}</ref> Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s and the populations continue to decrease. Fewer than 5,000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include poaching for hides, horns, and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, poaching is the most serious factor in most areas. Anoa are most closely allied to the larger Asian buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct Asian buffaloes, the remains of which have been found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911\|inliney\|wstitleAnoa\|volume2\|page79}}</ref> Imagery of anoas may be present in the oldest rock art known as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Oktaviana \|first1Adhi Agus \|last2Joannes-Boyau \|first2Renaud \|last3Hakim \|first3Budianto \|last4Burhan \|first4Basran \|last5Sardi \|first5Ratno \|last6Adhityatama \|first6Shinatria \|last7Hamrullah \|last8Sumantri \|first8Iwan \|last9Tang \|first9M. \|last10Lebe \|first10Rustan \|last11Ilyas \|first11Imran \|last12Abbas \|first12Abdullah \|last13Jusdi \|first13Andi \|last14Mahardian \|first14Dewangga Eka \|last15Noerwidi \|first15Sofwan \|dateJuly 2024 \|titleNarrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago \|journalNature \|volume631 \|issue8022 \|pages814–818 \|doi10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7 \|pmid38961284 \|issn1476-4687\|pmc11269172 }}</ref> Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia.<ref nameBurton2005>{{Cite journal\|titleThe taxonomic status, distribution and conservation of the lowland anoa Bubalus depressicornis and mountain anoa Bubalus quarlesi\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/229612804 \|dateJanuary 2005 \|last1Burton \|first1James \|last2Hedges \|first2Simon \|last3Mustari \|first3Abdul Haris \|journalMammal Review \|volume35 \|issue1 \|pages25–50 \|doi10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00048.x \|access-date2021-02-27}}</ref> They live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. Little is known about their life history as well. However, in captive individuals, they have a life expectancy of 20–30 years. The anoa take two to three years before they reach sexual maturity have one calf a year and have very rarely been seen to have more. Skulls of anoa cannot be accurately identified as to species, and there is likely hybridizing and interbreeding between the two in the zoo population. It is questioned as to whether the two species were different due to them occurring together in many different areas, as well as some interbreeding. A study of the mtDNA of ten specimens from different localities found a high mitochondrial genetic diversity between individuals identified as one or the other species, indicating support for recognition as two species.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Priyono\|first1Dwi\|last2Solihin\|first2Dedy\|last3Farajallah\|first3Achmad\|last4Arini\|first4Diah\|date2018-11-01\|titleAnoa, dwarf buffalo from Sulawesi, Indonesia: Identification based on DNA barcode\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/328138675\|journalBiodiversitas\|volume19\|issue6\|pages1985–1992\|doi10.13057/biodiv/d190602\|doi-accessfree}}</ref>Species The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) is a small bovid,<ref nameiucn1>{{cite iucn \|authorBurton, J. \|author2Wheeler, P. \|author3Mustari, A. \|date2016 \|titleBubalus depressicornis \|volume2016 \|pagee.T3126A46364222 \|doi10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T3126A46364222.en \|access-date12 November 2021}}</ref> standing barely over {{convert\|90\|cm\|in\|abbron}} at the shoulder. It is usually solitary, living in lowland forests, browsing on plants and understory.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstDavid \|date2002 \|titleBubalus depressicornis \|urlhttps://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bubalus_depressicornis/ \|access-dateAugust 9, 2024 \|websiteAnimal Diversity Web}}</ref> According to Groves (1969) the lowland anoa can be told apart from the other species by being larger, having a triangular horn cross-section, sparse as opposed to thick and woolly hair, and always having white markings on the face and legs.<ref nameBurton2005/> * The mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) is also known as Quarle's anoa and anoa pegunungan.<ref nameiucn2>{{cite iucn \|authorBurton, J. \|author2Wheeler, P. \|author3Mustari, A. \|date2016 \|titleBubalus quarlesi \|volume2016 \|pagee.T3128A46364433 \|doi10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T3128A46364433.en \|access-date12 November 2021}}</ref> Standing at {{convert\|70\|cm\|in\|abbron}} at the shoulder, it is even smaller than the lowland anoa and the smallest of all living wild cattle. They also have longer, woolier hair that moults every year, showing faint spots on the head, neck, and limbs.<ref name"ARKive">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.arkive.org/mountain-anoa/bubalus-quarlesi\|titleMountain anoa videos, photos and facts – Bubalus quarlesi – ARKive\|workARKive\|access-date2011-10-02\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110913140513/http://www.arkive.org/mountain-anoa/bubalus-quarlesi/\|archive-date2011-09-13\|url-statusdead}}</ref> According to Groves (1969), the mountain anoa can be told apart from the other species by being smaller, having a round horn cross-section, thick and woolly hair, and sometimes having white markings on the face and legs.<ref nameBurton2005/> Distribution Both the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) are endemic to the islands of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Both species appear to occur in the same areas.<ref nameBurton2005/> Sulawesi is a unique area because roughly 61% of the species found there are endemic species, including both anoa species.HabitatTraditionally, a key difference between the two species is the altitude at which they occur. The mountain anoa can be found at higher elevations than its lowland counterpart and is found in the forests. The lowland anoa was said to spend its time in the lower elevation areas and is also found in forests. Since 2005, however, these differences do not seem to be accurate, both species occur in the same areas in the same habitats.<ref nameBurton2005/> Morphology The anoa have many physical characteristics of bovine relatives and are considered to be most closely related to the water buffalo, which was confirmed through DNA analysis.<ref name=Burton2005/> The physical characteristics of the two species are similar. The anoa is the smallest of the wild cattle species. When anoa are born, they have a set of thick, woolly fur that comes in many color variations ranging from yellow to brown. In adults, the fur is typically brown or black, and males tend to have darker variations. Hair thickness varies slightly between the two species based on elevation and distribution. In both species of anoa, horns are present in both males and females and are typically straight protuberances. Another defining characteristic of the anoa is an extremely thick hide underneath the thick fur. Conservation Both anoa species are endemic to the island of Sulawesi and are currently experiencing large declines in their populations. Knowledge of their decline has only recently been documented, however, and the villages and villagers lack the knowledge of how to help maintain or increase populations. The leading cause of their population decline is hunting by local villagers for meat, with habitat loss also being significant. One benefit of the lack of knowledge about the legal status of what they are doing is that villagers are open to communication with researchers on their harvests and hunting practices; where awareness of conservation issues has penetrated, villagers will lie about their activities.<ref name=Burton2005/> Logging is a large issue because both species prefer core forested habitats that are far away from humans and the influences that come with them. By logging, humans create much more fragmented habitats and, therefore, a decrease in the area where the anoa can breed and live. This habitat fragmentation also alters the natural mixing of populations of the anoa. This may lead to a loss in genetic diversity between the two species and, over time, could also lead to their decline.{{Clear}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category-inline\|Anoa}} DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA (Bubalus sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT from https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/jitaa/article/view/7608/6259 Pujaningsih, R.i., et al. “DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA (Bubalus sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT.” Journal of the Indonesian Tropical Animal Agriculture, vol. 34, no. 3, 2009, doi:10.14710/jitaa.34.3.223-228. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160124223039/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/SpeciesFactSheets/bubalus-depressicornis.html Lowland Anoa Bubalus depressicornis Smith] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20190206225339/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/ wildcattleconservation.org] {{Artiodactyla\|R.4}} {{Taxonbar\|from=Q122848955}} Category:Bubalus Category:Mammals of Sulawesi Category:Endemic fauna of Indonesia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoa	2025-04-05T18:26:12.923241
2948	Agner Krarup Erlang	{{short description\|Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer}} {{about\|the Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer\|\|Erlang (disambiguation){{!}}Erlang}} {{Infobox person \| name = Agner Krarup Erlang \| image = Erlang.jpg \| image_size = 200px \| caption \| birth_date {{birth date text\|1 January 1878}} \| birth_place = Lønborg, Denmark \| death_date = {{death-date and age\|3 February 1929\|1 January 1878}} \| death_place = Copenhagen, Denmark \| resting place = Sundby Kirkegård, København, Denmark{{r\|Hs2004}} \| occupation = Mathematician, statistician, and engineer \| alma_mater = University of Copenhagen \| spouse \| parents \| children = }} Agner Krarup Erlang (1 January 1878 – 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering{{r\|Brockmeyer1948}}<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastThomopoulos \|firstNicholas T. \|titleFundamentals of Queuing Systems: Statistical Methods for Analyzing Queuing Models \|date2012 \|publisherSpringer \|isbn978-1-4614-3713-0 \|locationNew York \|pages2 \|languageen}}</ref> and queueing theory.<ref name=":0" /> Erlang's 1909 paper, and subsequent papers over the decades, are regarded as containing some of most important concepts and techniques for queueing theory.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBhat \|firstU. Narayan \|titleAn Introduction to Queueing Theory: Modeling and Analysis in Applications \|date2015 \|publisherBirkhauser \|isbn978-0-8176-8421-1 \|seriesStatistics for industry and technology \|locationBoston, MA \|pages4–5 \|languageen}}</ref> By the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunications network studies. Life Erlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother's side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p=10-12}} A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the university and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p13}} He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p14}} He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association (DMF) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company (KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p14}} Erlang worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p19}} He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p18}} Contributions While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs.{{r\|Achak2014}} Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p17}} <!-- He famously said that this was a "no brainer."{{Citation needed\|dateApril 2008}} The actual quote in Danish w/translation would be desired. --> He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948b\|pp=109-110}} He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include: * 1909 – "The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations", which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic.{{r\|Erlang1909\|Erlang1925\|Erlang1948a}} * 1917 – "Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges", which contains his classic formulae for call loss and waiting time.{{r\|Erlang1917\|Erlang1948b}} * 1920 – "Telephone waiting times", which is Erlang's principal work on waiting times, assuming constant holding times.{{r\|Erlang1920\|Erlang1948c}} These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One Bell Telephone Laboratories researcher is said to have learned Danish to study them.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p=17}} The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities.{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p=17}} In 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the "erlang".{{r\|CCITT1946}}{{r\|Brockmeyer1948\|p=19-22}} A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour. Erlang also made an important contribution to physiologic modeling with the Krogh-Erlang capillary cylinder model describing oxygen supply to living tissue.{{r\|Krogh1919}}{{r\|Larsen2021}} See also * Erlang – a unit of communication activity * Erlang distribution – a statistical probability distribution * Erlang programming language – developed by Ericsson for large industrial real-time systems * Queueing theory * Teletraffic engineering References {{Reflist \|refs<ref nameBrockmeyer1948> {{citation \|last1Brockmeyer \|first1E. \|last2Halstrøm \|first2H. L. \|chapter=The Life of A.K. Erlang \|title=The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang \|year1948 \|pages9–22 \|seriesTransactions of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences \|volume2 \|publisher=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber \|editor-lastBrockmeyer \|editor-firstE. \|editor-last2Halstrøm \|editor2-firstH. L. \|editor3-lastJensen \|editor3-firstArne \|chapter-url=http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps009-022.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719122546/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps009-022.pdf }}</ref> <ref name=Brockmeyer1948b> {{citation \|lastBrockmeyer \|firstE. \|chapter=A Survey of A. K. Erlang's Mathematical Works \|title=The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang \|year1948 \|pages101–126 \|seriesTransactions of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences \|volume2 \|publisher=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber \|editor-lastBrockmeyer \|editor-firstE. \|editor-last2Halstrøm \|editor2-firstH. L. \|editor3-lastJensen \|editor3-firstArne \|chapter-url=http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps101-126.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719122546/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps101-126.pdf }}</ref> <ref name=Hs2004> {{citation \|lastH. \|firstS. \|title=Agner Krarup Erlang \|urlhttps://gravsted.dk/person.php?navnagnerkraruperlang \|date2004 \|languageda \|access-date=2024-04-19 }}</ref> <ref name=Achak2014> {{citation \|lastAchak \|firstMatthew \|title=Understanding Erlang and Queuing Theory \|url=https://www.gofcr.com/understanding-erlang-and-queuing-theory/ \|date2014-02-28 \|websiteFCR \|languageen-US \|access-date2019-02-24 }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1909> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|title=Sandsynlighedsregning og Telefonsamtaler \|trans-title=Probability Calculation and Telephone Conversations \|language=Danish \|journal=Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik \|year1909 \|volume20 \|issueB \|pages33–39 \|jstor=24528622 }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1925> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|title=Calcul des probabilités et conversations téléphoniques \|trans-title=Probability Calculation and Telephone Conversations \|language=French \|journal=Revue générale de l'Electricité \|year1925 \|volume18 \|issue8 \|pages305–309 \|url= }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1948a> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|chapter=The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations \|title=The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang \|date1948 \|pages131–137 (this English translation is based on the French original from 1925) \|seriesTransactions of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences \|volume2 \|publisher=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber \|editor-lastBrockmeyer \|editor-firstE. \|editor-last2Halstrøm \|editor2-firstH. L. \|editor3-lastJensen \|editor3-firstArne \|chapter-url=http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719122546/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1917> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|title=Løsning af nogle Problemer fra Sandsynlighedsregningen af Betydning for de automatiske Telefoncentraler \|trans-title=Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges \|language=Danish \|journal=Elektroteknikeren \|year1917 \|volume13 \|pages=5–13 }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1948b> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|chapter=Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges \|title=The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang \|year1948 \|pages138–155 \|seriesTransactions of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences \|volume2 \|publisher=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber \|editor-lastBrockmeyer \|editor-firstE. \|editor-last2Halstrøm \|editor2-firstH. L. \|editor3-lastJensen \|editor3-firstArne \|chapter-url=http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps138-155.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2011 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719122546/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps138-155.pdf }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1920> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|title=Telefon-Ventetider. Et Stykke Sandsynlighedsregning \|trans-title=Telephone Waiting Times. A Bit of Probability Calculation \|journal=Matematisk Tidsskrift B \|year1920 \|volume31 \|pages=25–42 \|url=https://runeberg.org/matetids/1920b/0029.html }}</ref> <ref name=Erlang1948c> {{citation \|last1Erlang \|first1Agner K. \|chapter=Telephone Waiting Times \|title=The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang \|year1948 \|pages156–171 \|seriesTransactions of the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences \|volume2 \|publisher=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber \|editor-lastBrockmeyer \|editor-firstE. \|editor-last2Halstrøm \|editor2-firstH. L. \|editor3-lastJensen \|editor3-firstArne \|chapter-url=http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps156-171.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2011 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719122546/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps156-171.pdf }}</ref> <ref name=CCITT1946> {{Citation \|contribution=Traffic handled on a circuit or group of circuits \|title=CCIF - XIVth Plenary Assembly \|publisherInternational Telephone Consultative Committee \|locationMontreux, 26–31 October \|year1946 \|pages60–62 \|hdl11.1004/020.1000/4.237.43.en.1001 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> <ref name=Larsen2021> {{Citation \|title=August Krogh's contribution to the rise of physiology during the first half the 20th century \|journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology \|year2021 \|volume256 \|page=110931 \|lastLarsen \|firstErik Hviid \|last2Hoffman \|first2Else \|last3Hedrick \|first3Michael S. \|last4Wang \|first4Tobias \|doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.110931 \|pmid=33647460 }}</ref> <ref name=Krogh1919> {{Citation \|title=The number and distribution of capillaries in muscles with calculations of the oxygen pressure head necessary for supplying the tissue \|journal=The Journal of Physiology \|year1919 \|volume52 \|issue6 \|pages409–415 \|lastKrogh \|firstAugust \|doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1919.sp001839 \|pmid=16993405 \|pmc=1402716}}</ref> }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Erlang, Agner Krarup}} Category:20th-century Danish mathematicians Category:20th-century Danish engineers Category:Electrical engineers Category:Queueing theorists Category:Danish statisticians Category:Danish business theorists Category:1878 births Category:1929 deaths Category:People from Ringkøbing-Skjern Municipality Category:Danish civil engineers Category:University of Copenhagen alumni	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agner_Krarup_Erlang	2025-04-05T18:26:12.932812
2950	Anyone Can Whistle	Anyone Can Whistle is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Described as "a satire on conformity and the insanity of the so-called sane," the show tells a story of an economically depressed town whose corrupt mayor decides to create a fake miracle in order to attract tourists. The phony miracle draws the attention of an emotionally inhibited nurse, a crowd of inmates from a local asylum, and a doctor with secrets of his own. Following a tryout period in Philadelphia, Anyone Can Whistle opened at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway on April 4, 1964. The show received widely varied reviews (including negative notices from the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune), and closed after a run of twelve previews and nine performances. The show's original run marked the stage musical debut of Angela Lansbury. In the decades since its closing, Anyone Can Whistle has seen relatively few productions compared to other Sondheim musicals; notable productions include a 1995 concert version at Carnegie Hall, a pair of stagings in London and Los Angeles in 2003 that incorporated revisions, and a 2010 concert staging for the Encores! program at New York City Center. However, its score has become acclaimed as a part of Sondheim's canon, and songs such as the title tune ("Anyone Can Whistle"), "Everybody Says Don't", and "There Won't Be Trumpets" have been performed widely. Background thumb\|250px\|Lee Remick, Angela Lansbury, Harry Guardino, and Herbert Greene The show was first announced in The New York Times on October 5, 1961: "For the winter of 1962, [Arthur Laurents] is nurturing another musical project, The Natives Are Restless. The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent's handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet." No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in The New York Times about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim-Laurents musical (now named Side Show). Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre-Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show's message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem. The show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schub, suffered a heart attack during the show's out-of-town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim, "Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro...who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which she spectacularly did." Sondheim called the reviews "humiliating" and the audiences "hostile." Productions After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome negative notices from major papers such as the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune. Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show's sole Tony Award nomination. The show became a cult favorite, and a truncated recording by the original cast released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theater buffs. "There Won't Be Trumpets," a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers. On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the recording by the original Broadway cast. For example, the cut song "There's Always a Woman" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only cast member from the original show to reprise his role. In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year: one in London at the Bridewell Theatre and one in Los Angeles at the Matrix Theatre. The Ravinia Festival presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald (Fay), Michael Cerveris (Hapgood) and Patti LuPone (Cora). On January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Schub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim. Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in Encores! history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post-matinee talkback on April 10. A London production of Anyone can Whistle opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck (Mayoress), Rosalie Craig (Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo-Pearce (Hapgood). Porchlight Music Theatre presented Anyone Can Whistle in 2013 as a part of "Porchlight Revisits" series, in which it staged three forgotten musicals per year. It was directed by Christopher Pazdernik and music directed by Aaron Benham. A new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017. A concert presentation of the show was presented by MasterVoices, under the direction and baton of Ted Sperling, on March 10, 2022, at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This production featured Vanessa Williams (Cora Hoover Hooper), Santino Fontana (J. Bowden Hapgood), Elizabeth Stanley (Fay Apple), Douglas Sills (Comptroller Schub), Eddie Cooper (Treasurer Cooley), and Michael Mulheren (Police Chief Magruder). Joanna Gleason served as the narrator for the event IN 2022, a new production of the show ran at the Southwark Playhouse in London under the direction of Georgie Rankcom, with musical direction by Natalie Pound and choreography by Lisa Stevens. The show's cast featured Alex Young as Cora Hoover Hooper, Chrystine Symone as Nurse Fay Apple, and Jordan Broatch as J. Bowden Hapgood. This production was the largest staged version of the show since its debut on Broadway in 1964. Plot Act One The story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt. (Its former major industry was an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local mental asylum, known as "The Cookie Jar", whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople ("I'm Like the Bluebird"). All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her croniesComptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity ("Me and My Town"). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration and the town, promising, "It's unethical." He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks itand a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water's curative powers ("Miracle Song"). It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, a skeptical but idealistic young nurse from the Cookie Jar. She appears at the rock with all forty-nine of the inmates, or "Cookies" in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and remain insane, people will discover the fraud. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears, and hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for a hero to deliver the town Cora and her lackeys ("There Won't Be Trumpets"). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar's manager, Dr. Detmold, who says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, without divulging which group is the sane one. The town council becomes suspicious, but Hapgood simply questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care ("Simple"). As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience, "You are all mad!" Seconds later, the stage lights are restored, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends. Act Two The two groups are now in a bitter rivalry over which is the sane group ("A-1 March"). Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, who has come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film ("Come Play Wiz Me"). Fay tries to get Hapgood's help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off and confesses to him that this disguise, leftover from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her shell. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free ("Anyone Can Whistle"). Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight ("A Parade in Town"). She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the Cookies' records, so both they and Fay can be free. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his ownhe is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance ("Everybody Says Don't"). Act Three Cora is at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus but announces that they can easily pin the blame on Hapgood. The group celebrates their alliance ("I've Got You to Lean On"). A mob forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of 49 cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is sane or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Hapgood refuses to help Fay stop the Mayoress since he has given up crusading. Although she knows she still isn't out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone ("See What it Gets You"). As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key to the wagon from the guards in an extended ballet sequence ("The Cookie Chase"). As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty-nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can't turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can't bring herself to break free. They regretfully part ways ("With So Little to Be Sure Of"). Word comes of a new miracle from the town beyond the valley, of a statue with a warm heart, and the townspeople, including Magruder and Cooley, rush off to see if it is real. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is alone again. Again, Schub has the answerthey can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar. Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold's real new assistant Jane Borden Osgood arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn't answer, she tries to whistleand succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying, "That's good enough for me." As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rocka true miracle this time ("Finale"). Notable casts CharacterBroadwayOff-Off-BroadwayBritish PremiereCarnegie Hall ConcertEncores!Carnegie Hall RevivalOff-West End196419801986199520102022Cora Hoover HooperAngela LansburyGaylea ByrnePip HintonMadeline KahnDonna MurphyVanessa WilliamsAlex YoungFay AppleLee RemickRosemary McNamaraMarilyn CurtisBernadette PetersSutton FosterElizabeth StanleyChrystine SymoneJ. Bowden HapgoodHarry GuardinoGary KrawfordMichael JayesScott BakulaRaúl EsparzaSantino FontanaJordan BroatchComptroller SchubGabriel DellSam StoneburnerBill BradleyWalter BobbieEdward HibbertDouglas SillsDanny LaneTreasurer CooleyArnold SoboloffRalph David WestfallJohn GriffithsChip ZienJeff BlumenkrantzEddie CooperSamuel CliffordPolice Chief MagruderJames FrawleyDavid BerkJonathan StephensKen PageJohn Ellison ConleeMichael MulherenRenan TeodoroMrs. SchroederPeg MurrayIleane GudellHilary CromieMaureen MooreLinda GriffinColleen BrownKathryn AkinDr. DetmoldDon DohertyKermit BrownThom BookerNick WymanPatrick Wetzel???Nathan TaylorCora's BoysSterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Larry Roquemore and Tucker SmithStephan DeGhelder, Bill Hastings, Stephen Hope and David E. MallardMichael Gyngell, Dermot McLaughlin, Alan Mosley, Neil PattersonSterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Evan Pappas, Eric Riley and Tony StevensClyde Alves, Grasan Kingsbury, Eric Sciotto and Anthony Wayne??? Musical numbers (from the Broadway production) Act I Prelude Act I (instrumental) — Orchestra I'm Like the Bluebird — Company Me and My Town — Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys Miracle Song — Cora, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists, and Pilgrims There Won't Be Trumpets — Fay Apple* Simple — J. Bowden Hapgood and Company Act II Prelude Act II (instrumental) — Orchestra A-1 March — Company Come Play Wiz Me — Fay, Hapgood, and Boys Anyone Can Whistle — Fay A Parade In Town — Cora Everybody Says Don't — Hapgood Don't Ballet (instrumental) — Orchestra Act III Prelude Act III (instrumental) — Orchestra I've Got You to Lean On — Cora, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder, and Boys See What It Gets You — Fay Anyone Can Whistle (Reprise) — Fay Cora's Chase (The Cookie Chase) — Company I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 1) — Cookies With So Little to Be Sure Of — Fay and Hapgood I've Got You to Lean On (Reprise) — Cora and Schub* I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 2) — Cookies Finale Ultimo (instrumental) — Orchestra Notes Asterisk (*) denotes song cut during Previews. Despite being cut from the original production, "There Won't Be Trumpets" was nonetheless recorded for the original Broadway cast recording, though it remained unreleased until a 1989 remastered CD. Officially licensed scripts and scores now reinstate the song. The 1995 concert production restored the songs "There Won't Be Trumpets" (Fay Apple) and "There's Always a Woman" (Fay and Cora), both previously cut. "Finale Ultimo" is attached to the end of "With So Little to Be Sure Of" on the Original Cast Recording. Critical response Howard Taubman in his The New York Times review wrote that Laurents's "book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream." Steven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The "fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence... and the third act chase... are unlike anything that came before." Stuart King writing for London Box Office (April 2022) noted: "Southwark Playhouse (with Guildford graduate Georgie Rankcom at the directorial helm for this gender-fluid production) has resurrected the piece for a short run — just in time for Easter! But the burning question on Press Night was whether or not the cult 60s show would need a miracle to find a new, modern fan base, OR, have the subjects of political corruption, sexual identity and mental wellbeing potentially given the fundamentally flawed piece new meaning for a young and previously unfamiliar audience? This reviewer’s answer would be that it will almost certainly depend entirely on who you are, how you identify (if indeed you bother with such matters), whether corruption in public office bothers you (why wouldn’t it?) and probably most significantly of all, whether you consider yourself a Sondheim purist/aficionado/devotee." Awards and nominations Original Broadway production Year Award ceremony Category Nominee Result 1964 Tony Award Best Choreography Herbert Ross References Balancing Act, The Authorized Biography of Angela Lansbury by Martin Gottfried, published byLittle, Brown and Company, 1999 Notes External links Anyone Can Whistle at the Sondheim Database sondheim.com MTI shows listing Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle Anyone Can Whistle on the Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide The story of Anyone Can Whistle by Mark Eden Horowitz in The Sondheim Review Category:1964 musicals Category:Broadway musicals Category:Original musicals Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim Category:Musicals by Arthur Laurents Category:Musicals set in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyone_Can_Whistle	2025-04-05T18:26:12.956222
2952	Alcopop	thumb\|Lime and Grapefruit Bacardi Breezer are made with Bacardi rum. An alcopop (or cooler) is a category of mixed alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3–7% alcohol by volume), including: Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added Wine coolers: beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added Mixed drinks containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings The term alcopop (a portmanteau of the words alcohol and pop) is used commonly in the United Kingdom and Ireland to describe these drinks. In English-speaking Canada, "cooler" is more common but "alcopop" may also be used. Other terms include flavored alcoholic beverage (FAB), flavored malt beverage (FMB), "pre-packaged" or "premium packaged" spirit (PPS). In Australia and New Zealand "premix" and ready to drink (RTD) are both commonly used terms. "Spirit cooler" is used in South Africa for distilled alcohol versions. Hard seltzer is a related category of alcoholic drinks based on flavored seltzer water. Hard soda, meanwhile, is specifically related to soft drinks. Hard lemonade, which could be considered an alcopop, has been around for some time. Hard cider, on the other hand, is a fermented beverage similar to wine or beer. Description thumb\|Bottles of blue Rev, a vodka cooler from Canada There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that are simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available. History Wine coolers gained popularity in the US market in the 1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper's Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of "malternative beverage." Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike's Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called "violence against lemons". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.) Through its Alcopop-Free Zone® campaign, " Alcohol Justice has sought to ban alcopop sales entirely since the sweet and brightly colored alcoholic drinks may appeal to children. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, a media outcry during the mid-1990s arose as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and led to British liquor stores withdrawing them from their shelves. In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency "found no evidence of intent to target minors with FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey's methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data." The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. "The Commission's investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing" and found that "the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27." In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second-highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it in line with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax. The Federal Trade Commission report states, "Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, ... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products' sweetness. Brands thumb\|right\|Garage Hard Lemonade from Finland is a lemon-flavoured alcopop whose 4.6% ABV matches that of many commercial beers. Brands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK, Smirnoff Ice, Mike's Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Palm Bay, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel's Hard Cola and, in the UK, WKD Original Vodka. Garage is an alcopop produced by the Finnish brewery Sinebrychoff. Health concerns Alcohol-based sugar-sweetened beverages like alcopop, are closely linked to episodic drinking in adolescents. Attempts to discourage Australia The Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A$290 million after April 2008. and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the tax on the drinks from $39.36 to $66.67 per litre of alcohol. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers. Germany On 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits (e.g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275-ml-bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols with wine or beer, but with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks (which are not "alcopops" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age. Philippines In 2019, some senators including Pia Cayetano and former Special Assistant to the President Bong Go called for pullout of alcopops from the market due to "deceptive packaging that resembles fruit juices usually bought by young consumers". Alcopops also have seven percent alcohol content, which is slightly lower than that of local beer brand Red Horse Beer. Sweden Systembolaget blocked the sale of alcoholic soft drinks in Sweden until mid-1996, when Alkoholsortimentsnämnden decided, with reference to Treaty of Rome Article 30, that Systembolaget could not refuse to sell certain products. This led to great debate, where the marketing of the alcoholic soft drink was considered to be aimed above all at young people. After initially great sales successes, the popularity has now declined, and many of the alcoholic drinks' market shares have been taken over by sweeter varieties of cider that share many characteristics with the soft drink but have been fermented to their alcoholic strength. United Kingdom In June 1997, Co-op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been revoked. See also Borg (drink) Chuhai Hard seltzer Hard soda Jello shot Jungle juice Liqueur Nutcracker (drink) Purple drank Queen Mary (beer cocktail) References Sources Bloomberg News, FTC Says Alcohol Type Not Aimed at Minors, Los Angeles Times, June 5, 2002. Melillo, W. FTC: Ads for 'Alcopops' Not Aimed at Teens, Adweek, June 6, 2002. American Medical Association, AMA Says Alcohol Industry Targets Teen Girls , December 16, 2004. California boosts tax on 'alcopops', Associated Press, August 15, 2007. External links Portman Group (a UK alcoholic beverage industry trade advocacy group with a code of marketing practices) New wave of 'sophisticated' alcopops fuels teenage binge drinking The Guardian, 14 December 2002 The demonised drink: How has youth drinking evolved 20 years since the launch of alcopops? The Independent, 29 June 2013 The quiet death of the alcopop BBC News Magazine, 31 July 2013 Category:Premixed alcoholic drinks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcopop	2025-04-05T18:26:12.991983
2955	Alkali	In chemistry, an alkali (; from the Arabic word , ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective alkaline, and less often, alkalescent, is commonly used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases. Etymology The word alkali is derived from Arabic al qalīy (or alkali), meaning (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol K (from the German name ), which ultimately derived from alkali. Common properties of alkalis and bases Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include: Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink. Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns). Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin. Alkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution. Difference between alkali and base The terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering. There are various, more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen. A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (this includes Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) but excludes NH3 (ammonia)). Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes both Mg(OH)2 and NH3, which forms NH4OH.) The second subset of bases is also called an "Arrhenius base". Alkali salts Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – often called "caustic soda" Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – commonly called "caustic potash" Lye – generic term for either of two previous salts or their mixture Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) – saturated solution known as "limewater" Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) – an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions) Alkaline soil Soils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems. on the Utah–Idaho border Lake Magadi in Kenya Lake Turkana in Kenya Mono Lake, near Owens Valley in California Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan Summer Lake, Lake County, Oregon Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan See also Alkali manufacture Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Alkaline magma series Base (chemistry) References Category:Inorganic chemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali	2025-04-05T18:26:12.999314
2956	Ain't I a Woman? (book)	{{Short description\|1981 Black feminist book by bell hooks}} {{multiple issues\|{{Review\|date=May 2017}} {{Original research\|date=May 2017}}}} {{Infobox book \| name = Ain't I a Woman? \| image = Ain't I a Woman.jpg \| caption = Cover of the first edition \| author = bell hooks \| illustrator \| cover_artist \| country = United States \| language = English \| series \| subject Black feminism \| publisher = South End Press \| pub_date = 1981 \| media_type = Print \| pages = 220 (second edition) \| isbn = 0-89608-129-X \| oclc \| dewey \| congress \| preceded_by \| followed_by = }} '''''Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism''''' is a 1981 book by bell hooks titled after Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech. hooks examines the effect of racism and sexism on Black women, the civil rights movement, and feminist movements from suffrage to the 1970s. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to Black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female abolitionists and suffragists were often more comfortable with Black male abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, while southern segregationalists and stereotypes of Black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever Black women spoke. Hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused Black Americans.<ref namedebate>{{cite web\|titleAin't I a Woman? \|urlhttp://www.debate.org/reference/aint-i-a-woman \|publisherdebate.org \|access-date11 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111190336/http://www.debate.org/reference/aint-i-a-woman \|archive-date11 November 2013 }}</ref> Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect Black women today. She argued that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move Black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women, thus justifying the devaluation of Black femininity and rape of Black women. The work which Black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory workplace, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against Black women as a proof of their emasculating behavior. hooks argues that Black nationalism was largely a patriarchal and misogynist movement, seeking to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, and that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating Black matriarch proposed by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose theories bell hooks often criticizes. Meanwhile, she says, the "feminist movement", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and classism. She suggests this explains the low numbers of Black women who participated in the feminist movement in the 1970s, pointing to Louis Harris' Virginia Slims poll done in 1972 for Philip Morris that she says showed 62 percent of Black women supported "efforts to change women's status" and 67 percent "sympathized with the women's rights movement", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). <!-- Please verify the quoted sections are the exact phrasing of the survey. --> Reception Since its publication, ''Ain't I a Woman has been critically acclaimed as groundbreaking in the study of feminist theory for discussing the correlation between the history of oppression Black women have faced in the United States and its lingering effects in modern American society.<ref name":0">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/28/books/bell-hooks-min-jin-lee-aint-i-a-woman.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/28/books/bell-hooks-min-jin-lee-aint-i-a-woman.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleIn Praise of bell hooks\|lastJin Lee\|firstMin\|dateFeb 28, 2019\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateApril 23, 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Ain't I a Woman'' is praised for tackling the intersection of race and gender that marginalizes Black women.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Guy-Sheftall \|first1Beverly \|last2Ikerionwu \|first2Maria K. Mootry \|last3hooks \|first3bell \|date1983 \|titleBlack Women and Feminism: Two Reviews \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/274371 \|journalPhylon \|volume44 \|issue1 \|pages84 \|doi10.2307/274371 \|jstor274371}}</ref> hooks' writing has also opened the door for other Black women to write and theorize about similar topics.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastCooke\|firstClaire\|date2012\|titleViolently Silenced? The Role of Violence in bell hooks' Development as a Writer\|journalLimina: A Journal of Historical and Cultural Studies\|volume18}}</ref> The book is commonly used in gender studies, Black studies, and philosophy courses. The work has led to some criticism of her being "ahistorical, unscholarly (there were many complaints about the absence of footnotes), and homophobic".<ref>{{cite journal\|lastBell-Scott\|firstPatricia\|titleThe Centrality of Marginality\|journalThe Women's Review of Books\|date1985\|volume2\|issue5\|pages3–4\|doi10.2307/4019632\|jstor4019632}}</ref> She does not provide a bibliography for any of her work, making it difficult to find the editors and publication information for the pieces listed under the "notes" section of her work.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastPettis\|firstJoyce\|titleA Review of Feminist Theory: From Margin To Center\|journalJournal of Women in Culture and Society\|date1986\|volume11\|issue4\|pages788–789\|doi10.1086/494279}}<!--\|access-date6 March 2014--></ref> In "Theory as Liberatory Practice," hooks explains that her lack of conventional academic format was "motivated by the desire to be inclusive, to reach as many readers as possible in as many different locations as possible".<ref>{{cite journal\|lastHaley\|firstShelly\|titlePracticing Freedom\|journalThe Women's Review of Books\|date1995\|volume7\|issue6\|pages10–11\|doi10.2307/4022111\|jstor4022111}}</ref> In a book review of hooks' Remembered Rapture: The Writer at Work, Nicole Abraham criticizes hooks' unconventional format rationalization. Abraham suggests that, if her rationalization for not providing footnotes and bibliographic information in her writing is that it will help her reach a broader, presumably less academic audience, hooks either assumes that the average person is uninterested in pursuing her sources and ideas or implies that her readers are too lazy or unsophisticated for proper endnotes.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastAbraham\|firstNicole\|titleRemembered Rapture: The Writer at Work; by bell hooks; Mother to Mother; by Sindiwe Magona\|journalSouthern African Feminist Review\|date1999\|volume3\|issue2\|page101}}</ref> See also * Black feminism References {{reflist\|30em}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ain't I A Woman? (Book)}} Category:1981 non-fiction books Category:Black feminist books Category:Books by bell hooks Category:English-language non-fiction books Category:Non-fiction books about racism Category:Sojourner Truth	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain't_I_a_Woman?_(book)	2025-04-05T18:26:13.004386
2957	AMOS (programming language)	{{Infobox programming language \| name = AMOS \| logo \| paradigm Imperative, Procedural \| year = {{Start date and age\|1990}} \| designer \| developer François Lionet and Constantin Sotiropoulos \| latest_release_version \| latest_release_date \| latest_test_version \| latest_test_date \| typing = Static \| implementations \| dialects AMOS, Easy AMOS, AMOS Professional \| influenced_by = STOS BASIC \| influenced \| operating_system AmigaOS \| license = BSD style license \| website [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204085705/http://www.clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i58 AMOS and STOS] }} AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language for the Amiga computer. Following on from the successful STOS BASIC for the Atari ST, AMOS BASIC was written for the Amiga by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos and published by Europress Software in 1990. The language was notable for its focus on media and game development capabilities, allowing users to easily create demanding multimedia software and games. It featured full structured code and numerous high-level functions for loading and manipulating images, animations, and sounds. These capabilities made it a popular choice among Amiga enthusiasts, particularly beginners, for creating video games (especially platformers and graphical adventures), multimedia applications, and educational software. History AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways. The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages, being speedy enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7&nbsp;MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed. AMOS could also run MC68000 machine code, loaded into a program's memory banks.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/1990-lionet-francois-amos-the-creator-user-guide/1990-lionet-francois-amos-the-creator-user-guide_djvu.txt The Creator], by François Lionet, 1990, "AMOS Basic includes special facilities which allow you to combine assembly language routines with your Basic programs."</ref> To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://grove.ufl.edu/~cwarner/computers.html \|titleComputers \|access-date2010-11-22 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101208051702/http://grove.ufl.edu/~cwarner/computers.html \|archive-date2010-12-08 }}</ref> It was also possible to control screen and "rainbow" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga's Agnus chip. After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler (AMOS Compiler), and two other versions of the language: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better integrated development environment, ARexx support, a new user interface API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.{{Citation needed\|dateJanuary 2012\|reasonFor example, from my experience it was way more popular. References to sales figures or alike would be nice.}} AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software. The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners. One of AMOS BASIC's disadvantages, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware. Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i58 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071130053321/http://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i58 \| archive-date2007-11-30 \| titleAmos & Stos » Main Download}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://github.com/AOZ-Studio/AMOS-Professional-Official \| publication-date2020-04-26 \| firstFrançois \| lastLionet \| viaAOZ Studio \| access-date2024-11-29 \| websiteGitHub \| titleAOZ-Studio/AMOS-Professional-Official: The official source code of AMOS Professional on the Amiga}}</ref> Software Software written using AMOS BASIC includes: * AQUABYSS by Aged Code, is a 2022 strategy trading game for the Amiga<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lemonamiga.com/games/details.php?id4762\|titleAQUABYSS (2022) at LemonAmiga.com\|access-date8 August 2024}}</ref> * Miggybyte * Scorched Tanks * Games by Vulcan Software, amongst which was the Valhalla trilogy * Amiga version of Ultimate Domain (called Genesia) by Microïds * Flight of the Amazon Queen, by Interactive Binary Illusions<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://gamasutra.com/blogs/JohnPassfield/20150601/244740/Making_of_Flight_of_the_Amazon_Queen__A_20th_Anniversary_Retrospective.php\|titleMaking of Flight of the Amazon Queen: A 20th Anniversary Retrospective \|access-date1 January 2016\|websiteGamasutra\|date=June 2015 }}</ref> * Extreme Violence, included on an Amiga Power cover disk * Jetstrike, a commercial game by Rasputin Software * Black Dawn, a 1993 game for the Amiga personal computer<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://crpgaddict.blogspot.com/2023/03/game-487-black-dawn-1993.html\|titleGame 487: Black Dawn (1993) \|dateMarch 2023 \|access-date1 March 2023}}</ref> References {{reflist\|30em}} External links {{wikiversity\|AMOS programming language}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071130053321/http://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i=58 Source code for AMOS and STOS] * [http://www.ultimateamiga.co.uk/index.php/page,16/ The AMOS Factory] (an AMOS support/community site) * [http://www.triumphoverchallenges.com/stos-and-amos-game-creators/ History of STOS and AMOS]: how they came to be published in the UK {{BASIC}} Category:BASIC programming language family Category:Video game development software Category:Amiga development software Category:Software using the BSD license Category:Programming languages created in 1990	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMOS_(programming_language)	2025-04-05T18:26:13.009382
2959	Arcadia 2001	{{Short description\|1982 home video game console}} {{Infobox information appliance \| name = Arcadia 2001 \| title \| aka \| logo \| image Emerson-Arcadia-2001.jpg \| caption = An Arcadia 2001 \| developer \| manufacturer Emerson Radio \| family \| type Home video game console \| generation = Second generation \| releasedate {{Start date and age\|1982\|05}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastForster \|firstWinnie \|author-linkWinnie Forster \|titleThe encyclopedia of consoles, handhelds & home computers 1972 - 2005 \|year2005 \|publisherGAMEPLAN \|isbn3-00-015359-4\|pages=57}}</ref> \| lifespan = 18 months \| price = US$99 \| discontinued = 1984 \| unitssold \| unitsshipped \| media = ROM cartridge \| os \| power 12 volt \| soc \| cpu Signetics 2650 \| memory = 1 KB RAM \| storage \| memory card \| display = TV; 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours \| graphics = Signetics 2637 UVI \| sound = 2 channels (Beeper and Noise) \| input \| controllers 2 x Intellivision-style controller (12 button keypad and 'fire' buttons on the sides) \| camera \| touchpad \| connectivity \| platform \| service \| dimensions \| weight \| topgame \| compatibility \| predecessor \| successor \| related \| website = <!--{{URL\|example.org}}--> }} The Arcadia 2001 is a second-generation 8-bit home video game console released by Emerson Radio in May 1982 for a price of US$99,<ref name"Watcher reviews" /> several months before the release of ColecoVision. It was discontinued only 18 months later, with a total of 35 games having been released.<ref name"Watcher reviews">{{cite web\|lastWatcher\|firstDark\|titleEmerson Arcadia 2001 - DW Facts\|urlhttp://www.videogameconsolelibrary.com/pg80-arcadia.htm#pagereviews\|publisherVideo Game Console Library\|access-date6 January 2014}}</ref> Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 to Bandai, which released it in Japan.<ref name"Watcher reviews"/> Over 30 Arcadia 2001 clones exist despite the system being a commercial failure. The unrelated Arcadia Corporation, manufacturer of the Supercharger add-on for the Atari 2600, was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement. Arcadia Corporation then changed its name to Starpath.<ref name"starpath">{{cite web\| url http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstoryepyx\| title The Dot Eaters - Epyx {{!}} The Dot Eaters<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> Description The Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12 volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. It has two headphone jacks on the far left and right sides of the back. The system came with two Intellivision-style controllers with a 12-button keypad and "fire" buttons on the sides. The direction pads have a removable joystick attachment. Most games came with BoPET overlays that can be applied to the controller's keypads. The console itself has five buttons: Power, Start, Reset, Option, and Select. There are at least three different cartridge case styles<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.obsoletemedia.org/emerson-arcadia-2001/\| title obsoletemedia.org: Emerson Arcadia 2001 (1982 – 1984)}}</ref> and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family cartridges come in two different lengths (short and long) of black plastic cases. Technical specifications Main Processor: Signetics 2650 CPU (some variants run a Signetics 2650A) RAM: 1 KB ROM: None Video display: 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours Video display controller: Signetics 2637 UVI @ 3.58 MHz (NTSC), 3.55&nbsp;MHz (PAL) Sound: Single Channel "Beeper" + Single Channel "Noise" Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color Controllers: 2 × 2 way Keypads: 2 × 12 button (more buttons on some variants) Console variants and clones Many variants and clones of the Arcadia 2001 have been released by various companies in different countries. These systems are mostly compatible with each other. In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia was released only in Japan. Four exclusive games were released for the system. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Name ! Manufacturer ! Country ! Compatibility family ! Image \|- \|Advision Home Arcade\|\|Advision\|\|{{flagicon\|FRA}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|2001 ALTOS Home Video Centre\|\|Altos India Limited\|\|{{flagicon\|IND}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Arcadia\|\|Bandai\|\|{{flagicon\|JPN}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Arcadia 2001\|\|Emerson\|\|{{flagicon\|USA}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Cosmos\|\|Tele-Computer\|\|{{flagicon\|ESP}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Dynavision\|\|Morning-Sun Commerce\|\|{{flagicon\|JPN}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Educat\|\|unknown\|\|{{flagicon\|ISR}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Ekusera\|\|P.I.C.\|\|{{flagicon\|JPN}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Hanimex MPT-03\|\|Hanimex\|\|{{flagicon\|FRA}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|HMG-2650\|\|Hanimex\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}<br/>{{flagicon\|CAN}}<br/>{{flagicon\|AUS}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Home Arcade Centre\|\|Hanimex\|\|{{flagicon\|GBR}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Intelligent Game MPT-03\|\|Intelligent Game\|\|{{flagicon\|USA}}<br/>{{flagicon\|CAN}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Intercord XL 2000 System\|\|Intercord\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Intervision 2001\|\|Intervision\|\|{{flagicon\|CHE}} {{flagicon\|FIN}}\|\|Ormatu console\|\| \|- \|ITMC MPT-03\|\|ITMC\|\|{{flagicon\|FRA}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Leisure Vision\|\|Leisure-Dynamics\|\|{{flagicon\|CAN}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Leonardo\|\|GiG Electronics\|\|{{flagicon\|ITA}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Home Entertainment Centre Ch-50\|\|Inno-Hit\|\|{{flagicon\|ITA}}\|\|Ormatu console\|\| \|- \|Ormatu 2001\|\|Ormatu Electronics BV\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}}\|\|Ormatu console\|\| \|- \|Palladium Video-Computer-Game \|\| Neckermann \|\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} \|\| Palladium console\|\| \|- \|Polybrain Video Computer Game\|\|Polybrain\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|Palladium console\|\| \|- \|Poppy MPT-03 Tele Computer Spiel\|\|Poppy\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Prestige Video Computer Game MPT-03\|\|Prestige\|\|{{flagicon\|FRA}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Robdajet MPT-03\|\|Robdajet\|\|{{flagicon\|CHE}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Rowtron 2000\|\|Rowtron\|\|{{flagicon\|GBR}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Schmid TVG-2000\|\|Schmid\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Sheen Home Video Centre 2001\|\|Sheen\|\|{{flagicon\|AUS}}\|\|Ormatu console\|\| \|- \|Soundic MPT-03\|\|Soundic\|\|{{flagicon\|FIN}}<br/>{{flagicon\|SGP}}[https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19820716-1.2.144.1?ST1&ATsearch&kMPT-03&QTmpt-03&oref=article]\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Tedelex Home Arcade\|\|Tedelex\|\|{{flagicon\|ZA}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Mr. Altus Das Tele-Gehirn Color (German for tele brain)<ref>{{Cite web\|lastretroplace\|titleMr. Altus Das Telegehirn {{!}} Emerson Arcadia 2001\|urlhttps://www.retroplace.com/de/spiele/136211--mr-altus-das-telegehirn\|access-date2020-08-24\|websiteretroplace.com\|languagede}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastMotoschifo\|titleMr. Altus Tele Brain - MAME machine\|urlhttp://adb.arcadeitalia.net/?mamemratlus\|access-date2020-08-24\|websiteadb.arcadeitalia.net\|languageit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleMr. Altus Das Tele-Gehirn Color\|urlhttps://www.videogameheaven.de/hardware/hgs/mraltus/data_mraltus.htm\|access-date2020-08-24\|website=www.videogameheaven.de}}</ref>\|\|HGS Electronic\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|Palladium console\|\| \|- \|Tele-Fever\|\|Tchibo\|\|{{flagicon\|DEU}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|Tempest MPT-03\|\|Tempest\|\|{{flagicon\|AUS}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Tobby MPT-03\|\|Tobby\|\|?\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Trakton Computer Video Game\|\|Trakton\|\|{{flagicon\|AUS}}\|\|Palladium console\|\| \|- \|Tryom Video Game Center\|\|Tryom\|\|{{flagicon\|USA}}\|\|MPT-03 console\|\| \|- \|Tunix Home Arcade\|\|Monaco Leisure\|\|{{flagicon\|NZL}}\|\|Emerson console\|\| \|- \|UVI Compu-Game\|\|Orbit Electronics\|\|{{flagicon\|NZL}}\|\|Orbit console\|\| \|- \|Video Master\|\|Grandstand\|\|{{flagicon\|NZL}}\|\|Orbit console\|\| \|} Bandai Arcadia {{Infobox computing device \| title = Bandai Arcadia \| logo \| image \| manufacturer = Bandai \| type = Video game console \| generation = Second generation \| release date = 1982 \| discontinued \| authorlink \| isbn \| CPU Signetics 2650 @ 3.58 MHz \| media = ROM cartridge \| topgame \| predecessor Bandai Super Vision 8000 \| successor = Bandai RX-78 }} In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia, a variant of the Emerson Arcadia 2001, was licensed and distributed to Japan by Bandai for a price of 19,800 yen.<ref name="Watcher reviews" /> There were four Japan-exclusive games released by Bandai. Doraemon Dr. Slump Mobile Suit Gundam Super Dimension Fortress Macross Reception After seeing the Arcadia 2001 at the summer 1982 Consumer Electronics Show, Danny Goodman of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games reported that its graphics were similar to the Atari 2600's, and that "our overall impression of the game play was favorable for a system in this price range, though no cartridge stands out as being an exciting original creation". He called the controller offering both Intellivision-like disc and joystick functionality "A great idea".<ref name"goodman1983spring">{{Cite magazine \|lastGoodman \|firstDanny \|author-linkDanny Goodman \|dateSpring 1983 \|titleHome Video Games: Video Games Update \|urlhttp://www.atarimagazines.com/cva/v1n1/vgupdate.php \|magazineCreative Computing Video & Arcade Games \|page32}}</ref>Games Emerson planned to launch the console with 19 games.{{r\|goodman1983spring}} Some Arcadia 2001 games are ports of lesser-known arcade games such as Route 16, Jungler, and Jump Bug, which were not available on other home systems. Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including Pac-Man, Galaxian and Defender for the Arcadia, but never had them manufactured as Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive-rights agreements.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.digitpress.com/the_digs/arcadia/texts/2001-faq.htm \|titleArcadia 2001: Frequently Asked Questions \|publisherdigitpress.com\|date2002-06-04 \|access-date2017-03-01}}</ref> Early marketing showed popular arcade games, but they were later released as clones. For instance, the Arcadia 2001 game Space Raiders is a clone of Defender, and Breakaway is a clone of Breakout.<ref>{{cite web\|lastLester\|firstJohn\|titleHistory of Consoles: Arcadia 2001 (1982)\|urlhttp://gamester81.com/history-of-consoles-arcadia-2001-1982/\|publisherGamster81\|access-date6 January 2014}}</ref> Released games There are 47 games known to have been released for the Arcadia 2001 and its clones. {{div col\|content#3D Attack - a Zaxxon clone<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://amigan.yatho.com/agg/ \|title=Arcadia 2001 Gaming Guide}}</ref> #3-D Bowling - a Bowling game released for the Arcadia by Emerson Radio Corp. in 1982. #3-D Raceway - 3D Raceway #3-D Soccer - a Soccer game released by Emerson Radio Corp. for the Arcadia in 1982. #Alien Invaders - is a Shoot-'Em-Up game released by Emerson Radio Corp. for the Arcadia in 1982. #Astro Invader #American Football #Baseball #Brain Quiz #Breakaway #Capture #Cat Trax #Circus - Also known as Clowns on some systems, clone of Exidy's Circus #Crazy Gobbler #Crazy Climber #Escape #Funky Fish #Galaxian #Grand Prix 3-D #Grand Slam Tennis #Hobo #Home Squadron #Horse Racing (plays similar to the Intellivision game) #Jump Bug #Jungler #Math Logic #Missile War #Ocean Battle #Pleiades #RD2 Tank #Red Clash #Robot Killer (clone of Berzerk) #Route 16 #Soccer #Space Attack #Space Chess #Space Mission #Space Raiders #Space Squadron #Space Vultures #Spiders #Star Chess #Super Bug #Super Gobbler #Tanks A Lot #The End #Turtles/Turpin }} Bandai Arcadia Only See here References {{reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Arcadia 2001 and clones}} [http://www.videogameconsolelibrary.com/pg80-arcadia.htm#page=reviews Video Game Console Library] entry on the Arcadia 2001 * [http://www.thegameconsole.com/emerson-arcadia-2001/ TheGameConsole.com] entry on the Arcadia 2001 * [http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstory=arcadia-2001 The Dot Eaters entry] on the Arcadia 2001 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071209081611/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st2&c835 www.old-computers.com] Emerson Arcadia 2001 museum entry * [http://www.old-computers.com/magazine/view.asp?r2&a8 www.old-computers.com] Article about Arcadia 2001 and clones * [https://au.ign.com/wikis/history-of-video-game-consoles/Arcadia_2001 Arcadia 2001 retrospective] at IGN {{Bandai Namco Hardware}} {{Second generation game consoles}} {{Home video game consoles}} Category:Home video game consoles Category:Second-generation video game consoles Category:Bandai consoles Category:Products introduced in 1982 Category:Products and services discontinued in 1984 Category:1980s toys Category:Discontinued video game consoles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_2001	2025-04-05T18:26:13.026928
2961	Convex uniform honeycomb	320px\|thumb\|The alternated cubic honeycomb is one of 28 space-filling uniform tessellations in Euclidean 3-space, composed of alternating yellow tetrahedra and red octahedra. In geometry, a convex uniform honeycomb is a uniform tessellation which fills three-dimensional Euclidean space with non-overlapping convex uniform polyhedral cells. Twenty-eight such honeycombs are known: the familiar cubic honeycomb and 7 truncations thereof; the alternated cubic honeycomb and 4 truncations thereof; 10 prismatic forms based on the uniform plane tilings (11 if including the cubic honeycomb); 5 modifications of some of the above by elongation and/or gyration. They can be considered the three-dimensional analogue to the uniform tilings of the plane. The Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a convex uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra. History 1900: Thorold Gosset enumerated the list of semiregular convex polytopes with regular cells (Platonic solids) in his publication On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, including one regular cubic honeycomb, and two semiregular forms with tetrahedra and octahedra. 1905: Alfredo Andreini enumerated 25 of these tessellations. 1991: Norman Johnson's manuscript Uniform Polytopes identified the list of 28. Only 14 of the convex uniform polyhedra appear in these patterns: three of the five Platonic solids (the tetrahedron, cube, and octahedron), six of the thirteen Archimedean solids (the ones with reflective tetrahedral or octahedral symmetry), and five of the infinite family of prisms (the 3-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-gonal ones; the 4-gonal prism duplicates the cube). The icosahedron, snub cube, and square antiprism appear in some alternations, but those honeycombs cannot be realised with all edges unit length. Names This set can be called the regular and semiregular honeycombs. It has been called the Archimedean honeycombs by analogy with the convex uniform (non-regular) polyhedra, commonly called Archimedean solids. Recently Conway has suggested naming the set as the Architectonic tessellations and the dual honeycombs as the Catoptric tessellations. The individual honeycombs are listed with names given to them by Norman Johnson. (Some of the terms used below are defined in Uniform 4-polytope#Geometric derivations for 46 nonprismatic Wythoffian uniform 4-polytopes) For cross-referencing, they are given with list indices from Andreini (1-22), Williams(1–2,9-19), Johnson (11–19, 21–25, 31–34, 41–49, 51–52, 61–65), and Grünbaum(1-28). Coxeter uses δ4 for a cubic honeycomb, hδ4 for an alternated cubic honeycomb, qδ4 for a quarter cubic honeycomb, with subscripts for other forms based on the ring patterns of the Coxeter diagram. Compact Euclidean uniform tessellations (by their infinite Coxeter group families) 380px\|thumb\|Fundamental domains in a cubic element of three groups. 380px\|thumb\|Family correspondences The fundamental infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are: The {\tilde{C}}_3, [4,3,4], cubic, (8 unique forms plus one alternation) The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,31,1], alternated cubic, (11 forms, 3 new) The {\tilde{A}}_3 cyclic group, [(3,3,3,3)] or [3[4]], (5 forms, one new) There is a correspondence between all three families. Removing one mirror from {\tilde{C}}_3 produces {\tilde{B}}_3, and removing one mirror from {\tilde{B}}_3 produces {\tilde{A}}_3. This allows multiple constructions of the same honeycombs. If cells are colored based on unique positions within each Wythoff construction, these different symmetries can be shown. In addition there are 5 special honeycombs which don't have pure reflectional symmetry and are constructed from reflectional forms with elongation and gyration operations. The total unique honeycombs above are 18. The prismatic stacks from infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are: The {\tilde{C}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [4,4,2,∞] prismatic group, (2 new forms) The {\tilde{G}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group, (7 unique forms) The {\tilde{A}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [(3,3,3),2,∞] prismatic group, (No new forms) The {\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1, [∞,2,∞,2,∞] prismatic group, (These all become a cubic honeycomb) In addition there is one special elongated form of the triangular prismatic honeycomb. The total unique prismatic honeycombs above (excluding the cubic counted previously) are 10. Combining these counts, 18 and 10 gives us the total 28 uniform honeycombs. The C̃3, [4,3,4] group (cubic) The regular cubic honeycomb, represented by Schläfli symbol {4,3,4}, offers seven unique derived uniform honeycombs via truncation operations. (One redundant form, the runcinated cubic honeycomb, is included for completeness though identical to the cubic honeycomb.) The reflectional symmetry is the affine Coxeter group [4,3,4]. There are four index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,3,4], [(4,3,4,2+)], [4,3+,4], and [4,3,4]+, with the first two generated repeated forms, and the last two are nonuniform. + [4,3,4], space group Pmm (221)ReferenceIndicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbolCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycombFrames(Perspective)Vertex figureDual cell(0) (1) (2) (3)AltSolids(Partial)J11,15A1W1G22δ4cubic (chon) t0{4,3,4}{4,3,4}   (8)30px(4.4.4)  75px75px75pxoctahedron 80pxCube, J12,32A15W14G7O1rectified cubic (rich) t1{4,3,4}r{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3.3)  (4)30px(3.4.3.4) 75px75px75pxcuboid80pxSquare bipyramidJ13A14W15G8t1δ4O15truncated cubic (tich) t0,1{4,3,4}t{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3)  (4)30px(3.8.8) 75px75px75pxsquare pyramid80pxIsosceles square pyramidJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O14cantellated cubic (srich) t0,2{4,3,4}rr{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.4.3.4)(2)30px(4.4.4) (2)30px(3.4.4.4) 75px75px75pxoblique triangular prism80pxTriangular bipyramidJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O17cantitruncated cubic (grich) t0,1,2{4,3,4}tr{4,3,4}(1)30px(4.6.6)(1)30px(4.4.4) (2)30px(4.6.8) 75px75px75pxirregular tetrahedron80pxTriangular pyramidilleJ18A19W19G20t0,1,3δ4O19runcitruncated cubic (prich)t0,1,3{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.4.4.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.8)(1)30px(3.8.8) 75px75px75pxoblique trapezoidal pyramid80px Square quarter pyramidille J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21alternated cubic (octet)h{4,3,4}   (8)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3.3)76px75px75pxcuboctahedron80pxDodecahedrilleJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ (1)30px(3.4.3.4) (2)30px(3.6.6)(2)30px(4.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramid80pxHalf oblate octahedrilleJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26Runcic cubic (sratoh) ↔ (1)30px(4.4.4) (1)30px(3.3.3)(3)30px(3.4.4.4)75px75px60pxtapered triangular prism80pxQuarter cubilleJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28Runcicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ (1)30px(3.8.8) (1)30px(3.6.6)(2)30px(4.6.8)75px75px60pxIrregular tetrahedron80pxHalf pyramidilleNonuniformbsnub rectified cubic (serch)sr{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.3)(1)30px(3.3.3) (2)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(4)30px(3.3.3)75px75pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedronNonuniformCantic snub cubic (casch)2s0{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.3)(2)30px(3.4.4.4)(3)30px(3.4.4)NonuniformRuncicantic snub cubic (rusch)(1)30px(3.4.3.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(3.3.3)(1)30px(3.6.6)(3)30pxTricupNonuniformRuncic cantitruncated cubic (esch) sr3{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(3.4.4.4)(3)30px(3.4.4) + honeycombs, space group Imm (229)ReferenceIndicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbolCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycombSolids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)Vertex figureDual cell(0,3)(1,2)AltJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1runcinated cubic(same as regular cubic) (chon)t0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(4.4.4)(6)30px(4.4.4)  75px75px75pxoctahedron 80pxCubeJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16bitruncated cubic (batch) t1,2{4,3,4}2t{4,3,4}(4)30px(4.6.6)  75px75px75px(disphenoid)80pxOblate tetrahedrilleJ19A22W18G27t0,1,2,3δ4O20omnitruncated cubic (gippich)t0,1,2,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(4.6.8)(2)30px(4.4.8) 75px75px75pxirregular tetrahedron80pxEighth pyramidilleJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O27Quarter cubic honeycomb (cytatoh)ht0ht3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.6.6)76px75px75pxelongated triangular antiprism80pxOblate cubilleJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated runcinated cubic (octet)(same as alternated cubic)ht0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3.3)76px75px75pxcuboctahedronNonuniformBiorthosnub cubic honeycomb (gabreth)2s0,3{(4,2,4,3)}(2)30px(4.6.6)(2)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.6)NonuniformaAlternated bitruncated cubic (bisch)h2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3) 30px (4)(3.3.3)75px75px80pxNonuniformCantic bisnub cubic (cabisch)2s0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)NonuniformcAlternated omnitruncated cubic (snich)ht0,1,2,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(2)30px(3.3.3.4)(4)30px(3.3.3) 75px B̃3, [4,31,1] group The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,3] group offers 11 derived forms via truncation operations, four being unique uniform honeycombs. There are 3 index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,31,1], [4,(31,1)+], and [4,31,1]+. The first generates repeated honeycomb, and the last two are nonuniform but included for completeness. The honeycombs from this group are called alternated cubic because the first form can be seen as a cubic honeycomb with alternate vertices removed, reducing cubic cells to tetrahedra and creating octahedron cells in the gaps. Nodes are indexed left to right as 0,1,0',3 with 0' being below and interchangeable with 0. The alternate cubic names given are based on this ordering. + [4,31,1] uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramsCells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0) (1) (0') (3)J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated cubic (octet) ↔   30px (6)(3.3.3.3)30px(8)(3.3.3)76px75px60pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ 30px (1)(3.4.3.4) 30px (2)(4.6.6)30px (2)(3.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramidJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26Runcic cubic (sratoh) ↔ 30px (1)cube 30px (3)(3.4.4.4)30px (1)(3.3.3)75px75px60pxtapered triangular prismJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28Runcicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ 30px (1)(3.8.8) 30px(2)(4.6.8)30px (1)(3.6.6)75px75px60pxIrregular tetrahedron + 1,1]> uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,0') (1) (3)AltJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1Cubic (chon) ↔ 30px (8)(4.4.4)   75px75px60pxoctahedronJ12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O15Rectified cubic (rich) ↔ 30px (4)(3.4.3.4) 30px (2)(3.3.3.3) 75px75px60pxcuboidRectified cubic (rich) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3) 30px (4)(3.4.3.4) 75px60pxcuboidJ13A14W15G8t0,1δ4O14Truncated cubic (tich) ↔ 30px (4)(3.8.8) 30px (1)(3.3.3.3) 75px75px60pxsquare pyramidJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O17Cantellated cubic (srich) ↔ 30px (2)(3.4.4.4)30px (2)(4.4.4)30px (1)(3.4.3.4) 75px75px60pxobilique triangular prismJ16A3W2G28t0,2δ4O16Bitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ 30px (2)(4.6.6) 30px (2)(4.6.6) 75px75px60pxisosceles tetrahedronJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O18Cantitruncated cubic (grich) ↔ 30px (2)(4.6.8)30px (1)(4.4.4)30px(1)(4.6.6) 75px75px60pxirregular tetrahedronJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated cubic (octet) ↔ 30px (8)(3.3.3)  30px (6)(3.3.3.3)75px75px60pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ 30px (2)(3.6.6) 30px (1)(3.4.3.4)30px (2)(4.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramidNonuniformaAlternated bitruncated cubic (bisch) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3) 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3)60pxNonuniformbAlternated cantitruncated cubic (serch) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.4)30px (1)(3.3.3)30px (1)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3)75px60pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedron Ã3, [3[4]] group There are 5 forms constructed from the {\tilde{A}}_3, [3[4]] Coxeter group, of which only the quarter cubic honeycomb is unique. There is one index 2 subgroup [3[4]]+ which generates the snub form, which is not uniform, but included for completeness. + 3[4] uniform honeycombs, space group Fdm (227)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramsCells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,1)(2,3)J25,33A13W10G6qδ4O27quarter cubic (cytatoh) ↔ q{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.3.3)30px (6)(3.6.6) 75px75px75pxtriangular antiprism + [4]]> ↔ [4,31,1] uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure0(1,3)2J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21alternated cubic (octet) ↔ ↔ h{4,3,4}30px (8)(3.3.3)30px (6)(3.3.3.3)75px75px75pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ ↔ h2{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.6.6)30px (1)(3.4.3.4)30px (2)(4.6.6)75px75px75pxRectangular pyramid + [2[3[4]]] ↔ [4,3,4] uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,2)(1,3)J12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O1rectified cubic (rich) ↔ ↔ ↔ r{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.4.3.4)30px (1)(3.3.3.3)75px75px75pxcuboid + [4[3[4]]] ↔ uniform honeycombs, space group Imm (229)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,1,2,3)AltJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16bitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ ↔ 2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(4.6.6)75px75px75pxisosceles tetrahedronNonuniformaAlternated cantitruncated cubic (bisch) ↔ ↔ h2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3) 75px Nonwythoffian forms (gyrated and elongated) Three more uniform honeycombs are generated by breaking one or another of the above honeycombs where its faces form a continuous plane, then rotating alternate layers by 60 or 90 degrees (gyration) and/or inserting a layer of prisms (elongation). The elongated and gyroelongated alternated cubic tilings have the same vertex figure, but are not alike. In the elongated form, each prism meets a tetrahedron at one triangular end and an octahedron at the other. In the gyroelongated form, prisms that meet tetrahedra at both ends alternate with prisms that meet octahedra at both ends. The gyroelongated triangular prismatic tiling has the same vertex figure as one of the plain prismatic tilings; the two may be derived from the gyrated and plain triangular prismatic tilings, respectively, by inserting layers of cubes. ReferencedindicessymbolHoneycomb namecell types (# at each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figureJ52A2'G2O22h{4,3,4}:ggyrated alternated cubic (gytoh)tetrahedron (8)octahedron (6)70px100px80px triangular orthobicupolaJ61A?G3O24h{4,3,4}:gegyroelongated alternated cubic (gyetoh)triangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)70px100px80pxJ62A?G4O23h{4,3,4}:eelongated alternated cubic (etoh)triangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)70px80pxJ63A?G12O12{3,6}:g × {∞}gyrated triangular prismatic (gytoph)triangular prism (12)70px100px80pxJ64A?G15O13{3,6}:ge × {∞}gyroelongated triangular prismatic (gyetaph)triangular prism (6)cube (4)70px100px80px Prismatic stacks Eleven prismatic tilings are obtained by stacking the eleven uniform plane tilings, shown below, in parallel layers. (One of these honeycombs is the cubic, shown above.) The vertex figure of each is an irregular bipyramid whose faces are isosceles triangles. The C̃2×Ĩ1(∞), [4,4,2,∞], prismatic group There are only 3 unique honeycombs from the square tiling, but all 6 tiling truncations are listed below for completeness, and tiling images are shown by colors corresponding to each form. IndicesCoxeter-Dynkinand SchläflisymbolsHoneycomb namePlanetilingSolids(Partial)TilingJ11,15A1G22 {4,4}×{∞}Cubic(Square prismatic) (chon)(4.4.4.4)80px50px r{4,4}×{∞}50px rr{4,4}×{∞}50pxJ45A6G24 t{4,4}×{∞} Truncated/Bitruncated square prismatic (tassiph)(4.8.8)80px50px tr{4,4}×{∞} 50pxJ44A11G14 sr{4,4}×{∞}Snub square prismatic (sassiph)(3.3.4.3.4)80px50pxNonuniformht0,1,2,3{4,4,2,∞} The G̃2xĨ1(∞), [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group IndicesCoxeter-Dynkinand SchläflisymbolsHoneycomb namePlanetilingSolids(Partial)TilingJ41A4G11 {3,6} × {∞}Triangular prismatic (tiph)(36)60px60pxJ42A5G26 {6,3} × {∞}Hexagonal prismatic (hiph)(63)60px60px t{3,6} × {∞}60px60pxJ43A8G18 r{6,3} × {∞}Trihexagonal prismatic (thiph)(3.6.3.6)60px60pxJ46A7G19 t{6,3} × {∞}Truncated hexagonal prismatic (thaph)(3.12.12)60px60pxJ47A9G16 rr{6,3} × {∞}Rhombi-trihexagonal prismatic (srothaph)(3.4.6.4)60px60pxJ48A12G17 sr{6,3} × {∞}Snub hexagonal prismatic (snathaph)(3.3.3.3.6)60px60pxJ49A10G23 tr{6,3} × {∞}truncated trihexagonal prismatic (grothaph)(4.6.12)60px60pxJ65A11'G13 {3,6}:e × {∞}elongated triangular prismatic (etoph)(3.3.3.4.4)60px60pxJ52A2'G2h3t{3,6,2,∞}gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral (gytoh)(36)60px60pxs2r{3,6,2,∞}Nonuniformht0,1,2,3{3,6,2,∞} Enumeration of Wythoff forms All nonprismatic Wythoff constructions by Coxeter groups are given below, along with their alternations. Uniform solutions are indexed with Branko Grünbaum's listing. Green backgrounds are shown on repeated honeycombs, with the relations are expressed in the extended symmetry diagrams. Coxeter groupExtendedsymmetryHoneycombsChiralextendedsymmetryAlternation honeycombs[4,3,4][4,3,4]6 7 \| 89 \| 25 \| 20[1+,4,3+,4,1+](2) b[2+[4,3,4]] (1) 22[2+[(4,3+,4,2+)]](1) 6[2+[4,3,4]]128[2+[(4,3+,4,2+)]](1)a[2+[4,3,4]]227[2+[4,3,4]]+(1)c[4,31,1] [4,31,1]4 7 \| 10 \| 28[1[4,31,1]][4,3,4] (7)22 \| 7 \| 22 \| 7 \| 9 \| 28 \| 25 [1[1+,4,31,1]]+(2) 6 \| a[1[4,31,1]]+[4,3,4]+(1)b[3[4]][3[4]](none)[2+[3[4]]] 1 6[1[3[4]]][4,31,1] (2) 10[2[3[4]]][4,3,4] (1) 7[(2+,4)[3[4]]][2+[4,3,4]] (1) 28[(2+,4)[3[4]]]+= [2+[4,3,4]]+(1) a Examples The alternated cubic honeycomb is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic close-packing of spheres. The space-filling truss of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell and independently re-discovered by Buckminster Fuller (who called it the octet truss and patented it in the 1940s). . Octet trusses are now among the most common types of truss used in construction. Frieze forms If cells are allowed to be uniform tilings, more uniform honeycombs can be defined: Families: {\tilde{C}}_2×A_1: [4,4,2] Cubic slab honeycombs (3 forms) {\tilde{G}}_2×A_1: [6,3,2] Tri-hexagonal slab honeycombs (8 forms) {\tilde{A}}_2×A_1: [(3,3,3),2] Triangular slab honeycombs (No new forms) {\tilde{I}}_1×A_1×A_1: [∞,2,2] = Cubic column honeycombs (1 form) I_2(p)×{\tilde{I}}_1: [p,2,∞] Polygonal column honeycombs (analogous to duoprisms: these look like a single infinite tower of p-gonal prisms, with the remaining space filled with apeirogonal prisms) {\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×A_1: [∞,2,∞,2] [4,4,2] - (Same as cubic slab honeycomb family) + Examples (partially drawn)Cubic slab honeycombAlternated hexagonal slab honeycombTrihexagonal slab honeycomb180px180px180px180px(4) 43: cube(1) 44: square tiling180px(4) 33: tetrahedron(3) 34: octahedron(1) 36: triangular tiling180px(2) 3.4.4: triangular prism(2) 4.4.6: hexagonal prism(1) (3.6)2: trihexagonal tiling The first two forms shown above are semiregular (uniform with only regular facets), and were listed by Thorold Gosset in 1900 respectively as the 3-ic semi-check and tetroctahedric semi-check. Scaliform honeycomb A scaliform honeycomb is vertex-transitive, like a uniform honeycomb, with regular polygon faces while cells and higher elements are only required to be orbiforms, equilateral, with their vertices lying on hyperspheres. For 3D honeycombs, this allows a subset of Johnson solids along with the uniform polyhedra. Some scaliforms can be generated by an alternation process, leaving, for example, pyramid and cupola gaps. + Euclidean honeycomb scaliformsFrieze slabsPrismatic stackss3{2,6,3}, s3{2,4,4}, s{2,4,4}, 3s4{4,4,2,∞}, 200px200px200px200px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px200px(1) 3.4.3.4: triangular cupola(2) 3.4.6: triangular cupola(1) 3.3.3.3: octahedron(1) 3.6.3.6: trihexagonal tiling200px(1) 3.4.4.4: square cupola(2) 3.4.8: square cupola(1) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.8.8: truncated square tiling200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.4.4.4: square tiling200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(4) 4.4.4: cube Hyperbolic forms thumb\|The order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb, {5,3,4} in perspective thumb\|The paracompact hexagonal tiling honeycomb, {6,3,3}, in perspective There are 9 Coxeter group families of compact uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic 3-space, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by ring permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams for each family. From these 9 families, there are a total of 76 unique honeycombs generated: [3,5,3] : - 9 forms [5,3,4] : - 15 forms [5,3,5] : - 9 forms [5,31,1] : - 11 forms (7 overlap with [5,3,4] family, 4 are unique) [(4,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms [(4,3,4,3)] : - 6 forms [(5,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms [(5,3,4,3)] : - 9 forms [(5,3,5,3)] : - 6 forms Several non-Wythoffian forms outside the list of 76 are known; it is not known how many there are. Paracompact hyperbolic forms There are also 23 paracompact Coxeter groups of rank 4. These families can produce uniform honeycombs with unbounded facets or vertex figure, including ideal vertices at infinity: + Simplectic hyperbolic paracompact group summaryTypeCoxeter groupsUnique honeycomb countLinear graphs \| \| \| \| \| 4×15+6+8+8 82Tridental graphs \| 4+4+0 8Cyclic graphs \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 4×9+5+1+4+1+0 47Loop-n-tail graphs \| \| 4+4+4+2 14 References John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, (2008) The Symmetries of Things, (Chapter 21, Naming the Archimedean and Catalan polyhedra and tilings, Architectonic and Catoptric tessellations, p 292–298, includes all the nonprismatic forms) Branko Grünbaum, (1994) Uniform tilings of 3-space. Geombinatorics 4, 49 - 56. Norman Johnson (1991) Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript (Chapter 5: Polyhedra packing and space filling) Kaleidoscopes: Selected Writings of H.S.M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1995, (Paper 22) H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, [Math. Zeit. 46 (1940) 380–407, MR 2,10] (1.9 Uniform space-fillings) A. Andreini, (1905) Sulle reti di poliedri regolari e semiregolari e sulle corrispondenti reti correlative (On the regular and semiregular nets of polyhedra and on the corresponding correlative nets), Mem. Società Italiana della Scienze, Ser.3, 14 75–129. PDF D. M. Y. Sommerville, (1930) An Introduction to the Geometry of n Dimensions. New York, E. P. Dutton, . 196 pp. (Dover Publications edition, 1958) Chapter X: The Regular Polytopes Chapter 5. Joining polyhedra Crystallography of Quasicrystals: Concepts, Methods and Structures by Walter Steurer, Sofia Deloudi (2009), p. 54-55. 12 packings of 2 or more uniform polyhedra with cubic symmetry External links Uniform Honeycombs in 3-Space VRML models Elementary Honeycombs Vertex transitive space filling honeycombs with non-uniform cells. Uniform partitions of 3-space, their relatives and embedding, 1999 The Uniform Polyhedra Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra octet truss animation Review: A. F. Wells, Three-dimensional nets and polyhedra, H. S. M. Coxeter (Source: Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. Volume 84, Number 3 (1978), 466-470.) Category:Honeycombs (geometry)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_uniform_honeycomb	2025-04-05T18:26:13.954041
2963	Assassination	{{Short description\|Murder of a prominent person, especially for political or ideological reasons}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2021}} {{Redirect-multi\|3\|Assassin\|Assassinated\|Assassinating\|other uses\|Assassin (disambiguation)\|and\|Assassination (disambiguation)}} shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd Lincoln, Clara Harris and Henry Rathbone.]] {{Homicide}} Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a person{{Emdash}}especially if prominent or important.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-06-24 \|titleDefinition of ASSASSINATION \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assassination \|access-date2023-06-26 \|websiteMerriam-Webster \|languageen}}</ref><ref>Black's Law Dictionary "the act of deliberately killing someone especially a public figure, usually for money or for political reasons" (Legal Research, Analysis and Writing by William H. Putman [https://books.google.com/books?idM0nlVU6M26AC p. 215] and {{cite web \|url-statusdead \|urlhttp://hir.harvard.edu/leadership/on-the-offensive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101206230433/http://hir.harvard.edu/leadership/on-the-offensive\|archive-dateDecember 6, 2010 \|website Harvard International Review \|dateMay 6, 2006 \|first1Kristen \|last1Eichensehr \|titleOn the Offensive — Assassination Policy Under International Law }}</ref> It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, personal, financial, or military motives.<ref>{{Citation \|titleassassination, n. \|date2023-03-02 \|workOxford English Dictionary \|urlhttps://oed.com/dictionary/assassination_n \|access-date2024-12-05 \|edition3 \|publisherOxford University Press \|languageen \|doi10.1093/oed/5671820672}}</ref> Assassinations are ordered by both individuals and organizations, and are carried out by their accomplices. Acts of assassination have been performed since ancient times. A person who carries out an assassination is called an assassin.<ref>[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assassin "Assassin." Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary]. Accessed 27 Oct. 2024.</ref>Etymology {{Main\|Hashshashin}} , the Russian Governor-General of Finland, assassinated by Eugen Schauman on June 16, 1904, in Helsinki.<ref>{{cite journal \| first1 George B. \| last1 Kauffman \| first2 Lauri \| last2 Niinistö \| author-link1 George B. Kauffman \|url http://chemeducator.org/bibs/0003003/00030208.htm \| title Chemistry and Politics: Edvard Immanuel Hjelt (1855–1921) \| journal The Chemical Educator \| year 1998 \| volume3 \| issue 5 \| doi 10.1007/s00897980247a \| pages 1–15\| s2cid 97163876 }}</ref> The author of the drawing is unknown.]] , who was deemed responsible for the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. Oswald was assassinated two days later by Jack Ruby, the first such event to occur during live television coverage.\|left]] Assassin comes from the Italian and French Assissini, believed to derive from the word hashshashin ({{langx\|ar\|حشّاشين\|ḥaššāšīyīn}}),<ref>American Speech – McCarthy, Kevin M. Volume 48, pp. 77–83</ref> and shares its etymological roots with hashish ({{IPAc-en\|h\|æ\|ˈ\|ʃ\|iː\|ʃ}} or {{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|h\|æ\|ʃ\|iː\|ʃ}}; from {{lang\|ar\|حشيش}} {{transliteration\|ar\|DIN\|ḥašīš}}).<ref name"OED">{{cite web \|titleassassinate \|urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/assassinate \|publisherOnline Etymology Dictionary \|access-date28 February 2024}}</ref><ref name"The Assassins: a radical sect in Islam">The Assassins: a radical sect in Islam – Bernard Lewis, pp. 11–12</ref> It referred to a group of Nizari Ismailis known as the Order of Assassins who worked against various political targets.<ref name=":1" /> Founded by Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the Near East from the 11th to the 13th centuries. The group killed members of the Abbasid, Seljuk, Fatimid, and Christian Crusader elite for political and religious reasons.<ref name=":1">Secret Societies Handbook, Michael Bradley, Altair Cassell Illustrated, 2005. {{ISBN\|978-1-84403-416-1}}</ref> Although it is commonly believed that members of the Order of Assassins were under the influence of hashish during their killings or during their indoctrination, there is debate as to whether these claims have merit, with many Eastern writers and an increasing number of Western academics coming to believe that drug-taking was not the key feature behind the name.<ref name"C:AH">{{cite book\| url https://books.google.com/books?idO7AoY6ljSygC&qhashishiyya \| authorMartin Booth \| title Cannabis: A History \|year2004 \| publisher Macmillan\| isbn = 978-0-312-42494-7}}</ref> The term "assassinare" (assassin) was used in Medieval Latin from the mid 13th century.<ref name="OED"/> The earliest known use of the verb "to assassinate" in printed English was by Matthew Sutcliffe in A Briefe Replie to a Certaine Odious and Slanderous Libel, Lately Published by a Seditious Jesuite, a pamphlet printed in 1600, five years before it was used in Macbeth by William Shakespeare (1605).<ref>A briefe replie to a certaine odious and slanderous libel, lately published by a seditious Iesuite. Imprinted at London: By Arn. Hatfield, 1600 (STC 23453) p. 103</ref><ref>"assassinate, v." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2016. Web. August 11, 2016.</ref> Use in history {{Main\|History of assassination}} Ancient to medieval times Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics. It dates back at least as far as recorded history.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMakhanda \|firstSivenathi \|titleThe History of Assassinations {{!}} PDBY {{!}} Print, Digital and Broadcast Youth Media \|urlhttps://pdby.co.za/the-history-of-assassinations/ \|access-date2025-03-11 \|languageen-ZA}}</ref> The Egyptian pharaoh Teti, of the Old Kingdom Sixth Dynasty (23rd century BCE), is thought to be the earliest known victim of assassination, though written records are scant and thus evidence is circumstantial. Two further ancient Egyptian monarchs are more explicitly recorded to have been assassinated; Amenemhat I of the Middle Kingdom Twelfth Dynasty (20th century BCE) is recorded to have been assassinated in his bed by his palace guards for reasons unknown (as related in the Instructions of Amenemhat); meanwhile contemporary judicial records relate the assassination of New Kingdom Twentieth Dynasty monarch Ramesses III in 1155 BCE as part of a failed coup attempt. Between 550 BC and 330 BC, seven Persian kings of Achaemenid Dynasty were murdered. The Art of War, a 5th-century BC Chinese military treatise mentions tactics of Assassination and its merits.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWithington \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-9sBEAAAQBAJ&qhistory+of+assassination \|titleAssassins' Deeds: A History of Assassination from Ancient Egypt to the Present Day \|date2020-11-05 \|publisherReaktion Books \|isbn978-1-78914-352-2 \|languageen}}</ref> In the Old Testament, King Joash of Judah was assassinated by his own servants;<ref>2 Kings 12:19-21</ref> Joab assassinated Absalom, King David's son;<ref>2 Samuel 3:26–28 RSV</ref> King Sennacherib of Assyria was assassinated by his own sons;<ref>2 Chronicles 32:21</ref> and Jael assassinated Sisera.<ref>Judges 4 and 5</ref> Chanakya ({{circa\|350}}–283 BC) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies.<ref>{{cite journal \|author-link Roger Boesche \| first Roger \| last Boesche \|dateJanuary 2003 \| title Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India \| journal The Journal of Military History \| volume 67 \| issue 1 \| pages 9–37 \| doi 10.1353/jmh.2003.0006 \| s2cid 154243517 \| urlhttp://muse.jhu.edu/demo/journal_of_military_history/v067/67.1boesche.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/journal_of_military_history/v067/67.1boesche.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\| doi-access free }}</ref> Some famous assassination victims are Philip II of Macedon (336&nbsp;BC), the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman dictator Julius Caesar (44&nbsp;BC).<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkloWAAAAYAAJ&qfamous+assassinations \|titleFamous assassinations of history&nbsp;... \|dateMarch 3, 2008 \|access-dateOctober 27, 2010\|last1Johnson\|first1Francis}}</ref> Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later. Three successive Rashidun caliphs (Umar, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) were assassinated in early civil conflicts between Muslims. The practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Ke's failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227&nbsp;BC. Whilst many assassinations were performed by individuals or small groups, there were also specialized units who used a collective group of people to perform more than one assassination. The earliest were the sicarii in 6 AD, who predated the Middle Eastern Assassins and Japanese shinobis by centuries.<ref>Pichtel, John, Terrorism and WMDs: Awareness and Response, CRC Press (April 25, 2011) pp. 3–4. {{ISBN\|978-1439851753}}</ref><ref name="Ross">Ross, Jeffrey Ian, Religion and Violence: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict from Antiquity to the Present, Routledge (January 15, 2011), Chapter: Sicarii. 978-0765620484</ref> In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Strangling in the bathtub was the most commonly used method. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastVeronesi \|firstGene \|titleChapter 1: The Italian Renaissance and Western Civilization \|urlhttps://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/italian-americans-and-their-communities-of-cleveland/chapter/chapter-1/ \|journalItalian Americans and Their Communities of Cleveland}}</ref>Modern history of William the Silent by Balthasar Gérard on 10 July 1584]] During the 16th and 17th centuries, international lawyers began to voice condemnation of assassinations of leaders. Balthazar Ayala has been described as "the first prominent jurist to condemn the use of assassination in foreign policy".<ref nameThomas2000>{{cite journal \|last1Thomas \|first1Ward \|titleNorms and Security: The Case of International Assassination \|journalInternational Security \|dateJuly 2000 \|volume25 \|issue1 \|pages105–133 \|doi10.1162/016228800560408 \|jstor2626775 \|s2cid57572213 }}</ref> Alberico Gentili condemned assassinations in a 1598 publication where he appealed to the self-interest of leaders: (i) assassinations had adverse short-term consequences by arousing the ire of the assassinated leader's successor, and (ii) assassinations had the adverse long-term consequences of causing disorder and chaos.<ref nameThomas2000/> Hugo Grotius's works on the law of war strictly forbade assassinations, arguing that killing was only permissible on the battlefield.<ref nameThomas2000/> In the modern world, the killing of important people began to become more than a tool in power struggles between rulers themselves and was also used for political symbolism, such as in the propaganda of the deed.<ref name="Gillen">M. Gillen 1972 Assassination of the Prime Minister: the shocking death of Spencer Perceval. London: Sidgwick & Jackson {{ISBN\|0-283-97881-3}}.</ref> In Japan, a group of assassins called the Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu killed a number of people, including Ii Naosuke who was the head of administration for the Tokugawa shogunate, during the Boshin War.<ref>Turnbull, Stephen. The Samurai Swordsman: Master of War. Tuttle Publishing; 1 edition (August 5, 2014). p. 182. {{ISBN\|978-4805312940}}</ref> Most of the assassinations in Japan were committed with bladed weaponry, a trait that was carried on into modern history. A video-record exists of the assassination of Inejiro Asanuma, using a sword.<ref namechun>{{cite book \|titleA Nation of a Hundred Million Idiots?: A Social History of Japanese Television, 1953–1973 \|lastChun \|firstJayson Makoto \|publisherRoutledge \|year2006 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9miRAgAAQBAJ&pgPA184 \|pages184–185 \|isbn978-0-415-97660-2 \|access-dateMarch 22, 2014}}</ref> In 1895, a group of Japanese assassins killed the Korean queen (and posthumously empress) Myeongseong.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNagai \|firstYasuji \|date2021-11-21 \|titleDiplomat's 1895 letter confesses to assassination of Korean queen \|urlhttps://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14482741 \|access-date2023-08-16 \|websiteThe Asahi Shimbun \|languageen}}</ref> In the United States, from 1865 to 1963, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents' lives.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAppendix 7 \|urlhttps://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/appendix7.html \|websiteNational Archives \|access-date20 May 2023 \|languageen \|date15 August 2016}}</ref> In Austria, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg was carried out in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. He is blamed for igniting World War I. Reinhard Heydrich died after an attack by British-trained Czechoslovak soldiers on behalf of the Czechoslovak government in exile in Operation Anthropoid,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.army.cz/images/id_7001_8000/7419/assassination-en.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.army.cz/images/id_7001_8000/7419/assassination-en.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleAssassination&nbsp;– Operation Arthropoid, 1941–1942 \|access-date July 5, 2011 \|lastBurian \|firstMichal \|author2Aleš \|year2002 \|publisherMinistry of Defence of the Czech Republic}}</ref> and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the United States to carry out a targeted attack, killing Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto while he was travelling by plane.<ref nameMcNaughton2006>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYHdFDZwbnkkC&pgPA185 \|page185 \|lastMcNaughton \|firstJames C. \|date2006 \|titleNisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service During World War II \|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office \|isbn9780160867057}}</ref> During the 1930s and 1940s, Joseph Stalin's NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union, such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia.<ref>Michael Ellman. [http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1934] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090227181110/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf \|dateFebruary 27, 2009 }}. Europe-Asia Studies, 2005. p. 826</ref> India's "Father of the Nation", Mahatma Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHardiman \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52127756 \|titleGandhi in his time and ours : the global legacy of his ideas \|date2003 \|publisherColumbia University Press \|isbn0-231-13114-3 \|locationNew York \|oclc=52127756}}</ref> The African-American civil rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr., was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the Lorraine Motel (now the National Civil Rights Museum) in Memphis, Tennessee. Three years prior, another African-American civil rights activist, Malcolm X, was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKarim \|firstBenjamin \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26931305 \|titleRemembering Malcolm \|date1992 \|publisherCarroll & Graf \|othersDavid Gallen, Peter Skutches \|isbn0-88184-901-4 \|edition1st Carroll & Graf \|locationNew York \|oclc26931305}}</ref>Cold War and beyond {{See also\|Cold War\|War on terror}} 's blood-stained sari and belongings at the time of her assassination. She was the Prime Minister of India.]] Most major powers repudiated Cold War assassination tactics, but many allege that was merely a smokescreen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today, with Russia, Israel, the U.S., Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and other nations accused of engaging in such operations.<ref>John Dingles (2004) The Condor Years {{ISBN\|978-1-56584-764-4}}</ref> After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the new Islamic government of Iran began an international campaign of assassination that lasted into the 1990s. At least 162 killings in 19 countries have been linked to the senior leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/No-Safe-Haven_May08.pdf \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100902192858/http://www.iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/No-Safe-Haven_May08.pdf \| archive-dateSeptember 2, 2010\| titleEnglish front cover – No Safe Haven \| access-dateJune 2, 2010 \| page100}}</ref> The campaign came to an end after the Mykonos restaurant assassinations because a German court publicly implicated senior members of the government and issued arrest warrants for Ali Fallahian, the head of Iranian intelligence.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/Murder-at-Mykonos_Mar07.pdf \|titleMykonos front cover \|access-dateMay 13, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100902192942/http://www.iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/Murder-at-Mykonos_Mar07.pdf \|archive-dateSeptember 2, 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Evidence indicates that Fallahian's personal involvement and individual responsibility for the murders were far more pervasive than his current indictment record represents.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/Condemned-by-Law_Nov08.pdf \|titleCondemned by Law – Report 11-10-08.doc \|access-dateMay 13, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100307043035/http://www.iranhrdc.org/httpdocs/English/pdfs/Reports/Condemned-by-Law_Nov08.pdf \|archive-dateMarch 7, 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In India, Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi (neither of whom was related to Mahatma Gandhi, who had himself been assassinated in 1948), were assassinated in 1984 and 1991 in what were linked to separatist movements in Punjab and northern Sri Lanka, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleIndia: Extremism & Terrorism \|urlhttps://www.counterextremism.com/countries/india-extremism-and-terrorism \|access-date2023-12-31 \|websiteCounter Extremism Project \|language=en}}</ref> In 1994, the assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira during the Rwandan Civil War sparked the Rwandan genocide.<ref>{{Citation \|lastJacquemin \|firstCéline A. \|titleHegemony and Counterhegemony \|date2015 \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1057/9781137555007_6 \|workThe Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Africa: From Grievance to Violence \|pages93–123 \|editor-lastNasong'o \|editor-firstWanjala S. \|access-date2023-08-14 \|placeNew York \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan US \|languageen \|doi10.1057/9781137555007_6 \|isbn978-1-137-55500-7}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|titleOpportunity II: Death of the Nation's Father \|date2021 \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/path-to-genocide-in-rwanda/opportunity-ii-death-of-the-nations-father/C7E379604EFF1D0CE0CAA512F67198D8 \|workThe Path to Genocide in Rwanda: Security, Opportunity, and Authority in an Ethnocratic State \|pages178–247 \|editor-lastMcDoom \|editor-firstOmar Shahabudin \|access-date2023-08-14 \|seriesAfrican Studies \|placeCambridge \|publisherCambridge University Press \|doi10.1017/9781108868839.005 \|isbn978-1-108-49146-4\|s2cid=235502691 }}</ref> In Israel, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by Yigal Amir, who opposed the Oslo Accords.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin \|urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-assassination-of-yitzhak-rabin \|access-date2023-12-31 \|websitewww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleMilestones: 1993–2000 - Office of the Historian \|urlhttps://history.state.gov/milestones/1993-2000/oslo \|access-date2023-12-31 \|websitehistory.state.gov}}</ref> In Lebanon, the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005, prompted an investigation by the United Nations. The suggestion in the resulting Mehlis report that there was involvement by Syria prompted the Cedar Revolution, which drove Syrian troops out of Lebanon.{{citation needed\|date=May 2022}} On 2 September 2022, a 35 year old Brazilian national attempted to assassinate the then vice-president of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. However, the attempt was unsuccessful because the assassin's gun jammed.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Binley \|first1Alex \|last2Murphy \|first2Matt \|titleCristina Fernández de Kirchner: Gun jams during bid to kill Argentina vice-president \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62762421 \|access-date22 May 2024 \|agencyBBC \|date2 September 2022}}</ref> United States government killing of citizens In 2012, The New York Times revealed that the Obama administration maintained a "kill list" containing terrorism suspects.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Becker \|first1Jo \|last2Shane \|first2Scott \|dateMay 29, 2012 \|titleSecret 'Kill List' Proves a Test of Obama's Principles and Will \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2024 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> The list is sometimes referred to as a "disposition matrix," and President Obama made a final decision on whether anyone listed would be killed, without court oversight and without trial.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2013-06-13 \|titleHow Obama's 'Disposition Matrix' Kill List Could Be Used on U.S. Soil \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna52192630 \|access-date2024-09-22 \|websiteNBC News \|languageen}}</ref> In September 2011, American citizens Anwar Al-Awlaki and Samir Khan were assassinated in Yemen by the United States government via drone strikes. Two weeks later, Awlaki's 16-year-old son, also an American citizen, was killed in a strike targeting Ibrahim al-Banna, a senior operative in Al-Qaeda.<ref name":0">{{Cite news \|lastWhitlock \|firstCraig \|dateOctober 22, 2011 \|titleU.S. airstrike that killed American teen in Yemen raises legal, ethical questions \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-airstrike-that-killed-american-teen-in-yemen-raises-legal-ethical-questions/2011/10/20/gIQAdvUY7L_story.html \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2024 \|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastGreenwald \|firstGlenn \|date5 February 2013 \|titleChilling legal memo from Obama DOJ justifies assassination of US citizens \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/feb/05/obama-kill-list-doj-memo \|access-date8 July 2023 \|websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> Al-Banna was not killed in the strike.<ref name":0" /> Further motivations As a military and foreign policy doctrine {{See also\|Manhunt (military)\|Decapitation (military strategy)\|Covert operation}} included espionage, sabotage and assassination.]] Assassination for military purposes has long been espoused: Sun Tzu, writing around 500&nbsp;BC, argued in favor of using assassination in his book The Art of War. Over 2000 years later, in his book The Prince, Machiavelli also advises rulers to assassinate enemies whenever possible to prevent them from posing a threat.<ref>Machiavelli, Niccolò (1985), The Prince, University of Chicago Press. Translated by Harvey Mansfield</ref> An army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny, or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. For similar and additional reasons, assassination has also sometimes been used in the conduct of foreign policy. The costs and benefits of such actions are difficult to compute. It may not be clear whether the assassinated leader gets replaced with a more or less competent successor, whether the assassination provokes ire in the state in question, whether the assassination leads to souring domestic public opinion, and whether the assassination provokes condemnation from third-parties.<ref name"iraja" /><ref nameThomas2000/> One study found that perceptual biases held by leaders often negatively affect decision making in that area, and decisions to go forward with assassinations often reflect the vague hope that any successor might be better.<ref name"iraja">{{cite journal \| titleDecision Making in Using Assassinations in International Relations \| urlhttp://www.psqonline.org/article.cfm?IDArticle19545 \| journalPolitical Science Quarterly \| volume131\| issue3 \| dateFall 2016 \| pages503–539 \| last1Schilling \| first1Warner R. \| author-linkWarner R. Schilling \| last2Schilling \| first2Jonathan L. \|doi = 10.1002/polq.12487}}</ref> In both military and foreign policy assassinations, there is the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader, or that such a killing (or a failed attempt) will prompt the masses to contemn<!-- not a typo for "condemn" --> the killers and support the leader's cause more strongly. Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, that possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War. A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool: * The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague on May 27, 1942, by the British and Czechoslovak government-in-exile. That case illustrates the difficulty of comparing the benefits of a foreign policy goal (strengthening the legitimacy and influence of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London) against the possible costs resulting from an assassination (the Lidice massacre).<ref name="iraja"/> * The American interception of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's plane during World War II after his travel route had been decrypted. * Operation Gaff was a planned British commando raid to capture or kill the German field marshal Erwin Rommel, also known as "The Desert Fox".<ref name="Skor">Commando Extraordinary – Foley, Charles; Legion for the Survival of Freedom, 1992, page 155</ref> Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts: * During the Vietnam War, the US engaged in the Phoenix Program to assassinate Viet Cong leaders and sympathizers. It killed between 6,000 and 41,000 people, with official "targets" of 1,800 per month.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Barnett \|first1James \|urlhttps://strausscenter.org/wp-content/uploads/Barnett_James.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://strausscenter.org/wp-content/uploads/Barnett_James.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleWhen Culture Eats Strategy: Examining the Phoenix/Phung Hoang Bureaucracy in the Vietnam War, 1967-1972 \|websiteStrauss Center \|access-dateFebruary 9, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|authorMcCoy, Alfred W.\|titleA question of torture: CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror \|publisherMacmillan\|year2006\|isbn978-0-8050-8041-4\|page68\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFVwUYSBwtKcC&pgPA68\|author-linkAlfred W. McCoy }}</ref><ref namehersh03>{{cite magazine \|author-linkSeymour Hersh \|lastHersh\|firstSeymour\|titleMoving Targets\|magazineThe New Yorker\|dateDecember 15, 2003\|urlhttp://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/12/15/031215fa_fact?currentPageall\|access-date=February 9, 2021}}</ref> * With the January 3, 2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike, the US assassinated the commander of Iran's Quds Force General Qasem Soleimani and the commander of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, along with eight other high-ranking military personnel. The assassination of the military leaders was part of escalating tensions between the US and Iran and the American-led intervention in Iraq.<ref>{{cite news \| titleQassem Suleimani: 'Death to America' chants at Baghdad funeral procession \| urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/04/huge-crowds-expected-in-baghdad-for-funeral-of-iranian-general-killed-by-us \| firstGhait\|lastAbdul-Ahat\|newspaperThe Guardian\|date January 4, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| titleIran Says It Has Decided How to React to U.S. Strike That Killed Soleimani \| urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/four-rockets-hit-military-base-near-baghdad-airport-report-says-1.8350357 \| firstAmos\|lastHarel\|newspaperHaaretz\|date January 4, 2020}}</ref> As a tool of insurgents Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes. Assassinations provide several functions for such groups: the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} The Irish Republican Army guerrillas in 1919 to 1921 killed many Royal Irish Constabulary Police intelligence officers during the Irish War of Independence. Michael Collins set up a special unit, the Squad, for that purpose, which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force. The Squad's activities peaked with the killing of 14 British agents in Dublin on Bloody Sunday in 1920.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} The tactic was used again by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles in Northern Ireland (1969–1998). Assassination of unionist politicians and activists was one of a number of methods used in the Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997. The IRA also attempted to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a Brighton hotel.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-10-12 \|titleBrighton Grand Hotel: 'We immediately knew it was a bomb' \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c62g443yq06o \|access-date2025-02-13 \|websitewww.bbc.com \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Loyalist paramilitaries retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating Irish nationalist politicians.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWhat You Need to Know About The Troubles \|urlhttps://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-troubles \|access-date2025-02-13 \|websiteImperial War Museums \|language=en}}</ref> Basque separatists ETA in Spain assassinated many security and political figures since the late 1960s, notably the president of the Francoist government of Spain, Luis Carrero Blanco, 1st Duke of Carrero-Blanco Grandee of Spain, in 1973. In the early 1990s, it also began to target academics, journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with it.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistorical Documents - Office of the Historian \|urlhttps://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve15p2Ed2/d196 \|access-date2025-02-13 \|websitehistory.state.gov}}</ref> The Red Brigades in Italy carried out assassinations of political figures and, to a lesser extent, so did the Red Army Faction in Germany in the 1970s and the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSundquist \|firstVictor H. \|date2010 \|titlePolitical Terrorism: An Historical Case Study of the Italian Red Brigades \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/26463145 \|journalJournal of Strategic Security \|volume3 \|issue3 \|pages53–68 \|issn1944-0464}}</ref> In the Vietnam War, communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials and individual civilians deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement. Such attacks, along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands, almost brought the Ngo Dinh Diem regime to collapse before the US intervened.<ref>Pike, Douglas (1970). Viet Cong (new edition). The MIT Press.</ref> Psychology A major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts. Assassinations are thus rarely "impulsive" actions.<ref name="SS"/> However, about 25% of the actual attackers were found to be delusional, a figure that rose to 60% with "near-lethal approachers" (people apprehended before reaching their targets). That shows that while mental instability plays a role in many modern assassinations, the more delusional attackers are less likely to succeed in their attempts. The report also found that around two-thirds of attackers had previously been arrested, not necessarily for related offenses; 44% had a history of serious depression, and 39% had a history of substance abuse.<ref name"SS"/>TechniquesModern methodsWith the advent of effective ranged weaponry and later firearms, the position of an assassination target was more precarious. Bodyguards were no longer enough to deter determined killers, who no longer needed to engage directly or even to subvert the guard to kill the leader in question. Moreover, the engagement of targets at greater distances dramatically increased the chances for assassins to survive since they could quickly flee the scene. The first heads of government to be assassinated with a firearm were James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, the regent of Scotland, in 1570, and William the Silent, the Prince of Orange of the Netherlands, in 1584. Gunpowder and other explosives also allowed the use of bombs or even greater concentrations of explosives for deeds requiring a larger touch.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2024}} Explosives, especially the car bomb, become far more common in modern history, with grenades and remote-triggered land mines also used, especially in the Middle East and the Balkans; the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand's life was with a grenade. With heavy weapons, the rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) has become a useful tool given the popularity of armored cars (discussed below), and Israeli forces have pioneered the use of aircraft-mounted missiles,<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/17/mideast.violence/index.html Hamas leader killed in Israeli airstrike] – CNN, Saturday April 17, 2004</ref> as well as the innovative use of explosive devices.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} of Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of President John F. Kennedy]] of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln]] A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations; however, certain pragmatic difficulties attend long-range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line of sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim's travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range, which is usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and handfinishing required to achieve extreme accuracy.<ref name="Austria">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1542559/Iraqi-insurgents-using-Austrian-rifles-from-Iran.html Iraqi insurgents using Austrian rifles from Iran] – The Daily Telegraph, Tuesday February 13, 2007</ref> Despite their comparative disadvantages, handguns are more easily concealable and so are much more commonly used than rifles. Of the 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century, 51% were undertaken by a handgun, 30% with a rifle or shotgun, 15% used knives, and 8% explosives (the use of multiple weapons/methods was reported in 16% of all cases).<ref name="SS"/> In the case of state-sponsored assassination, poisoning can be more easily denied. Georgi Markov, a dissident from Bulgaria, was assassinated by ricin poisoning. A tiny pellet containing the poison was injected into his leg through a specially designed umbrella. Widespread allegations involving the Bulgarian government and the KGB have not led to any legal results. However, after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was learned that the KGB had developed an umbrella that could inject ricin pellets into a victim, and two former KGB agents who defected stated that the agency assisted in the murder.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/history/story/2007/01/070117_markov.shtml The case of the poisoned umbrella]. BBC World Service, 2007.</ref> The CIA made several attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro; many of the schemes involving poisoning his cigars. In the late 1950s, the KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky killed Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera with a spray gun that fired a jet of poison gas from a crushed cyanide ampule, making their deaths look like heart attacks.<ref>Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Basic Books, 1999. {{ISBN\|978-0-465-00312-9}} p. 362</ref> A 2006 case in the UK concerned the assassination of Alexander Litvinenko who was given a lethal dose of radioactive polonium-210, possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food.<ref>"[http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Sky-News-Archive/Article/20082851241951 Putin 'Deplores' Spy Death]" – Sky News Friday November 24, 2006 {{dead link\|dateMay 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|botmedic}}</ref>Targeted killing {{Main\|Targeted killing}} combat drone; sometimes used in targeted killings]] Targeted killing is the intentional killing by a government or its agents of a civilian or "unlawful combatant" who is not in the government's custody. The target is a person asserted to be taking part in an armed conflict or terrorism, by bearing arms or otherwise, who has thereby lost the immunity from being targeted that he would otherwise have under the Third Geneva Convention.<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others"/> It is a different term and concept from that of "targeted violence", as used by specialists who study violence.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2024}} On the other hand, Gary D. Solis, a professor at Georgetown University Law Center, in his 2010 book The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War,<ref>{{cite book \|last1Solis \|first1Gary D. \|year2010 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6FKf0ocxEPAC \|titleThe law of armed conflict \|publisherCambridge University Press \|access-dateDecember 27, 2011\|isbn978-1-139-48711-5}}</ref> wrote, "Assassinations and targeted killings are very different acts."<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others"/> The use of the term "assassination" is opposed, as it denotes murder (unlawful killing), but the terrorists are targeted in self-defense, which is thus viewed as a killing but not a crime (justifiable homicide).<ref name"HOV">[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file/chronicle/archive/2004/03/26/EDGK65QPC41.DTL Targeted killing is a necessary option], Sofaer, Abraham D., Hoover Institution, March 26, 2004</ref> Abraham D. Sofaer, former federal judge for the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, wrote on the subject: <blockquote>When people call a targeted killing an "assassination", they are attempting to preclude debate on the merits of the action. Assassination is widely defined as murder, and is for that reason prohibited in the United States&nbsp;... U.S. officials may not kill people merely because their policies are seen as detrimental to our interests... But killings in self-defense are no more "assassinations" in international affairs than they are murders when undertaken by our police forces against domestic killers. Targeted killings in self-defense have been authoritatively determined by the federal government to fall outside the assassination prohibition.<ref name="sfgate2004"/></blockquote> Author and former U.S. Army Captain Matthew J. Morgan argued that "there is a major difference between assassination and targeted killing... targeted killing [is] not synonymous with assassination. Assassination... constitutes an illegal killing."<ref>{{cite book \|last1Morgan \|first1Matthew J. \|titleThe Impact of 9/11 and the New Legal Landscape: The Day that Changed Everything? \|date2009 \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|isbn978-0-230-60838-2 }}{{page needed\|dateJune 2024}}</ref> Similarly, Amos Guiora, a professor of law at the University of Utah, wrote, "Targeted killing is... not an assassination."<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Guiora \|first1Amos \|titleTargeted Killing as Active Self-Defense \|journalCase Western Reserve Journal of International Law \|date2004 \|volume36 \|issue2 \|pages319–334 \|urlhttps://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol36/iss2/4/ \|id{{ProQuest\|211100211}} \|ssrn759584 }}</ref> Steve David, professor of international relations at Johns Hopkins University, wrote, "There are strong reasons to believe that the Israeli policy of targeted killing is not the same as assassination." Syracuse Law William Banks and GW Law Peter Raven-Hansen wrote, "Targeted killing of terrorists is... not unlawful and would not constitute assassination."<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Banks \|first1William \|last2Raven-Hansen \|first2Peter \|titleTargeted Killing and Assassination: The U.S. Legal Framework \|journalUniversity of Richmond Law Review \|dateMarch 2003 \|volume37 \|issue3 \|pages667–750 \|urlhttps://scholarship.richmond.edu/lawreview/vol37/iss3/4/ }}</ref> Rory Miller writes: "Targeted killing... is not 'assassination.{{' "}}<ref name"google3">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi5lnAAAAMAAJ&qassassination+%22targeted+killing%22 \|authorRory Miller \|titleIreland and the Middle East: trade, society and peace \|publisherIrish Academic Press \|isbn978-0-7165-2868-5 \|year2007 \|access-dateMay 29, 2010}}</ref> Eric Patterson and Teresa Casale wrote, "Perhaps most important is the legal distinction between targeted killing and assassination."<ref>{{cite report \|last1David \|first1Steven R. \|titleFatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing \|date2002 \|jstorresrep04271 \|publisherBegin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies \|urlhttps://www.besacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2002/09/msps51.pdf \|author-link=Steven R. David }}</ref> On the other hand, the American Civil Liberties Union also states on its website, "A program of targeted killing far from any battlefield, without charge or trial, violates the constitutional guarantee of due process. It also violates international law, under which lethal force may be used outside armed conflict zones only as a last resort to prevent imminent threats, when non-lethal means are not available. Targeting people who are suspected of terrorism for execution, far from any war zone, turns the whole world into a battlefield."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aclu.org/national-security/frequently-asked-questions-about-targeting-killing \|titleFrequently Asked Questions About Targeting Killing &#124; American Civil Liberties Union \|publisherAclu.org \|dateAugust 30, 2010 \|access-date=August 13, 2012}}</ref> Yael Stein, the research director of B'Tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, also stated in her article "By Any Name Illegal and Immoral: Response to 'Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing{{' "}}:<ref name"Stein">{{cite journal \|last1Stein \|first1Yael \|titleAny Name Illegal and Immoral \|journalEthics & International Affairs \|dateMarch 2003 \|volume17 \|issue1 \|pages127–137 \|id{{Gale\|A109352000}} {{ProQuest\|200510695}} \|doi=10.1111/j.1747-7093.2003.tb00423.x }}</ref> <blockquote>The argument that this policy affords the public a sense of revenge and retribution could serve to justify acts both illegal and immoral. Clearly, lawbreakers ought to be punished. Yet, no matter how horrific their deeds, as the targeting of Israeli civilians indeed is, they should be punished according to the law. David's arguments could, in principle, justify the abolition of formal legal systems altogether.</blockquote> Targeted killing has become a frequent tactic of the United States and Israel in their fights against terrorism.<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others">{{cite book \|doi10.1017/9781108917797.015 \|chapterTargeting Combatants and Others \|titleThe Law of Armed Conflict \|date2021 \|pages425–463 \|isbn978-1-108-91779-7 \|first1Gary D. \|last1Solis \|author-linkGary D. Solis }}</ref><ref name"nytimes2">{{cite news \|last1Kaplan \|first1Eben \|titleQ&A: Targeted Killings \|urlhttps://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/slot3_012506.html \|workThe New York Times \|date25 January 2006 }}</ref> The tactic can raise complex questions and lead to contentious disputes as to the legal basis for its application, who qualifies as an appropriate "hit list" target, and what circumstances must exist before the tactic may be used.<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others"/> Opinions range from people considering it a legal form of self-defense that decreases terrorism to people calling it an extrajudicial killing that lacks due process and leads to further violence.<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others"/><ref name"sfgate2004">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/Responses-to-Terrorism-Targeted-killing-is-a-2775845.php \|authorAbraham D. Sofaer \|titleResponses to Terrorism / Targeted killing is a necessary option \|workThe San Francisco Chronicle \|dateMarch 26, 2004 \|access-dateMay 20, 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110829072847/http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-03-26/opinion/17416329_1_self-defense-killings-deadly-force \|archive-dateAugust 29, 2011 \|author-linkAbraham D. Sofaer}}</ref><ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite news \|urlhttp://tech.mit.edu/V122/N54/long4-54.54w.html \|authorDana Priest \|titleU.S. Citizen Among Those Killed In Yemen Predator Missile Strike \|newspaperThe Tech (MIT); The Washington Post \|dateNovember 8, 2002 \|access-dateMay 19, 2010 \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203204727/http://tech.mit.edu/V122/N54/long4-54.54w.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"google1426">{{cite news\|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?ide08gAAAAIBAJ&pg1426,2445697 \|authorMohammed Daraghmeh\|titleHamas Leader Dies in Apparent Israeli Targeted Killing \|newspaperTimes Daily \|dateFebruary 20, 2001 \|access-dateMay 20, 2010 \|agencyThe Associated Press }}</ref> Methods used have included firing Hellfire missiles from Predator or Reaper drones (unmanned, remote-controlled planes), detonating a cell phone bomb, and long-range sniper shooting. Countries such as the US (in Pakistan and Yemen) and Israel (in the West Bank and Gaza) have used targeted killing to eliminate members of groups such as Al-Qaeda and Hamas.<ref name"Solis Targeting Combatants and Others"/> In early 2010, with President Obama's approval, Anwar al-Awlaki became the first US citizen to be publicly approved for targeted killing by the Central Intelligence Agency. Awlaki was killed in a drone strike in September 2011.<ref name"latimes3">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-jan-31-la-fg-cia-awlaki31-2010jan31-story.html\|authorGreg Miller \|titleU.S. citizen in CIA's cross hairs \|workLos Angeles Times \|dateJanuary 31, 2010 \|access-dateMay 20, 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100507132759/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jan/31/world/la-fg-cia-awlaki31-2010jan31\| archive-date May 7, 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"washingtonpost3">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/06/AR2010040604121.html\|authorGreg Miller \|titleMuslim cleric Aulaqi is 1st U.S. citizen on list of those CIA is allowed to kill \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|dateApril 7, 2010 \|access-dateMay 20, 2010}}</ref> United Nations investigator Ben Emmerson said that US drone strikes may have violated international humanitarian law.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/18/drone-strikes-us-violate-law-un Drone strikes by US may violate international law, says UN ]. The Guardian. October 18, 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1MacAskill \|first1Ewen \|last2Bowcott \|first2Owen \|titleUN report calls for independent investigations of drone attacks \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/10/un-report-independent-investigations-drone-attacks \|workThe Guardian \|date10 March 2014 }}</ref> The Intercept reported, "Between January 2012 and February 2013, U.S. special operations airstrikes [in northeastern Afghanistan] killed more than 200 people. Of those, only 35 were the intended targets."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://theintercept.com/drone-papers/the-assassination-complex/ \|titleThe Assassination Complex \|workThe Intercept \|dateOctober 15, 2015}}</ref> Countermeasures Early forms during Sheik Abdul Sattar Abu Risha's assassination in 2007.]] One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins was employing bodyguards, who act as a shield for the potential target; keep a lookout for potential attackers, sometimes in advance, such as on a parade route; and putting themselves in harm's way, both by simple presence, showing that physical force is available to protect the target,<ref name"SS">[http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac/ntac_jfs.pdf Assassination in the United States: An Operational Study] – Fein, Robert A. & Vossekuil, Brian, Journal of Forensic Sciences, Volume 44, Number 2, March 1999. {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060620171200/http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac/ntac_jfs.pdf \|dateJune 20, 2006}}</ref><ref>[https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/appendix7.html Lincoln] – Appendix 7, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, 1964</ref> and by shielding the target if any attack occurs. To neutralize an attacker, bodyguards are typically armed as much as legal and practical concerns permit.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2024}} Notable examples of bodyguards include the Roman Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman Janissaries, but in both cases, the protectors sometimes became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the head of state a virtual hostage or killing the very leaders whom they were supposed to protect. The loyalty of individual bodyguards is an important question as well, especially for leaders who oversee states with strong ethnic or religious divisions. Failure to realize such divided loyalties allowed the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was assassinated by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}}<ref>Deol, H. (2000). Religion and nationalism in India: The case of the Punjab (1st ed.). Routledge, 92-109. doi: 10.4324/9780203402269</ref> The bodyguard function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and it was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, which led assassins to attempt stealthy means, such as poison, whose risk was reduced by having another person taste the leader's food first.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2024}}Modern strategies on President Ronald Reagan]] With the advent of gunpowder, ranged assassination via bombs or firearms became possible. One of the first reactions was simply to increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a small army trailing every leader. Another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present to the point that entire sections of a city might be shut down.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence and capability of assassins grew quickly, as did measures to protect against them. For the first time, armored cars or limousines were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions virtually invulnerable to small arms fire, smaller bombs and mines.<ref>[http://www.alpha-armouring.com/bulletproof/cars.php How to choose the appropriate bulletproof cars] (from Alpha-armouring.com website, includes examples of protection levels available) {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070103071805/http://www.alpha-armouring.com/bulletproof/cars.php \|dateJanuary 3, 2007 }}</ref> Bulletproof vests also began to be used, but since they were of limited utility, restricting movement and leaving the head unprotected, they tended to be worn only during high-profile public events, if at all.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} Access to famous people also became more and more restricted;<ref name="Report">[https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/appendix7.html The Need For Protection Further Demonstrated] – Appendix 7, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, 1964</ref> potential visitors would be forced through numerous different checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as communication became better and information technology more prevalent, it has become all but impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work or in private life to effect an attempt on their life, especially with the common use of metal and bomb detectors. Most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during transport, both because of weaker security and security lapses, such as with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, or as part of a coup d'état in which security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba.{{citation needed\|date=October 2024}} in a modified Mercedes-Benz M-Class Popemobile in São Paulo, Brazil]] The methods used for protection by famous people have sometimes evoked negative reactions by the public, with some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear bulletproof glass, such as the MRAP-like Popemobile of Pope John Paul II, built following an attempt at his life. Politicians often resent the need for separation and sometimes send their bodyguards away from them for personal or publicity reasons. US President William McKinley did so at the public reception in which he was assassinated.<ref name="Report"/> Other potential targets go into seclusion and are rarely heard from or seen in public, such as writer Salman Rushdie. A related form of protection is the use of body doubles, people with similar builds to those they are expected to impersonate. These people are then made up and, in some cases, undergo plastic surgery to look like the target, with the body double then taking the place of the person in high-risk situations. According to Joe R. Reeder, Under Secretary of the Army from 1993 to 1997, Fidel Castro used body doubles.<ref name"FOX">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/story/its-bin-laden-or-is-it \|titleIt's Bin Laden&nbsp;... or Is It? \|publisherFox News \|dateDecember 20, 2001 \|firstCatherine \|lastDonaldson-Evans \|access-dateDecember 8, 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120805130250/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,41210,00.html \|archive-dateAugust 5, 2012 \|url-status=live }}</ref> US Secret Service protective agents receive training in the psychology of assassins.<ref>{{cite news \|firstScott \|lastPelley \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/mind-of-the-assassin-14-03-2000/ \|titleMind of the Assassin \|publisherCBS 60&nbsp;Minutes II \|dateAugust 15, 2000 \|access-dateMarch 30, 2010}}</ref>See also {{Div col}} * Assassinations in fiction * Contract killing * History of assassination * List of contract killers and hitmen * List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government * List of assassinations * List of assassinations by firearm * List of people who survived assassination attempts * List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots * Special Activities Center of the Central Intelligence Agency {{Div col end}} Notes and references {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book \|last1Ayton \|first1Mel \|titlePlotting to Kill the President: Assassination Attempts from Washington to Hoover \|date2017 \|publisherU of Nebraska Press \|isbn978-1-61234-879-7 }} * {{cite book \|last1Clarke \|first1James W. \|titleDefining Danger: American Assassins and the New Domestic Terrorists \|date2018 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-351-52317-2 }} * {{cite news \|last1Clarke \|first1James W. \|titleAmerica's History of Crazy Political Assassins Didn't Begin with Loughner \|urlhttps://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/americas-history-of-crazy-political-assassins-didn \|work=History News Network }} * {{cite book \|last1Porter \|first1Lindsay \|titleAssassination: A History of Political Murder \|date2010 \|publisherOverlook Press \|isbn978-1-59020-348-4 }} * {{cite book \|last1Trenta \|first1Luca \|titlePresident's Kill List \|date2024 \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|isbn978-1-3995-1952-6 }} * {{cite news \|last1Leonard \|first1Max \|titleAssassination: A History of Political Murder by Lindsay Porter \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/7545208/Assassination-A-History-of-Political-Murder-by-Lindsay-Porter.html \|workThe Telegraph \|date6 April 2010 }} * {{cite web \|titlePractice relating to Rule 65 Perfidy \|urlhttps://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v2/rule65 \|website=Customary IHL Database }} ** {{cite web\|urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hague04.asp#art23 \|titleHague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 (23.b.)\|publisherYale University}}External links {{wiktionary}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons category\|Assassination}} {{NIE Poster\|year=1905}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091125153936/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/22792/notorious-assassinations Notorious Assassinations] – slideshow by Life magazine * CNN. [http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy "U.S. policy on assassinations"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150114100650/http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy \|dateJanuary 14, 2015 }} from CNN.com/Law Center, November 4, 2002. See also Ford's 1976 [https://web.archive.org/web/20040409090921/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/760110e.htm executive order]. However, Executive Order 12333, which prohibited the CIA from assassinations, was relaxed by the George W. Bush administration. * {{cite journal \|last1Kretzmer \|first1David \|titleTargeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists: Extra-Judicial Executions or Legitimate Means of Defence? \|journalEuropean Journal of International Law \|dateApril 2005 \|volume16 \|issue2 \|pages171–212 \|doi=10.1093/ejil/chi114 }} * [http://www.democracynow.org/2010/4/8/is_the_cia_assassination_order_of Is the CIA Assassination Order of a US Citizen Legal?] – video by Democracy Now! {{Massacres}} {{List of Terrorist Incidents}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assassinate}} Category:Attacks by method Category:Killings by type	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination	2025-04-05T18:26:14.004556
2964	Optical audio disc	An audio optical disc is an optical disc that stores sound information such as music or speech. It may specifically refer to: Audio CDs Compact disc (CD), an optical disc used to store digital data (700 MB storage) Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA), a CD that contains PCM encoded digital audio in the original "Red Book" CD-DA format 5.1 Music Disc, an extension to the Red Book standard that uses DTS Coherent Acoustics 5.1 surround sound Compressed audio optical disc, an optical disc storing MP3s and other compressed audio files as data, rather than in the Red Book format Audio DVDs DVD, 4 GB single layer, 8 GB double layer storage DVD-Audio, a DVD that plays audio Super Audio CD (SACD), a format which competes with DVD-Audio Audio Blu-rays Blu-ray, 25 GB single layer, 50 GB double layer BD-Audio, a Blu-ray disc that is capable of audio-only playback See also Compatible Discrete 4 (CD-4), a variety of quadrophonic audio for vinyl records	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_audio_disc	2025-04-05T18:26:14.007719
2965	Alcoholism	{{Short description\|Problematic excessive alcohol consumption}} {{About\|chronic alcohol abuse that results in significant health problems\|alcohol abuse in general\|Alcohol abuse}} {{Redirect\|Alcoholic\|alcoholic beverages\|Alcoholic drink\|alcohol consumption by people in general\|Alcohol (drug)\|the chemical compound in general\|Alcohol (chemistry)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2023}} {{cs1 config \|name-list-stylevanc \|display-authors6}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Alcoholism \| synonyms Alcohol addiction, alcohol dependence syndrome, alcohol use disorder (AUD)<ref nameMESH2020>{{cite web \|titleAlcoholism MeSH Descriptor Data 2020 \|urlhttps://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?uiD000437 \|websitemeshb.nlm.nih.gov \|access-date9 May 2020 \|archive-date23 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200623014248/https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?uiD000437 \|url-status=live }}</ref> \| image = A wife asking her drunkard husband to hand over a bottle Wellcome L0067935.jpg \| caption = A French temperance organisation poster depicting the effects of alcoholism in a family, {{circa\|1915}}: "Ah! When will we be rid of alcohol?" \| field = Psychiatry, clinical psychology, toxicology, addiction medicine \| symptoms Drinking large amounts of alcohol over a long period, difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol taking up a lot of time, usage resulting in problems, withdrawal occurring when stopping<ref nameNIH2013>{{cite web\|titleAlcohol Use Disorder: A Comparison Between DSM–IV and DSM–5\|urlhttp://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/dsmfactsheet/dsmfact.htm\|access-date9 May 2015\|dateNovember 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518080640/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/dsmfactsheet/dsmfact.htm\|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> \| complications Mental illness, delirium, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis of the liver, cancer, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, suicide<ref nameFAS2015/><ref nameDSM5 /><ref nameNIHHx/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Borges G, Bagge CL, Cherpitel CJ, Conner KR, Orozco R, Rossow I \| title A meta-analysis of acute use of alcohol and the risk of suicide attempt \| journal Psychological Medicine \| volume 47 \| issue 5 \| pages 949–957 \| date April 2017 \| pmid 27928972 \| pmc 5340592 \| doi 10.1017/S0033291716002841 }}</ref> \| onset \| duration Long term<ref name=NIH2013 /> \| causes Environmental and genetic factors<ref nameDSM5/> \| risks Stress, anxiety, easy access<ref nameDSM5/><ref name=Moon2012/> \| diagnosis Questionnaires, blood tests<ref nameDSM5/> \| differential \| prevention \| treatment Alcohol cessation typically with benzodiazepines, counselling, acamprosate, disulfiram, naltrexone<ref name"Morgan-Lopez-2006"/><ref name"Blondell-2005"/><ref nameTest2014/> Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and other Twelve Step Programs, AA/Twelve Step Facilitation (AA/TSF)<ref>{{cite journal \| pmc7065341 \| year2020 \| last1Kelly \| first1J. F. \| last2Humphreys \| first2K. \| last3Ferri \| first3M. \| titleAlcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder \| journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume2020 \| issue3 \| pagesCD012880 \| doi10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2 \| pmid=32159228 }}</ref> \| medication \| prognosis \| frequency 380 million / 5.1% adults (2016)<ref nameWHO2018>{{cite book\|titleGlobal status report on alcohol and health 2018\|date2018\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|isbn978-92-4-156563-9\|pages72, 80\|urlhttps://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274603/9789241565639-eng.pdf?ua1\|access-date1 July 2024\|archive-date25 July 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190725205222/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274603/9789241565639-eng.pdf?ua1\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name=un2020/> \| deaths 3.3 million / 5.9%<ref nameNIH2015Stats/> \| alt = }} Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Littrell J \|titleUnderstanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse\|date2014\|publisherTaylor and Francis\|locationHoboken\|isbn978-1-317-78314-5\|page55\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2k57AgAAQBAJ&pgPA55\|quoteThe World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170720112756/https://books.google.com/books?id2k57AgAAQBAJ&pgPA55\|archive-date20 July 2017}}</ref> Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide {{as of\|2016\|lcy}}.<ref nameWHO2018/><ref nameun2020>{{cite web\|urlhttps://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/\|titleWorld Population Prospects – Population Division\|publisherUnited Nations\|access-date1 July 2024\|archive-date15 June 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200615001511/https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852,<ref name"huss1852">{{cite book\|titleAlcoholismus chronicus, eller Chronisk alkoholssjukdom\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idwt6r2Zw8sCEC\|page5}}\|publisherStockholm und Leipzig\|access-date19 February 2008\|year1852}}</ref> but alcoholism and alcoholic are considered stigmatizing and likely to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as "alcohol use disorder" and "alcohol dependence" are often used instead in a clinical context.<ref namemorrismoss2022>{{cite journal \|last1Morris \|first1J. \|last2Moss \|first2A. C. \|last3Albery \|first3I. P. \|last4Heather \|first4N. \|date1 January 2022 \|titleThe 'alcoholic other': Harmful drinkers resist problem recognition to manage identity threat \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460321002781 \|journalAddictive Behaviors \|volume124 \|pages107093 \|doi10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107093 \|pmid34500234 \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date30 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240330234059/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460321002781 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameashfordbrown2018>{{cite journal \|last1Ashford \|first1Robert D. \|last2Brown \|first2Austin M. \|last3Curtis \|first3Brenda \|date1 August 2018 \|titleSubstance use, recovery, and linguistics: The impact of word choice on explicit and implicit bias \|journalDrug and Alcohol Dependence \|volume189 \|pages131–138 \|doi10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.05.005\|pmid29913324 \|pmc6330014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Rehm \|first1J \|titleThe risks associated with alcohol use and alcoholism \|journalAlcohol Research & Health \|date2011 \|volume34 \|issue2 \|pages135–143 \|pmid22330211 \|pmc3307043 \|urlhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3307043/}}</ref> <!-- Summary of negative impacts--> Alcohol is addictive, and heavy long-term alcohol use results in many negative health and social consequences. It can damage all the organ systems, but especially affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system.<ref nameDSM5 /><ref nameNIHHx /> Heavy alcohol usage can result in trouble sleeping, and severe cognitive issues like dementia, brain damage, or Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome. Physical effects include irregular heartbeat, an impaired immune response, liver cirrhosis, increased cancer risk, and severe withdrawal symptoms if stopped suddenly.<ref nameDSM5 /><ref nameNIHHx>{{cite web\|titleAlcohol's Effects on the Body\|urlhttp://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body\|access-date9 May 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150603230352/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body\|archive-date3 June 2015\|date14 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Romeo J, Wärnberg J, Nova E, Díaz LE, Gómez-Martinez S, Marcos A \| title Moderate alcohol consumption and the immune system: a review \| journal The British Journal of Nutrition \| volume 98 \| pages S111-5 \| date October 2007 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pmid 17922947 \| doi 10.1017/S0007114507838049 \| doi-access free }}</ref> These health effects can reduce life expectancy by 10 years.<ref nameSchu2014>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit MA \| title Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens) \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 371 \| issue 22 \| pages 2109–13 \| date November 2014 \| pmid 25427113 \| doi 10.1056/NEJMra1407298 \| s2cid 205116954 \| url http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 13 February 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200213032901/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th \| url-status live }}</ref> Drinking during pregnancy may harm the child's health,<ref nameFAS2015>{{cite web\|titleFetal Alcohol Exposure\|urlhttp://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/fetal-alcohol-exposure\|access-date9 May 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150404182156/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/fetal-alcohol-exposure\|archive-date4 April 2015\|date14 September 2011}}</ref> and drunk driving increases the risk of traffic accidents. Alcoholism is also associated with increases in violent and non-violent crime.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781405165518 \|titleThe Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology \|date2007-02-15 \|publisherWiley \|isbn978-1-4051-2433-1 \|editor-lastRitzer \|editor-firstGeorge \|edition1\|doi10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2 \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date1 November 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231101144411/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781405165518 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> While alcoholism directly resulted in 139,000 deaths worldwide in 2013,<ref name"GDB2013">{{cite journal \| title Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 \| journal Lancet \| volume 385 \| issue 9963 \| pages 117–71 \| date January 2015 \| pmid 25530442 \| pmc 4340604 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 \| author1 ((GBD 2013 Mortality Causes of Death Collaborators)) }}</ref> in 2012 3.3 million deaths may be attributable globally to alcohol.<ref nameNIH2015Stats/> <!-- Cause and diagnosis--> The development of alcoholism is attributed to both environment and genetics equally.<ref nameDSM5/> The use of alcohol to self-medicate stress or anxiety can turn into alcoholism.<ref name"Moonat-Pandey-2012">{{cite journal \| vauthors Moonat S, Pandey SC \| title [Stress, epigenetics, and alcoholism] \| journal Alcohol Research \| volume 34 \| issue 4 \| pages 495–505\|year 2012 \| pmid 23584115 \| pmc 3860391 }}</ref> Someone with a parent or sibling with an alcohol use disorder is three to four times more likely to develop an alcohol use disorder themselves, but only a minority of them do.<ref nameDSM5/> Environmental factors include social, cultural and behavioral influences.<ref name"Agarwal-Kozlowski-2000">{{cite journal \| vauthors Agarwal-Kozlowski K, Agarwal DP \| title [Genetic predisposition for alcoholism] \| journal Therapeutische Umschau \| volume 57 \| issue 4 \| pages 179–84 \| date April 2000 \| pmid 10804873 \| doi 10.1024/0040-5930.57.4.179 }}</ref> High stress levels and anxiety, as well as alcohol's inexpensive cost and easy accessibility, increase the risk.<ref nameDSM5/><ref name"Moon2012">{{cite journal \| vauthors Moonat S, Pandey SC \| title Stress, epigenetics, and alcoholism \| journal Alcohol Research \| volume 34 \| issue 4 \| pages 495–505 \|year 2012 \| pmid 23584115 \| pmc 3860391 }}</ref> People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal.<ref nameDSM5/> After a person stops drinking alcohol, they may experience a low level of withdrawal lasting for months.<ref nameDSM5/> Medically, alcoholism is considered both a physical and mental illness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mersy DJ \| title Recognition of alcohol and substance abuse \| journal American Family Physician \| volume 67 \| issue 7 \| pages 1529–32 \| date April 2003 \| pmid 12722853 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleHealth and Ethics Policies of the AMA House of Delegates\|page33\|urlhttp://www.ama-assn.org/ad-com/polfind/Hlth-Ethics.pdf\|access-date10 May 2015\|dateJune 2008\|quoteH-30.997 Dual Disease Classification of Alcoholism: The AMA reaffirms its policy endorsing the dual classification of alcoholism under both the psychiatric and medical sections of the International Classification of Diseases. (Res. 22, I-79; Reaffirmed: CLRPD Rep. B, I-89; Reaffirmed: CLRPD Rep. B, I-90; Reaffirmed by CSA Rep. 14, A-97; Reaffirmed: CSAPH Rep. 3, A-07)\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150320143132/http://www.ama-assn.org/ad-com/polfind/Hlth-Ethics.pdf\|archive-date20 March 2015}}</ref> Questionnaires are usually used to detect possible alcoholism.<ref nameDSM5/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Higgins-Biddle JC, Babor TF \| title A review of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), AUDIT-C, and USAUDIT for screening in the United States: Past issues and future directions \| journal The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse \| volume 44 \| issue 6 \| pages 578–586 \|year 2018 \| pmid 29723083 \| pmc 6217805 \| doi 10.1080/00952990.2018.1456545 }}</ref> Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis.<ref nameDSM5>{{cite book \|titleDiagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5\|date2013\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association\|locationWashington, DC\|isbn978-0-89042-554-1\|pages[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/490 490–97]\|edition5\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/490}}</ref> <!-- Prevention and treatment --> Treatment of alcoholism may take several forms.<ref name"Blondell-2005"/> Due to medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol cessation should be controlled carefully.<ref name"Blondell-2005"/> One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam.<ref name"Blondell-2005"/> These can be taken while admitted to a health care institution or individually.<ref name"Blondell-2005">{{cite journal \| vauthors Blondell RD \| title Ambulatory detoxification of patients with alcohol dependence \| journal American Family Physician \| volume 71 \| issue 3 \| pages 495–502 \| date February 2005 \| pmid 15712624 }}</ref> The medications acamprosate or disulfiram may also be used to help prevent further drinking.<ref nameTest2014>{{cite journal \| vauthors Testino G, Leone S, Borro P \| title Treatment of alcohol dependence: recent progress and reduction of consumption \| journal Minerva Medica \| volume 105 \| issue 6 \| pages 447–66 \| date December 2014 \| pmid 25392958 }}</ref> Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors DeVido JJ, Weiss RD \| title Treatment of the depressed alcoholic patient \| journal Current Psychiatry Reports \| volume 14 \| issue 6 \| pages 610–8 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 22907336 \| pmc 3712746 \| doi 10.1007/s11920-012-0314-7 }}</ref> Various individual or group therapy or support groups are used to attempt to keep a person from returning to alcoholism.<ref name"Morgan-Lopez-2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors Morgan-Lopez AA, Fals-Stewart W \| title Analytic complexities associated with group therapy in substance abuse treatment research: problems, recommendations, and future directions \| journal Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology \| volume 14 \| issue 2 \| pages 265–73 \| date May 2006 \| pmid 16756430 \| pmc 4631029 \| doi 10.1037/1064-1297.14.2.265 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Albanese AP \| title Management of alcohol abuse \| journal Clinics in Liver Disease \| volume 16 \| issue 4 \| pages 737–62 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 23101980 \| doi 10.1016/j.cld.2012.08.006 }}</ref> Among them is the abstinence based mutual aid fellowship Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). A 2020 scientific review found that clinical interventions encouraging increased participation in AA (AA/twelve step facilitation (AA/TSF))—resulted in higher abstinence rates over other clinical interventions, and most studies in the review found that AA/TSF led to lower health costs.{{efn\|"Twelve-Step Facilitation (TSF) interventions include extended counseling, adopting some of the techniques and principles of AA, as well as brief interventions designed to link individuals to community AA groups."<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2 \|pmid32159228 \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder \|year2020 \|last1Kelly \|first1John F. \|last2Humphreys \|first2Keith \|last3Ferri \|first3Marica \|journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume3 \|issueCD012880 \|page15 \|pmc7065341}}</ref>}}<ref name"Cochrane2020">{{cite journal \|last1Kelly \|first1John F. \|last2Humphreys \|first2Keith \|last3Ferri \|first3Marica \|year2020 \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder \|journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume3 \|issue3 \|pagesCD012880 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2 \|pmc7065341 \|pmid32159228}}</ref><ref name"Cochrane2020distilled">{{cite journal \|last1Kelly \|first1John F. \|last2Abry \|first2Alexandra \|last3Ferri \|first3Marica \|last4Humphreys \|first4Keith \|year2020 \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous and 12-Step Facilitation Treatments for Alcohol Use Disorder: A Distillation of a 2020 Cochrane Review for Clinicians and Policy Makers \|journalAlcohol and Alcoholism \|volume55 \|issue6 \|pages641–651 \|doi10.1093/alcalc/agaa050 \|pmc8060988 \|pmid32628263}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|year2020 \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous most effective path to alcohol abstinence \|urlhttps://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2020/03/alcoholics-anonymous-most-effective-path-to-alcohol-abstinence.html \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date20 February 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220220224453/https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2020/03/alcoholics-anonymous-most-effective-path-to-alcohol-abstinence.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> Many terms, some slurs and some informal, have been used to refer to people affected by alcoholism such as tippler, drunkard, dipsomaniac and souse.<ref>{{cite book\|titleChambers English Thesaurus\|publisherAllied Publishers\|isbn978-81-86062-04-3\|page175\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIamKT5uk5lMC&pg=PA175}}</ref> {{TOC limit}} Signs and symptoms The risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called binge drinking. Binge drinking is the most common pattern of alcoholism. It has different definitions and one of this defines it as a pattern of drinking when a male has five or more drinks on an occasion or a female has at least four drinks on an occasion.<ref>{{cite web \|titleBinge Drinking \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/binge-drinking.htm#:~:textBinge%20drinking%20is%20the%20most,on%20an%20occasion%20for%20women \|websiteCenter For Disease Control and Prevention \|date28 February 2024 \|access-date28 February 2024 \|archive-date12 May 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130512044035/http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/binge-drinking.htm#:~:textBinge%20drinking%20is%20the%20most,on%20an%20occasion%20for%20women \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Long-term misuse an individual may develop. Additionally, in pregnant women, alcohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome.]] Alcoholism is characterized by an increased tolerance to alcohol&nbsp;– which means that an individual can consume more alcohol&nbsp;– and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to control their consumption. The physical dependency caused by alcohol can lead to an affected individual having a very strong urge to drink alcohol. These characteristics play a role in decreasing the ability to stop drinking of an individual with an alcohol use disorder.<ref name"Hoffman-1996">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hoffman PL, Tabakoff B \| title Alcohol dependence: a commentary on mechanisms \| journal Alcohol and Alcoholism \| volume 31 \| issue 4 \| pages 333–40 \| date July 1996 \| pmid 8879279 \| doi 10.1093/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a008159 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Alcoholism can have adverse effects on mental health, contributing to psychiatric disorders and increasing the risk of suicide. A depressed mood is a common symptom of heavy alcohol drinkers.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dunn N, Cook CC \| title Psychiatric aspects of alcohol misuse \| journal Hospital Medicine \| volume 60 \| issue 3 \| pages 169–72 \| date March 1999 \| pmid 10476237 \| doi 10.12968/hosp.1999.60.3.1060 }}</ref><ref name"drug_abuse_prevention_a03">{{cite book \| vauthors Wilson R, Kolander CA \|titleDrug abuse prevention: a school and community partnership \|year2003 \|publisherJones and Bartlett \|locationSudbury, MA \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idCm1MfcBSucUC}} \|isbn978-0-7637-1461-1 \|pages40–45}}</ref> Warning signs Warning signs of alcoholism include the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol and frequent intoxication, preoccupation with drinking to the exclusion of other activities, promises to quit drinking and failure to keep those promises, the inability to remember what was said or done while drinking (colloquially known as "blackouts"), personality changes associated with drinking, denial or the making of excuses for drinking, the refusal to admit excessive drinking, dysfunction or other problems at work or school, the loss of interest in personal appearance or hygiene, marital and economic problems, and the complaint of poor health, with loss of appetite, respiratory infections, or increased anxiety.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Volume Library\|publisherThe Southwestern Company\|chapter-url{{google books \|plainurly \|idRE9OwGtvDMACf}}\|year2009\|isbn978-0-87197-208-8\|volume1\|locationNashville, TN\|page29\|chapterBiology}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>PhysicalShort-term effects {{Main\|Short-term effects of alcohol consumption}} Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria (intense feelings of well-being and happiness), increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC of 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit while unconscious) and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. With all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties for drunk driving. Long-term effects {{See also\|Long-term effects of alcohol consumption}} Having more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke.<ref name"Kee2014">{{cite journal\|vauthorsO'Keefe JH, Bhatti SK, Bajwa A, DiNicolantonio JJ, Lavie CJ\|dateMarch 2014\|titleAlcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison…or the remedy\|journalMayo Clinic Proceedings\|volume89\|issue3\|pages382–93\|doi10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005\|pmid24582196\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Risk is greater with binge drinking, which may also result in violence or accidents. About 3.3&nbsp;million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.<ref name"NIH2015Stats" /> Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years<ref name"Schu2014" /> and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.<ref nameKee2014 /> Long-term alcohol misuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers<ref>{{cite book \|lastAmerican Medical Association \|titleComplete Medical Encyclopedia \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWGURAQAAMAAJ \|year2003 \|publisherRandom House Reference \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-8129-9100-0 \|editionFirst \|chapterDuodenal Ulcer \|veditorsLeiken JS, Lipsky MS \|page485 \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date14 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230114105316/https://books.google.com/books?idWGURAQAAMAAJ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and several cancers such as breast cancer and head and neck cancer.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Gormley \|first1Mark \|last2Creaney \|first2Grant \|last3Schache \|first3Andrew \|last4Ingarfield \|first4Kate \|last5Conway \|first5David I. \|date2022-11-11 \|titleReviewing the epidemiology of head and neck cancer: definitions, trends and risk factors \|journalBritish Dental Journal\|volume233 \|issue9 \|pages780–786 \|doi10.1038/s41415-022-5166-x \|issn0007-0610 \|pmc9652141 \|pmid36369568}}</ref> Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM \| title [Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse] \| language de \| journal Psychiatrie, Neurologie, und Medizinische Psychologie \| volume 37 \| issue 3 \| pages 129–32 \| date March 1985 \| pmid 2988001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Testino G \| title Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view \| journal Hepato-Gastroenterology \| volume 55 \| issue 82–83 \| pages 371–7 \| year 2008 \| pmid 18613369 }}</ref> A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting in a propensity for bone fractures.<ref>[http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/10report/intro.pdf 10th Special Report to the U.S. Congress on Alcohol and Health] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120913074727/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/10report/intro.pdf \|date13 September 2012 }}, 2000, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.</ref> Women develop long-term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do men; women also have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men.<ref name"Blum-1998"/> Examples of long-term complications include brain, heart, and liver damage<ref name"Walter-2003" /> and an increased risk of breast cancer. Additionally, heavy drinking over time has been found to have a negative effect on reproductive functioning in women. This results in reproductive dysfunction such as anovulation, decreased ovarian mass, problems or irregularity of the menstrual cycle, and early menopause.<ref name"Blum-1998" /> Alcoholic ketoacidosis can occur in individuals who chronically misuse alcohol and have a recent history of binge drinking.<ref name"Mihai-">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mihai B, Lăcătuşu C, Graur M \| title [Alcoholic ketoacidosis] \| journal Revista Medico-Chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici Si Naturalisti Din Iasi \| volume 112 \| issue 2 \| pages 321–6 \| date April–June 2008 \| pmid 19294998 }}</ref><ref name"Sibaï-2005">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sibaï K, Eggimann P \| title [Alcoholic ketoacidosis: not rare cause of metabolic acidosis] \| journal Revue Médicale Suisse \| volume 1 \| issue 32 \| pages 2106, 2108–10, 2112–5 \| date September 2005 \| doi 10.53738/REVMED.2005.1.32.2106 \| pmid 16238232 }}</ref> The amount of alcohol that can be biologically processed and its effects differ between sexes. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations (BACs), since women generally have a lower weight and higher percentage of body fat and therefore a lower volume of distribution for alcohol than men.<ref name"pmid23101976">{{cite journal \| vauthors Cederbaum AI \| title Alcohol metabolism \| journal Clinics in Liver Disease \| volume 16 \| issue 4 \| pages 667–85 \| date November 2012 \| pmid 23101976 \| pmc 3484320 \| doi 10.1016/j.cld.2012.08.002 }}</ref>PsychiatricLong-term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems. Severe cognitive problems are common; approximately 10% of all dementia cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia.<ref name"aamaibnc">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-07/econ-ma070808.php \|titleAlcoholism-associated molecular adaptations in brain neurocognitive circuits \| vauthors Bakalkin G \|date8 July 2008 \|websiteEurekalert.org \|access-date11 January 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111130152434/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-07/econ-ma070808.php \|archive-date30 November 2011 }}</ref> Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Oscar-Berman M, Marinkovic K \| title Alcoholism and the brain: an overview \| journal Alcohol Research & Health \| volume 27 \| issue 2 \| pages 125–33 \| year 2003 \| pmid 15303622 \| pmc 6668884 }}</ref> Social skills are significantly impaired in people with alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol use disorder include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody, perception problems, and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humor is also impaired in people who misuse alcohol.<ref name"pmid18412750">{{cite journal \| vauthors Uekermann J, Daum I \| title Social cognition in alcoholism: a link to prefrontal cortex dysfunction? \| journal Addiction \| volume 103 \| issue 5 \| pages 726–35 \| date May 2008 \| pmid 18412750 \| doi 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02157.x }}</ref> Psychiatric disorders are common in people with alcohol use disorders, with as many as 25% also having severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are anxiety and depression disorders. Psychiatric symptoms usually initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal, but typically improve or disappear with continued abstinence.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wetterling T, Junghanns K \| title Psychopathology of alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence \| journal European Psychiatry \| volume 15 \| issue 8 \| pages 483–8 \| date December 2000 \| pmid 11175926 \| doi 10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00519-8 \| s2cid 24094651 }}</ref> Psychosis, confusion, and organic brain syndrome may be caused by alcohol misuse, which can lead to a misdiagnosis such as schizophrenia.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit MA \| title Alcoholism and other psychiatric disorders \| journal Hospital & Community Psychiatry \| volume 34 \| issue 11 \| pages 1022–7 \| date November 1983 \| pmid 6642446 \| doi 10.1176/ps.34.11.1022 }}</ref> Panic disorder can develop or worsen as a direct result of long-term alcohol misuse.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cowley DS \| title Alcohol abuse, substance abuse, and panic disorder \| journal The American Journal of Medicine \| volume 92 \| issue 1A \| pages 41S–48S \| date January 1992 \| pmid 1346485 \| doi 10.1016/0002-9343(92)90136-Y }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cosci F, Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ \| title Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship \| journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry \| volume 68 \| issue 6 \| pages 874–80 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17592911 \| doi = 10.4088/JCP.v68n0608 }}</ref> The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Grant BF, Harford TC \| title Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey \| journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence \| volume 39 \| issue 3 \| pages 197–206 \| date October 1995 \| pmid 8556968 \| doi 10.1016/0376-8716(95)01160-4 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1258497 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 28 November 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20201128214542/https://zenodo.org/record/1258497 \| url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kandel DB, Huang FY, Davies M \| title Comorbidity between patterns of substance use dependence and psychiatric syndromes \| journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence \| volume 64 \| issue 2 \| pages 233–41 \| date October 2001 \| pmid 11543993 \| doi 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00126-0 \| author-link1 Denise Kandel }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Cornelius JR, Bukstein O, Salloum I, Clark D \| title Recent Developments in Alcoholism \| chapter Alcohol and psychiatric comorbidity \| series Recent Dev Alcohol \| volume 16 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/recentdevelopment00gala/page/361 361–74] \| year 2003 \| pmid 12638646 \| doi 10.1007/0-306-47939-7_24 \| chapter-url https://archive.org/details/recentdevelopment00gala/page/361 \| isbn 978-0-306-47258-9 \| issn 0738-422X \| publisher Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers }}</ref> Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that remit with alcohol abstinence ("substance-induced"), and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence ("independent" episodes).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit MA, Tipp JE, Bergman M, Reich W, Hesselbrock VM, Smith TL \| title Comparison of induced and independent major depressive disorders in 2,945 alcoholics \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 154 \| issue 7 \| pages 948–57 \| date July 1997 \| pmid 9210745 \| doi 10.1176/ajp.154.7.948 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit MA, Tipp JE, Bucholz KK, Nurnberger JI, Hesselbrock VM, Crowe RR, Kramer J \| title The life-time rates of three major mood disorders and four major anxiety disorders in alcoholics and controls \| journal Addiction \| volume 92 \| issue 10 \| pages 1289–304 \| date October 1997 \| pmid 9489046 \| doi 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02848.x \| s2cid 14958283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit MA, Smith TL, Danko GP, Pierson J, Trim R, Nurnberger JI, Kramer J, Kuperman S, Bierut LJ, Hesselbrock V \| title A comparison of factors associated with substance-induced versus independent depressions \| journal Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs \| volume 68 \| issue 6 \| pages 805–12 \| date November 2007 \| pmid 17960298 \| doi 10.15288/jsad.2007.68.805 \| s2cid 17528609 }}</ref> Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schuckit M \| title Alcoholic patients with secondary depression \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 140 \| issue 6 \| pages 711–4 \| date June 1983 \| pmid 6846629 \| doi 10.1176/ajp.140.6.711 }}</ref> Psychiatric disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol-use disorders often have a co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol-use disorders more often have a co-occurring diagnosis of narcissistic or antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).<ref name"Karrol_2002">{{cite journal\| vauthors Karrol BR \|s2cid73186615 \|titleWomen and alcohol use disorders: a review of important knowledge and its implications for social work practitioners \|journalJournal of Social Work \|volume2 \|issue3 \|pages337–56 \|year2002 \|doi10.1177/146801730200200305 }}</ref> Women with alcohol use disorder are more likely to experience physical or sexual assault, abuse, and domestic violence than women in the general population,<ref name"Karrol_2002" /> which can lead to higher instances of psychiatric disorders and greater dependence on alcohol.Social effects {{See also\|Drug-related crime}} Serious social problems arise from alcohol use disorder; these dilemmas are caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol.<ref name"aamaibnc"/><ref name"Jessica Kingsley Publishers"/> Alcohol misuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault.<ref name"drug_use_a_reference_handbook">{{cite book \| last1 Isralowitz \| first1 Richard \| title Drug use: a reference handbook \| url https://books.google.com/books?idX0mxxfbIbp4C \| year 2004 \| publisher ABC-CLIO \| location Santa Barbara, CA \| isbn 978-1-57607-708-5 \| pages 122–23 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 14 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230114105315/https://books.google.com/books?idX0mxxfbIbp4C \| url-status live }}</ref> Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment,<ref>{{cite book \| last1 Langdana \| first1 Farrokh K. \| title Macroeconomic Policy: Demystifying Monetary and Fiscal Policy \| url https://books.google.com/books?idGCYWQn79JYwC \| year 2009 \| publisher Springer \| edition 2nd \| isbn 978-0-387-77665-1 \| page 81 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 14 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230114105316/https://books.google.com/books?idGCYWQn79JYwC \| url-status live }}</ref> which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving<ref name"abd2009">{{cite book\| last1 Gifford \| first1 Maria \| title Alcoholism (Biographies of Disease) \| year2009 \| publisher Greenwood Press \| url {{google books \|plainurly \|id2OJV12astRUC\|page89}} \| isbn 978-0-313-35908-8 \| pages 89–91 }}</ref> or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of children of people with alcohol use disorders.<ref name"tcemh2006">{{cite book \|last1Schadé \|first1Johannes Petrus \|titleThe Complete Encyclopedia of Medicine and Health \|year2006 \|publisherForeign Media Books \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idj8DuEHxSCU4C\|page132}} \|isbn978-1-60136-001-4 \|pages132–33 }}</ref> For this reason, children of people with alcohol use disorders can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. They may develop shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism and, as a result of this, may develop self-image problems, which can lead to depression.<ref>{{cite web \|lastGold \|firstMark \|titleChildren of Alcoholics \|urlhttp://psychcentral.com/lib/2006/children-of-alcoholics/ \|publisherPsych Central \|access-date27 November 2011 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111116010950/http://psychcentral.com/lib/2006/children-of-alcoholics/ \|archive-date16 November 2011 }}</ref> Alcohol withdrawal {{Main\|Alcohol withdrawal syndrome}} {{See also\|Kindling (sedative-hypnotic withdrawal)}} . Reproduction of an etching by G. Cruikshank, 1847.]] As with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed.<ref name"Jessica Kingsley Publishers"/><ref>{{cite book \|last1Galanter \|first1Marc \|last2Kleber \|first2Herbert D. \|titleThe American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6wdJgejlQzYC&pgPA58 \|edition4th \|year2008 \|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Publishing Inc \|isbn978-1-58562-276-4 \|page58 \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date5 February 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230205013806/https://books.google.com/books?id6wdJgejlQzYC&pgPA58 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system experiences uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life-threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure.<ref name"Medical toxicology">{{cite book\|last1Dart \|first1Richard C. \|titleMedical Toxicology \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idqDf3AO8nILoC\|page139}} \|edition3rd \|year2003 \|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins \|isbn978-0-7817-2845-4 \|pages139–40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Idemudia SO, Bhadra S, Lal H \| title The pentylenetetrazol-like interoceptive stimulus produced by ethanol withdrawal is potentiated by bicuculline and picrotoxinin \| journal Neuropsychopharmacology \| volume 2 \| issue 2 \| pages 115–22 \| date June 1989 \| pmid 2742726 \| doi 10.1016/0893-133X(89)90014-6 }}</ref> Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate.<ref name"Hoffman-1996"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chastain G \| s2cid 40043433 \| title Alcohol, neurotransmitter systems, and behavior \| journal The Journal of General Psychology \| volume 133 \| issue 4 \| pages 329–35 \| date October 2006 \| pmid 17128954 \| doi = 10.3200/GENP.133.4.329-335 }}</ref> Severe acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1-week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3–6 weeks following cessation, anxiety, depression, fatigue, and sleep disturbance are common.<ref name"pmid20148778">{{cite journal \| vauthors Heilig M, Egli M, Crabbe JC, Becker HC \| title Acute withdrawal, protracted abstinence and negative affect in alcoholism: are they linked? \| journal Addiction Biology \| volume 15 \| issue 2 \| pages 169–84 \| date April 2010 \| pmid 20148778 \| pmc 3268458 \| doi 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00194.x }}</ref> Similar post-acute withdrawal symptoms have also been observed in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal.<ref>{{cite book \| last1 Johnson \| first1 Bankole A. \| title Addiction medicine: science and practice \| url {{google books \|plainurly \|idzvbr4Zn9S9MC\|page342}} \| year 2011 \| publisher Springer \| location New York \| isbn 978-1-4419-0337-2 \| pages 301–03 \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20151201092622/https://books.google.com/books?idzvbr4Zn9S9MC&pgPA342 \| archive-date 1 December 2015 }}</ref> A kindling effect also occurs in people with alcohol use disorders whereby each subsequent withdrawal syndrome is more severe than the previous withdrawal episode; this is due to neuroadaptations which occur as a result of periods of abstinence followed by re-exposure to alcohol. Individuals who have had multiple withdrawal episodes are more likely to develop seizures and experience more severe anxiety during withdrawal from alcohol than alcohol-dependent individuals without a history of past alcohol withdrawal episodes. The kindling effect leads to persistent functional changes in brain neural circuits as well as to gene expression.<ref name"Breese-2011">{{cite journal \| vauthors Breese GR, Sinha R, Heilig M \| title Chronic alcohol neuroadaptation and stress contribute to susceptibility for alcohol craving and relapse \| journal Pharmacology & Therapeutics \| volume 129 \| issue 2 \| pages 149–71 \| date February 2011 \| pmid 20951730 \| pmc 3026093 \| doi 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.09.007 }}</ref> Kindling also results in the intensification of psychological symptoms of alcohol withdrawal.<ref name"pmid20148778" /> There are decision tools and questionnaires that help guide physicians in evaluating alcohol withdrawal. For example, the CIWA-Ar objectifies alcohol withdrawal symptoms in order to guide therapy decisions which allows for an efficient interview while at the same time retaining clinical usefulness, validity, and reliability, ensuring proper care for withdrawal patients, who can be in danger of death.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, Naranjo CA, Sellers EM \| title Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar) \| journal British Journal of Addiction \| volume 84 \| issue 11 \| pages 1353–7 \| date November 1989 \| pmid 2597811 \| doi 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1989.tb00737.x \| url http://www.medicine.nevada.edu/residency/lasvegas/internalmed/documents/CIWA-ARBJA.pdf \| access-date 25 October 2017 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.489.341 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130810022242/http://www.medicine.nevada.edu/residency/lasvegas/internalmed/documents/ciwa-arbja.pdf \| archive-date 10 August 2013 }}</ref> Causes Gin Lane, 1751]] A complex combination of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism.<ref name"Enoch-2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors Enoch MA \| title Genetic and environmental influences on the development of alcoholism: resilience vs. risk \| journal Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences \| volume 1094 \| issue 1 \| pages 193–201 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17347351 \| doi 10.1196/annals.1376.019 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1235882 \| bibcode 2006NYASA1094..193E \| s2cid 248697 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 25 July 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200725015737/https://zenodo.org/record/1235882 \| url-status live }}</ref> Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, as can a family history of alcoholism.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297">{{cite journal \| vauthors Edenberg HJ, McClintick JN \| title Alcohol Dehydrogenases, Aldehyde Dehydrogenases, and Alcohol Use Disorders: A Critical Review \| journal Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research \| volume 42 \| issue 12 \| pages 2281–2297 \| date December 2018 \| pmid 30320893 \| pmc 6286250 \| doi 10.1111/acer.13904 }}</ref> There is compelling evidence that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. These genetic and epigenetic results are regarded as consistent with large longitudinal population studies finding that the younger the age of drinking onset, the greater the prevalence of lifetime alcohol dependence.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Agrawal A, Sartor CE, Lynskey MT, Grant JD, Pergadia ML, Grucza R, Bucholz KK, Nelson EC, Madden PA, Martin NG, Heath AC \| title Evidence for an interaction between age at first drink and genetic influences on DSM-IV alcohol dependence symptoms \| journal Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research \| volume 33 \| issue 12 \| pages 2047–56 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 19764935 \| pmc 2883563 \| doi 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01044.x }}</ref><ref name"pmid27677720">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCrews FT, Vetreno RP, Broadwater MA, Robinson DL\| titleAdolescent Alcohol Exposure Persistently Impacts Adult Neurobiology and Behavior. \| journalPharmacol Rev \| year2016 \| volume 68 \| issue4 \| pages 1074–1109 \| pmid27677720 \| doi10.1124/pr.115.012138 \| pmc=5050442 }}</ref> Severe childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency.<ref name"Enoch-2006"/> Lack of peer and family support is associated with an increased risk of alcoholism developing.<ref name"Enoch-2006"/> Genetics and adolescence are associated with an increased sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of chronic alcohol misuse. Cortical degeneration due to the neurotoxic effects increases impulsive behaviour, which may contribute to the development, persistence and severity of alcohol use disorders. There is evidence that with abstinence, there is a reversal of at least some of the alcohol induced central nervous system damage.<ref name"Crews-2009">{{cite journal \| vauthors Crews FT, Boettiger CA \| title Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction \| journal Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior \| volume 93 \| issue 3 \| pages 237–47 \| date September 2009 \| pmid 19410598 \| pmc 2730661 \| doi 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.04.018 }}</ref> The use of cannabis was associated with later problems with alcohol use.<ref name"PMID26875671">{{cite journal \| vauthors Weinberger AH, Platt J, Goodwin RD \| title Is cannabis use associated with an increased risk of onset and persistence of alcohol use disorders? A three-year prospective study among adults in the United States \| journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence \| volume 161 \| pages 363–7 \| date April 2016 \| pmid 26875671 \| pmc 5028105 \| doi 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.014 }}</ref> Alcohol use was associated with an increased probability of later use of tobacco and illegal drugs such as cannabis.<ref name"PMID22712674">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kirby T, Barry AE \| title Alcohol as a gateway drug: a study of US 12th graders \| journal The Journal of School Health \| volume 82 \| issue 8 \| pages 371–9 \| date August 2012 \| pmid 22712674 \| doi 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2012.00712.x \| url http://www.mamacultiva.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/pdf/A8%20-%20Alcohol%20as%20a%20Gateway%20Drug%20A%20Study%20of%20US%2012th%20Graders.pdf \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160604012851/http://www.mamacultiva.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/pdf/A8%20-%20Alcohol%20as%20a%20Gateway%20Drug%20A%20Study%20of%20US%2012th%20Graders.pdf \| archive-date 4 June 2016 }}</ref>AvailabilityAlcohol is the most available, widely consumed, and widely misused recreational drug. Beer alone is the world's most widely consumed<ref>{{cite web\|titleVolume of World Beer Production\|websiteEuropean Beer Guide\|urlhttp://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production\|access-date17 October 2006\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061028165040/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm\| archive-date28 October 2006 \| url-status live}}</ref> alcoholic beverage; it is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea.<ref name"Nelson 2005">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6xul0O_SI1MC&pgPA1\|titleThe Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe\|year2005\|publisherRoutledge\|locationAbingdon, Oxon\|isbn978-0-415-31121-2\|page1\|access-date21 September 2010\|lastNelson\|firstMax\|archive-date14 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230114105316/https://books.google.com/books?id6xul0O_SI1MC&pgPA1\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Alchemy of Culture: Intoxicants in Society\|firstRichard\|lastRudgley \|isbn978-0-7141-1736-2\|year1993\|pages411\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id5baAAAAAMAAJ}}\|publisherBritish Museum Press\|locationLondon\|access-date13 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleOrigin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology\|firstJohn P \|lastArnold \|isbn978-0-9662084-1-2\|year2005\|page411\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idO5CPAAAACAAJ}} \|publisherBeerBooks \|locationCleveland, OH\|access-date13 January 2012}}</ref><ref>Joshua J. Mark (2011). "[https://www.worldhistory.org/Beer/ Beer]". Ancient History Encyclopedia. {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140703005835/http://www.ancient.eu.com/Beer/ \|date3 July 2014 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite book\|first1Ben\|last1 McFarland \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idSHh-4M_QxEsC\|page10}}\|titleWorld's Best Beers: One Thousand \|publisherSterling Publishing Company, Inc.\|isbn978-1-4027-6694-7 \|year2009 }}</ref> Gender difference {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| width = 400 \| header = Comparison of prevalence of alcohol use disorders by gender and country (top image: female, bottom image: male) \| image1 = Map of alcohol use disorders by females only.svg \| alt1 = Map of alcohol use disorders by females only \| image2 = Map of alcohol use disorders by males only.svg \| alt2 = Map of alcohol use disorders by males only \| footer = <div>World map colored by alcohol use disorders (15+), 12 month prevalence (%), data: WHO (2016)</div> <div>{{legend-inline\|#440154\| 0.0–3.6}} {{legend-inline\|#482878\| 3.7–7.3}} {{legend-inline\|#3E4A89\| 7.4–11.0}}</div> <div>{{legend-inline\|#31688E\|11.1–14.7}} {{legend-inline\|#26828E\|14.8–18.1}} {{legend-inline\|#1F9E89\|19.9–21.2}}</div> <div>{{legend-inline\|#35B779\|22.2–23.5}} {{legend-inline\|#6CCD5A\|28.8–28.8}} {{legend-inline\|#FDE725\|33.9–36.9}}</div> }} Based on combined data in the US from SAMHSA's 2004–2005 National Surveys on Drug Use & Health, the rate of past-year alcohol dependence or misuse among persons aged 12 or older varied by level of alcohol use: 44.7% of past month heavy drinkers, 18.5% binge drinkers, 3.8% past month non-binge drinkers, and 1.3% of those who did not drink alcohol in the past month met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year. Males had higher rates than females for all measures of drinking in the past month: any alcohol use (57.5% vs. 45%), binge drinking (30.8% vs. 15.1%), and heavy alcohol use (10.5% vs. 3.3%), and males were twice as likely as females to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year (10.5% vs. 5.1%).<ref>"Gender differences in alcohol use and alcohol dependence or abuse: 2004 or 2005." The NSDUH Report. Retrieved 22 June 2012.</ref> However, because females generally weigh less than males, have more fat and less water in their bodies, and metabolize less alcohol in their esophagus and stomach, they are likely to develop higher blood alcohol levels per drink. Women may also be more vulnerable to liver disease.<ref>{{cite book \|titleDiagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 \|date2013 \|publisherAmerican psychiatric association \|locationWashington \|isbn978-0-89042-555-8 \|edition5th}}</ref> Genetic variation {{See also\|Addiction#Genetic factors}} There are genetic variations that affect the risk for alcoholism.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /><ref name"Enoch-2006" /><ref name"Walters-2018" /><ref name"Kranzler-2019">{{cite journal \|vauthorsKranzler HR, Zhou H, Kember RL, Vickers Smith R, Justice AC, Damrauer S, Tsao PS, Klarin D, Baras A, Reid J, Overton J, Rader DJ, Cheng Z, Tate JP, Becker WC, Concato J, Xu K, Polimanti R, Zhao H, Gelernter J \|titleGenome-wide association study of alcohol consumption and use disorder in 274,424 individuals from multiple populations \|journalNature Communications \|volume10 \|issue1 \|pages1499 \|dateApril 2019 \|pmid30940813 \|pmc6445072 \|doi10.1038/s41467-019-09480-8 \|bibcode2019NatCo..10.1499K}}</ref> Some of these variations are more common in individuals with ancestry from certain areas; for example, Africa, East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The variants with strongest effect are in genes that encode the main enzymes of alcohol metabolism, ADH1B and ALDH2.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /><ref name"Walters-2018" /><ref name"Kranzler-2019" /> These genetic factors influence the rate at which alcohol and its initial metabolic product, acetaldehyde, are metabolized.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /> They are found at different frequencies in people from different parts of the world.<ref name"Eng-2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsEng MY, Luczak SE, Wall TL \|titleALDH2, ADH1B, and ADH1C genotypes in Asians: a literature review \|journalAlcohol Research & Health \|volume30 \|issue1 \|pages22–7 \|year2007 \|pmid17718397 \|pmc3860439}}</ref><ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /><ref name"Ehlers-2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsEhlers CL \|titleVariations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians \|journalAlcohol Research & Health \|volume30 \|issue1 \|pages14–7 \|year2007 \|pmid17718395 \|pmc3860438}}</ref> The alcohol dehydrogenase allele ADH1B2 causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, and reduces risk for alcoholism;<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /> it is most common in individuals from East Asia and the Middle East. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele ADH1B3 also causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol. The allele ADH1B3 is only found in some individuals of African descent and certain Native American tribes. African Americans and Native Americans with this allele have a reduced risk of developing alcoholism.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /><ref name"Ehlers-2007" /><ref name"Scott-2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsScott DM, Taylor RE \|titleHealth-related effects of genetic variations of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes in African Americans \|journalAlcohol Research & Health \|volume30 \|issue1 \|pages18–21 \|year2007 \|pmid17718396 \|pmc3860436}}</ref> Native Americans, however, have a significantly higher rate of alcoholism than average; risk factors such as cultural environmental effects (e.g. trauma) have been proposed to explain the higher rates.<ref name"Szlemko-2006">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSzlemko WJ, Wood JW, Thurman PJ \|s2cid43082343 \|titleNative Americans and alcohol: past, present, and future \|journalThe Journal of General Psychology \|volume133 \|issue4 \|pages435–51 \|dateOctober 2006 \|pmid17128961 \|doi10.3200/GENP.133.4.435-451}}</ref><ref name"Spillane-2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSpillane NS, Smith GT \|titleA theory of reservation-dwelling American Indian alcohol use risk \|journalPsychological Bulletin \|volume133 \|issue3 \|pages395–418 \|dateMay 2007 \|pmid17469984 \|doi10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.395}}</ref> The aldehyde dehydrogenase allele ALDH22 greatly reduces the rate at which acetaldehyde, the initial product of alcohol metabolism, is removed by conversion to acetate; it greatly reduces the risk for alcoholism.<ref name"Edenberg 2281–2297" /><ref name"Eng-2007" /> A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of more than 100,000 human individuals identified variants of the gene KLB, which encodes the transmembrane protein β-Klotho, as highly associated with alcohol consumption. The protein β-Klotho is an essential element in cell surface receptors for hormones involved in modulation of appetites for simple sugars and alcohol.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsSchumann G, Liu C, O'Reilly P, Gao H, Song P, Xu B, Ruggeri B, Amin N, Jia T, Preis S, Segura Lepe M, Akira S, Barbieri C, Baumeister S, Cauchi S, Clarke TK, Enroth S, Fischer K, Hällfors J, Harris SE, Hieber S, Hofer E, Hottenga JJ, Johansson Å, Joshi PK, Kaartinen N, Laitinen J, Lemaitre R, Loukola A, Luan J, Lyytikäinen LP, Mangino M, Manichaikul A, Mbarek H, Milaneschi Y, Moayyeri A, Mukamal K, Nelson C, Nettleton J, Partinen E, Rawal R, Robino A, Rose L, Sala C, Satoh T, Schmidt R, Schraut K, Scott R, Smith AV, Starr JM, Teumer A, Trompet S, Uitterlinden AG, Venturini C, Vergnaud AC, Verweij N, Vitart V, Vuckovic D, Wedenoja J, Yengo L, Yu B, Zhang W, Zhao JH, Boomsma DI, Chambers J, Chasman DI, Daniela T, de Geus E, Deary I, Eriksson JG, Esko T, Eulenburg V, Franco OH, Froguel P, Gieger C, Grabe HJ, Gudnason V, Gyllensten U, Harris TB, Hartikainen AL, Heath AC, Hocking L, Hofman A, Huth C, Jarvelin MR, Jukema JW, Kaprio J, Kooner JS, Kutalik Z, Lahti J, Langenberg C, Lehtimäki T, Liu Y, Madden PA, Martin N, Morrison A, Penninx B, Pirastu N, Psaty B, Raitakari O, Ridker P, Rose R, Rotter JI, Samani NJ, Schmidt H, Spector TD, Stott D, Strachan D, Tzoulaki I, van der Harst P, van Duijn CM, Marques-Vidal P, Vollenweider P, Wareham NJ, Whitfield JB, Wilson J, Wolffenbuttel B, Bakalkin G, Evangelou E, Liu Y, Rice KM, Desrivières S, Kliewer SA, Mangelsdorf DJ, Müller CP, Levy D, Elliott P \|titleKLB is associated with alcohol drinking, and its gene product β-Klotho is necessary for FGF21 regulation of alcohol preference \|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|volume113 \|issue50 \|pages14372–14377 \|dateDecember 2016 \|pmid27911795 \|pmc5167198 \|doi10.1073/pnas.1611243113 \|bibcode2016PNAS..11314372S \|s2cid4060021 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Several large GWAS have found differences in the genetics of alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence, although the two are to some degree related.<ref name"Walters-2018">{{cite journal \|vauthorsWalters RK, Polimanti R, Johnson EC, McClintick JN, Adams MJ, Adkins AE, Aliev F, Bacanu SA, Batzler A, Bertelsen S, Biernacka JM, Bigdeli TB, Chen LS, Clarke TK, Chou YL, Degenhardt F, Docherty AR, Edwards AC, Fontanillas P, Foo JC, Fox L, Frank J, Giegling I, Gordon S, Hack LM, Hartmann AM, Hartz SM, Heilmann-Heimbach S, Herms S, Hodgkinson C, Hoffmann P, Jan Hottenga J, Kennedy MA, Alanne-Kinnunen M, Konte B, Lahti J, Lahti-Pulkkinen M, Lai D, Ligthart L, Loukola A, Maher BS, Mbarek H, McIntosh AM, McQueen MB, Meyers JL, Milaneschi Y, Palviainen T, Pearson JF, Peterson RE, Ripatti S, Ryu E, Saccone NL, Salvatore JE, Sanchez-Roige S, Schwandt M, Sherva R, Streit F, Strohmaier J, Thomas N, Wang JC, Webb BT, Wedow R, Wetherill L, Wills AG, Boardman JD, Chen D, Choi DS, Copeland WE, Culverhouse RC, Dahmen N, Degenhardt L, Domingue BW, Elson SL, Frye MA, Gäbel W, Hayward C, Ising M, Keyes M, Kiefer F, Kramer J, Kuperman S, Lucae S, Lynskey MT, Maier W, Mann K, Männistö S, Müller-Myhsok B, Murray AD, Nurnberger JI, Palotie A, Preuss U, Räikkönen K, Reynolds MD, Ridinger M, Scherbaum N, Schuckit MA, Soyka M, Treutlein J, Witt S, Wodarz N, Zill P, Adkins DE, Boden JM, Boomsma DI, Bierut LJ, Brown SA, Bucholz KK, Cichon S, Costello EJ, de Wit H, Diazgranados N, Dick DM, Eriksson JG, Farrer LA, Foroud TM, Gillespie NA, Goate AM, Goldman D, Grucza RA, Hancock DB, Harris KM, Heath AC, Hesselbrock V, Hewitt JK, Hopfer CJ, Horwood J, Iacono W, Johnson EO, Kaprio JA, Karpyak VM, Kendler KS, Kranzler HR, Krauter K, Lichtenstein P, Lind PA, McGue M, MacKillop J, Madden PA, Maes HH, Magnusson P, Martin NG, Medland SE, Montgomery GW, Nelson EC, Nöthen MM, Palmer AA, Pedersen NL, Penninx BW, Porjesz B, Rice JP, Rietschel M, Riley BP, Rose R, Rujescu D, Shen PH, Silberg J, Stallings MC, Tarter RE, Vanyukov MM, Vrieze S, Wall TL, Whitfield JB, Zhao H, Neale BM, Gelernter J, Edenberg HJ, Agrawal A \|titleTransancestral GWAS of alcohol dependence reveals common genetic underpinnings with psychiatric disorders \|journalNature Neuroscience \|volume21 \|issue12 \|pages1656–1669 \|dateDecember 2018 \|pmid30482948 \|pmc6430207 \|doi10.1038/s41593-018-0275-1}}</ref><ref name"Kranzler-2019" /><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Zhou \|first1Hang \|last2Sealock \|first2Julia M. \|last3Sanchez-Roige \|first3Sandra \|last4Clarke \|first4Toni-Kim \|last5Levey \|first5Daniel F. \|last6Cheng \|first6Zhongshan \|last7Li \|first7Boyang \|last8Polimanti \|first8Renato \|last9Kember \|first9Rachel L. \|last10Smith \|first10Rachel Vickers \|last11Thygesen \|first11Johan H. \|year2020 \|titleGenome-wide meta-analysis of problematic alcohol use in 435,563 individuals yields insights into biology and relationships with other traits \|journalNature Neuroscience \|volume23 \|issue7 \|pages809–818 \|doi10.1038/s41593-020-0643-5 \|issn1097-6256 \|pmc7485556 \|pmid32451486}}</ref>DNA damageAlcohol-induced DNA damage, when not properly repaired, may have a key role in the neurotoxicity induced by alcohol.<ref name"Kruman2012">{{cite journal \|last1Kruman \|first1Inna I. \|last2Henderson \|first2George I. \|last3Bergeson \|first3Susan E. \|dateJuly 2012 \|titleDNA damage and neurotoxicity of chronic alcohol abuse \|journalExperimental Biology and Medicine \|volume237 \|issue7 \|pages740–747 \|doi10.1258/ebm.2012.011421 \|pmc3685494 \|pmid22829701}}</ref> Metabolic conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde can occur in the brain and the neurotoxic effects of ethanol appear to be associated with acetaldehyde induced DNA damages including DNA adducts and crosslinks.<ref name Kruman2012/> In addition to acetaldehyde, alcohol metabolism produces potentially genotoxic reactive oxygen species, which have been demonstrated to cause oxidative DNA damage.<ref name Kruman2012/>DiagnosisDefinition .]] Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word alcoholism, it is not a recognized diagnosis, and the use of the term alcoholism is discouraged due to its heavily stigmatized connotations.<ref namemorrismoss2022 /><ref name"ashfordbrown2018" /> It is classified as alcohol use disorder<ref name"NIH2013" /> in the DSM-5<ref name"DSM5" /> or alcohol dependence in the ICD-11.<ref>{{cite web\|dateSeptember 2020\|title6C40.2 Alcohol dependence\|urlhttps://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1580466198\|access-date6 December 2020\|websiteICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics\|archive-date1 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1580466198\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1979, the World Health Organization discouraged the use of alcoholism due to its inexact meaning, preferring alcohol dependence syndrome.<ref name"ladtpwho">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ \|titleLexicon of alcohol and drug terms published by the World Health Organization \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130205230313/http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ \|archive-date5 February 2013 }}</ref> Misuse, problem use, abuse, and heavy use of alcohol refer to improper use of alcohol, which may cause physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker.<ref>{{cite book\| authorAmerican Heritage Dictionaries \| title The American Heritage dictionary of the English language \| url {{google books \|plainurly \|iduPCFIQAACAAJ}} \| year2006 \|publisher Houghton Mifflin \| location Boston \| edition 4 \|quote To use wrongly or improperly; misuse: abuse alcohol \| isbn 978-0-618-70172-8 }}</ref> The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2005, defines "moderate use" as no more than two alcoholic beverages a day for men and no more than one alcoholic beverage a day for women.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm \|titleDietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 \|year2005 \|publisherhealth.gov \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070701174135/http://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm \|archive-date1 July 2007 \|access-date28 November 2009 }} Dietary Guidelines</ref> The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as the amount of alcohol leading to a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.08, which, for most adults, would be reached by consuming five drinks for men or four for women over a two-hour period. According to the NIAAA, men may be at risk for alcohol-related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or 4 drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than 7 standard drinks per week or 3 drinks per day. It defines a standard drink as one 12-ounce bottle of beer, one 5-ounce glass of wine, or 1.5&nbsp;ounces of distilled spirits.<ref>{{cite journal \|dateApril 2006 \|titleYoung Adult Drinking \|urlhttp://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa68/aa68.htm \|url-statuslive \|journalAlcohol Alert \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130213205702/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa68/aa68.htm \|archive-date13 February 2013 \|access-date18 February 2013 \|number68}}</ref> Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either "heavy drinkers" or "binge drinkers" defined according to the above criteria also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1.3% of non-binge drinkers met the criteria. An inference drawn from this study is that evidence-based policy strategies and clinical preventive services may effectively reduce binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases.<ref name"Esser2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors Esser MB, Hedden SL, Kanny D, Brewer RD, Gfroerer JC, Naimi TS \| title Prevalence of alcohol dependence among US adult drinkers, 2009–2011 \| journal Preventing Chronic Disease \| volume 11 \| pages E206 \| date November 2014 \| pmid 25412029 \| pmc 4241371 \| doi 10.5888/pcd11.140329 }}</ref>AlcoholismThe term alcoholism is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. Despite the imprecision inherent in the term, there have been attempts to define how the word alcoholism should be interpreted when encountered. In 1992, it was defined by the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD) and ASAM as "a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking."<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsMorse RM, Flavin DK \|titleThe definition of alcoholism. The Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to Study the Definition and Criteria for the Diagnosis of Alcoholism \|journalJAMA \|volume268 \|issue8 \|pages1012–1014 \|dateAugust 1992 \|pmid1501306 \|doi10.1001/jama.1992.03490080086030}}</ref> MeSH has had an entry for alcoholism since 1999, and references the 1992 definition.<ref>{{MeshName\|Alcoholism}}</ref> The WHO calls alcoholism "a term of long-standing use and variable meaning", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. In professional and research contexts, the term alcoholism is not currently favored, but rather alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol use disorder are used.<ref name"DSM5" /><ref name"NIH2013" /> Talbot (1989) observes that alcoholism in the classical disease model follows a progressive course: if people continue to drink, their condition will worsen. This will lead to harmful consequences in their lives, physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially.<ref nameThomb1999>{{cite book \|lastThombs \|firstDennis L \|titleIntroduction To Addictive Behaviors 2ed\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idAze4azm9XkQCIntroduction}}\|year1999\|publisherThe Guildford Press\|locationLondon\|pages64–65}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> Johnson (1980) proposed that the emotional progression of the addicted people's response to alcohol has four phases. The first two are considered "normal" drinking and the last two are viewed as "typical" alcoholic drinking.<ref name=Thomb1999 /> Johnson's four phases consist of: # Learning the mood swing. People are introduced to alcohol (in some cultures this can happen at a relatively young age), and they enjoy the happy feeling it produces. At this stage, there is no emotional cost. # Seeking the mood swing. People will drink to regain that happy feeling in phase 1; the drinking will increase as more alcohol is required to achieve the same effect. Again at this stage, there are no significant consequences. # At the third stage there are physical and social consequences such as hangovers, family problems, and work problems. People will continue to drink excessively, disregarding the problems. # The fourth stage can be detrimental with a risk for premature death. People in this phase now drink to feel normal and block out the feelings of overwhelming guilt, remorse, anxiety, and shame they experience when sober.<ref nameThomb1999 />DSM and ICD In the United States, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the most common diagnostic guide for substance use disorders, whereas most countries use the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) for diagnostic (and other) purposes. The two manuals use similar but not identical nomenclature to classify alcohol problems. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Manual ! Nomenclature ! Definition \|- \| DSM-IV \| Alcohol abuse, or Alcohol dependence \| * Alcohol abuse – repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences.<ref name"VandenBos-2006">{{cite book\|last1VandenBos \|first1Gary R. \|titleAPA dictionary of psychology \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idOSoZAQAAIAAJ}} \|year2006 \|publisherAmerican Psychological Association \|locationWashington, DC \|isbn=978-1-59147-380-0}}</ref> * Alcohol dependence – alcohol abuse combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable drive to drink.<ref name"VandenBos-2006" /> The term "alcoholism" was split into "alcohol abuse" and "alcohol dependence" in 1980's DSM-III, and in 1987's DSM-III-R behavioral symptoms were moved from "abuse" to "dependence".<ref name"Diagnostic Criteria-1995">{{cite web\|urlhttp://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa30.htm \|titleDiagnostic Criteria for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence – Alcohol Alert No. 30-1995 \|access-date17 April 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100327051827/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa30.htm \|archive-date27 March 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Some scholars suggested that DSM-5 merges alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single new entry,<ref name"pmid18729609">{{cite journal \|vauthorsMartin CS, Chung T, Langenbucher JW \|titleHow should we revise diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders in the DSM-V? \|journalJournal of Abnormal Psychology \|volume117 \|issue3 \|pages561–75 \|dateAugust 2008 \|pmid18729609 \|pmc2701140 \|doi10.1037/0021-843X.117.3.561}}</ref> named "alcohol-use disorder".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid452# \|titleProposed Revision &#124; APA DSM-5 \|access-date17 April 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100325235023/http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid452 \|archive-date25 March 2010 \|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- \| DSM-5 \| Alcohol use disorder \| "A problematic pattern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by [two or more symptoms out of a total of 12], occurring within a 12-month period ...."<ref>{{cite book\|titleDiagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5.\|date2013\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association\|page490\|isbn978-0-89042-554-1\|edition5th\|locationArlington, VA\|oclc830807378}}</ref> \|- \| ICD-10 \| Alcohol harmful use, or Alcohol dependence syndrome \| Definitions are similar to that of the DSM-IV. The World Health Organization uses the term "alcohol dependence syndrome" rather than alcoholism.<ref name"ladtpwho" /> The concept of "harmful use" (as opposed to "abuse") was introduced in 1992's ICD-10 to minimize underreporting of damage in the absence of dependence.<ref name"Diagnostic Criteria-1995" /> The term "alcoholism" was removed from ICD between ICD-8/ICDA-8 and ICD-9.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000324.htm \|titleA System to Convert ICD Diagnostic Codes for Alcohol Research \|access-date17 April 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090424013232/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000324.htm \|archive-date24 April 2009}}</ref> \|- \| ICD-11 \| Episode of harmful use of alcohol, Harmful pattern of use of alcohol, or Alcohol dependence \| * Episode of harmful use of alcohol – "A single episode of use of alcohol that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..."<ref>{{cite web\|dateApril 2019\|title6C40.0 Episode of harmful use of alcohol\|urlhttps://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f766814084\|access-date16 August 2020\|websiteICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|archive-date1 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f766814084\|url-status=live}}</ref> * Harmful pattern of use of alcohol – "A pattern of alcohol use that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..."<ref>{{cite web\|dateApril 2019\|title6C40.1 Harmful pattern of use of alcohol\|urlhttps://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f714690795\|access-date16 August 2020\|websiteICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|archive-date1 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f714690795\|url-status=live}}</ref> * Alcohol dependence – "Alcohol dependence is a disorder of regulation of alcohol use arising from repeated or continuous use of alcohol. The characteristic feature is a strong internal drive to use alcohol. ... The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if alcohol use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 1 month."<ref>{{cite web\|dateApril 2019\|title6C40.2 Alcohol dependence\|urlhttps://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1580466198\|access-date16 August 2020\|websiteICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|archive-date1 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1580466198\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- \|} Social barriers Attitudes and social stereotypes can create barriers to the detection and treatment of alcohol use disorder. This is more of a barrier for women than men.{{Why\|dateMay 2022}} Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they have a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know has alcohol use disorder.<ref name"Blum-1998" >{{cite journal \| vauthors Blum LN, Nielsen NH, Riggs JA \| title Alcoholism and alcohol abuse among women: report of the Council on Scientific Affairs. American Medical Association \| journal Journal of Women's Health \| volume 7 \| issue 7 \| pages 861–71 \| date September 1998 \| pmid 9785312 \| doi 10.1089/jwh.1998.7.861 }}</ref> In contrast, reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are having a medical condition, to display their drinking publicly, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is someone with an alcohol use disorder.<ref name"Karrol_2002" /> Screening Screening is recommended among those over the age of 18.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Curry SJ, Krist AH, Owens DK, Barry MJ, Caughey AB, Davidson KW, Doubeni CA, Epling JW, Kemper AR, Kubik M, Landefeld CS, Mangione CM, Silverstein M, Simon MA, Tseng CW, Wong JB \| title Screening and Behavioral Counseling Interventions to Reduce Unhealthy Alcohol Use in Adolescents and Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement \| journal JAMA \| volume 320 \| issue 18 \| pages 1899–1909 \| date November 2018 \| pmid 30422199 \| doi 10.1001/jama.2018.16789 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Several tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self-reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use.<ref name"Kahan-1996">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kahan M \| title Identifying and managing problem drinkers \| journal Canadian Family Physician \| volume 42 \| pages 661–71 \| date April 1996 \| pmid 8653034 \| pmc = 2146411 }}</ref> The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office. {{Blockquote\|Two "yes" responses indicate that the respondent should be investigated further. The questionnaire asks the following questions: # Have you ever felt you needed to cut down on your drinking? # Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? # Have you ever felt guilty about drinking? # Have you ever felt you needed a drink first thing in the morning (eye-opener) to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover?<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ewing JA \| title Detecting alcoholism. The CAGE questionnaire \| journal JAMA \| volume 252 \| issue 14 \| pages 1905–7 \| date October 1984 \| pmid 6471323 \| doi 10.1001/jama.1984.03350140051025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.whoguidemhpcuk.org/downloads/primary_care/11-1_CAGE_questionnaire.pdf \|titleCAGE questionnaire – screen for alcohol misuse \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110728175054/http://www.whoguidemhpcuk.org/downloads/primary_care/11-1_CAGE_questionnaire.pdf \|archive-date28 July 2011 }}</ref>}} :The CAGE questionnaire has demonstrated a high effectiveness in detecting alcohol-related problems; however, it has limitations in people with less severe alcohol-related problems, white women and college students.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dhalla S, Kopec JA \| title The CAGE questionnaire for alcohol misuse: a review of reliability and validity studies \| journal Clinical and Investigative Medicine \| volume 30 \| issue 1 \| pages 33–41 \| year 2007 \| pmid 17716538 \| doi 10.25011/cim.v30i1.447 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Other tests are sometimes used for the detection of alcohol dependence, such as the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, which is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE questionnaire. It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index3556EN.html \|titleAlcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire (SADD) \| vauthors Raistrick D, Dunbar G, Davidson R \|year1983 \|publisherEuropean Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160721101929/http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index3556EN.html \|archive-date21 July 2016 }}</ref> The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ncadd-sfv.org/symptoms/mast_test.html \|titleMichigan Alcohol Screening Test \|publisherThe National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060906123532/http://www.ncadd-sfv.org/symptoms/mast_test.html \|archive-date6 September 2006 }}</ref> driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization, is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions – a high score earning a deeper investigation.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf \|titleThe Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; Guidelines for Use in Primary Care \|first1Thomas F. \|last1Babor \|first2John C. \|last2Higgins-Biddle \|first3John B. \|last3Saunders \|first4Maristela G. \|last4Monteiro \|year2001 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060502132711/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf \|archive-date2 May 2006 }}</ref> The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol-related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Smith SG, Touquet R, Wright S, Das Gupta N \| title Detection of alcohol misusing patients in accident and emergency departments: the Paddington alcohol test (PAT) \| journal Journal of Accident & Emergency Medicine \| volume 13 \| issue 5 \| pages 308–12 \| date September 1996 \| pmid 8894853 \| pmc 1342761 \| doi 10.1136/emj.13.5.308 }}</ref>Urine and blood testsThere are biological markers for the use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Jones AW \| s2cid 11117640 \| title Urine as a biological specimen for forensic analysis of alcohol and variability in the urine-to-blood relationship \| journal Toxicological Reviews \| volume 25 \| issue 1 \| pages 15–35 \| year 2006 \| pmid 16856767 \| doi 10.2165/00139709-200625010-00002 }}</ref> Monitoring levels of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) is sometimes used to assess continued alcohol intake. But levels of GGT are elevated in only half of men with alcohol use disorder, and it is less commonly elevated in women and younger people.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> GGT levels remain persistently elevated for many weeks with continued drinking, with a half life of 2–3 weeks, making the GGT level a useful assessment of continued and chronic alcohol use.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> However, elevated levels of GGT may also be seen in non-alcohol related liver diseases, diabetes, obesity or overweight, heart failure, hyperthyroidism and some medications.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Phosphatidylethanol is a biomarker that is present in the red blood cells for several weeks after drinking, with its levels grossly corresponding to amount of alcohol consumed, and a detection limit as long as 5 weeks, making it a useful test to assess continued alcohol use.<ref name="Haber 2025" /> Ethyl glucuronide may be measured to assess recent alcohol intake, with levels being detected in urine up to 48 hours after alcohol intake. However, it is a poor measure of the amount of alcohol consumed.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Measurement of ethanol levels in the blood, urine and breath are also used to assess recent alcohol intake, often in the emergency setting.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Other laboratory markers of chronic alcohol misuse include:<ref name"Gough 2015">{{cite journal \|last1Gough \|first1Gina \|last2Heathers \|first2Laura \|last3Puckett \|first3Deonna \|last4Westerhold \|first4Chi \|last5Ren \|first5Xiaowei \|last6Yu \|first6Zhangsheng \|last7Crabb \|first7David W. \|last8Liangpunsakul \|first8Suthat \|titleThe Utility of Commonly Used Laboratory Tests to Screen for Excessive Alcohol Use in Clinical Practice \|journalAlcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research \|dateAugust 2015 \|volume39 \|issue8 \|pages1493–1500 \|doi10.1111/acer.12780\|hdl1805/12848 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> * Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV) * Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1 * High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) With regard to alcoholism, BAC is useful to judge alcohol tolerance, which in turn is a sign of alcoholism.<ref nameDSM5/> Electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities including hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hyponatremia, hyperuricemia, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis are common in people with alcohol use disorders.<ref name"NIHHx" /> However, none of these blood tests for biological markers are as sensitive as screening questionnaires. Prevention {{further\|Alcohol education}} The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies, national governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism.<ref name"alchwho2010">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.who.int/topics/alcohol_drinking/en/ \|titleAlcohol \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|year2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100226094205/http://www.who.int/topics/alcohol_drinking/en/ \|archive-date26 February 2010 }}</ref><ref name"apitwhoer">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.euro.who.int/document/mediacentre/fs1005e.pdf \|titleAlcohol policy in the WHO European Region: current status and the way forward \|date12 September 2005 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100123105252/http://www.euro.who.int/document/mediacentre/fs1005e.pdf \|archive-date=23 January 2010 }}</ref> Increasing the age at which alcohol can be purchased, and banning or restricting alcohol beverage advertising are common methods to reduce alcohol use among adolescents and young adults in particular, see Alcoholism in adolescence. Another common method of alcoholism prevention is taxation of alcohol products – increasing price of alcohol by 10% is linked with reduction of consumption of up to 10%.<ref nameElder2009>{{cite journal \| vauthors Elder R, Lawrence B, Ferguson A, Naimi T, Brewer R, Chattopadhyay S, Toomey T, Fielding J \| title The Effectiveness of Tax Policy Interventions for Reducing Excessive Alcohol Consumption and Related Harms \| journal American Journal of Preventive Medicine \| volume 38 \| issue 2 \|year 2010 \| pages 217–229 \| issn 0749-3797 \| doi 10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.005\| pmid 20117579 \| pmc 3735171 }}</ref> Credible, evidence-based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol misuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol misuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested.<ref name"acdacpovfa">{{cite journal \| vauthors Crews F, He J, Hodge C \| s2cid 6925448 \| title Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction \| journal Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior \| volume 86 \| issue 2 \| pages 189–99 \| date February 2007 \| pmid 17222895 \| doi 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001 \| pmc 11646682 }}</ref> Because alcohol is often used for self-medication of conditions like anxiety temporarily, prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by reducing the severity or prevalence of stress and anxiety in individuals.<ref nameDSM5/><ref name"Moon2012" /> Management Treatments are varied because there are multiple perspectives of alcoholism. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition or disease recommend differing treatments from, for instance, those who approach the condition as one of social choice. Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol intake, followed up with life training and/or social support to help them resist a return to alcohol use. Since alcoholism involves multiple factors which encourage a person to continue drinking, they must all be addressed to successfully prevent a relapse. An example of this kind of treatment is detoxification followed by a combination of supportive therapy, attendance at self-help groups, and ongoing development of coping mechanisms. Much of the treatment community for alcoholism supports an abstinence-based zero tolerance approach popularized by the 12 step program of Alcoholics Anonymous; however, some prefer a harm-reduction approach.<ref name"Gabbard">{{cite book\| last1 Gabbard \| first1 Glen O. \| title Treatments of psychiatric disorders \| year 2001 \| publisher American Psychiatric Press \| location Washington, DC \| url {{google books \|plainurly \|idhLVrAAAAMAAJ}} \|edition3\| isbn 978-0-88048-910-2 }}</ref> Cessation of alcohol intake {{Main\|Alcohol detoxification}} Medical treatment for alcohol detoxification usually involves administration of a benzodiazepine, in order to ameliorate alcohol withdrawal syndrome's adverse impact.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Holleck\|first1Jürgen L.\|last2Merchant\|first2Naseema\|last3Gunderson\|first3Craig G.\|year2019\|titleSymptom-Triggered Therapy for Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials\|journalJournal of General Internal Medicine\|volume34\|issue6\|pages1018–1024\|doi10.1007/s11606-019-04899-7\|issn1525-1497\|pmc6544709\|pmid30937668}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Long\|first1Drew\|last2Long\|first2Brit\|last3Koyfman\|first3Alex\|year2017\|titleThe emergency medicine management of severe alcohol withdrawal\|journalThe American Journal of Emergency Medicine\|volume35\|issue7\|pages1005–1011\|doi10.1016/j.ajem.2017.02.002\|issn1532-8171\|pmid28188055\|s2cid42361581\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The addition of phenobarbital improves outcomes if benzodiazepine administration lacks the usual efficacy, and phenobarbital alone might be an effective treatment.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Hammond\|first1Drayton A.\|last2Rowe\|first2Jordan M.\|last3Wong\|first3Adrian\|last4Wiley\|first4Tessa L.\|last5Lee\|first5Kristen C.\|last6Kane-Gill\|first6Sandra L.\|year2017\|titlePatient Outcomes Associated With Phenobarbital Use With or Without Benzodiazepines for Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: A Systematic Review\|journalHospital Pharmacy\|volume52\|issue9\|pages607–616\|doi10.1177/0018578717720310\|issn0018-5787\|pmc5735736\|pmid29276297}}</ref> Propofol also might enhance treatment for individuals showing limited therapeutic response to a benzodiazepine.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Brotherton\|first1Amy L.\|last2Hamilton\|first2Eric P.\|last3Kloss\|first3H. Grace\|last4Hammond\|first4Drayton A.\|year2016\|titlePropofol for Treatment of Refractory Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: A Review of the Literature\|journalPharmacotherapy\|volume36\|issue4\|pages433–442\|doi10.1002/phar.1726\|issn1875-9114\|pmid26893017\|s2cid25910118}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Schmidt\|first1Kyle J.\|last2Doshi\|first2Mitesh R.\|last3Holzhausen\|first3Jenna M.\|last4Natavio\|first4Allycia\|last5Cadiz\|first5Megan\|last6Winegardner\|first6Jim E.\|year2016\|titleTreatment of Severe Alcohol Withdrawal\|journalThe Annals of Pharmacotherapy\|volume50\|issue5\|pages389–401\|doi10.1177/1060028016629161\|issn1542-6270\|pmid26861990\|s2cid40312054}}</ref> Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be treated as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions can be treated as inpatients. Direct treatment can be followed by a treatment program for alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorder to attempt to reduce the risk of relapse.<ref name"Blondell-2005"/> Experiences following alcohol withdrawal, such as depressed mood and anxiety, can take weeks or months to abate while other symptoms persist longer due to persisting neuroadaptations.<ref name"pmid20148778" />Psychological ]] Various forms of group therapy or psychotherapy are sometimes used to encourage and support abstinence from alcohol, or to reduce alcohol consumption to levels that are not associated with adverse outcomes. Mutual-aid group-counseling is an approach used to facilitate relapse prevention.<ref name"Morgan-Lopez-2006"/> Alcoholics Anonymous was one of the earliest organizations formed to provide mutual peer support and non-professional counseling, however the effectiveness of Alcoholics Anonymous is disputed.<ref name"Cochrane2006">{{cite journal \|last1Ferri \|first1Marcia \|last2Amato \|first2Laura \|last3Davoli \|first3Marina \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous and other twelve-step programmes for alcohol dependence \|journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|issue3 \|pagesCD005032 \|date19 July 2006 \|pmid16856072 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD005032.pub2\|quoteno experimental studies unequivocally demonstrated the effectiveness of AA or [12-step] approaches for reducing alcohol dependence or problems}}</ref> A 2020 Cochrane review concluded that Twelve-Step Facilitation (TSF) probably achieves outcomes such as fewer drinks per drinking day, however evidence for such a conclusion comes from low to moderate certainty evidence "so should be regarded with caution".<ref name"Cochrane2020_p35">{{Cite journal \|last1Kelly \|first1John F \|last2Humphreys \|first2Keith \|last3Ferri \|first3Marica \|date2020-03-11 \|editor-lastCochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group \|titleAlcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder \|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2020 \|issue3 \|pagesCD012880 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2 \|issn1469-493X \|pmc7065341 \|pmid32159228}}</ref> Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women for Sobriety, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.helpguide.org/articles/addiction/self-help-groups-for-alcohol-addiction.htm\|titleSelf-Help Groups for Alcohol Addiction\| vauthors Smith M, Saisan J \|year2016\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150521163926/http://www.helpguide.org/articles/addiction/self-help-groups-for-alcohol-addiction.htm\|archive-date=21 May 2015}}</ref> Manualized<ref>{{cite web\|titleAPA Dictionary of Psychology\|urlhttps://dictionary.apa.org/\|access-date26 January 2022\|websitedictionary.apa.org\|quotemanualized therapy – interventions that are performed according to specific guidelines for administration, maximizing the probability of therapy being conducted consistently across settings, therapists, and clients. Also called manual-assisted therapy; manual-based therapy.\|archive-date27 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180427011428/https://dictionary.apa.org/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Twelve Step Facilitation (TSF) interventions (i.e. therapy which encourages active, long-term Alcoholics Anonymous participation) for Alcohol Use Disorder lead to higher abstinence rates, compared to other clinical interventions and to wait-list control groups.<ref namecoch2020>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kelly JF, Humphreys K, Ferri M \| title Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 3 \| pages CD012880 \| date March 2020 \| issue 3 \| pmid 32159228 \| pmc 7065341 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD012880.pub2 \| type Systematic review }}</ref> Moderate drinking {{See also\|Managed alcohol program}} Moderate drinking amongst people with alcohol dependence—often termed 'controlled drinking'—has been subject to significant controversy.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Ashton \|first1Mike \|last2Davies \|first2Natalie \|title'Dangerous data': drinking after dependence \|urlhttps://findings.org.uk/PHP/dl.php?filecont_drink.hot \|websitefindings.org.uk \|access-date3 March 2023\|archive-date6 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221006213255/https://findings.org.uk/PHP/dl.php?filecont_drink.hot \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Indeed, much of the skepticism toward the viability of moderate drinking goals stems from historical ideas about 'alcoholism', now replaced with 'alcohol use disorder' or alcohol dependence in most scientific contexts. A 2021 meta-analysis and systematic review of controlled drinking covering 22 studies concluded controlled drinking was a 'non-inferior' outcome to abstinence for many drinkers.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Henssler \|first1Jonathan \|last2Müller \|first2Martin \|last3Carreira \|first3Helena \|last4Bschor \|first4Tom \|last5Heinz \|first5Andreas \|last6Baethge \|first6Christopher \|titleControlled drinking—non-abstinent versus abstinent treatment goals in alcohol use disorder: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression \|journalAddiction \|dateAugust 2021 \|volume116 \|issue8 \|pages1973–1987 \|doi10.1111/add.15329 \|pmid33188563 \|s2cid226948754\|issn0965-2140\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most people with alcohol use disorders are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 US study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency.<ref name"DAWSON2005">{{cite journal \| vauthors Dawson DA, Grant BF, Stinson FS, Chou PS, Huang B, Ruan WJ \| s2cid 19679025 \| title Recovery from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001–2002 \| journal Addiction \| volume 100 \| issue 3 \| pages 281–92 \| date March 2005 \| pmid 15733237 \| doi 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00964.x \| url http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh29-2/131-142.htm \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110719104620/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh29-2/131-142.htm \| archive-date 19 July 2011 \| doi-access free }}</ref> A follow-up study, using the same subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001–2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004–2005. The study found abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission for recovering alcoholics.<ref name"DAWSON2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF \| title Rates and correlates of relapse among individuals in remission from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: a 3-year follow-up \| journal Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research \| volume 31 \| issue 12 \| pages 2036–45 \| date December 2007 \| pmid 18034696 \| doi 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00536.x \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1230663 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 25 July 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200725020723/https://zenodo.org/record/1230663 \| url-status live }}</ref> There was also a 1973 study showing chronic alcoholics drinking moderately again,<ref nameSobell1973>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/S0005-7894(73)80074-7\|titleIndividualized behavior therapy for alcoholics\|journalBehavior Therapy\|volume4\|pages49–72\|year1973\|last1Sobell\|first1Mark B.\|last2Sobell\|first2Linda C. }}</ref> but a 1982 follow-up showed that 95% of subjects were not able to maintain drinking in moderation over the long term.<ref namePendery1982>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pendery ML, Maltzman IM, West LJ \| title Controlled drinking by alcoholics? New findings and a reevaluation of a major affirmative study \| journal Science \| volume 217 \| issue 4555 \| pages 169–75 \| date July 1982 \| pmid 7089552 \| doi 10.1126/science.7089552 \| bibcode 1982Sci...217..169P }}</ref><ref namePendery1982NYT>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/28/us/alcholism-study-under-new-attack.html\|titleAlcoholism Study Under New Attack\|workThe New York Times\|date28 June 1982\|quoteThe new article will say that, 10 years later, four of the 20 had died from alcohol-related causes. Eight others were still drinking excessively, six were abstinent but in most cases after multiple hospitalizations, and one was drinking moderately. The alcohol dependence of that last case was also questioned. Another subject, who could not be found, was reported gravely disabled.\|access-date1 July 2024\|archive-date24 June 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200624055207/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/28/us/alcholism-study-under-new-attack.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Another study was a long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men which concluded that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence."<ref name"VAILLANT2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors Vaillant GE \| title A 60-year follow-up of alcoholic men \| journal Addiction \| volume 98 \| issue 8 \| pages 1043–51 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 12873238 \| doi 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00422.x \| s2cid 12835128 }}</ref> Internet based measures appear to be useful at least in the short term.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Riper H, Hoogendoorn A, Cuijpers P, Karyotaki E, Boumparis N, Mira A, Andersson G, Berman AH, Bertholet N, Bischof G, Blankers M, Boon B, Boß L, Brendryen H, Cunningham J, Ebert D, Hansen A, Hester R, Khadjesari Z, Kramer J, Murray E, Postel M, Schulz D, Sinadinovic K, Suffoletto B, Sundström C, de Vries H, Wallace P, Wiers RW, Smit JH \| title Effectiveness and treatment moderators of internet interventions for adult problem drinking: An individual patient data meta-analysis of 19 randomised controlled trials \| journal PLOS Medicine \| volume 15 \| issue 12 \| pages e1002714 \| date December 2018 \| pmid 30562347 \| pmc 6298657 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002714 \| doi-access free }}</ref>MedicationsIn the United States there are four approved medications for alcoholism: acamprosate, two methods of using naltrexone and disulfiram.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleAlcohol and Other Drugs\|urlhttp://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA76/AA76.htm \|url-statuslive \|publisherNational Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728134244/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa76/aa76.htm \|archive-date28 July 2013 \|access-date11 July 2013 \|number76\|dateJuly 2008\|journal=Alcohol Alert}}</ref> * Acamprosate may stabilise the brain chemistry that is altered due to alcohol dependence via antagonising the actions of glutamate, a neurotransmitter which is hyperactive in the post-withdrawal phase.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsMason BJ, Heyser CJ \|s2cid25810236 \|titleThe neurobiology, clinical efficacy and safety of acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence \|journalExpert Opinion on Drug Safety \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages177–88 \|dateJanuary 2010 \|pmid20021295 \|doi10.1517/14740330903512943}}</ref> By reducing excessive NMDA activity which occurs at the onset of alcohol withdrawal, acamprosate can reduce or prevent alcohol withdrawal related neurotoxicity.<ref name"pmid20201812">{{cite journal \|vauthorsMason BJ, Heyser CJ \|titleAcamprosate: a prototypic neuromodulator in the treatment of alcohol dependence \|journalCNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages23–32 \|dateMarch 2010 \|pmid20201812 \|pmc2853976 \|doi10.2174/187152710790966641}}</ref> Acamprosate reduces the risk of relapse amongst alcohol-dependent persons.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsRösner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Lehert P, Vecchi S, Soyka M \|titleAcamprosate for alcohol dependence \|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume128 \|issue9 \|pagesCD004332 \|dateSeptember 2010 \|pmid20824837 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD004332.pub2 \|urlhttp://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?scriptsci_arttext&pidS1516-31802010000600014 \|veditorsRösner S \|typeSubmitted manuscript \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date8 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200708231654/https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?scriptsci_arttext&pidS1516-31802010000600014 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameJAMA2014>{{cite journal \|vauthorsJonas DE, Amick HR, Feltner C, Bobashev G, Thomas K, Wines R, Kim MM, Shanahan E, Gass CE, Rowe CJ, Garbutt JC \|titlePharmacotherapy for adults with alcohol use disorders in outpatient settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis \|journalJAMA \|volume311 \|issue18 \|pages1889–900 \|dateMay 2014 \|pmid24825644 \|doi10.1001/jama.2014.3628 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Acamprosate is not recommended in those with advanced, decompensated liver cirrhosis due to the risk of liver toxicity.<ref name"Haber 2025">{{cite journal \|last1Haber \|first1Paul S. \|titleIdentification and Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder \|journalNew England Journal of Medicine \|date16 January 2025 \|volume392 \|issue3 \|pages258–266 \|doi10.1056/NEJMra2306511}}</ref> * Naltrexone is a competitive antagonist for opioid receptors, effectively blocking the effects of endorphins and opioids. Naltrexone may be given as a daily oral tablet or as a monthly intramuscular injection.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Naltrexone is used to decrease cravings for alcohol and encourage abstinence. Alcohol causes the body to release endorphins, which in turn release dopamine and activate the reward pathways; hence in the body Naltrexone reduces the pleasurable effects from consuming alcohol.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsSoyka M, Rösner S \|titleOpioid antagonists for pharmacological treatment of alcohol dependence – a critical review \|journalCurrent Drug Abuse Reviews \|volume1 \|issue3 \|pages280–91 \|dateNovember 2008 \|pmid19630726 \|doi10.2174/1874473710801030280}}</ref> Evidence supports a reduced risk of relapse among alcohol-dependent persons and a decrease in excessive drinking.<ref nameJAMA2014 /> Naltrexone should not be used in those with advanced liver disease due to the risk of liver toxicity.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Nalmefene also appears effective and works in a similar manner.<ref name=JAMA2014 /> * Disulfiram prevents the elimination of acetaldehyde by inhibiting the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Acetaldehyde is a chemical the body produces when breaking down ethanol. Acetaldehyde itself is the cause of many hangover symptoms from alcohol use. The overall effect is acute discomfort when alcohol is ingested characterized by flushing, nausea, a rapid heart rate and low blood pressure.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Disulfiram should not be used in those with advanced liver disease due to the risk of life-threatening liver toxicity.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Several other drugs are also used and many are under investigation. * Benzodiazepines are a first line medication in the management of acute alcohol withdrawal, however their use outside of the acute withdrawal period is not recommended.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> Benzodiazepines with a shorter half life, such as lorazepam or oxazepam are preferred in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal as their shorter half lives and less active metabolites have a lower risk of confusion in those with liver disease.<ref name"Haber 2025" /> If used long-term, they can cause a worse outcome in alcoholism. Alcoholics on chronic benzodiazepines have a lower rate of achieving abstinence from alcohol than those not taking benzodiazepines. Initiating prescriptions of benzodiazepines or sedative-hypnotics in individuals in recovery has a high rate of relapse with one author reporting more than a quarter of people relapsed after being prescribed sedative-hypnotics. Those who are long-term users of benzodiazepines should not be withdrawn rapidly, as severe anxiety and panic may develop, which are known risk factors for alcohol use disorder relapse. Taper regimes of 6–12 months have been found to be the most successful, with reduced intensity of withdrawal.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Gitlow \|first1Stuart \|titleSubstance Use Disorders: A Practical Guide \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrbrSdWVerBUC \|edition2nd \|year2006 \|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins \|isbn978-0-7817-6998-3 \|pages52, 103–21 \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date14 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230114105317/https://books.google.com/books?idrbrSdWVerBUC \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsKushner MG, Abrams K, Borchardt C \|titleThe relationship between anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorders: a review of major perspectives and findings \|journalClinical Psychology Review \|volume20 \|issue2 \|pages149–71 \|dateMarch 2000 \|pmid10721495 \|doi10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00027-6}}</ref> * Calcium carbimide works in the same way as disulfiram; it has an advantage in that the occasional adverse effects of disulfiram, hepatotoxicity and drowsiness, do not occur with calcium carbimide.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsOgborne AC \|titleIdentifying and treating patients with alcohol-related problems \|journalCMAJ \|volume162 \|issue12 \|pages1705–8 \|dateJune 2000 \|pmid10870503 \|pmc=1232509}}</ref> * Ondansetron and topiramate are supported by tentative evidence in people with certain genetic patterns.<ref nameSoy2017 /><ref nameCs2017>{{cite journal \|vauthorsCservenka A, Yardley MM, Ray LA \|titleReview: Pharmacogenetics of alcoholism treatment: Implications of ethnic diversity \|journalThe American Journal on Addictions \|volume26 \|issue5 \|pages516–525 \|dateAugust 2017 \|pmid28134463 \|pmc5484746 \|doi10.1111/ajad.12463}}</ref> Evidence for ondansetron is stronger in people who have recently started to abuse alcohol.<ref nameSoy2017>{{cite journal \|vauthorsSoyka M, Müller CA \|titlePharmacotherapy of alcoholism – an update on approved and off-label medications \|journalExpert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy \|volume18 \|issue12 \|pages1187–1199 \|dateAugust 2017 \|pmid28658981 \|doi10.1080/14656566.2017.1349098 \|s2cid23092076}}</ref> Topiramate is a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose. Review articles characterize topiramate as showing "encouraging",<ref name"Soy2017" /> "promising",<ref name"Soy2017" /> "efficacious",<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsHammond CJ, Niciu MJ, Drew S, Arias AJ \|titleAnticonvulsants for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome and alcohol use disorders \|journalCNS Drugs \|volume29 \|issue4 \|pages293–311 \|dateApril 2015 \|pmid25895020 \|pmc5759952 \|doi10.1007/s40263-015-0240-4}}</ref> and "insufficient"<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsPani PP, Trogu E, Pacini M, Maremmani I \|titleAnticonvulsants for alcohol dependence \|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume2014 \|issue2 \|pagesCD008544 \|dateFebruary 2014 \|pmid24523233 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008544.pub2 \|pmc10585425 \|quoteAt the current stage of research, evidence supporting the clinical use of anticonvulsants to treat alcohol dependence is insufficient. Results are conditioned by heterogeneity and by the low number and quality of studies comparing anticonvulsants versus other medications. The uncertainty associated with these results leaves to clinicians the need to balance the possible benefits/risks of treatment with anticonvulsants versus other medications as supported by evidence of efficacy.}}</ref> results in the treatment of alcohol use disorders. Evidence does not support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), antipsychotics, or gabapentin.<ref nameJAMA2014 />ResearchTopiramate, a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose, has been found effective in helping alcoholics quit or cut back on the amount they drink. Evidence suggests that topiramate antagonizes excitatory glutamate receptors, inhibits dopamine release, and enhances inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid function. A 2008 review of the effectiveness of topiramate concluded that the results of published trials are promising, however as of 2008, data was insufficient to support using topiramate in conjunction with brief weekly compliance counseling as a first-line agent for alcohol dependence.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorOlmsted CL, Kockler DR \|titleTopiramate for alcohol dependence\|journalAnn Pharmacother \|volume42 \|issue10 \|pages1475–80 \|dateOctober 2008 \|pmid18698008 \|doi10.1345/aph.1L157 \|s2cid27071889\|issn1060-0280}}</ref> A 2010 review found that topiramate may be superior to existing alcohol pharmacotherapeutic options. Topiramate effectively reduces craving and alcohol withdrawal severity as well as improving quality-of-life-ratings.<ref>{{cite journal\| last1 Kenna \| first1 GA. \| last2 Lomastro \| first2 TL. \|last3 Schiesl \| first3 A. \| last4 Leggio \| first4 L. \| last5 Swift \| first5 RM. \| title Review of topiramate: an antiepileptic for the treatment of alcohol dependence \| journal Curr Drug Abuse Rev \| volume 2 \| issue 2 \| pages 135–42 \|dateMay 2009 \| doi 10.2174/1874473710902020135\| pmid 19630744 }}</ref> Baclofen, a GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor agonist, is under study for the treatment of alcoholism.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastLeggio\|firstL\|author2Garbutt, JC\|author3 Addolorato, G\|titleEffectiveness and safety of baclofen in the treatment of alcohol dependent patients.\|journalCNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets\|dateMarch 2010\|volume9\|issue1\|pages33–44\|pmid20201813\|doi10.2174/187152710790966614}}</ref> According to a 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review, there is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness or safety for the use of baclofen for withdrawal symptoms in alcoholism.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Liu \|first1Jia \|last2Wang \|first2Lu-Ning \|date20 August 2017 \|titleBaclofen for alcohol withdrawal \|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume8 \|issue8 \|pagesCD008502 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008502.pub5 \|issn1469-493X \|pmc6483686 \|pmid28822350}}</ref> Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is under study for the treatment of patients with alcohol use disorder.<ref>{{cite web \|lastSullivan \|firstKaitlin \|date24 August 2022 \|titleDoes psilocybin change your brain? How the ingredient in magic mushrooms may ease addiction \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/health/mental-health/psilocybin-mushroom-help-people-alcohol-use-disorder-rcna44180 \|access-date7 September 2022 \|publisherNBC News\|archive-date6 September 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220906184507/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/mental-health/psilocybin-mushroom-help-people-alcohol-use-disorder-rcna44180 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastBogenschutz \|date24 August 2022 \|titlePercentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in the Treatment of Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder – A Randomized Clinical Trial \|urlhttps://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2795625 \|access-date7 September 2022 \|journalJAMA Psychiatry \|volume79 \|issue10 \|pages953–962 \|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2096 \|pmid36001306 \|pmc9403854 \|s2cid251766399 \|archive-date5 September 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220905183036/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2795625 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Dual addictions and dependencies Alcoholics may also require treatment for other psychotropic drug addictions and drug dependencies. The most common dual dependence syndrome with alcohol dependence is benzodiazepine dependence, with studies showing 10–20% of alcohol-dependent individuals had problems of dependence and/or misuse problems of benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam or clonazepam. These drugs are, like alcohol, depressants. Benzodiazepines may be used legally, if they are prescribed by doctors for anxiety problems or other mood disorders, or they may be purchased as illegal drugs. Benzodiazepine use increases cravings for alcohol and the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Poulos CX, Zack M \| s2cid 23040302 \| title Low-dose diazepam primes motivation for alcohol and alcohol-related semantic networks in problem drinkers \| journal Behavioural Pharmacology \| volume 15 \| issue 7 \| pages 503–12 \| date November 2004 \| pmid 15472572 \| doi 10.1097/00008877-200411000-00006 }}</ref> Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative-hypnotic and is cross-tolerant with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not properly managed.<ref name"dolpdaa">{{cite journal \| vauthors Johansson BA, Berglund M, Hanson M, Pöhlén C, Persson I \| title Dependence on legal psychotropic drugs among alcoholics \| journal Alcohol and Alcoholism \| volume 38 \| issue 6 \| pages 613–8 \| date November 2003 \| pmid 14633651 \| doi 10.1093/alcalc/agg123 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Epidemiology for alcohol use disorders per million&nbsp;inhabitants in 2012 {{Div col\|smallyes\|colwidth10em}} {{legend\|#ffff20\|234–806}} {{legend\|#ffe820\|814–1,501}} {{legend\|#ffd820\|1,551–2,585}} {{legend\|#ffc020\|2,838}} {{legend\|#ffa020\|2,898–3,935}} {{legend\|#ff9a20\|3,953–5,069}} {{legend\|#f08015\|5,168}} {{legend\|#e06815\|5,173–5,802}} {{legend\|#d85010\|5,861–8,838}} {{legend\|#d02010\|9,122–25,165}} {{div col end}}]] The World Health Organization estimates that {{as of\|2016\|lcy}} there are about 380&nbsp;million people with alcoholism worldwide (5.1% of the population over 15 years of age),<ref nameWHO2018 /><ref nameun2020 /> with it being most common among males and young adults.<ref nameDSM5/> Geographically, it is least common in Africa (1.1% of the population) and has the highest rates in Eastern Europe (11%).<ref name=DSM5/> {{as of\|2015}} in the United States, about 17&nbsp;million (7%) of adults and 0.7&nbsp;million (2.8%) of those age 12 to 17 years of age are affected.<ref nameNIH2015Stats>{{cite web\|titleAlcohol Facts and Statistics\|urlhttp://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics\|access-date9 May 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518081638/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics\|archive-date18 May 2015}}</ref> About 12% of American adults have had an alcohol dependence problem at some time in their life.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsHasin DS, Stinson FS, Ogburn E, Grant BF \|titlePrevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions \|journalArchives of General Psychiatry \|volume64 \|issue7 \|pages830–42 \|dateJuly 2007 \|pmid17606817 \|doi10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.830 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the United States and Western Europe, 10–20% of men and 5–10% of women at some point in their lives will meet criteria for alcoholism.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13448/alcoholism \|titlealcoholism \|year2010 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101202043009/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13448/alcoholism \|archive-date2 December 2010}}</ref> In England, the number of "dependent drinkers" was calculated as over 600,000 in 2019.<ref name"cosu">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/alcohol-dependence-prevalence-in-england\|titleAlcohol dependence prevalence in England\|date18 March 2021\|websiteGOV.UK\|access-date1 July 2024\|archive-date1 May 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240501215857/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/alcohol-dependence-prevalence-in-england\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Estonia had the highest death rate from alcohol in Europe in 2015 at 8.8 per 100,000 population.<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsBallas D, Dorling D, Hennig B\|titleThe Human Atlas of Europe\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idz1ClDgAAQBAJThe}}\|date2017\|publisherPolicy Press\|locationBristol\|isbn978-1-4473-1354-0\|page73}}{{dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> In the United States, 30% of people admitted to hospital have a problem related to alcohol.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsVonghia L, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Bertini M, Gasbarrini G, Addolorato G \|titleAcute alcohol intoxication \|journalEuropean Journal of Internal Medicine \|volume19 \|issue8 \|pages561–7 \|dateDecember 2008 \|pmid19046719 \|doi10.1016/j.ejim.2007.06.033}}</ref> Within the medical and scientific communities, there is a broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that "drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors (e.g., stage of brain maturity)."<ref>{{cite web\|lastVolkow\|firstNora\|titleScience of Addiction\|urlhttp://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110629022654/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf\|archive-date29 June 2011\|publisherAmerican Medical Association}}</ref> Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though, in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased.<ref name"Walter-2003">{{cite journal \|vauthorsWalter H, Gutierrez K, Ramskogler K, Hertling I, Dvorak A, Lesch OM \|s2cid6972064 \|titleGender-specific differences in alcoholism: implications for treatment \|journalArchives of Women's Mental Health \|volume6 \|issue4 \|pages253–8 \|dateNovember 2003 \|pmid14628177 \|doi10.1007/s00737-003-0014-8}}</ref> Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50–60% genetically determined, leaving 40–50% for environmental influences.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsDick DM, Bierut LJ \|s2cid10535003 \|titleThe genetics of alcohol dependence \|journalCurrent Psychiatry Reports \|volume8 \|issue2 \|pages151–7 \|dateApril 2006 \|pmid16539893 \|doi10.1007/s11920-006-0015-1 }}</ref> Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or young adulthood.<ref name"Enoch-2006" /> Prognosis thumb\|upright=1.3\|Alcohol use disorders deaths per million persons in 2012 {{Div col\|smallyes\|colwidth10em}} {{legend\|#ffff20\|0}} {{legend\|#ffc020\|1–3}} {{legend\|#ffa020\|4–6}} {{legend\|#ff9a20\|7–13}} {{legend\|#f08015\|14–20}} {{legend\|#e06815\|21–37}} {{legend\|#d85010\|38–52}} {{legend\|#d02010\|53–255}} {{div col end}} Alcoholism often reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years.<ref nameSchu2014/> The most common cause of death in alcoholics is from cardiovascular complications.<ref name"Zuskin-2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors Zuskin E, Jukić V, Lipozencić J, Matosić A, Mustajbegović J, Turcić N, Poplasen-Orlovac D, Bubas M, Prohić A \| title [Alcoholism—how it affects health and working capacity] \| journal Arhiv Za Higijenu Rada I Toksikologiju \| volume 57 \| issue 4 \| pages 413–26 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17265681 }}</ref> There is a high rate of suicide in chronic alcoholics, which increases the longer a person drinks. Approximately 3–15% of alcoholics die by suicide,<ref>{{cite book\|titleAmerican Psychiatric Association practice guidelines for the treatment of psychiatric disorders\|date2006\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association\|locationArlington, VA\|isbn978-0-89042-385-1\|page1346\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idzql0AqtRSrYC\|page1346}}\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160529103328/https://books.google.com/books?idzql0AqtRSrYC&pgPA1346\|archive-date29 May 2016}}</ref> and research has found that over 50% of all suicides are associated with alcohol or drug dependence. This is believed to be due to alcohol causing physiological distortion of brain chemistry, as well as social isolation. Suicide is also common in adolescent alcohol abusers. Research in 2000 found that 25% of suicides in adolescents were related to alcohol abuse.<ref>{{cite book \| last1 O'Connor \| first1 Rory \| last2 Sheehy \| first2 Noel \| title Understanding suicidal behaviour \| url https://books.google.com/books?id79hEYGdDA3oC \| date 29 January 2000 \| publisher BPS Books \| location Leicester \| isbn 978-1-85433-290-5 \| pages 33–37 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 13 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230113005830/https://books.google.com/books?id79hEYGdDA3oC \| url-status live }}</ref> Among those with alcohol dependence after one year, some met the criteria for low-risk drinking, even though only 26% of the group received any treatment, with the breakdown as follows: 25% were found to be still dependent, 27% were in partial remission (some symptoms persist), 12% asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse) and 36% were fully recovered&nbsp;– made up of 18% low-risk drinkers plus 18% abstainers.<ref name"NIAAA2002">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan2005/niaaa-18.htm \|title2001–2002 Survey Finds That Many Recover From Alcoholism \|last1The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism \|last2U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH News \|date18 January 2005 \|publisherNational Institutes of Health \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060818230335/http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan2005/niaaa-18.htm \|archive-date18 August 2006 }}</ref> In contrast, however, the results of a long-term (60-year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men indicated that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence....return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage."<ref name"VAILLANT2003"/> History , Inn with Drunken Peasants, 1620s]] Historically the name dipsomania was coined by German physician C. W. Hufeland in 1819 before it was superseded by alcoholism.<ref>{{cite book\| last1 Peters \| first1 Uwe Henrik \| title Lexikon Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie, Medizinische Psychologie\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idqY6_DQAAQBAJ}} \| year 2007 \| publisher Urban Fischer bei Elsev \| isbn 978-3-437-15061-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last Valverde \| first Mariana \| title Diseases of the Will \| page 48 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idKl5ugmvDgH0C&pgPA4848 \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| location Cambridge \| year 1998 \| isbn 978-0-521-64469-3 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 14 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230114105317/https://books.google.com/books?idKl5ugmvDgH0C&pgPA4848 \| url-status live }}</ref> That term now has a more specific meaning.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Tracy \| first1 Sarah J. \| title Alcoholism in America: from reconstruction to prohibition \| url {{google books \|plainurly \|idJkYyd4qmme0C\|page31}} \| year 2005 \| publisher Johns Hopkins University Press \| location Baltimore \| isbn 978-0-8018-8119-0 \| pages 31–52 }}</ref> The term alcoholism was first used by Swedish physician Magnus Huss in an 1852 publication to describe the systemic adverse effects of alcohol.<ref name=huss1852 /> Alcohol has a long history of use and misuse throughout recorded history. Biblical, Egyptian and Babylonian sources record the history of abuse and dependence on alcohol. In some ancient cultures alcohol was worshiped and in others, its misuse was condemned. Excessive alcohol misuse and drunkenness were recognized as causing social problems even thousands of years ago. However, the defining of habitual drunkenness as it was then known as and its adverse consequences were not well established medically until the 18th century. In 1647 a Greek monk named Agapios was the first to document that chronic alcohol misuse was associated with toxicity to the nervous system and body which resulted in a range of medical disorders such as seizures, paralysis, and internal bleeding. In the 1910s and 1920s, the effects of alcohol misuse and chronic drunkenness boosted membership of the temperance movement and led to the prohibition of alcohol in many countries in North America and the Nordic countries, nationwide bans on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages that generally remained in place until the late 1920s or early 1930s; these policies resulted in the decline of death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism.<ref name"Blocker2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors Blocker JS \| title Did prohibition really work? Alcohol prohibition as a public health innovation \| journal American Journal of Public Health \| volume 96 \| issue 2 \| pages 233–43 \| date February 2006 \| pmid 16380559 \| pmc 1470475 \| doi 10.2105/AJPH.2005.065409 \| quote Nevertheless, once Prohibition became the law of the land, many citizens decided to obey it. Referendum results in the immediate post-Volstead period showed widespread support, and the Supreme Court quickly fended off challenges to the new law. Death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and drunkenness arrests all declined steeply during the latter years of the 1910s, when both the cultural and the legal climate were increasingly inhospitable to drink, and in the early years after National Prohibition went into effect. }}</ref> In 2005, alcohol dependence and misuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220&nbsp;billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity.<ref name"soa2008">{{cite book\|last1Potter \|first1James V.\|volume2 \|titleSubstances of Abuse \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idWU73eJAIDI4C\|page1}} \|year 2008 \|publisherAFS Publishing Co \|isbn978-1-930327-46-7 \|pages1–13 }}</ref>Society and culture {{see also\|List of deaths through alcohol}} The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society; for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle injuries (27%), interpersonal violence (18%), suicides (18%), and epilepsy (13%).<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlcohol and health \|urlhttps://www.who.int/substance_abuse/infographic_alcohol_2018.pdf?ua1 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|access-date3 May 2020 \|archive-date25 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725015946/https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/infographic_alcohol_2018.pdf?ua1 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends.<ref name"Jessica Kingsley Publishers">{{cite book \|last1McCully \|first1Chris \|titleGoodbye Mr. Wonderful. Alcohol, Addition and Early Recovery \|urlhttp://www.jkp.com/catalogue/book/9781843102656/contents \|year2004 \|publisherJessica Kingsley Publishers \|locationLondon \|isbn978-1-84310-265-6 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091121091734/http://www.jkp.com/catalogue/book/9781843102656/contents \|archive-date21 November 2009 }}</ref> For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to an incurable and damaging condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which often results in cognitive deficits, mental health problems, an inability to live independently and an increased risk of criminal behaviour, all of which can cause emotional stress for parents and caregivers.<ref>{{cite book \| last1 Streissguth \| first1 Ann Pytkowicz \| title Fetal alcohol syndrome: a guide for families and communities \| year 2018 \| publisher Paul H Brookes Pub. \| url https://books.google.com/books?idkptHAAAAMAAJ \| location Baltimore \| isbn 978-1-55766-283-5 \| access-date 1 July 2024 \| archive-date 14 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230114105318/https://books.google.com/books?idkptHAAAAMAAJ \| url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/documents/FAS_guidelines_accessible.pdf \|titleFetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis \|first1Julie Louise \|last1Gerberding \|first2José \|last2Cordero \|first3R. Louise \|last3Floyd \|dateMay 2005 \|publisherUS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140611110732/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/documents/FAS_guidelines_accessible.pdf \|archive-date11 June 2014 }}</ref> Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol misuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from 1–6% of a country's GDP.<ref>{{cite web\| publisherWorld Health Organization \| urlhttps://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf \| titleGlobal Status Report on Alcohol 2004 \| access-date3 January 2007 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061230103251/http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf\| archive-date 30 December 2006 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug misuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%.<ref>{{cite web\|publisherWorld Health Organization Global Alcohol Database \|urlhttps://www.who.int/globalatlas/dataQuery/objectInterface.asp?objID359&boCat&pnull&lvl0&catID520700000000&level2 \|access-date3 January 2007 \|titleEconomic cost of alcohol consumption \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080118052306/http://www.who.int/globalatlas/dataQuery/objectInterface.asp?objID359&boCat&pnull&lvl0&catID520700000000&level2 \|archive-date18 January 2008 }}</ref> One study quantified the cost to the UK of all forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20&nbsp;billion.<ref name"cosu"/><ref>{{cite news \| publisherBBC \| urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3122244.stm \| titleQ&A: The costs of alcohol \| date19 September 2003 \| url-statuslive \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061019030402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3122244.stm \| archive-date19 October 2006 }}</ref> All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bouchery EE, Harwood HJ, Sacks JJ, Simon CJ, Brewer RD \| title Economic costs of excessive alcohol consumption in the U.S., 2006 \| journal American Journal of Preventive Medicine \| volume 41 \| issue 5 \| pages 516–24 \| date November 2011 \| pmid 22011424 \| doi 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.06.045 \| url http://www.sertox.com.ar/img/item_full/Bouchery_2011.pdf \| access-date 12 December 2017 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.460.5582 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180721201648/https://www.sertox.com.ar/img/item_full/Bouchery_2011.pdf \| archive-date = 21 July 2018 }}</ref> {{anchor\|Hitting rock bottom}}The idea of hitting rock bottom refers to an experience of stress that can be attributed to alcohol misuse.<ref>{{cite web \|titlehit rock bottom \|urlhttps://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/hit+rock+bottom \|access-date16 July 2022 \|websiteTheFreeDictionary.com \|archive-date16 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220716163516/https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/hit+rock+bottom \|url-statuslive }}</ref> There is no single definition for this idea, and people may identify their own lowest points in terms of lost jobs, lost relationships, health problems, legal problems, or other consequences of alcohol misuse.<ref name"Kirouac-2017">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kirouac M, Witkiewitz K \| title Identifying 'Hitting Bottom' Among Individuals with Alcohol Problems: Development and Evaluation of the Noteworthy Aspects of Drinking Important to Recovery (NADIR) \| journal Substance Use & Misuse \| volume 52 \| issue 12 \| pages 1602–1615 \| date October 2017 \| pmid 28557550 \| pmc 6107067 \| doi 10.1080/10826084.2017.1293104 }}</ref> The concept is promoted by 12-step recovery groups and researchers using the transtheoretical model of motivation for behavior change.<ref name"Kirouac-2017" /> The first use of this slang phrase in the formal medical literature appeared in a 1965 review in the British Medical Journal,<ref name"Kirouac-2017" /> which said that some men refused treatment until they "hit rock bottom", but that treatment was generally more successful for "the alcohol addict who has friends and family to support him" than for impoverished and homeless addicts.<ref>{{cite journal \| title Treatment of Alcohol Addiction \| journal British Medical Journal \| volume 2 \| issue 5455 \| pages 184–5 \| date July 1965 \| pmid 20790596 \| pmc 1846501 \| doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5455.184 }}</ref> Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The "town drunk" is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the fictional depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.finfacts.ie/Private/bestprice/alcoholdrinkconsumptionpriceseurope.htm \| titleWorld/Global Alcohol/Drink Consumption \| year2009 \| publisherFinfacts Ireland \| url-statuslive \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150512161159/http://www.finfacts.ie/Private/bestprice/alcoholdrinkconsumptionpriceseurope.htm \| archive-date12 May 2015 }}</ref> Studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America.<ref>{{cite book\| last1 Stivers \| first1 Richard \| title Hair of the dog: Irish drinking and its American stereotype \|year2000\| publisher Continuum \| location New York \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idMH3aAAAAMAAJ}} \| isbn 978-0-8264-1218-8 }}</ref> Alcohol consumption is relatively similar between many European cultures, the United States, and Australia. In Asian countries that have a high gross domestic product, there is heightened drinking compared to other Asian countries, but it is nowhere near as high as it is in other countries like the United States. It is also inversely seen, with countries that have very low gross domestic product showing high alcohol consumption.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chen CC, Yin SJ \| s2cid 24571763 \| title Alcohol abuse and related factors in Asia \| journal International Review of Psychiatry \| volume 20 \| issue 5 \| pages 425–33 \| date October 2008 \| pmid 19012127 \| doi 10.1080/09540260802344075 }}</ref> In a study done on Korean immigrants in Canada, they reported alcohol was typically an integral part of their meal but is the only time solo drinking should occur. They also generally believe alcohol is necessary at any social event, as it helps conversations start.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kim W \| s2cid 28478567 \| title Drinking culture of elderly Korean immigrants in Canada: a focus group study \| journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology \| volume 24 \| issue 4 \| pages 339–53 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 19823926 \| doi = 10.1007/s10823-009-9104-z }}</ref> Peyote, a psychoactive agent, has even shown promise in treating alcoholism. Alcohol had actually replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors French L \| s2cid 143549807 \| year 2008 \| title Psychoactive agents and Native American spirituality: Past and present \| journal Contemporary Justice Review \| volume 11 \| issue 2\| pages 155–63 \| doi10.1080/10282580802058270}}</ref> See also {{col div\|colwidth20em}} * Addictive personality * Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States * Alcoholism in family systems * Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism * CRAFFT Screening Test * Disulfiram-like drug * High-functioning alcoholic * Holiday heart syndrome * List of countries by alcohol consumption {{div col end}} Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Sister project links\|wiktalcoholism\|bno\|qAlcoholism\|sno\|commonsCategory:Alcoholism\|nno\|vno\|speciesno\|position=}} {{Medical condition classification and resources \| DiseasesDB \| ICD11 {{ICD11\|6C40.2}} \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|F10.2}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|303}} \| ICDO \| OMIM 103780 \| MedlinePlus = 000944 \| eMedicineSubj = article \| eMedicineTopic = 285913 \| MeshID = D000437 }} {{Addiction}} {{alcohealth}} {{Psychoactive substance use}} {{Alcoholics Anonymous \|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Drinking culture Category:Substance dependence Category:Substance-related disorders Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism	2025-04-05T18:26:14.078096
2972	Abstraction	Abstraction is a process where general rules and concepts are derived from the use and classifying of specific examples, literal (real or concrete) signifiers, first principles, or other methods. "An abstraction" is the outcome of this process — a concept that acts as a common noun for all subordinate concepts and connects any related concepts as a group, field, or category. Conceptual abstractions may be made by filtering the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, selecting only those aspects which are relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball selects only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, excluding but not eliminating the other phenomenal and cognitive characteristics of that particular ball. discussed in the themes below. Origins Thinking in abstractions is considered by anthropologists, archaeologists, and sociologists to be one of the key traits in modern human behaviour, believed to have developed between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. Its development is likely to have been closely connected with the development of human language, which (whether spoken or written) appears to both involve and facilitate abstract thinking. Max Müller suggests interrelationship between metaphor and abstraction in the development of thought and language. History Abstraction involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into one general theory about something. Its opposite, specification, is the analysis or breaking-down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts. Abstraction can be illustrated by Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (1620), a book of modern scientific philosophy written in the late Jacobean era of England to encourage modern thinkers to collect specific facts before making any generalizations. Bacon used and promoted induction as an abstraction tool; his induction complemented but was distinct from the ancient deductive-thinking approach that had dominated the Western intellectual world since the times of Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Aristotle. Thales (–546 BCE) believed that everything in the universe comes from one main substance, water. He deduced or specified from a general idea, "everything is water," to the specific forms of water such as ice, snow, fog, and rivers. Early-modern scientists used the approach of abstraction (going from particular facts collected into one general idea). Newton (1642–1727) derived the motion of the planets from Copernicus' (1473–1543) simplification, that the Sun is the center of the Solar System; Kepler (1571–1630) compressed thousands of measurements into one expression to finally conclude that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit about the Sun; Galileo (1564–1642) compressed the results of one hundred specific experiments into the law of falling bodies. Themes Compression An abstraction can be seen as a compression process, mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data; based on similarities in the constituent data, for example, many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects, and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object). For example, picture 1 below illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat". Chains of abstractions can be construed, moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape, to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat, to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT, to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action". For example, graph 1 below expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location". This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail. Instantiation Non-existent things in any particular place and time are often seen as abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown below. It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 below. We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme. Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars—e.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. This is similar to qualia and sumbebekos. Material process Still retaining the primary meaning of '' or 'to draw away from', the abstraction of money, for example, works by drawing away from the particular value of things allowing completely incommensurate objects to be compared (see the section on 'Physicality' below). The state (polity) as both concept and material practice exemplifies the two sides of this process of abstraction. Conceptually, 'the current concept of the state is an abstraction from the much more concrete early-modern use as the standing or status of the prince, his visible estates'. At the same time, materially, the 'practice of statehood is now constitutively and materially more abstract than at the time when princes ruled as the embodiment of extended power'. Ontological status The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times. Physicality A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time. However, in the secondary sense of the term 'abstraction', this physical object can carry materially abstracting processes. For example, record-keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to , these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers for the count, marks were placed on the outside of the containers. These physical marks, in other words, acted as material abstractions of a materially abstract process of accounting, using conceptual abstractions (numbers) to communicate its meaning. Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both. An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g., good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Referencing and referring Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents. For example, "happiness" can mean experiencing various positive emotions, but can also refer to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building. Simplification and ordering Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication. alt=\|thumb\|Conceptual graph for A Cat sitting on the Mat (graph 1) thumb\|Cat on Mat (picture 1) For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their five labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph. Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund/present participle SITTING and the nouns agent and location express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT. Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979): An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about something, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle. Thought processes In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects. But an idea can be symbolized. As used in different disciplines In art Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freedom from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs. In computer science Computer scientists use abstraction to make models that can be used and re-used without having to re-write all the program code for each new application on every different type of computer. They communicate their solutions with the computer by writing source code in some particular computer language which can be translated into machine code for different types of computers to execute. Abstraction allows program designers to separate a framework (categorical concepts related to computing problems) from specific instances which implement details. This means that the program code can be written so that code does not have to depend on the specific details of supporting applications, operating system software, or hardware, but on a categorical concept of the solution. A solution to the problem can then be integrated into the system framework with minimal additional work. This allows programmers to take advantage of another programmer's work, while requiring only an abstract understanding of the implementation of another's work, apart from the problem that it solves. In general semantics Abstractions and levels of abstraction play an important role in the theory of general semantics originated by Alfred Korzybski. Anatol Rapoport wrote "Abstracting is a mechanism by which an infinite variety of experiences can be mapped on short noises (words)." In history Francis Fukuyama defines history as "a deliberate attempt of abstraction in which we separate out important from unimportant events". In linguistics Researchers in linguistics frequently apply abstraction so as to allow an analysis of the phenomena of language at the desired level of detail. A commonly used abstraction, the phoneme, abstracts speech sounds in such a way as to neglect details that cannot serve to differentiate meaning. Other analogous kinds of abstractions (sometimes called "emic units") considered by linguists include morphemes, graphemes, and lexemes. Abstraction also arises in the relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics involves considerations that make reference to the user of the language; semantics considers expressions and what they denote (the designata) abstracted from the language user; and syntax considers only the expressions themselves, abstracted from the designata. In mathematics Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept or object, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are: It reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics. Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in another related area. Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in other related area. Patterns from one mathematical object can be generalized to other similar objects in the same class. The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and might require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated. In music In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized by the exploration of internal numeric relationships. In neurology A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has a greater engagement with abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged in processing concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage. In philosophy Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for the discussion of abstraction is thought space. John Locke defined abstraction in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: 'So words are used to stand as outward marks of our internal ideas, which are taken from particular things; but if every particular idea that we take in had its own special name, there would be no end to names. To prevent this, the mind makes particular ideas received from particular things become general; which it does by considering them as they are in the mind—mental appearances—separate from all other existences, and from the circumstances of real existence, such as time, place, and so on. This procedure is called abstraction. In it, an idea taken from a particular thing becomes a general representative of all of the same kind, and its name becomes a general name that is applicable to any existing thing that fits that abstract idea.' (2.11.9) In psychology Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, different complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. In social theory Social theorists deal with abstraction both as an ideational and as a material process. Alfred Sohn-Rethel (1899–1990) asked: "Can there be abstraction other than by thought?" and an associated volume published in 2006, Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In. These books argue that a nation is an abstract community bringing together strangers who will never meet as such; thus constituting materially real and substantial, but abstracted and mediated relations. The books suggest that contemporary processes of globalization and mediatization have contributed to materially abstracting relations between people, with major consequences for how humans live their lives. One can readily argue that abstraction is an elementary methodological tool in several disciplines of social science. These disciplines have definite and different concepts of "man" that highlight those aspects of man and his behaviour by idealization that are relevant for the given human science. For example, is the man as sociology abstracts and idealizes it, depicting man as a social being. Moreover, we could talk about (the man who can extend his biologically determined intelligence thanks to new technologies), or (who is simply creative). Abstraction (combined with Weberian idealization) plays a crucial role in economics - hence abstractions such as "the market" and the generalized concept of "business". Breaking away from directly experienced reality was a common trend in 19th-century sciences (especially physics), and this was the effort which fundamentally determined the way economics tried (and still tries) to approach the economic aspects of social life. It is abstraction we meet in the case of both Newton's physics and the neoclassical theory, since the goal was to grasp the unchangeable and timeless essence of phenomena. For example, Newton created the concept of the material point by following the abstraction method so that he abstracted from the dimension and shape of any perceptible object, preserving only inertial and translational motion. Material point is the ultimate and common feature of all bodies. Neoclassical economists created the indefinitely abstract notion of homo economicus by following the same procedure. Economists abstract from all individual and personal qualities in order to get to those characteristics that embody the essence of economic activity. Eventually, it is the substance of the economic man that they try to grasp. Any characteristic beyond it only disturbs the functioning of this essential core. See also References Citations Sources Sohn-Rethel, Alfred (1977) Intellectual and manual labour: A critique of epistemology, Humanities Press. . Further reading Laurence, Stephen & Margolis, Eric (2012). "Abstraction and the Origin of General Ideas". Philosophers' Imprint (12) 19: 1-22. External links Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy Category:Concepts in epistemology Category:Concepts in metaphilosophy Category:Concepts in metaphysics Category:Thought	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction	2025-04-05T18:26:14.126447
2974	Abelian group	In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is commutative. With addition as an operation, the integers and the real numbers form abelian groups, and the concept of an abelian group may be viewed as a generalization of these examples. Abelian groups are named after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel. The concept of an abelian group underlies many fundamental algebraic structures, such as fields, rings, vector spaces, and algebras. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood and fully classified. Definition An abelian group is a set A, together with an operation ･ , that combines any two elements a and b of A to form another element of A, denoted a \cdot b. The symbol ･ is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, (A, \cdot), must satisfy four requirements known as the abelian group axioms (some authors include in the axioms some properties that belong to the definition of an operation: namely that the operation is defined for any ordered pair of elements of , that the result is well-defined, and that the result belongs to ): Associativity For all a, b, and c in A, the equation (a \cdot b)\cdot c = a \cdot (b \cdot c) holds. Identity element There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation e \cdot a a \cdot e a holds. Inverse element For each a in A there exists an element b in A such that a \cdot b b \cdot a e, where e is the identity element. Commutativity For all a, b in A, a \cdot b = b \cdot a. A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group". Facts Notation There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups – additive and multiplicative. Convention Operation Identity Powers Inverse Addition x + y 0 nx -x Multiplication x \cdot y or xy 1 x^n x^{-1} Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near-rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non-abelian. Multiplication table To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) – known as a Cayley table – can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is G \{g_1 e, g_2, \dots, g_n \} under the the entry of this table contains the product g_i \cdot g_j. The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal. This is true since the group is abelian iff g_i \cdot g_j g_j \cdot g_i for all i, j 1, ..., n, which is iff the (i, j) entry of the table equals the (j, i) entry for all i, j = 1, ..., n, i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. Examples For the integers and the operation addition +, denoted (\mathbb{Z}, +), the operation + combines any two integers to form a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer n has an additive inverse, -n, and the addition operation is commutative since n + m = m + n for any two integers m and n. Every cyclic group G is abelian, because if x, y are in G, then xy a^ma^n a^{m+n} a^na^m yx. Thus the integers, \mathbb{Z}, form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n \mathbb{Z}. Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups, quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian. The finite simple abelian groups are exactly the cyclic groups of prime order. The concepts of abelian group and \mathbb{Z}-module agree. More specifically, every \mathbb{Z}-module is an abelian group with its operation of addition, and every abelian group is a module over the ring of integers \mathbb{Z} in a unique way. In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication – one example is the group of 2 \times 2 rotation matrices. Historical remarks Camille Jordan named abelian groups after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, who had found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals. Properties If n is a natural number and x is an element of an abelian group G written additively, then nx can be defined as x + x + \cdots + x (n summands) and (-n)x = -(nx). In this way, G becomes a module over the ring \mathbb{Z} of integers. In fact, the modules over \mathbb{Z} can be identified with the abelian groups. Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain \mathbb{Z}) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form \mathbb{Z}/p^k\mathbb{Z} for p prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of \mathbb{Z}. If f, g: G \to H are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum f + g, defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if H is a non-abelian group.) The set \text{Hom}(G,H) of all group homomorphisms from G to H is therefore an abelian group in its own right. Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a rank. It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent (over the integers) elements of the group. Finite abelian groups and torsion groups have rank zero, and every abelian group of rank zero is a torsion group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every nonzero additive subgroup of the rationals. On the other hand, the multiplicative group of the nonzero rationals has an infinite rank, as it is a free abelian group with the set of the prime numbers as a basis (this results from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic). The center Z(G) of a group G is the set of elements that commute with every element of G. A group G is abelian if and only if it is equal to its center Z(G). The center of a group G is always a characteristic abelian subgroup of G. If the quotient group G/Z(G) of a group by its center is cyclic then G is abelian. Finite abelian groups Cyclic groups of integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n\mathbb{Z}, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra. Any group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is also abelian. In fact, for every prime number p there are (up to isomorphism) exactly two groups of order p^2, namely \mathbb{Z}_{p^2} and \mathbb{Z}_p\times\mathbb{Z}_p. Classification The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when G has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations. The classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it was not stated in modern group-theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801; see history for details. The cyclic group \mathbb{Z}_{mn} of order mn is isomorphic to the direct sum of \mathbb{Z}_m and \mathbb{Z}_n if and only if m and n are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form \bigoplus_{i=1}^{u}\ \mathbb{Z}_{k_i} in either of the following canonical ways: the numbers k_1, k_2, \dots, k_u are powers of (not necessarily distinct) primes, or k_1 divides k_2, which divides k_3, and so on up to k_u. For example, \mathbb{Z}_{15} can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: \mathbb{Z}_{15} \cong \{0,5,10\} \oplus \{0,3,6,9,12\}. The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic. For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either \mathbb{Z}_8 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), \mathbb{Z}_4\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or \mathbb{Z}_2\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 \oplus \mathbb{Z}_2. See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 30 or less. Automorphisms One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group G. To do this, one uses the fact that if G splits as a direct sum H\oplus K of subgroups of coprime order, then \operatorname{Aut}(H\oplus K) \cong \operatorname{Aut}(H)\oplus \operatorname{Aut}(K). Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of G it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow p-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of p). Fix a prime p and suppose the exponents e_i of the cyclic factors of the Sylow p-subgroup are arranged in increasing order: e_1\leq e_2 \leq\cdots\leq e_n for some n > 0. One needs to find the automorphisms of \mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_1}} \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_n}}. One special case is when n 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow p-subgroup P. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when n is arbitrary but e_i 1 for 1 \le i \le n. Here, one is considering P to be of the form \mathbf{Z}_p \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_p, so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension n over the finite field of p elements \mathbb{F}_p. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so \operatorname{Aut}(P)\cong\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbf{F}_p), where \mathrm{GL} is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order \left\|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right\|=(p^n-1)\cdots(p^n-p^{n-1}). In the most general case, where the e_i and n are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines d_k\max\{r\mid e_r e_k\} and c_k\min\{r\mid e_re_k\} then one has in particular k \le d_k, c_k \le k, and \left\|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right\| \prod_{k1}^n (p^{d_k}-p^{k-1}) \prod_{j1}^n (p^{e_j})^{n-d_j} \prod_{i1}^n (p^{e_i-1})^{n-c_i+1}. One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see Hillar & Rhea). Finitely generated abelian groups An abelian group is finitely generated if it contains a finite set of elements (called generators) G=\{x_1, \ldots, x_n\} such that every element of the group is a linear combination with integer coefficients of elements of . Let be a free abelian group with basis B=\{b_1, \ldots, b_n\}. There is a unique group homomorphism p\colon L \to A, such that p(b_i) x_i\quad \text{for } i1,\ldots, n. This homomorphism is surjective, and its kernel is finitely generated (since integers form a Noetherian ring). Consider the matrix with integer entries, such that the entries of its th column are the coefficients of the th generator of the kernel. Then, the abelian group is isomorphic to the cokernel of linear map defined by . Conversely every integer matrix defines a finitely generated abelian group. It follows that the study of finitely generated abelian groups is totally equivalent with the study of integer matrices. In particular, changing the generating set of is equivalent with multiplying on the left by a unimodular matrix (that is, an invertible integer matrix whose inverse is also an integer matrix). Changing the generating set of the kernel of is equivalent with multiplying on the right by a unimodular matrix. The Smith normal form of is a matrix S=UMV, where and are unimodular, and is a matrix such that all non-diagonal entries are zero, the non-zero diagonal entries are the first ones, and is a divisor of for . The existence and the shape of the Smith normal form proves that the finitely generated abelian group is the direct sum \Z^r \oplus \Z/d_{1,1}\Z \oplus \cdots \oplus \Z/d_{k,k}\Z, where is the number of zero rows at the bottom of (and also the rank of the group). This is the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups. The existence of algorithms for Smith normal form shows that the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups is not only a theorem of abstract existence, but provides a way for computing expression of finitely generated abelian groups as direct sums. Infinite abelian groups The simplest infinite abelian group is the infinite cyclic group \mathbb{Z}. Any finitely generated abelian group A is isomorphic to the direct sum of r copies of \mathbb{Z} and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of prime power orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique, the number r, called the rank of A, and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined. By contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i.e. abelian groups A in which the equation nx a admits a solution x \in A for any natural number n and element a of A, constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum, with summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Q} and Prüfer groups \mathbb{Q}_p/Z_p for various prime numbers p, and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover, if a divisible group A is a subgroup of an abelian group G then A admits a direct complement: a subgroup C of G such that G A \oplus C. Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible (Baer's criterion). An abelian group without non-zero divisible subgroups is called reduced. Two important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are torsion groups and torsion-free groups, exemplified by the groups \mathbb{Q}/\mathbb{Z} (periodic) and \mathbb{Q} (torsion-free). Torsion groups An abelian group is called periodic or torsion, if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and second Prüfer theorems state that if A is a periodic group, and it either has a bounded exponent, i.e., nA = 0 for some natural number n, or is countable and the p-heights of the elements of A are finite for each p, then A is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups. The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Z}/p^m\mathbb{Z} in such a decomposition is an invariant of A. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion. In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian p-groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants. Torsion-free and mixed groups An abelian group is called torsion-free if every non-zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion-free abelian groups have been studied extensively: Free abelian groups, i.e. arbitrary direct sums of \mathbb{Z} Cotorsion and algebraically compact torsion-free groups such as the p-adic integers Slender groups An abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion-free is called mixed. If A is an abelian group and T(A) is its torsion subgroup, then the factor group A/T(A) is torsion-free. However, in general the torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of A, so A is not isomorphic to T(A) \oplus A/T(A). Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion-free groups. The additive group \mathbb{Z} of integers is torsion-free \mathbb{Z}-module. Invariants and classification One of the most basic invariants of an infinite abelian group A is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearly independent subset of A. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarily subgroups of \mathbb{Q} and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank r is a subgroup of \mathbb{Q}_r. On the other hand, the group of p-adic integers \mathbb{Z}_p is a torsion-free abelian group of infinite \mathbb{Z}-rank and the groups \mathbb{Z}_p^n with different n are non-isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups. The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in Lecture Notes in Mathematics for more recent findings. Additive groups of rings The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings (with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are: Tensor product A.L.S. Corner's results on countable torsion-free groups Shelah's work to remove cardinality restrictions Burnside ring Relation to other mathematical topics Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups. The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category \textbf{Ab}, the prototype of an abelian category. proved that the first-order theory of abelian groups, unlike its non-abelian counterpart, is decidable. Most algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable. There are still many areas of current research: Amongst torsion-free abelian groups of finite rank, only the finitely generated case and the rank 1 case are well understood; There are many unsolved problems in the theory of infinite-rank torsion-free abelian groups; While countable torsion abelian groups are well understood through simple presentations and Ulm invariants, the case of countable mixed groups is much less mature. Many mild extensions of the first-order theory of abelian groups are known to be undecidable. Finite abelian groups remain a topic of research in computational group theory. Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is: Undecidable in ZFC (Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms), the conventional axiomatic set theory from which nearly all of present-day mathematics can be derived. The Whitehead problem is also the first question in ordinary mathematics proved undecidable in ZFC; Undecidable even if ZFC is augmented by taking the generalized continuum hypothesis as an axiom; Positively answered if ZFC is augmented with the axiom of constructibility (see statements true in L). A note on typography Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word "abelian" is rare in that it is usually spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, the lack of capitalization being a tacit acknowledgment not only of the degree to which Abel's name has been institutionalized but also of how ubiquitous in modern mathematics are the concepts introduced by him. See also , the smallest non-abelian group Notes References Unabridged and unaltered republication of a work first published by the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, in 1978. External links Category:Abelian group theory Category:Properties of groups Category:Niels Henrik Abel	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group	2025-04-05T18:26:14.225494
2975	Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty	{{Short description\|1972 arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union}} {{more citations needed\|date=May 2017}} {{Infobox treaty \| name = Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty \| long_name \| image NIKE_Zeus.jpg \| image_alt \| caption Launch of a U.S. Army Nike Zeus missile, the first ABM system to enter widespread testing \| type = Bilateral treaty \| context \| date_drafted \| date_signed {{Start date\|dfyes\|1972\|5\|26}} \| location_signed = Moscow, Russian SFSR, USSR \| date_sealed \| date_effective \| condition_effective \| date_expiration \| date_expiry = 2002 (U.S. withdrawal) \| mediators \| negotiators \| original_signatories \| signatories {{Unbulleted list \|{{flagicon\|USA}} Richard Nixon \|{{flagicon\|URS}} Leonid Brezhnev}} \| parties = {{Unbulleted list \|{{flagcountry\|United States}} \|{{flagcountry\|Soviet Union}} }} \| ratifiers = {{Unbulleted list \|United States Senate \|Supreme Soviet}} \| depositor \| depositories \| citations \| language \| languages \| wikisource Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty \| wikisource1 \| footnotes }} The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, also known as the ABM Treaty or ABMT, was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. It was intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence.<ref>{{cite web \| url https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2021/12/the-us-exit-from-the-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-a-new-arms-race?langen \| title The U.S. Exit From the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race \| first1 James M. \| last1 Acton \| author-link1 James M. Acton \| website Carnegie Endowment for International Peace \| date 2021-12-13 \| access-date 2022-09-12 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220620225219/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/12/13/u.s.-exit-from-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-new-arms-race-pub-85977 \| archive-date 2022-06-20 \| url-status live \| df dmy-all }}</ref> Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles.<ref>{{cite book \| title Nuclear Weapons and International Behaviour \| date 1975-05-01 \| first1 Henry T. \| last1 Nash \| quote Each site would consist of 100 ABMs, or a total of 200 ABMs for each country \| quote-page 115 \| isbn 978-9028602656 \| publisher Kluwer Academic Publishers \| url-access registration \| url https://archive.org/details/nuclearweaponsin0000nash \| via Internet Archive \| df dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|page[https://archive.org/details/nuclearweaponsin0000nash/page/115/ 115]}} Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16332.htm \|titleTreaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems \|date 1972-05-26 \|website Bureau of Arms Control \|publisherUnited States Department of State \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220309024856/https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16332.htm \| archive-date 2022-03-09 \| url-status live \| access-date 2022-09-13 \| df dmy-all}}</ref> In 1997, five years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR's role in the treaty, with Russia assuming all rights and obligations as the successor state of the Soviet Union. Citing purported risks of nuclear blackmail, the United States unilaterally withdrew from the treaty in June 2002, leading to its termination. Background Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union had been developing missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) warheads. During this period, the US considered the defense of the US as part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defense, Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called North American Aerospace Defense Command). By the early 1950s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of an operational ABM system. Work started on a short-range, high-speed counterpart known as Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. In 1967, the US announced that Sentinel itself would be scaled down to the smaller and less expensive Safeguard. Soviet doctrine called for development of its own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A-35 ABM system and its successors, which remain operational to this day. The development of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) systems allowed a single ICBM to deliver as many as ten separate warheads at a time. An ABM defense system could be overwhelmed with the sheer number of warheads.<ref>{{cite book \| title International Arms Control: Issues and Agreements \| series Studies in International Security & Arms Control \| url https://archive.org/details/internationalarm00blac \| url-access registration \| first1 Coit D. \| last1 Blacker \| first2 Gloria \| last2 Duffy \| author-link1 Coit D. Blacker \| author-link2 Gloria Duffy \| publisherStanford University Press \| date 1976-06-01 \| isbn 978-0804712224 \| lccn 83040091 \| oclc 10751627 \| ol OL3184834M \| quote The dramatic proliferation of warheads allowed by MIRV ensured that even an extensive ABM effort could not limit the destructiveness of an American retaliatory strike \| quote-page 217 \| via Internet Archive \| df dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|page[https://archive.org/details/internationalarm00blac/page/217/mode/1up 217]}} Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would be economically unfeasible: The defenders required one rocket per incoming warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a single missile at a reasonable cost. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with decoys; R-36M heavy missiles carried as many as 40.<ref name"Decoys">{{cite news \| first1 Nick Paton \| last1 Walsh \| author-link1 Nick Paton Walsh \| url https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/20/russia.nickpatonwalsh \| title Moscow extends life of 144 cold war ballistic missiles \| access-date 2022-09-13 \| work The Guardian \| location London \| date 2002-08-19 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220508024133/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/20/russia.nickpatonwalsh \| archive-date 2022-05-08 \| url-status live \| issn 0261-3077 \| eissn 1756-3224 \| oclc 60623878 \| quote The missiles are considered particularly effective, since they send 50 warheads over their target area, 40 of which are decoys designed to outwit sophisticated missile defence systems of the kind planned by the Bush administration. \| df dmy-all}}</ref> These decoys would appear as warheads to an ABM, effectively requiring engagement of five times as many targets and rendering defense even less effective.ABM Treaty and Leonid Brezhnev signing SALT II treaty, 18 June 1979, in Vienna]] The United States first proposed an anti-ballistic missile treaty at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference during discussions between U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Alexei Kosygin. McNamara argued both that ballistic missile defense could provoke an arms race, and that it might provoke a first-strike against the nation fielding the defense. Kosygin rejected this reasoning. They were trying to minimize the number of nuclear missiles in the world.<ref>{{cite book \| title Contemporary Nuclear Debates: Missile Defenses, Arms Control, and Arms Races in the Twenty-First Century \| first1 Alexander T.J. \| last1 Lennon \| publisher MIT Press \| isbn 978-0262621663 \| date 2002 \| quote Although Kosygin rejected this reasoning at Glassboro, U.S.-Soviet negotiations in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) led in 1972 to the signing of the ABM Treaty that limited both sides to modest missile defense. \| quote-pages 4-5 \| url-access registration \| url https://archive.org/details/contemporarynucl0000unse \| via Internet Archive \| df dmy-all }}</ref>{{rp\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporarynucl0000unse/page/4/ 4-5]}} Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969 (SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos. The treaty was signed during the 1972 Moscow Summit on 26 May by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the U.S. Senate on 3 August 1972. The 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site.<ref name"FAS reference">{{cite web \| first1 Alicia \| last1 Godsberg \| date n.d. \| url https://fas.org/nuke/control/abmt/ \| title Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty \| series The Nuclear Information Project \| website Federation of American Scientists \| access-date 2022-09-12 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220120102829/https://nuke.fas.org/control/abmt/ \| archive-date 2022-01-20 \| url-status live \| df dmy-all}}</ref> The sites were Moscow for the USSR and the North Dakota Safeguard Complex for the US, which was already under construction.Missiles limited by the treatyThe Treaty limited only ABMs capable of defending against "strategic ballistic missiles", without attempting to define "strategic". It was understood that both ICBMs and SLBMs are obviously "strategic".<ref nameDaalder>{{cite journal \| title A tactical defence initiative for the Western Europe? \| journal Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists \| date May 1987 \| volume 43 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idpgYAAAAAMBAJ&pgPA37 \| access-date 8 February 2011 \| first1 Ivo H. \| last1 Daalder \| author-link1 Ivo Daalder \| page 37 \| doi 10.1080/00963402.1987.11459520 \| issn 0096-3402 \| eissn 1938-3282 \| lccn 48034039 \| oclc 470268256 \| via Google Books \| df dmy-all}}</ref>{{rp\|page37}} Neither country intended to stop the development of counter-tactical ABMs. The topic became disputable as soon as most potent counter-tactical ABMs started to be capable of shooting down SLBMs (SLBMs naturally tend to be much slower than ICBMs), nevertheless both sides continued counter-tactical ABM development.{{r\|Daalder\|page37}}After the SDI announcementOn 23 March 1983, Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program into ballistic missile defense which he claimed would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". Reagan was wary of mutual deterrence with what he referred to as the "Evil Empire", and wanted to escape the traditional confines of mutual assured destruction.<ref name"Garthoff_1994">{{cite book \| last1 Garthoff \| first1 Raymond L. \| author-link1 Raymond L. Garthoff \| title The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War \| url https://archive.org/details/greattransitiona00gart \| url-access registration \| date 1994-06-01 \| publisher Brookings Institution \| location Washington, D.C. \| isbn 978-0-8157-3060-6 \| lccn 93048153 \| oclc 29669297 \| ol OL22270560M \| via Internet Archive \| df dmy-all }}</ref>{{rp\|page[https://archive.org/details/greattransitiona00gart/page/99 99]}} The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov's overtures for peace. Andropov said, "It is time Washington stopped thinking up one option after another in search of the best way of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. To do this is not just irresponsible. It is madness".<ref>{{cite news \| work Pravda \| date 1983-03-27 \| title Replies by Yu. V. Andropov to Questions from a Correspondent of Pravda \| issn 0233-4275 \| df dmy-all\|postscript,}} cited in {{harvnb\|Garthoff\|1994\|p[https://archive.org/details/greattransitiona00gart/page/111 111]}}.</ref><ref name"NYT_19830327">{{cite news \| date 1983-03-27 \| title Excerpts From The Interview With Andropov \| url https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/27/world/excerpts-from-the-interview-with-andropov.html \| department \| work The New York Times \| language en \| edition National \| publisher \| publication-date \| agency Reuters, TASS \| page 14 \| issn 0362-4331 \| eissn 1553-8095 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150524142929/https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/27/world/excerpts-from-the-interview-with-andropov.html \| archive-date 2015-05-24 \| access-date 2022-09-13 \| via \| url-access limited \| url-status live \| quote Let there be no mistake about this in Washington. It is time they stopped devising one option after another in the search of the best ways of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. Engaging in this is not just irresponsible, it is insane. \| df = dmy-all}}</ref> Regardless of the opposition, Reagan gave every indication that SDI would not be used as a bargaining chip and that the United States would do all in its power to build the system. The Soviets were alarmed because the Americans might have been able to make a nuclear first strike possible. In The Nuclear Predicament, Beckman claims that one of the central goals of Soviet diplomacy was to terminate SDI. He went on to state that a surprise attack from the Americans would destroy much of the Soviet ICBM fleet, allowing SDI to defeat a "ragged" Soviet retaliatory response. The Soviets could not afford to ignore Reagan's new endeavour; therefore, their policy at the time was to enter negotiations with the Americans.<ref>Peter R. Beckman et al., The Nuclear Predicament: Nuclear Weapons In The Cold War And Beyond, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc, 1992), 183.</ref><ref>B. Wayne Howell, "[http://msupress.msu.edu/journals/rpa/pdf/2_RP_11-3_Howell_389-415.pdf Reagan and Reykjavík: Arms Control, SDI, and the Argument From Human Rights] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003180126/http://msupress.msu.edu/journals/rpa/pdf/2_RP_11-3_Howell_389-415.pdf \|date3 October 2011 }}," Rhetoric & Public Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2008, pp. 389–415</ref> By 1987, however, the USSR withdrew its opposition, concluding the SDI posed no threat and scientifically "would never work".<ref>{{cite book \| first1 Norman A. \| last1 Graebner \| first2 Richard Dean \| last2 Burns \| first3 Joseph M. \| last3 Siracusa \| title Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War \| page 95 \| date 2008 \| publisher Bloomsbury Academic \| isbn 978-0313352416}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|authorJulian E. Zelizer\|titleArsenal of Democracy: The Politics of National Security—From World War II to the War on Terrorism\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/arsenalofdemocra00zeli\|url-accessregistration\|year2010\|publisherBasic Books\|pages[https://archive.org/details/arsenalofdemocra00zeli/page/350 350]\|isbn=9780465015078}}</ref> SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped-for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that "missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in 1997. Theater Missile Defense negotiations The ABM Treaty prohibited "National Missile Defense" (NMD), but some interpreted it to allow more limited systems called "Theater Missile Defense" (TMD).<ref namedonnell1610/> This is because Article II of the treaty defined "ABM Systems" as those that "counter strategic missiles", which are typically defined as those with "intercontinental capability".<ref namedonnell1610/> Thus, TMD supporters argued, the treaty did not prohibit systems that defended against the countering of theatre ballistic missiles. The US had already developed and used such systems, including the Patriot Missile during the Gulf War.<ref namedonnell1610>{{cite journal\|titleThe Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Debate: Time for Some Clarification of the President's Authority to Terminate a Treaty\|journalVanderbilt Law Review\|volume35\|issue5\|authorJoshua O'Donnell\|pages=1610–1611}}</ref> The problem arose as TMD systems could also potentially be capable of countering strategic ballistic missiles, not just theatre ballistic missiles.<ref namedonnell1610/> The Clinton administration began negotiations with the Russian Government in 1993 to make amendments to the treaty. After much discussion, the American president, Bill Clinton, and his Russian counterpart, president Boris Yeltsin, signed an addendum to the treaty on September 9, 1997. According to these new agreements, the treaty permitted missile defense systems to have a velocity up to 5&nbsp;km/s as long as it had not been tested against targets traveling faster than 5&nbsp;km/s.<ref nameburns>{{cite book\|titleThe Missile Defense Systems of George W. Bush\|authorRichard Dean Burns\|pages62–63\|year2010\|publisher=Praegar Security International}}</ref> The 1997 agreement were eventually ratified by the Russian parliament on May 4, 2000 (along with START II treaty).<ref nameburns/> However, it was opposed in the U.S. Senate by some Republican senators led by the hawkish anti-communist Jesse Helms.<ref nameburns/> As a result, Clinton never submitted the agreement to Congress, fearing that Helms would stall their ratification or defeat it outright.<ref nameburns/>After the dissolution of the USSR; United States and Russia and George W. Bush sign SORT on 24 May 2002 in Moscow.]] Although the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991, in the view of the U.S. Department of State, the treaty continued in force.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://1997-2001.state.gov/www/global/arms/factsheets/missdef/mou.html \|title=Fact sheet: Memorandum of understanding on succession \|publisher=United States Department of State \|date=26 September 1997 \|quoteAlthough the ABM Treaty continues in force, it nevertheless has become necessary to reach agreement as to which New Independent States (NIS) would collectively assume the rights and obligations of the USSR under the Treaty.}}</ref> Russia was confirmed as the USSR's successor state in January 1992.<ref nameGraham/> Belarus and Ukraine were treated as successors at the ABM review conference in October 1993 and Kazakhstan was added as a successor shortly after.<ref nameGraham/> Belarus, Ukraine and Kazakhstan became regular participants at ABM treaty meetings known as Standing Consultative Commissions.<ref nameGraham>{{cite book\|titleDisarmament Sketches Three Decades of Arms Control and International Law\|authorThomas Graham\|page181\|publisherUniversity of Washington Press}}</ref> An additional memorandum of understanding was prepared in 1997, establishing Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as successor states to the Soviet Union, for the purposes of the treaty. The US considered only extending the obligations to these countries, and not all, as only these ones had significant ABM assets.<ref namejames/> As the ABM treaty allowed for only a single ABM deployment, the State Department deemed that only a single ABM system would be collectively permitted among Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Belarus.<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHcItu0lPNVsC&pgPA451 \| isbn9781139435321 \| titleUnited States Practice in International Law: Volume 1, 1999–2001 \| date9 January 2003 \| publisherCambridge University Press }}</ref> In the United States, there was a debate on whether after the dissolution of the USSR, the ABM Treaty was still in effect. A month after the USSR's dissolution, President George H. W. Bush affirmed the ABM Treaty and regarded Russia as USSR's successor.<ref namemike>{{cite news\|titleYes, There Is an ABM Treaty\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2000/09/04/yes-there-is-an-abm-treaty/6c5ebc71-afaf-48ac-a05a-186ec64c582d/\|newspaperWashington Post\|date2000-09-04\|author Michael J. Glennon}}</ref> Russia also accepted the ABM Treaty.<ref namemike/> Later on, President Clinton would affirm the validity of the treaty, as would President George W. Bush<ref namejames>{{cite book\|titleDefending America: The Case for Limited National Missile Defense\|authorJames M. Lindsay, Michael E. O'Hanlon\|year2004\|publisherBrookings Institution Press\|pages26–27}}</ref> (before he terminated it). However, some Americans (mostly conservative Republicans<ref namejames/>) argued that the treaty was not in effect because the USSR had no successor state. This was deemed inconsistent, as Russia did indeed inherit the USSR's obligations (including its UNSC seat, its debts, its agreements on nonproliferation etc.).<ref namejames/> Former CIA director James Woolsey argued that in order for the treaty to remain in force, both the US and Russia had to accept it, and that President Clinton could not accept it without Congressional approval.<ref namemike/> According to Michael J. Glennon, Congress acknowledged the treaty in 1996, when it passed a law restricting President Clinton's ability to modify the treaty.<ref namemike/><ref namejames/> Unilateral United States withdrawal On 13 December 2001, George W. Bush gave Russia notice of the United States' unilateral withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that required six months' notice before terminating the pact—the first time in recent history that the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty.<ref>{{cite web\|titleU.S. Withdrawal From the ABM Treaty: President Bush's Remarks and U.S. Diplomatic Notes\|urlhttp://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_01-02/docjanfeb02\|publisherArms Control Association\|access-date10 February 2014}}</ref> This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/12/20011213-2.html\|titleABM Treaty Fact Sheet\|website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov}}</ref> Supporters of the withdrawal claimed that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. However, the withdrawal had many foreign and domestic critics, who said the construction of a missile defense system would lead to fears of a U.S. nuclear first strike, as the missile defense could blunt the retaliatory strike that would otherwise deter such a preemptive attack. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation". Former U.S. Secretary of Defense William Perry also criticized the U.S. withdrawal as a very bad decision.<ref>New York Review of Books, 14 Jul. 2016, [https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/07/14/a-stark-nuclear-warning/ "A Stark Nuclear Warning"]</ref> Russian response The then-newly elected Russian president, Vladimir Putin, responded to the withdrawal by ordering a build-up of Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. capabilities, although he noted there was no immediate danger stemming from the US withdrawal.<ref>{{cite news \| lastMajumdar \| firstDave \| date1 March 2018 \| titleRussia's Nuclear Weapons Buildup Is Aimed at Beating U.S. Missile Defenses \| urlhttps://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-nuclear-weapons-buildup-aimed-beating-us-missile-24716 \| workThe National Interest \| locationUSA \| access-date26 October 2018 }}</ref> Russia and the United States signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on 24 May 2002. This treaty mandates cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, but without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads, and without any mechanism for enforcement. On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from ABM (having given notice 6 months earlier). The next day, Russia responded by declaring it would no longer abide by the START II treaty, which had not entered into force.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002-07/news/russia-declares-itself-longer-bound-start-ii\|titleRussia Declares Itself No Longer Bound by START II &#124; Arms Control Association\|website=www.armscontrol.org}}</ref> In interviews with Oliver Stone in 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that in trying to persuade Russia to accept US withdrawal from the treaty, both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush had tried, without evidence, to convince him of an emerging nuclear threat from Iran.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Stone \|first1Oliver \|titleThe Putin Interviews (Party 2 - 2:10) \|urlhttps://www.sho.com/the-putin-interviews \|websitewww.sho.com \|date12 June 2017 \|publisherShowtime \|access-date12 November 2018}}</ref> On 1 March 2018, Russian president Vladimir Putin, in an address to the Federal Assembly, announced the development of a series of technologically new "super weapons" in response to U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty.<ref>{{cite web \|date1 March 2018 \|titlePresidential Address to the Federal Assembly \|urlhttp://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/56957 \|websiteKremlin.ru \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2 March 2018 \|titleExclusive: Putin blames U.S. for arms race, denies 'new Cold War' \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/video/exclusive-putin-denies-cold-war-1174558275948 \|access-date\|websiteNBC News \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|titleBeyond Russia's Development of New weapons: Insights From Military Innovation and Emulation Theory\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/37010220\|journalBoletim de Conjuntura Nerint\|languageen\|date20 July 2018\|last1Dall\|first1Augusto César}}</ref> His statements were referred to by an anonymous US official under the Trump administration as largely "boastful untruths".<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Burrows \|first1Emma \|last2Hodge \|first2Nathan \|last3Starr \|first3Barbara \|last4Chance \|first4Matthew \|date2018-03-01 \|titlePutin claims new 'invincible' missile can pierce US defenses \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2018/03/01/europe/putin-russia-missile-intl/index.html \|access-date \|websiteCNN News \|languageen}}</ref> He said that the U.S. decision triggered the Russian Government to order an increase in Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. ones.<ref>{{cite news \|lastMajumdar \|firstDave \|date1 March 2018 \|titleRussia's Nuclear Weapons Buildup Is Aimed at Beating U.S. Missile Defenses \|workThe National Interest \|locationUSA \|urlhttps://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-nuclear-weapons-buildup-aimed-beating-us-missile-24716 \|access-date26 October 2018}}</ref> In 2021, Putin cited U.S. withdrawal among his grievances against the West: "We tried to partner with the West for many years, but the partnership was not accepted, it didn't work," often citing it as one of America's great post-Cold War sins.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Schwirtz \|first1Michael \|last2Troianovski \|first2Anton \|last3Al-Hlou \|first3Yousur \|last4Froliak \|first4Masha \|last5Entous \|first5Adam \|last6Gibbons-Neff \|first6Thomas \|date2022-12-17 \|titlePutin's War: The Inside Story of a Catastrophe \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/12/16/world/europe/russia-putin-war-failures-ukraine.html \|access-date \|issn0362-4331}}</ref>References{{Reflist\|30em}}External links {{Wikisource\|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}} [https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty], official State Department site, includes the [https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm#text text] of the treaty and the [https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm#protocolabm 1974 Protocol]. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm US Announcement of withdrawal (2001)] {{Presidency of Richard Nixon}} {{Nuclear weapons limitation treaty}} {{Authority control}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2018}} Category:1972 in the Soviet Union Category:1972 in the United States Category:Arms control treaties Category:Cold War treaties Category:Missile defense Category:Soviet Union–United States treaties Category:Russia–United States relations Category:Nuclear weapons governance Category:Treaties concluded in 1972 Category:Treaties entered into force in 1972 Category:Presidency of Richard Nixon Category:1972 in politics Category:Nuclear technology treaties Category:Russia–United States military relations Category:Treaties of Belarus Category:Treaties of Kazakhstan Category:Treaties of Ukraine Category:Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty	2025-04-05T18:26:14.243675
2983	Austria-Hungary	{{Short description\|1867–1918 empire in Central Europe}} {{For-multi\|the relations of the modern-day sovereign countries of Austria and Hungary\|Austria–Hungary relations}} {{Pp-extended\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2025}} {{Infobox country <!--Do not put a flag, due to lack of consensus on which one to use. Please see Talk:Austria-Hungary/Archive_6#RfC:_National_Flags_vs_Civil_Ensign-->\| conventional_long_name = Austro-Hungarian Monarchy \| native_name = {{Nowrap\|{{Small\|{{Native name\|de\|Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie}}}}<br/>{{Small\|{{Native name\|hu\|Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia}}}}}}<!-- for the dash in Hungarian, see https://helyesiras.mta.hu/helyesiras/default/akh12#264a and https://helyesiras.mta.hu/helyesiras/default/akh12#240l --> \| common_name = Austria-Hungary \| era = {{Hlist\|New Imperialism\|World War I}} \| event_start = 1867 Compromise \| year_start = 1867 \| date_start = 30 March \| event1 = Dual Alliance \| date_event1 = 7 October 1879 \| event2 = Bosnian Crisis \| date_event2 = 6 October 1908 \| event3 = July Crisis \| date_event3 = 28 June 1914 \| event4 = Invasion of Serbia \| date_event4 = 28 July 1914 \| event5 = Empire dissolved \| date_event5 = 31 October 1918 \| event6 = Austrian Republic \| date_event6 = 12 November 1918 \| event7 = Hungarian Republic \| date_event7 = 16 November 1918 \| event8 = {{Nowrap\|Treaty of Saint-Germain}} \| date_event8 = {{Nowrap\|10 September 1919}} \| event9 = Treaty of Trianon \| date_event9 = 4 June 1920 \| life_span = 1867–1918 <!-- DO NOT alter these without providing a reliable secondary source which explicitly describes these as legal successors or the like -->\| p1 Austrian Empire<!-- <ref name"britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAustria-Hungary summary \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|publisherbritannica.com \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/summary/Austria-Hungary \|access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref> --> \| flag_p1 = Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg \| s1 = Dissolution of Austria-Hungary#Successor states{{!}}{{Nowrap\|Legal successors:}} \| s2 = Republic of German-Austria{{!}}Austria \| s3 = Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946){{!}}Hungary \| s4 = Dissolution of Austria-Hungary#Successor states{{!}}{{Nowrap\|Other territorial successors:}} \| s5 = First Czechoslovak Republic{{!}}Czechoslovakia \| s6 = Second Polish Republic{{!}}Poland \| s7 = West Ukrainian People's Republic{{!}}West Ukraine \| s8 = Kingdom of Yugoslavia{{!}}Yugoslavia \| s9 = Kingdom of Romania{{!}}Romania \| s10 = Kingdom of Italy{{!}}Italy \| flag_s2 = Flag of Austria (1230–1934).svg \| flag_s3 = Flag of Hungary (1918-1919).svg \| flag_s5 = Flag of Bohemia.svg \| flag_s6 = Flag of Poland (1919–1927).svg \| flag_s7 = Flag of Ukraine (1917–1921).svg \| flag_s8 = Flag of Yugoslavia (1918–1941).svg \| flag_s9 = Flag of Romania.svg \| flag_s10 = Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg \| coa_size = 200px \| image_coat = Austro-hungarian coat of arms 1914.svg \| symbol_type {{Nowrap\|Coat of arms}} (1915–1918)<div style"margin-top:0.4em;">(see also: Flags of Austria-Hungary)</div> \| image_map {{Switcher\|\| Austria-Hungary in 1914 on the eve of World War I \|{{Legend\|Pink\|Cisleithania, or "Austria"}}{{Legend\|#c8ffc8 \|Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, or "Hungary"}}{{Legend\|#c8c8ff \|Condominium of Bosnia-Herzegovina}} \|Austria, Hungary, and the Condominium (1908) \|default1}} \| national_motto {{Langnf\|la\|Indivisibiliter ac inseparabiliter\|Indivisibly and inseparably\|breakyes}} \| national_anthem {{Lang\|de\|Gott erhalte, Gott beschütze}}<br/>(English: God preserve, God protect)<div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div><br/> \| official_languages = {{Plainlist\| * German * Hungarian<ref>Fisher, Gilman. The Essentials of Geography for School Year 1888–1889, p. [https://books.google.com/books?idTLkUAAAAYAAJ&pgPA47 47] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230506130310/https://books.google.com/books?idTLkUAAAAYAAJ&pgPA47 \|date6 May 2023}}. New England Publishing Company (Boston), 1888. Retrieved 20 August 2014.</ref> * Croatian (Croatia-Slavonia)}} \| common_languages German, Hungarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Ruthenian, Romanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Italian, Romani (Carpathian), Yiddish,{{Refn\|From the Encyclopædia Britannica (1878),<ref name"britannica9th">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAustria-Races \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|urlhttps://digital.nls.uk/encyclopaedia-britannica/archive/193638943 \|access-date25 March 2022 \|edition9th \|volumeIII \|page118 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305221604/https://digital.nls.uk/encyclopaedia-britannica/archive/193638943 \|archive-date5 March 2023}}</ref> although this "Romani" refers to the language of those described by the EB as "Gypsies"; the EB{{'}}s "Rumäni or Wallachian" refers to what is today known as Romanian; Rusyn and Ukrainian correspond to dialects of what the EB refers to as "Ruthenian"; and Yiddish was the common language of the Austrian Jews, although Hebrew was also known by many.}} and others (Friulian, Istro-Romanian, Istriot, Ladin) \| religion = {{Ubl\|76.6% Catholic{{Efn\|Including 64–66% Latin and 10–12% Eastern}}\| 8.9% Protestant{{Efn\|Lutheran, Reformed, Unitarian}}\| 8.7% Eastern Orthodox\|4.4% Jewish \| 1.3% Muslim}} \| religion_year 1910<ref name"Vaterlandskunde 1911">Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde, 1911, Tabelle 3.</ref> \| capital = {{Ubl\|Vienna{{Sfn\|Citype – Internet – Portal Betriebsges.m.b.H}} (Austria)\|Budapest (Hungary)}} \| largest_city = Vienna \| demonym = Austro-Hungarian \| government_type = Constitutional monarchy \| title_leader = Emperor-King (Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary) \| leader1 = Franz Joseph I \| year_leader1 = 1867–1916 \| leader2 = Karl I & IV \| year_leader2 = 1916–1918 \| title_representative = Minister-President of Austria \| representative1 = F. F. von Beust \| year_representative1 = 1867 (first) \| representative2 = Heinrich Lammasch \| year_representative2 = 1918 (last) \| title_deputy = Prime Minister of Hungary \| deputy1 = Gyula Andrássy \| year_deputy1 = 1867–1871 (first) \| deputy2 = Mihály Károlyi \| year_deputy2 = 1918 (last) \| legislature = Two national legislatures \| type_house1 = Imperial Council \| house1 {{Ubl\|stylemargin-bottom: 0.5em\|House of Lords\|House of Deputies}} \| type_house2 = Diet of Hungary \| house2 = {{Ubl\|House of Magnates\|House of Representatives}} \| stat_year1 = 1905 \| stat_area1 {{Cvt\|239977\|mi2\|km2\|0\|dispnumber}} \| ref_area1 <ref name"ah1911">{{Cite EB1911\|lastHeadlam\|firstJames Wycliffe\|wstitleAustria-Hungary\|volume3\|pages=2–39}}</ref> \| population_estimate 51,390,223<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://alex.onb.ac.at/static_tables/ost.htm \|titleÖsterreichische Statistik, Neue Folge \|publisherÖsterreichische Nationalbibliothek \|languagede \|archive-date1 June 2023 \|access-date13 September 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230601190358/https://alex.onb.ac.at/static_tables/ost.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/NEDA_1910_01/?pg16&layouts \|title1910. ÉVI NÉPSZÁMLÁLÁS 1. A népesség főbb adatai községek és népesebb puszták, telepek szerint (1912) &#124; Könyvtár &#124; Hungaricana \|date1912 \|publisherHungarian Central Statistical Office \|page17 \|languagehu \|archive-date23 December 2023 \|access-date13 September 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231223191654/https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/NEDA_1910_01/?pg16&layouts \|url-status=live }}</ref> \| population_estimate_year = 1910 \| currency = {{Plainlist\| * Gulden{{\}}florin {{Nwr\|(1867–1892)}} * Krone {{Nwr\|(1892–1918)}}}} \| iso3166code = omit <!--Do not put a flag, due to lack of consensus on which one to use. Please see Talk:Austria-Hungary#RfC:_National_Flags_vs_Civil_Ensign-->}} Austria-Hungary,{{Efn\|{{Langx\|de\|Österreich-Ungarn}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈøːstəʁaɪç ˈʊŋɡaʁn\|\|De-Österreich-Ungarn.ogg}}, {{Langx\|hu\|Ausztria–Magyarország}} {{IPA\|hu\|ˈɒustrijɒ ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ\|}}}} also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe{{Efn\|The concept of Eastern Europe is not firmly defined, and depending on the interpretation, some territories may be included or excluded from it; this holds for parts of Austria–Hungary as well, although the historical interpretation clearly places the monarchy in Central Europe.}} between 1867 and 1918. A military and diplomatic alliance, it consisted of two sovereign states with a single monarch who was titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.<ref>{{Cite web \|date6 June 2014 \|titleMartin Mutschlechner: The Dual Monarchy: two states in a single empire \|urlhttps://ww1.habsburger.net/en/chapters/dual-monarchy-two-states-single-empire \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230603151620/https://ww1.habsburger.net/en/chapters/dual-monarchy-two-states-single-empire \|archive-date3 June 2023 \|access-date=6 May 2023}}</ref> Austria-Hungary constituted the last phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg monarchy: it was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, following wars of independence by Hungary in opposition to Habsburg rule. It was dissolved shortly after Hungary terminated the union with Austria in 1918. One of Europe's major powers, Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous (after Russia and the German Empire), while being among the ten most populous countries worldwide. The Empire built up the fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSchulze \|firstMax-Stephan \|titleEngineering and Economic Growth: The Development of Austria–Hungary's Machine-Building Industry in the Late Nineteenth Century \|date1996 \|publisherPeter Lang \|locationFrankfurt am Main \|page295}}</ref> With the exception of the territory of the Bosnian Condominium, the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary were separate sovereign countries in international law.<ref>{{Cite book \|firstGyula \|lastAndrássy \|author-linkGyula Andrássy \|titleAz 1867-iki (i.e. ezernyolcszázhatvanhetediki) kiegyezésről \|date1896 \|publisherFranklin-Társulat \|page321}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Roman\|2003\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idEvCfTIsTOskC&pgPA401 401]}}<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSzávai \|firstFerenc Tibor \|titleKönyvszemle (Book review): Kozári Monika: A dualista rendszer (1867–1918): Modern magyar politikai rendszerek \|urlhttp://epa.oszk.hu/00600/00691/00036/15.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728084544/http://epa.oszk.hu/00600/00691/00036/15.html \|archive-date28 July 2013 \|access-date20 July 2012 \|websiteMagyar Tudomány \|page1542 \|languagehu \|issue=2006/12}}</ref> At its core was the dual monarchy, which was a real union between Cisleithania, the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire, and Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary). Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and Hungarian states were co-equal in power.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHungary - Dual Monarchy, Austro-Hungarian Empire, WWI {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Hungary/The-Dual-Monarchy-1867-1918 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240516173644/https://www.britannica.com/place/Hungary/The-Dual-Monarchy-1867-1918 \|archive-date16 May 2024 \|access-date16 May 2024 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies. For these purposes, "common" ministries of foreign affairs and defence were maintained under the monarch's direct authority, as was a third finance ministry responsible only for financing the two "common" portfolios. A third component of the union was the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, which negotiated the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement in 1868. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian joint military and civilian rule{{Sfn\|Minahan\|1998\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idRSxt-JB-PDkC&pgPA48 48]}} until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis.<ref name"b1911">"{{Cite EB1911\|firstKingsley Garland\|lastJayne\|wstitleBosnia and Herzegovina\|volume4\|pages=279–286}}</ref> Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I, which began with an Austro-Hungarian war declaration on the Kingdom of Serbia on 28 July 1914. It was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary and the First Austrian Republic were treated as its successors de jure, whereas the independence of the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Second Polish Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, respectively, and most of the territorial demands of the Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Italy were also recognized by the victorious powers in 1920. {{TOC limit\|5}} Name and terminology : 5 corona, 1908 – the bust of Franz Joseph I facing right surrounded by the legend "Franciscus Iosephus I, Dei gratia, imperator Austriae, rex Bohemiae, Galiciae, Illyriae et cetera et apostolicus rex Hungariae"]] The realm's official name was the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ({{Langx\|de\|Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie}}, {{IPA\|de\|ˈøːstəʁaɪçɪʃ ˈʊŋɡaʁɪʃə monaʁˈçiː\|IPA}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia}}, {{IPA\|hu\|ˈostraːk ˈmɒɟɒr ˈmonɒrɦijɒ\|IPA}}),<ref>{{Cite book \|lastVajda \|firstStephan \|titleFelix Austria. Eine Geschichte Österreichs: Manuscript of Franz Joseph I. \|date1980 \|publisherUeberreuter \|isbn3-8000-3168-X \|locationVienna \|languagede}}</ref> though in international relations Austria–Hungary was used ({{Langx\|de\|Österreich-Ungarn\|linksno}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Ausztria-Magyarország\|linksno}}). The Austrians also used the names {{Lang\|de\|k. u. k. Monarchie}} ({{Langx\|en\|k. u. k. monarchy}})<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPhilippoff \|firstEva \|titleL'Autriche-Hongorie: Politique et culture à travers les texts (1867–1918) \|date2002 \|publisherPresses Univ. Septentrion \|isbn2-8593-9739-6 \|locationVilleneuve d'Ascq \|page60 \|languagefr \|trans-titleDie Doppelmonarchie Österreich-Ungarn. Ein politisches Lesebuch (1867–1918) \|ol3631159M}})</ref> (in detail {{Langx\|de\|Kaiserliche und königliche Monarchie Österreich-Ungarn\|linksno}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Császári és Királyi Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia\|linksno}})<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKotulla \|firstMichael \|titleDeutsche Verfassungsgeschichte \|date17 August 2008 \|publisherSpringer Berlin Heidelberg \|isbn978-3-5404-8707-4}}</ref> and Danubian Monarchy ({{Langx\|de\|Donaumonarchie\|linksno}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Dunai Monarchia\|linksno}}) or Dual Monarchy ({{Langx\|de\|Doppel-Monarchie\|linksno}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Dual-Monarchia\|linksno}}) and The Double Eagle ({{Langx\|de\|Der Doppel-Adler\|linksno}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Kétsas\|links=no}}), but none of these became widespread either in Hungary or elsewhere. The realm's full name used in internal administration was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen. * German: {{Lang\|de\|Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der Heiligen Ungarischen Stephanskrone}} * Hungarian: {{Lang\|hu\|A Birodalmi Tanácsban képviselt királyságok és országok és a Magyar Szent Korona országai}} From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria–Hungary reflected their responsibility: * {{Lang\|de\|k. u. k.}} ({{Lang\|de\|kaiserlich und königlich}} or Imperial and Royal) was the label for institutions common to both parts of the monarchy, e.g., the {{Lang\|de\|k.u.k. Kriegsmarine}} (Navy) and, during the war, the {{Lang\|de\|k.u.k. Armee}} (Army). The common army changed its label from {{Lang\|de\|k.k.}} to {{Lang\|de\|k.u.k.}} only in 1889 at the request of the Hungarian government. * {{Lang\|de\|K. k.}} ({{Lang\|de\|kaiserlich-königlich}}) or Imperial-Royal was the term for institutions of Cisleithania (Austria); "royal" in this label referred to the Crown of Bohemia. * {{Lang\|de\|K. u.}} ({{Lang\|de\|königlich-ungarisch}}) or {{Lang\|de\|M. k.}} ({{Lang\|de\|Magyar királyi}}) ("Royal Hungarian") referred to Transleithania, the lands of the Hungarian crown. In the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, the autonomous institutions used k. ({{Lang\|de\|kraljevski}}) ("Royal"), since according to the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, the only official language in Croatia and Slavonia was Croatian, and the institutions were "only" Croatian. {{Anchor\|Names}}Following a decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868, the realm bore the official name Austro-Hungarian Monarchy/Realm ({{Langx\|de\|Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie/Reich}}; {{Langx\|hu\|Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia/Birodalom}}) in its international relations. It was often contracted to the "Dual Monarchy" in English or simply referred to as Austria.<ref name"eb9">{{Cite EB9\|lastKay\|firstDavid\|wstitleAustria\|volume3\|pages116–141}}</ref> Background and establishment {{Main\|Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867}} {{History of Austria\|boxwidth200px\|marginleft0\|marginright=0}} Following Hungary's defeat against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, the Habsburg Empire became more involved in the Kingdom of Hungary, and subsequently assumed the Hungarian throne. However, as the Ottomans expanded further into Hungary, the Habsburgs came to control only a small north-western portion of the former kingdom's territory. Eventually, following the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, all former territories of the Hungarian kingdom were ceded from the Ottomans to the Habsburgs. In the revolutions of 1848, the Kingdom of Hungary called for greater self-government and later even independence from the Austrian Empire. The ensuing Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was crushed by the Austrian military with Russian military assistance, and the level of autonomy that the Hungarian state had enjoyed was replaced with absolutist rule from Vienna.<ref name":0"/> This further increased Hungarian resentment of the Habsburg dominion.{{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2023}} In the 1860s, the Empire faced two severe defeats: its loss in the Second Italian War of Independence broke its dominion over a large part of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Veneto, Modena, Reggio, Tuscany, Parma and Piacenza) while defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 led to the dissolution of the German Confederation (of which the Habsburg emperor was the hereditary president) and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kann\|1974}}; {{Harvnb\|Sked\|1989}}; {{Harvnb\|Taylor\|1964}}</ref> These twin defeats gave the Hungarians the opportunity to remove the shackles of absolutist rule.{{Citation needed\|date=October 2023}} Realizing the need to compromise with Hungary in order to retain its great power status, the central government in Vienna began negotiations with the Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák. The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws were still valid, but conceded that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defence were "common" to Austria and Hungary. On 20 March 1867, the newly re-established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws to be accepted on 30 March. However, Hungarian leaders received word that the Emperor's formal coronation as King of Hungary on 8 June had to have taken place in order for the laws to be enacted within the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary.<ref name"Kann 1974">{{Harvnb\|Kann\|1974\|pp}}</ref> On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy. 1866–1878: beyond Lesser Germany of Francis Joseph I and Elisabeth Amalie at Matthias Church, Buda, 8 June 1867]] The Austro-Prussian War was ended by the Peace of Prague (1866) which settled the "German question" in favor of a Lesser German Solution.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLesaffer \|firstRandall \|date2021 \|titleThe War of 1866 and the Undoing of Vienna \|urlhttps://opil.ouplaw.com/page/War_1866_Undoing_Vienna/the-war-of-1866-and-the-undoing-of-vienna \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210731073436/https://opil.ouplaw.com/page/War_1866_Undoing_Vienna/the-war-of-1866-and-the-undoing-of-vienna \|archive-date31 July 2021 \|access-date31 July 2021 \|websiteOxford Public International Law}}</ref> Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, who was the foreign minister from 1866 to 1871, hated the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, who had repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to France for avenging Austria's defeat and attempted to negotiate with Emperor Napoleon III of France and Italy for an anti-Prussian alliance, but no terms could be reached. The decisive victory of the Prusso-German armies in the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent founding of the German Empire ended all hope of re-establishing Austrian influence in Germany, and Beust retired.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSchmitt \|firstHans A. \|date1968 \|titleCount Beust and Germany, 1866–1870: Reconquest, Realignment, or Resignation? \|journalCentral European History \|volume1 \|issue1 \|pages20–34 \|doi10.1017/S000893890001476X \|issn0008-9389 \|jstor4545476 \|s2cid144762108}}</ref> After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the Dual Monarchy turned to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic movements were gaining strength and demanding independence.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Roider \|first1Karl A. \|author-link1Karl A. Roider Jr. \|last2Wagnleitner \|first2Reinhold F. \|last3Fellner \|first3Fritz \|last4Zöllner \|first4Erich \|last5Ray \|first5Michael \|date28 November 2023 \|titleHistory of Austria \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Austria \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240408204700/https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Austria \|archive-date8 April 2024 \|access-date31 January 2024 \|publisherEncyclopedia Britannica \|languageen}}</ref> Both Russia and Austria–Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia took on the role of protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians. Austria envisioned a multi-ethnic, religiously diverse empire under Vienna's control. Count Gyula Andrássy, a Hungarian who was Foreign Minister (1871–1879), made the centerpiece of his policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLanger \|firstWilliam L. \|titleEuropean Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 \|date1950 \|edition2nd \|page20}}</ref> Government {{Main\|Government of Austria-Hungary}} The Compromise of 1867 turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania)<ref nameah1911/> in the western and northern half and the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania) in the eastern half.<ref nameah1911/> The government of Austria, which had ruled the monarchy until 1867, became the government of the Austrian part, and another government was formed for the Hungarian part. The common government (officially designated Ministerial Council for Common Affairs, or {{Lang\|de\|Ministerrat für gemeinsame Angelegenheiten}} in German) formed for the few matters of common national security - the Common Army, Navy, foreign policy and the imperial household, and the customs union.<ref name"Kann 1974"/> Although the two halves shared a common monarch and both foreign relations and defense were managed jointly, all other state functions were to be handled separately as there was no common citizenship.{{Efn\|"The kingdom of Hungary desired equal status with the Austrian empire, which was weakened by its defeat in the German (Austro-Prussian) War of 1866. The Austrian emperor Francis Joseph gave Hungary full internal autonomy, together with a responsible ministry, and in return it agreed that the empire should still be a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, thus maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad."<ref>Compromise of 1867, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007</ref>}}<ref nameah1911/>{{Sfn\|Roman\|2003\|page401}}<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe New Encyclopædia Britannica \|date2003 \|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica \|isbn=978-0-8522-9961-6}}</ref> Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments, each with its own prime minister: the Diet of Hungary (commonly known as the National Assembly) and the Imperial Council ({{Langx\|de\|Reichsrat}}) in Cisleithania. Each parliament had its own executive government, appointed by the monarch.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastPéter \|firstLászló \|titleHungary's Long Nineteenth Century: Constitutional and Democratic Traditions in a European Perspective \|date2011 \|publisherKoninklijke Brill \|locationLeiden, the Netherlands \|isbn 978-9-0042-2421-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastBalázs \|firstÉva H. \|titleHungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800: An Experiment in Enlightened Absolutism \|date1997 \|publisherCentral European University Press \|isbn978-9-6391-1603-0 \|page=320}}</ref> After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule{{Sfn\|Minahan\|1998\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idRSxt-JB-PDkC&pgPA48 48]}} until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis with the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia and Montenegro.<ref nameb1911/> Relations during the half-century after 1867 between the two parts of the dual monarchy featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. These matters were determined by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, in which common expenditures were allocated 70% to Austria and 30% to Hungary. This division had to be renegotiated every ten years. There was political turmoil during the build-up to each renewal of the agreement. By 1907, the Hungarian share had risen to 36.4%.<ref name"kronenbitter">{{Cite book \|lastKronenbitter \|firstGünther \|title"Krieg im Frieden". Die Führung der k.u.k. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914 \|date2003 \|publisherVerlag Oldenbourg \|isbn3-4865-6700-4 \|locationMunich \|page150 \|langde}}</ref> The disputes culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo. The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy.<ref name"Taylor 1964">{{Harvnb\|Taylor\|1964\|pp}}</ref> Demographics {{Main\|Ethnic and religious composition of Austria-Hungary}} {{See also\|Trialism in Austria-Hungary\|United States of Greater Austria\|Magyarization\|Austro-Slavism\|Panslavism}} }} ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary, 1885]] In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights (the next such laws were in Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the first acts of its restored Parliament was to pass a Law on Nationalities (Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of legislation and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It did not recognize non-Hungarians to have rights to form states with any territorial autonomy.{{Sfn\|Gábór\|2010}} Article 19 of the 1867 "Basic State Act" (Staatsgrundgesetz), valid only for the Cisleithanian (Austrian) part of Austria–Hungary,{{Sfn\|Staatsgrundgesetz 1867}} said: {{Blockquote\|All races of the empire have equal rights, and every race has an inviolable right to the preservation and use of its own nationality and language. The equality of all customary languages ("{{Lang\|de\|landesübliche Sprachen}}") in school, office and public life, is recognized by the state. In those territories in which several races dwell, the public and educational institutions are to be so arranged that, without applying compulsion to learn a second country language ("{{Lang\|de\|Landessprache}}"), each of the races receives the necessary means of education in its own language.{{Sfn\|Headlam\|1911\|p39}}}} The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it was not clear which languages could be regarded as "customary". The Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite, demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in every part of the empire. German nationalists, especially in the Sudetenland (part of Bohemia), looked to Berlin in the new German Empire.<ref>{{Cite journal \|date1980 \|titleThe Impact of the Dual Alliance on the Germans in Austria and Vice-Versa \|journalEast Central Europe \|volume7 \|issue2 \|pages288–309 \|doi10.1163/187633080X00202 \|author-first1Solomon \|author-last1Wank \|author-first2Barbara \|author-last2Jelavich}}</ref> The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities (Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual (but not also communal) rights to use their language in offices, schools (although in practice often only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and municipalities (if 20% of the deputies demanded it). Beginning with the 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non-Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law.<ref>{{Cite book \|first1Robert \|last1Bideleux \|first2Ian \|last2Jeffries \|titleA History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change \|publisherRoutledge \|date1998 \|page366}}</ref> After 1875, all Slovak language schools higher than elementary were closed, including the only three high schools (gymnasiums) in Revúca (Nagyrőce), Turčiansky Svätý Martin (Turócszentmárton) and Kláštor pod Znievom (Znióváralja). Language was, as a proxy for ethnicity, one of the most contentious issues in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own languages, as well as in the "dominant" languages—Hungarian and German. By the "Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister Count Kasimir Felix Badeni gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The Crown dismissed Badeni.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0crdKPvRGnsC \|titleThe Austrian Lyric \|date2004 \|publisherManey Publishing for the Modern Humanities Research Association \|isbn978-1-9043-5040-8 \|editor-lastBeniston \|editor-firstJudith \|page8 \|access-date14 November 2023 \|editor-last2Vilain \|editor-first2Robert \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231114234321/https://books.google.com/books?id0crdKPvRGnsC \|archive-date14 November 2023 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Italian was regarded as an old "culture language" ({{Lang\|de\|Kultursprache}}) by German intellectuals and had always been granted equal rights as an official language of the Empire, but the Germans had difficulty in accepting the Slavic languages as equal to their own. On one occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Grün) entered the Diet of Carniola carrying what he claimed to be the whole corpus of Slovene literature under his arm; this was to demonstrate that the Slovene language could not be substituted for German as the language of higher education. The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at least in Austria. Since 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with Italian in Dalmatia. Beginning in 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the Diet of Carniola and in the capital Laibach (Ljubljana); they replaced German with Slovene as their primary official language. Galicia designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary language of government.<ref>{{Citation \|lastWierzbieniec \|firstWacław \|titleJewish Self-Government in Galicia, 1815–1914 \|date28 December 2021 \|workSources on Jewish Self-Government in the Polish Lands from Its Inception to the Present \|pages283–351 \|urlhttps://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004501614/BP000013.xml \|access-date30 June 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240604040536/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004501614/BP000013.xml \|archive-date4 June 2024 \|url-statuslive \|publisherBrill \|languageen \|isbn978-9-0045-0161-4}}</ref> As of June 1907, all public and private schools in Hungary were obliged to ensure that after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently in Hungarian. This led to the further closing of minority schools, devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages. The two kingdoms sometimes divided their spheres of influence. According to Misha Glenny in his book, The Balkans, 1804–1999, the Austrians responded to Hungarian support of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. In recognition that he reigned in a multi-ethnic country, Emperor Franz Joseph spoke (and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently, and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree. , late 19th century]] The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their language to German. The Czechs had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century and German immigrants had begun settling the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a minority to Czech speakers in the cities of Prague and Pilsen (while retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of Brno (Brünn)). The old Charles University in Prague, hitherto dominated by German speakers, was divided into German and Czech-speaking faculties in 1882.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCharles University {{!}} Czech Republic, 14th Century, Faculty {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Charles-University \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240629171720/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Charles-University \|archive-date29 June 2024 \|access-date30 June 2024 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of Romanians in Transylvania and in the eastern Banat, Slovaks in today's Slovakia, and Croats and Serbs in the crown lands of Croatia and of Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the provinces known as the Vojvodina (today's northern Serbia). The Romanians and the Serbs began to agitate for union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the newly founded states of Romania (1859–1878) and Serbia.{{Citation needed\|date=November 2023}} ]] Hungary's leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they granted a large measure of autonomy to Croatia in 1868. To some extent, they modeled their relationship to that kingdom on their own compromise with Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a trialist Austro-Hungaro-Croatian monarchy; among the supporters of the idea were Archduke Leopold Salvator, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and emperor and king Charles I who during his short reign supported the trialist idea only to be vetoed by the Hungarian government and Count István Tisza. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918.<ref name"Budisavljević">Budisavljević, Srđan, Stvaranje-Države-SHS, Creation of the state of SHS, Zagreb, 1958, p. 132–133.</ref>Ethnic relationsIn Istria, the Istro-Romanians, a small ethnic group composed by around 2,600 people in the 1880s,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNicoară \|firstVincențiu \|date1890 \|titleTransilvania \|urlhttp://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/8180/1/BCUCLUJ_FP_279996_1890_021_001.pdf \|url-statuslive \|journalAsociația Transilvană Pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român \|languagero \|pages3–9 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/8180/1/BCUCLUJ_FP_279996_1890_021_001.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022}}</ref> suffered severe discrimination. The Croats of the region, who formed the majority, tried to assimilate them, while the Italian minority supported them in their requests for self-determination.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWeigand \|firstGustav \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/romania21pariuoft \|titleRomania. Recueil trimestriel consacré à l'étude des langes et des littératures romanes \|date1892 \|publisherÉmile Bouillon \|pages240–256 \|languagefr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastZbuchea \|firstGheorghe \|titleO istorie a Românilor din Peninsula Balcanică: secolul XVIII-XX \|date1999 \|publisherBiblioteca Bucureștilor \|isbn978-9-7398-9188-2 \|locationBucharest \|languagero}}</ref> In 1888, the possibility of opening the first school for the Istro-Romanians teaching in the Romanian language was discussed in the Diet of Istria. The proposal was very popular among them. The Italian deputies showed their support, but the Croat ones opposed it and tried to show that the Istro-Romanians were in fact Slavs.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPopovici \|firstIosif \|titleDialectele române din Istria \|date1914 \|publishernone \|volume9 \|locationHalle an der Saale \|pages21–32 \|languagero}}</ref> During Austro-Hungarian rule, the Istro-Romanians lived under poverty conditions,<ref name"istro">{{Cite book \|lastBurada \|firstTeodor \|urlhttps://scribd.com/document/377567689/Teodor-T-Burada-O-calatorie-in-satele-romanesti-din-Istria-1896-reed-2003 \|titleO călătorie prin satele românești din Istria \|date1896 \|publisherTipografia Națională \|locationIași \|pages119–198 \|access-date7 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210301195244/https://www.scribd.com/document/377567689/Teodor-T-Burada-O-calatorie-in-satele-romanesti-din-Istria-1896-reed-2003 \|archive-date1 March 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and those living in the island of Krk were fully assimilated by 1875.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSpicijarić Paškvan \|firstNina \|date2014 \|titleVlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/326033781 \|journalStudii și Cercetări – Actele Simpozionului "Banat – Istorie și Multiculturalitate" \|languagehr \|pages345–358}}</ref> Great Synagogue in Pécs, built by the Neolog Jewish community in 1869]] in Leopoldstadt, Vienna, 1915]] Around 1900, Jews numbered about two million in the whole territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire;<ref>{{Cite book \|lastVital \|firstDavid \|titleA People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939 \|date1999 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-1982-1980-4 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idvZmSV0c0f5MC&pgPA299 299]}}</ref> their position was ambiguous. The populist and antisemitic politics of the Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazism.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastZacharia \|firstFareed \|author-linkFareed Zacharia \|titleThe Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad \|date2003 \|publisherNorton \|page60}}</ref> Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but the governments of Vienna and Budapest did not initiate pogroms or implement official antisemitic policies.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2013}} They feared that such ethnic violence could ignite other ethnic minorities and escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among voters in the parliamentary elections.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2013}} In that period, the majority of Jews in Austria–Hungary lived in small towns (shtetls) in Galicia and rural areas in Hungary and Bohemia; however, they had large communities and even local majorities in the downtown districts of Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Kraków and Lwów. Of the pre-World War I military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command.{{Sfn\|Rothenberg\|1976\|p118}} While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps.{{Sfn\|Rothenberg\|1976\|p128}} Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria–Hungary as a golden era of their history.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Wyman \|first1David S. \|author-link1David S. Wyman \|titleThe World Reacts to the Holocaust \|last2Rosenzveig \|first2Charles H. \|page474}}</ref> By 1910 about 900,000 religious{{Clarify\|dateAugust 2022\| At the time, Judaism, particularly in this region, were undergoing a period of polarization where the population that identified as Jewish was split between notably discernible secular vs religious denominations}} Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire the generally fiercely patriotic Hungarian Jews were securing the tenuous Hungarian majority in the Kingdom of Hungary.{{Efn\|From 45,5% to 50,4%.<ref>{{Cite book \|firstRandolph L. \|lastBraham \|titleThe Politics of Genocide \|page5}}</ref>}} Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHungary – Social Changes \|urlhttp://countrystudies.us/hungary/25.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121014133338/http://countrystudies.us/hungary/25.htm \|archive-date14 October 2012 \|access-date19 November 2013 \|publisherCountrystudies.us}}</ref> 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Jews accounted for 48.5% of all physicians,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLászló \|firstSebők \|date2012 \|titleA magyarországi zsidók a számok tükrében \|trans-titleThe Jews in Hungary in the light of the numbers \|urlhttp://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150220144745/http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben \|archive-date20 February 2015 \|languagehu}}</ref> and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2012 \|editor-lastKarady \|editor-firstVictor \|editor2-lastNagy \|editor2-firstPeter Tabor \|titleThe numerus clausus in Hungary \|urlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/11100/11109/11109.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mek.oszk.hu/11100/11109/11109.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|page42}}</ref> Note: The numbers of Jews were reconstructed from religious censuses. They did not include the people of Jewish origin who had converted to Christianity, or the number of atheists.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2018}} Among many Hungarian parliament members of Jewish origin, the most famous Jewish members in Hungarian political life were Minister of Justice Vilmos Vázsonyi, Minister of War Samu Hazai, Minister of Finance János Teleszky, and ministers of trade {{ill\|János Harkányi\|hu\|Harkányi János (politikus)}} and {{ill\|József Szterényi\|hu\|Szterényi József}}. Education {{More citations needed\|section\|dateApril 2023}}Universities in CisleithaniaThe first university in the Austrian half of the Empire (Charles University) was founded by Emperor Charles IV in Prague in 1347, the second oldest university was the Jagiellonian University established in Kraków by the King of Poland Casimir III the Great in 1364, while the third oldest (University of Vienna) was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMühlberger \|firstKurt \|date27 February 2015 \|titleThe beginnings of the Alma Mater Rudolphina \|urlhttps://geschichte.univie.ac.at/en/topics/beginnings-alma-mater-rudolphina \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221201184932/https://geschichte.univie.ac.at/en/topics/beginnings-alma-mater-rudolphina \|archive-date1 December 2022 \|access-date20 June 2019 \|work=650 Plus}}</ref> The higher educational institutions were predominantly German, but beginning in the 1870s, language shifts began to occur.<ref name"StraussPT196">{{Cite book \|lastStrauss \|firstJohann \|chapter7. Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire \|editor-lastMurphey \|editor-firstRhoads \|titleImperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule \|volume18 \|seriesBirmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies \|publisherRoutledge \|date7 July 2016 \|isbn978-1-3171-1844-2 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idgY-kDAAAQBAJ&pgPT196 196]}}</ref> These establishments, which in the middle of the 19th century had had a predominantly German character, underwent in Galicia a conversion into Polish national institutions, in Bohemia and Moravia a separation into German and Czech ones. Thus Germans, Czechs and Poles were provided for. But now the smaller nations also made their voices heard: the Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians demanded at first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of rural East Galicia, a national partition of the Polish University of Lwów. Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian demonstrations and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were no longer content with the reversion of a few separate professorial chairs, and with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on 28 January 1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing to the war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a university of their own on grounds of population (in 1910 they numbered 783,000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of their ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty of laws should be created; the difficulty lay in the choice of the place. The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover the Southern Slavs of the city wished it kept free from an Italian educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a compromise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation to be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years to Italian national territory. The German National Union (Nationalverband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the Italian university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous foundation of Slovene professorial chairs in Prague and Cracow, and preliminary steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav university in Laibach. But in spite of the constant renewal of negotiations for a compromise it was impossible to arrive at any agreement, until the outbreak of war left all the projects for a Ruthenian university at Lemberg, a Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech one in Moravia, unrealized.Universities in TransleithaniaIn the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the troops of Péter Csák and it was never rebuilt. A university was established by Louis I of Hungary in Pécs in 1367. Sigismund established a university at Óbuda in 1395. Another, Universitas Istropolitana, was established 1465 in Pozsony (now Bratislava in Slovakia) by Mattias Corvinus. None of these medieval universities survived the Ottoman wars. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635 and moved to Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University today. The world's first institute of technology was founded in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (since 1920 Banská Štiavnica, now Slovakia) in 1735. Its legal successor is the University of Miskolc in Hungary.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMiskolc and the University \|urlhttp://oldwww.uni-miskolc.hu/uni/univ/booklet/MandU.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120301055508/http://oldwww.uni-miskolc.hu/uni/univ/booklet/MandU.html \|archive-date1 March 2012 \|access-date28 January 2014}}</ref> The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with university rank and structure. Its legal predecessor the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBudapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem (Budapest University of Technology and Economics) — moveonnet \|urlhttp://www.moveonnet.eu/directory/institution?idHUBUDAPES02 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121119002524/http://www.moveonnet.eu/directory/institution?idHUBUDAPES02 \|archive-date19 November 2012 \|access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref> The high schools included the universities, of which Hungary possessed five, all maintained by the state: at Budapest (founded in 1635), at Kolozsvár (founded in 1872), and at Zagreb (founded in 1874). Newer universities were established in Debrecen in 1912, and Pozsony university was reestablished after a half millennium in 1912. They had four faculties: theology, law, philosophy and medicine (the university at Zagreb was without a faculty of medicine). There were in addition ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were attended by 1,569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in 1844, which contained four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1,772 pupils, was also considered a high school. There were in Hungary in 1900 forty-nine theological colleges, twenty-nine Catholic, five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish. Among special schools the principal mining schools were at Selmeczbánya, Nagyág and Felsőbánya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvár; and there was a school of forestry at Selmeczbánya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Déva and Zagreb, and a naval school at Fiume. There were in addition a number of training institutes for teachers and a large number of schools of commerce, several art schools – for design, painting, sculpture, and music.{{Citation needed\|date=November 2023}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Literacy in Kingdom of Hungary, incl. male and female<ref>{{Cite book \|first1Robert B. \|last1Kaplan \|titleLanguage Planning and Policy in Europe \|last2Richard B. Baldauf \|date2005 \|publisherMultilingual Matters \|isbn978-1-8535-9811-1 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idei6TGveKcuEC&pgPA56 56]}}</ref> \|- ! Major nationalities in Hungary ! Rate of literacy in 1910 \|- \|German \| 70.7% \|- \|Hungarian \| 67.1% \|- \|Croatian \| 62.5% \|- \|Slovak \| 58.1% \|- \|Serbian \| 51.3% \|- \|Romanian \| 28.2% \|- \|Ruthenian \| 22.2% \|} Economy {{Main\|Economy of Austria-Hungary}} banknote of the Dual Monarchy, using all official and recognized languages (the reverse side was Hungarian)]] and Long Depression followed.]] The heavily rural Austro-Hungarian economy slowly modernised after 1867. Railroads opened up once-remote areas, and cities grew. Many small firms promoted capitalist way of production. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The first Austrian stock exchange (the Wiener Börse) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock exchange of the Kingdom of Hungary (the Budapest Stock Exchange) was opened in Budapest in 1864. The central bank (Bank of issue) was founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed into Austro-Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both Vienna and Budapest.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBarcsay \|firstThomas \|date1991 \|titleBanking in Hungarian Economic Development, 1867–1919 \|urlhttp://www.thebhc.org/publications/BEHprint/v020/p0216-p0225.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141117205044/http://www.thebhc.org/publications/BEHprint/v020/p0216-p0225.pdf \|archive-date17 November 2014 \|access-date28 August 2016 \|publisherRyeson Polytechnical Institute \|page216}}</ref> The central bank was governed by alternating Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice-governors.{{Sfn\|Sugar\|Hanak\|1990\|p262}} Austria-Hungary also became the world's third-largest manufacturer and exporter of electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances, and power generation apparatus for power plants, after the United States and the German Empire,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPublishers' Association, Booksellers Association of Great Britain and Ireland \|titleThe Publisher \|volume133 \|date1930 \|page355}}</ref> and it constructed Europe's second-largest railway network, after the German Empire. In 2000, a study estimated that GDP in constant national prices in 1913 was 19,140.8 million for Cisleithania and 10,971.6 million for Transleithania, a combined 30,112.4 million krone.<ref name"Schulze1">{{Cite journal \|lastSchulze \|firstMax-Stephan \|date2000 \|titlePatterns of growth and stagnation in the late nineteenth century Habsburg economy \|journalEuropean Review of Economic History \|volume4 \|issue3 \|pages311-340, 337-338 \|doi10.1017/S1361491600000095\|urlhttp://eprints.lse.ac.uk/4370/1/__libfile_REPOSITORY_Content_Schulze%2C%20M_Patterns%20of%20growth%20and%20stagnation%20in%20the%20late%20nineteenth%20century%20Habsburg%20economy_Patterns%20of%20growth%20and%20stagnation%20in%20the%20late%20nineteenth%20century%20Habsburg%20economy%20%28LSE%20RO%29.pdf }}</ref>{{Efn\|Bosnia-Herzegovina is excluded from these estimates.}} According to a 2005 study, GDP (PPP) in 1913 was 105,515 million 1990 Int$, the fifth-largest in Europe.{{Sfn\|Schulze\|2005\|p=79}} The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).<ref name"economic"/> However, in a comparison with Germany and Britain, the Austro-Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged considerably, as sustained modernization had begun much later. Like the German Empire, that of Austria–Hungary frequently employed liberal economic policies and practices. In 1873, the old Hungarian capital Buda and Óbuda (Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into Hungary's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. Economic growth centered on Vienna and Budapest, the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine region and the Bohemian lands. In the later years of the 19th century, rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result, wide disparities of development existed within the empire. In general, the western areas became more developed than the eastern ones. The Kingdom of Hungary became the world's second-largest flour exporter after the United States.{{Sfn\|Schulze\|1996\|page80}} The large Hungarian food exports were not limited to neighbouring Germany and Italy: Hungary became the most important foreign food supplier of the large cities and industrial centres of the United Kingdom.<ref>Commercial Relations of the United States: Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, Etc., of Their Consular Districts. Publisher: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1881 (page: 371)</ref> Galicia, which has been described as the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, experienced near-constant famines, resulting in 50,000 deaths a year.<ref>{{Cite book \|firstNorman \|lastDavies \|titleGod's Playground A History of Poland: Volume II: 1795 to the Present \|date24 February 2005 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-1992-5340-1 \|pages[https://books.google.com/books?id9Tbed6iMNLEC&pgPA106 106–108]}}</ref> The Istro-Romanians of Istria were also poor, as pastoralism lost strength and agriculture was not productive.<ref name"istro"/> However, by the end of the 19th century, economic differences gradually began to even out as economic growth in the eastern parts of the monarchy consistently surpassed that in the western. The strong agriculture and food industry of the Kingdom of Hungary with the centre of Budapest became predominant within the empire and made up a large proportion of the export to the rest of Europe. Meanwhile, western areas, concentrated mainly around Prague and Vienna, excelled in various manufacturing industries. This division of labour between the east and west, besides the existing economic and monetary union, led to an even more rapid economic growth throughout Austria–Hungary by the early 20th century. However, since the turn of the twentieth century, the Austrian half of the Monarchy could preserve its dominance within the empire in the sectors of the Industrial Revolution, but Hungary had a better position in the modern industries of the Second Industrial Revolution, in these modern sectors of the second industrial revolution (like machine building industry and electric industry) the Austrian competition could not become dominant.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBerend \|firstIván T. \|author-linkIván T. Berend \|titleCase Studies on Modern European Economy: Entrepreneurship, Inventions, and Institutions \|date2013 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-1359-1768-5 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idL_GEE9YDgtYC&pgPA151 151]}}</ref> Infrastructure Telecommunications Telegraph The first telegraph connection (Vienna—Brno—Prague) had started operation in 1847.{{Sfn\|Fichtner\|2009\|p69}} In Hungarian territory the first telegraph stations were opened in Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava) in December 1847 and in Buda in 1848. The first telegraph connection between Vienna and Pest–Buda (later Budapest) was constructed in 1850,{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2024}} and Vienna–Zagreb in 1850.<ref name"Brzojav 1850">{{Cite web \|date28 September 2012 \|titleTelegraph Vienna-Zagreb \|urlhttp://zg-magazin.com.hr/na-danasnji-dan-pusten-u-rad-prvi-hrvatski-brzojav \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160311131712/http://zg-magazin.com.hr/na-danasnji-dan-pusten-u-rad-prvi-hrvatski-brzojav \|archive-date11 March 2016 \|access-date11 March 2016 \|language=hr}}</ref> Austria subsequently joined a telegraph union with German states.<ref>Kiesewetter, Herbert: Industrielle Revolution in Deutschland. Regionen als Wachstumsmotoren. Stuttgart, Franz Steiner 2004, {{ISBN\|3-5150-8613-7}}, p. 246.</ref> In the Kingdom of Hungary, 2,406 telegraph post offices operated in 1884.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTelegráf – Lexikon \|urlhttp://www.kislexikon.hu/telegraf.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140429191923/http://www.kislexikon.hu/telegraf.html \|archive-date29 April 2014 \|access-date25 March 2013 \|publisherKislexikon.hu}}</ref> By 1914 the number of telegraph offices reached 3,000 in post offices and further 2,400 were installed in the railway stations of the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name"Kettős kötődés">{{Cite web \|last1Dániel Szabó \|last2Zoltán Fónagy \|last3István Szathmári \|last4Tünde Császtvay \|titleKettős kötődés : Az Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia (1867–1918) \|urlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01905/html/index7.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130731194539/http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01905/html/index7.html \|archive-date31 July 2013}}</ref> Telephone The first telephone exchange was opened in Zagreb (8 January 1881),<ref>Museum of Moslavina Kutina, Jasmina Uroda Kutlić: 'Telefon – čudo Novoga vijeka' (Telephone the miracle of Modern era)</ref><ref name"Telephone line in Zagreb">{{Cite web \|title125 godina telefonije u Hrvatskoj (125 years of Telephony in Croatia) \|urlhttp://base.ht.hr/odgovornost/muzej_arhiva2006-m125.asp \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160311191352/http://base.ht.hr/odgovornost/muzej_arhiva2006-m125.asp \|archive-date11 March 2016 \|access-date11 March 2016 \|languagehr}}</ref><ref>HT Muzej (Croatian Telecom Museum): '125 godina telefonije u Hrvatskoj' (125 years of Telephony in Croatia), Zagreb 2006., P.-2,</ref> the second was in Budapest (1 May 1881),<ref>Telephone History Institute: Telecom History – Issue 1 – Page 14</ref> and the third was opened in Vienna (3 June 1881).<ref>Thomas Derdak, Adéle Hast: International Directory of Company Histories – Volume 5 – Page 315</ref> Initially telephony was available in the homes of individual subscribers, companies and offices. Public telephone stations appeared in the 1890s, and they quickly became widespread in post offices and railway stations. Austria–Hungary had 568&nbsp;million telephone calls in 1913; only two Western European countries had more phone calls: the German Empire and the United Kingdom. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was followed by France with 396&nbsp;million telephone calls and Italy with 230&nbsp;million phone calls.{{Sfn\|Broadberry\|O'Rourke\|2010\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idYHk0z-ujS3AC&pgPA80 80]}} In 1916, there were 366&nbsp;million telephone calls in Cisleithania, among them 8.4&nbsp;million long distant calls.<ref>Brousek; Karl M.: Die Großindustrie Böhmens 1848–1918, München: Oldenbourg 1987, {{ISBN\|978-3-4865-1871-9}}, p. 31.</ref> All telephone exchanges of the cities, towns and larger villages in Transleithania were linked until 1893.{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2024}} By 1914, more than 2000 settlements had telephone exchange in Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name"Kettős kötődés"/>Electronic audio broadcastingThe Telefon Hírmondó (Telephone Herald) news and entertainment service was introduced in Budapest in 1893. Two decades before the introduction of radio broadcasting, people could listen to political, economic and sports news, cabaret, music and opera in Budapest daily. It operated over a special type of telephone exchange system.Rail transport {{Main\|Imperial Austrian State Railways\|Hungarian State Railways}} By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary reached {{Convert\|43280\|km\|abbroff}}. In Western Europe only Germany had more extended railway network ({{Cvt\|63,378\|km\|dispcomma}}); the Austro-Hungarian Empire was followed by France ({{Cvt\|40,770\|km\|dispcomma}}), the United Kingdom ({{Cvt\|32,623\|km\|dispcomma}}), Italy ({{Cvt\|18,873\|km\|dispcomma}}) and Spain ({{Cvt\|15,088\|km\|dispcomma}}).{{Sfn\|Broadberry\|O'Rourke\|2010\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idYHk0z-ujS3AC&pgPA80 80]}} Railways in TransleithaniaThe first Hungarian steam locomotive railway line was opened on 15 July 1846 between Pest and Vác.<ref>Mikulas Teich, Roy Porter, The Industrial Revolution in National Context: Europe and the USA, p. 266.</ref> In 1890 most large Hungarian private railway companies were nationalized as a consequence of the poor management of private companies, except the strong Austrian-owned Kaschau-Oderberg Railway (KsOd) and the Austrian-Hungarian Southern Railway (SB/DV). They also joined the zone tariff system of the MÁV (Hungarian State Railways). By 1910, the total length of the rail networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached {{Convert\|22869\|km\|abbroff}}, the Hungarian network linked more than 1,490 settlements. Nearly half (52%) of the empire's railways were built in Hungary, thus the railroad density there became higher than that of Cisleithania. This has ranked Hungarian railways the 6th most dense in the world (ahead of Germany and France).<ref>{{Cite book \|firstIván T. \|lastBerend \|titleHistory Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century \|date2003 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-5202-3299-0 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?ida9csmhIT_BQC&pgPA149 152] \|languagehu}}</ref> Electrified commuter railways: A set of four electric commuter rai lines were built in Budapest, the BHÉV: Ráckeve line (1887), Szentendre line (1888), Gödöllő line (1888), Csepel line (1912)<ref>István Tisza and László Kovács: A magyar állami, magán- és helyiérdekű vasúttársaságok fejlődése 1876–1900 között, Magyar Vasúttörténet 2. kötet. Budapest: Közlekedési Dokumentációs Kft., 58–59, 83–84. o. {{ISBN\|9-6355-2313-0}} (1996)(English: The development of Hungarian private and state owned commuter railway companies between 1876 – 1900, Hungarian railway History Volume II.</ref> Tramway lines in the cities Horse-drawn tramways appeared in the first half of the 19th century. Between the 1850s and 1880s many were built : Vienna (1865), Budapest (1866), Brno (1869), Trieste (1876). Steam trams appeared in the late 1860s. The electrification of tramways started in the late 1880s. The first electrified tramway in Austria–Hungary was built in Budapest in 1887. Electric tramway lines in the Austrian Empire: * Austria: Gmunden (1894); Linz, Vienna (1897); Graz (1898); Trieste (1900); Ljubljana (1901); Innsbruck (1905); Unterlach, Ybbs an der Donau (1907); Salzburg (1909); Klagenfurt, Sankt Pölten (1911); Piran (1912) * Austrian Littoral: Pula (1904). * Bohemia: Prague (1891); Teplice (1895); Liberec (1897); Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, Olomouc (1899); Moravia, Brno, Jablonec nad Nisou (1900); Ostrava (1901); Mariánské Lázně (1902); Budějovice, České Budějovice, Jihlava (1909) * Austrian Silesia: Opava (Troppau) (1905), Cieszyn (Cieszyn) (1911) * Dalmatia: Dubrovnik (1910) * Galicia: Lviv (1894), Bielsko-Biała (1895); Kraków (1901); Tarnów, Cieszyn (1911)<ref>Tramways in Austria: Book: Buckley, Richard (2000). Tramways and Light Railways of Switzerland and Austria (2nd edition), pp. 129–135 {{ISBN\|0-9481-0627-1}}.</ref><ref>Tramways in Czech Republic: Book: Jan Vinař : Historické krovy (page 351)</ref><ref>Tramways in Poland (including Galicia), Book: Arkadiusz Kołoś, Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej: Rozwój przestrzenny a współczesne funkcjonowanie miejskiego transportu szynowego w Polsce (page: 19)</ref> Electric tramway lines in the Kingdom of Hungary: * Hungary: Budapest (1887); Pressburg/Pozsony/Bratislava (1895); Szabadka/Subotica (1897), Szombathely (1897), Miskolc (1897); Temesvár/Timișoara (1899); Sopron (1900); Szatmárnémeti/Satu Mare (1900); Nyíregyháza (1905); Nagyszeben/Sibiu (1905); Nagyvárad/Oradea (1906); Szeged (1908); Debrecen (1911); Újvidék/Novi Sad (1911); Kassa/Košice (1913); Pécs (1913) * Croatia: Fiume (1899); Pula (1904); Opatija – Lovran (1908); Zagreb (1910); Dubrovnik (1910).<ref>History of Public Transport in Hungary. Book: Zsuzsa Frisnyák: A magyarországi közlekedés krónikája, 1750–2000</ref><ref>Tramways in Croatia: Book: Vlado Puljiz, Gojko Bežovan, Teo Matković, dr. Zoran Šućur, Siniša Zrinščak: Socijalna politika Hrvatske</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleTrams and Tramways in Romania – Timișoara, Arad, Bucharest \|urlhttp://www.beyondtheforest.com/Romania/CFR7.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130920062035/http://www.beyondtheforest.com/Romania/CFR7.html \|archive-date20 September 2013 \|access-date19 August 2013 \|publisherbeyondtheforest.com}}</ref><ref>Tramways in Slovakia: Book: Július Bartl: Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon – p. 112</ref>UndergroundThe Budapest Metro Line 1 (originally the "Franz Joseph Underground Electric Railway Company") is the second oldest underground railway in the world<ref>Kogan Page: Europe Review 2003/2004, fifth edition, Wolden Publishing Ltd, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?idHwi0s3I5jLEC&pgPA174 page 174] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240814020959/https://books.google.com/books?idHwi0s3I5jLEC&pgPA174#vonepage&q&ffalse \|date14 August 2024}}</ref> (the first being the London Underground's Metropolitan Line and the third being Glasgow), and the first on the European mainland. It was built from 1894 to 1896 and opened on 2 May 1896.<ref>{{Cite web \|date22 November 1918 \|titleThe History of BKV, Part 1 \|urlhttp://www.bkv.hu/en/the_history_of_bkv/the_history_of_bkv_part_1 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130312235642/http://bkv.hu/en/the_history_of_bkv/the_history_of_bkv_part_1 \|archive-date12 March 2013 \|access-date25 March 2013 \|publisherBkv.hu}}</ref> In 2002, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastUNESCO World Heritage Centre \|titleUNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage Committee Inscribes 9 New Sites on the World Heritage List \|urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/news/156 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091128082245/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/156 \|archive-date28 November 2009 \|access-date10 April 2013 \|publisherwhc.unesco.org}}</ref> The M1 line became an IEEE Milestone due to the radically new innovations in its era: "Among the railway's innovative elements were bidirectional tram cars; electric lighting in the subway stations and tram cars; and an overhead wire structure instead of a third-rail system for power".<ref>{{Cite web \|date31 March 2020 \|titleBudapest's Electric Underground Railway Is Still Running After More Than 120 Years \|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/budapests-electric-underground-railway-is-still-running-after-more-than-120-years \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319172004/https://spectrum.ieee.org/budapests-electric-underground-railway-is-still-running-after-more-than-120-years \|archive-date19 March 2022 \|access-date8 October 2021 \|websiteIEEE}}</ref>Inland waterways and river regulation The first Danubian steamer company, Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft (DDSG), was the world's largest inland shipping company until the collapse of Austria-Hungary. In 1900 the engineer C. Wagenführer drew up plans to link the Danube and the Adriatic Sea by a canal from Vienna to Trieste. It was born from the desire of Austria–Hungary to have a direct link to the Adriatic Sea<ref>{{Cite book \|lastŽmuc \|firstIrena \|titleEmona: Myth and Reality \|date2010 \|publisherMuseum and Galleries of Ljubljana; City Museum of Ljubljana \|isbn978-9-6165-0920-6 \|editor-lastŽupanek \|editor-firstBernarda \|page63 \|chapterSustained Interest \|access-date19 June 2012 \|chapter-urlhttp://www.mgml.si/media/katalog_9_5.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131105154411/http://www.mgml.si/media/katalog_9_5.pdf \|archive-date5 November 2013 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> but was never constructed.Lower Danube and the Iron GatesIn 1831 a plan had already been drafted to make the passage navigable, at the initiative of the Hungarian politician István Széchenyi. Finally Gábor Baross, Hungary's "Iron Minister", succeeded in financing this project. The riverbed rocks and the associated rapids made the gorge valley an infamous passage for shipping. In German, the passage is still known as the Kataraktenstrecke, even though the cataracts are gone. Near the actual "Iron Gates" strait the Prigrada rock was the most important obstacle until 1896: the river widened considerably here and the water level was consequently low. Upstream, the Greben rock near the "Kazan" gorge was notorious.Tisza RiverThe length of the Tisza river in Hungary used to be {{Convert\|1419\|km\|abbroff}}. It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area. After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the "regulation of the Tisza" (Hungarian: a Tisza szabályozása) which started on 27 August 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was {{Cvt\|966\|km}} ({{Cvt\|1358\|km}} total), with {{Cvt\|589\|km}} of "dead channels" and {{Cvt\|136\|km}} of new riverbed. The resultant length of the flood-protected river comprises {{Cvt\|2940\|km}} (out of {{Cvt\|4220\|km}} of all Hungarian protected rivers). Shipping and ports , Kingdom of Dalmatia]] The most important seaport was Trieste (today part of Italy), where the Austrian merchant marine was based. Two major shipping companies (Austrian Lloyd and Austro-Americana) and several shipyards were located there. From 1815 to 1866, Venice had been part of the Habsburg empire. The loss of Venice prompted the development of the Austrian merchant marine. By 1913, the commercial marine of Austria, comprised 16,764 vessels with a tonnage of 471,252, and crews number-ing 45,567. Of the total (1913) 394 of 422,368 tons were steamers, and 16,370 of 48,884 tons were sailing vessels<ref>{{Cite book \|firstJohn \|lastScott-Keltie \|author-linkJohn Scott-Keltie \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/statesmansyearbo1919londuoft \|titleThe Statesman's Yearbook \|date1919 \|publisherMacmillan \|page[https://archive.org/details/statesmansyearbo1919londuoft/page/670 670]}}</ref> The Austrian Lloyd was one of the biggest ocean shipping companies of the time. Prior to the beginning of World War I, the company owned 65 middle-sized and large steamers. The Austro-Americana owned one third of this number, including the biggest Austrian passenger ship, the SS Kaiser Franz Joseph I. In comparison to the Austrian Lloyd, the Austro-American concentrated on destinations in North and South America.<ref name"dradio"/>{{Sfn\|Swiggum\|2008}}<ref name"dame"/><ref name"aeiou"/>{{Sfn\|Wörthersee Schifffahrt}}<ref name"danube"/> The Austro-Hungarian Navy became much more significant than previously, as industrialization provided sufficient revenues to develop it. Pola (Pula, today part of Croatia) was especially significant for the navy. The most important seaport for the Hungarian part of the monarchy was Fiume (Rijeka, today part of Croatia), where the Hungarian shipping companies, such as the Adria, operated. The commercial marine of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1913 comprised 545 vessels of 144,433 tons, and crews numbering 3,217. Of the total number of vessels 134,000 of 142,539 tons were steamers, and 411 of 1,894 tons were sailing vessels.{{Sfn\|Scott-Keltie\|1919\|page[https://archive.org/details/statesmansyearbo1919londuoft/page/683 683]}}Military {{Main\|Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces}} , Kingdom of Bohemia, 1900]] The Austro-Hungarian Army was under the command of Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (1817–1895), an old-fashioned bureaucrat who opposed modernization.<ref>Gunther Rothenburg, The Army of Francis Joseph (1976).</ref> The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was similar in both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force was composed of the Common Army; the special armies, namely the Austrian Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honvéd, which were separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-en masse. As stated above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies were under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and was generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years (three years in the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service was spent in various special reserves.<ref name"Headlam 1911, p. 3">{{EB1911\|inline1\|lastHeadlam\|firstJames Wycliffe\|date1911b\|wstitleAustria-Hungary\|volume3\|page3}}</ref> The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army was nominally vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. In practice, the emperor's nephew Archduke Albrecht was his chief military advisor and made the policy decisions.<ref name="Headlam 1911, p. 3"/> The Austro-Hungarian Navy was mainly a coast defence force, and also included a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It was administered by the naval department of the ministry of war.{{Sfn\|Headlam\|1911b\|p4}}1878–1914: Congress of Berlin, Balkan instability and the Bosnia Crisis {{Main\|Congress of Berlin\|Bosnia and Herzegovina in Austria-Hungary\|Bosnia Crisis}} (31%), were drafted into special units of the Austro-Hungarian Army as early as 1879 and were commended for their bravery in service of the Austrian emperor, being awarded more medals than any other unit. The military march "Die Bosniaken kommen" was composed in their honor by Eduard Wagnes.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWheatcroft \|firstAndrew \|titleThe Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Battle for Europe \|date28 April 2009 \|publisherBasic Books \|isbn978-0-7867-4454-1 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idXkLDVyYZPBYC&pg=PA264 264]}}</ref>]] Russian Pan-Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so pressured the tsar's government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians.<ref name="Kann 1974"/> Unable to mediate between the Ottoman Empire and Russia over the control of Serbia, Austria–Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between the two powers escalated into a war. With help from Romania and Greece, Russia defeated the Ottomans and with the Treaty of San Stefano tried to create a large pro-Russian Bulgaria. This treaty sparked an international uproar that almost resulted in a general European war. Austria–Hungary and Britain feared that a large Bulgaria would become a Russian satellite that would enable the tsar to dominate the Balkans. British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli moved warships into position against Russia to halt the advance of Russian influence in the eastern Mediterranean so close to Britain's route through the Suez Canal.{{Sfn\|Albrecht-Carrié\|1973\|loc=chapter 6}} The Treaty of San Stefano was seen in Austria as much too favourable for Russia and its Orthodox-Slavic goals. The Congress of Berlin rolled back the Russian victory by partitioning the large Bulgarian state that Russia had carved out of Ottoman territory and denying any part of Bulgaria full independence from the Ottomans. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 let Austria occupy (but not annex) the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a predominantly Slavic area. Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as a way of gaining power in the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania became fully independent. Nonetheless, the Balkans remained a site of political unrest with teeming ambition for independence and great power rivalries. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 Gyula Andrássy (Minister of Foreign Affairs) managed to force Russia to retreat from further demands in the Balkans. As a result, Greater Bulgaria was broken up and Serbian independence was guaranteed.<ref name="B"/> In that year, with Britain's support, Austria–Hungary stationed troops in Bosnia to prevent the Russians from expanding into nearby Serbia. In another measure to keep the Russians out of the Balkans, Austria–Hungary formed an alliance, the Mediterranean Entente, with Britain and Italy in 1887 and concluded mutual defence pacts with Germany in 1879 and Romania in 1883 against a possible Russian attack.{{Sfn\|Austria-Hungary - MSN Encarta}} Following the Congress of Berlin the European powers attempted to guarantee stability through a complex series of alliances and treaties. Anxious about Balkan instability and Russian aggression, and to counter French interests in Europe, Austria–Hungary forged a defensive alliance with Germany in October 1879 and in May 1882. In October 1882 Italy joined this partnership in the Triple Alliance largely because of Italy's imperial rivalries with France. Tensions between Russia and Austria–Hungary remained high, so Bismarck replaced the League of the Three Emperors with the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to keep the Habsburgs from recklessly starting a war over Pan-Slavism.{{Sfn\|Albrecht-Carrié\|1973\|pp201–214}} The Sandžak-Raška / Novibazar region was under Austro-Hungarian occupation between 1878 and 1909, when it was returned to the Ottoman Empire, before being ultimately divided between kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia.<ref name"Mount HolyOak">{{Cite web \|titleThe Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909 \|urlhttp://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120119180459/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm \|archive-date19 January 2012 \|access-date24 March 2012 \|publisher=Mount HolyOak}}</ref> ]] On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 and the monarchy eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding of Cisleithania and Transleithania under the control of the Imperial & Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz Joseph's brother, Maximilian (1867), and his only son, Rudolf, made the Emperor's nephew, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne. The Archduke was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy.{{Sfn\|Albrecht-Carrié\|1973\|loc=chapter 8}} A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg monarchy in October 1908 promised these lands constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated in 1910.{{Sfn\|Albrecht-Carrié\|1973\|p=259–272}} The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–09 were the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky. Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would go to war in July 1914.<ref>Gooch, 1936, pp 366–438.</ref>{{Sfn\|Wank\|2020}} in 1898]] Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League would never cause any damage to Austria. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey, and Romania. However, his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting that it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria's enemies.{{Sfn\|Bridge\|1972\|pp=338–339}} In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I.<ref>Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 pp. 138, 155–6, 163</ref> 1914–1918: World War I {{Main\|History of Austria-Hungary during World War I}} Prelude of WW I {{Main\|July Crisis\|Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand\|Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I}} {{Further\|Causes of World War I}} is usually associated with the capture of Gavrilo Princip, although some<ref name"FinestoneMassie">{{Cite book \|last1Finestone \|first1Jeffrey \|titleThe last courts of Europe \|last2Massie \|first2Robert K. \|date1981 \|publisherDent \|isbn978-0-4600-4519-3 \|page247}}</ref><ref name"OneMorningSarajevo">{{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstDavid James \|titleOne Morning in Sarajevo \|date2010 \|publisherHachette UK \|isbn978-0-2978-5608-5 \|quoteHe was photographed on the way to the station and the photograph has been reproduced many times in books and articles, claiming to depict the arrest of Gavrilo Princip. But there is no photograph of Gavro's arrest – this photograph shows the arrest of Behr.}}</ref> believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander detained by mistake.]] The 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, excessively intensified the existing traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged<ref name"DjordjevićSpence1992">{{Cite book \|last1Djordjević \|first1Dimitrije \|titleScholar, patriot, mentor: historical essays in honor of Dimitrije Djordjević \|last2Richard B. Spence \|date1992 \|publisherEast European Monographs \|isbn978-0-8803-3217-0 \|page313 \|quoteFollowing the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Catholic Croats and Muslims in Sarajevo joined forces in an anti-Serb pogrom.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ2tWAAAAMAAJ \|titleReports Service: Southeast Europe series \|date1964 \|publisherAmerican Universities Field Staff \|page44 \|quote...&nbsp;the assassination was followed by officially encouraged anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo&nbsp;... \|access-date7 December 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231003074457/https://books.google.com/books?idJ2tWAAAAMAAJ \|archive-date3 October 2023 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate."<ref name"Gioseffi1993">{{Cite book \|lastGioseffi \|firstDaniela \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0 \|titleOn Prejudice: A Global Perspective \|date1993 \|publisherAnchor Books \|isbn978-0-3854-6938-8 \|page[https://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0/page/246 246] \|quote...&nbsp;Andric describes the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that erupted among Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox believers following the assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo&nbsp;... \|access-date2 September 2013 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name"Mitrović2007">{{Cite book \|lastMitrović \|firstAndrej \|titleSerbia's Great War, 1914–1918 \|date2007 \|publisherPurdue University Press \|isbn978-1-5575-3477-4 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idviqqqQ2KT7kC&pgPA18 19]}}</ref> Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. Four hundred sixty Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim{{Sfn\|Tomasevich\|2001\|p485\|locThe Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.}}<ref name"Schindler2007">{{Cite book \|lastSchindler \|firstJohn R. \|titleUnholy Terror: Bosnia, Al-Qa'ida, and the Rise of Global Jihad \|date2007 \|publisherZenith Imprint \|isbn978-1-6167-3964-5 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idc8Xb6x2XYvIC&pgPA29 29]}}</ref> special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.<ref name"Kröll2008">{{Cite book \|lastKröll \|firstHerbert \|titleAustrian-Greek encounters over the centuries: history, diplomacy, politics, arts, economics \|date28 February 2008 \|publisherStudienverlag \|isbn978-3-7065-4526-6 \|page55 \|quote=...&nbsp;arrested and interned some 5.500 prominent Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression.}}</ref> , 29 June 1914]] armoured train in 1914]] Some members of the government, such as Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor and Hungarian prime minister István Tisza were opposed. The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian Empire sent ambassador László Szőgyény to Potsdam, where he inquired about the standpoint of the German emperor, Wilhelm II, on 5 July and received a supportive response. {{Blockquote\|His Majesty authorized me to report to [Franz Joseph] that in this case, too, we could count on Germany's full support. As mentioned, he first had to consult with the Chancellor, but he did not have the slightest doubt that Herr von Bethmann Hollweg would fully agree with him, particularly with regard to action on our part against Serbia. In his [Wilhelm's] opinion, though, there was no need to wait patiently before taking action...<ref>Ladislaus Count von Szögyény-Marich (Berlin) to Leopold Count von Berchtold (5 July 1914), in Ludwig Bittner, et al., eds., Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der Bosnischen Krise 1908 bis zum Kriegsausbruch 1914 [Austria–Hungary's Foreign Policy prior to the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 up to the Outbreak of War in 1914]. 8 vols, Vienna, 1930, vol. 8, no. 10,058.</ref>}} The leaders of Austria–Hungary therefore decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the July Ultimatum,<ref name="firstworldwar"/> expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria–Hungary declared war. Franz Joseph I finally followed the urgent counsel of his top advisers. Over the course of July and August 1914, these events caused the start of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations. In support of his German ally, on Thursday, 6 August 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war on Russia. Italy initially remained neutral, despite its alliance with Austria–Hungary. In 1915, it switched to the side of the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from its former ally.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastClark \|firstChristopher \|author-linkChris Clark (historian) \|titleThe Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 \|date2013 \|pages420–430}}</ref> Wartime foreign policy {{Further\|Diplomatic history of World War I}} and Wilhelm II<br/>with military commanders during World War I]] The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPribram \|firstA. F. \|titleAustrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 \|date1923 \|pages68–128}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastZeman \|firstZ.A.B. (Zbyněk Anthony Bohuslav) \|author-linkZbyněk Zeman \|titleA Diplomatic History of the First World War \|date1971 \|publisherWeidenfeld and Nicolson \|pages121–161 \|ol5388162M}}</ref> The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany.<ref name"Stevenson, 1988 pp 139">{{Cite book \|lastStevenson \|firstDavid \|author-linkDavid Stevenson (historian) \|titleThe First World War and International Politics \|date1988 \|pages139–148 \|ol21170640M}}</ref> The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastStevenson \|firstDavid \|author-linkDavid Stevenson (historian) \|date1991 \|titleThe failure of peace by negotiation in 1917 \|urlhttp://eprints.lse.ac.uk/25731/1/The%20failure%20of%20peace%20by%20negotiation%20in%201917%28lsero%29.pdf \|url-statuslive \|journalHistorical Journal \|volume34 \|issue1 \|pages65–86 \|doi10.1017/S0018246X00013935 \|s2cid154930518 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526051101/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/25731/1/The%20failure%20of%20peace%20by%20negotiation%20in%201917%28lsero%29.pdf \|archive-date26 May 2023 \|access-date9 May 2023}}</ref> Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKeleher \|firstEdward P. \|date1992 \|titleEmperor Karl and the Sixtus Affair: Politico-Nationalist Repercussions in the Reich German and Austro-German Camps, and the Disintegration of Habsburg Austria, 1916–1918 \|journalEast European Quarterly \|volume26 \|issue2 \|pages163ff}}</ref>Homefront {{See also\|Hungary in World War I}} The heavily rural empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contributions were manpower and food.<ref name"Schulze2005">{{Cite book \|lastSchulze \|firstMax-Stephan \|titleThe Economics of World War I \|date2005 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-5218-5212-8 \|editor-lastBroadberry \|editor-firstStephen \|editor-linkStephen Broadberry \|page95 \|chapterAustria-Hungary’s economy in World War I \|doi10.1017/CBO9780511497339.002 \|access-date6 June 2018 \|editor-last2Harrison \|editor-first2Mark \|chapter-urlhttps://www.library6.com/books/523600.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180929034223/https://www.library6.com/books/523600.pdf \|archive-date29 September 2018 \|s2cid16455027}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort \|date1977 \|editor-lastKann \|editor-firstRobert A. \|editor-last2yes \|display-editors1}}</ref> Nevertheless, Austria–Hungary was more urbanized (25%)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMowat \|firstC.L. (Charles Loch) \|author-linkC. L. Mowat \|titleThe New Cambridge Modern History. volume xii \|date1968 \|publisher(Cambridge University Press Archive)London: Cambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-5210-4551-3 \|page479}}</ref> than its actual opponents in the war, like the Russian Empire (13.4%),<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKappeler \|firstAndreas \|titleThe Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History \|date2014 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-3175-6810-0 \|page287}}</ref> Serbia (13.2%)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCirkovic \|firstSima M. \|titleThe Serbs Volume 10 of The Peoples of Europe \|date2008 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-1-4051-4291-5 \|page235}}</ref> or Romania (18.8%).<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRotar \|firstMarius \|titleHistory of Modern Cremation in Romania \|date2013 \|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing \|isbn978-1-4438-4542-7 \|page24}}</ref> Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy{{Sfn\|Broadberry\|O'Rourke\|2010\|page[https://web.archive.org/web/20151015202359/https://books.google.com/books?idYHk0z-ujS3AC&;pgPA70 70]}} and higher GDP per capita<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStevenson \|firstDavid \|author-linkDavid Stevenson (historian) \|titleWith Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 \|date2011 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|isbn978-0-6740-6319-8 \|page399}}</ref> than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire. On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHealy \|firstMaureen \|titleVienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I \|date2007}}</ref> Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war consumed about 20 percent of the gross domestic product. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared to the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rates were toward the high end regarding the present-day territory of Austria.<ref name="Schulze2005"/> By summer 1918, "Green Cadres" of army deserters formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia-Slavonia, and civil authority disintegrated. By late October, violence and massive looting erupted, and there were efforts to form peasant republics. However, the Croatian political leadership was focused on creating a new state (Yugoslavia) and worked with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the uprisings.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBanac \|firstIvo \|date1992 \|title'Emperor Karl Has Become a Comitadji': The Croatian Disturbances of Autumn 1918 \|journalSlavonic and East European Review \|volume70 \|issue2 \|pages284–305}}</ref> Theaters of operations {{See also\|Theater (warfare)}} The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8&nbsp;million soldiers during the war.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTucker \|firstSpencer \|titleThe European Powers in the First World War \|date1996 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-0-8153-0399-2 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idEHI3PCjDtsUC&pgPA172 173]}}</ref> General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von Österreich-Teschen as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the home front deteriorated rapidly. The empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups within the empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic, language-based cultures. The new emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy.{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014}}{{Page needed\|dateApril 2023}} Serbian front 1914–1916 {{Main\|Serbian Campaign (World War I)\|Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia}} in Serbia, pictured in August 1914, was the first target of the Austro-Hungarian punitive expedition and the site of many atrocities committed against the local population.]] At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia, while the larger part fought against the formidable Imperial Russian Army. The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb soldiers were transported to Brindisi and Corfu, where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base for the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000 relieved a much smaller army at the Macedonian front and fought alongside British and French troops.{{Sfn\|French forces occupy Corfu 2011}} Russian front 1914–1917 {{Main\|Eastern Front (World War I)}} in 1915]] On the Eastern front, the war started out equally poorly. The government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the Supreme National Committee as the Polish central authority within the empire, responsible for the formation of the Polish Legions, an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian Army. The Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915. The Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their {{Cvt\|100\|km\|0\|spus\|adjon}} long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army disintegrated. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Brusilov Offensive, recognizing the latter's numerical inferiority. By the end of September 1916, Austria–Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses (about 1&nbsp;million men) and never recovered. Nevertheless, the huge losses in men and materiel inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire. The Act of 5 November 1916 was then proclaimed to the Poles jointly by the Emperors Wilhelm II of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This act promised the creation of the Kingdom of Poland out of the territory of Congress Poland, envisioned by its authors as a puppet state controlled by the Central Powers, with the nominal authority vested in the Regency Council. The origin of that document was the dire need to draft new recruits from German-occupied Poland for the war with Russia. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ending the World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone proto state of the nascent Second Polish Republic, the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland. The Battle of Zborov (1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions, which fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian Army. Italian front 1915–1918 {{Main\|Italian Front (World War I)}} on 3 November 1918, after the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. Italy's victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front and secured the dissolution of Austria–Hungary.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBurgwyn \|firstH. James \|titleItalian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 \|date1997 \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-2759-4877-1 \|page=4}}</ref>]] In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria–Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria–Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous (≈1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna marched his army towards the Isonzo River, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody and exhausting for both sides.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSchindler \|firstJohn R. \|titleIsonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War \|date2001}}</ref> On 15 May 1916, Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the Strafexpedition ("punitive expedition"): the Austrians broke through the front and occupied the Asiago plateau. The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso, a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive trench warfare ensued (analogous to the Western front). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russians ended their involvement in the war, Germans and Austrians were able to transfer much of their manpower to the Western and Southern fronts from the erstwhile Eastern fighting. On 24 October 1917, Austrians (now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than {{Cvt\|100\|km\|2\|spus}} in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave River. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy also enjoyed the support of the Entente: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCavallaro \|firstGaetano V. \|titleThe Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914–1917 \|date2010 \|publisherXlibris Corporation \|isbn978-1-4010-8426-4 \|volumeI \|page339}}</ref> Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive Second Battle of the Piave River (15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers were killed. The final battle at Vittorio Veneto was lost by 31 October 1918 and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLowry \|firstBullitt \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQlxfFYs61vMC \|titleArmistice 1918 \|date2000 \|publisherKent State University Press \|isbn978-0-8733-8651-7 \|page112 \|access-date19 November 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240127152815/https://books.google.com/books?idQlxfFYs61vMC \|archive-date27 January 2024 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>Romanian front 1916–1917 {{Main\|Romania during World War I}} On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria–Hungary. The Romanian Army crossed the borders of eastern Hungary (Transylvania), but despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies, and occupied the southern part of Romania (including Oltenia, Muntenia and Dobruja). Within three months of the war, the Central Powers approached Bucharest, the Romanian capital. On 6 December, Bucharest was captured, and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in Moldavia, together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTorrey \|firstGlenn E. \|titleRomania and World War I \|date1998 \|publisherHistria Books}}</ref> In 1917, after several defensive victories (managing to stop the German-Austro-Hungarian advance), with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastShanafelt \|firstGary W. \|dateApril 1999 \|titleReview of Torrey, Glenn E., Romania and World War I: A Collection of Studies. HABSBURG \|urlhttps://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id2990 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305222108/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id2990 \|archive-date5 March 2023 \|access-date25 September 2019 \|websiteH-Net Reviews}}</ref>Role of Hungary , Romania]] Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria–Hungary,<ref>See: 1910 census</ref> the thin majority{{Mdash}} more than 3.8&nbsp;million soldiers{{Mdash}}of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600,000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in the war.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Buranbaeva \|first1Oksana \|titleCulture and Customs of Hungary, Cultures and Customs of the World \|last2Mladineo \|first2Vanja \|date2011 \|publisherABC-CLIO \|isbn978-0-3133-8370-0 \|locationBonn, Germany \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idWK_130Hqbr4C&pgPA32 32]}}</ref> Austria–Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war.<ref name"B"/> This was shown in a transition of power after which the Hungarian prime minister, Count István Tisza, and foreign minister, Count István Burián, had decisive influence over the internal and external affairs of the monarchy.<ref name"B"/> By late 1916, food supply from Hungary became intermittent and the government sought an armistice with the Entente powers. However, this failed as Britain and France no longer had any regard for the integrity of the monarchy due to Austro-Hungarian support for Germany.<ref name"B"/>Analysis of defeatThe setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed to a large extent by the incompetence of the Austrian high command.<ref name"B"/> After attacking Serbia, its forces soon had to be withdrawn to protect its eastern frontier against Russia's invasion, while German units were engaged in fighting on the Western Front. This resulted in a greater than expected loss of men in the invasion of Serbia.<ref name"B"/> Furthermore, it became evident that the Austrian high command had had no plans for possible continental war and that the army and navy were also ill-equipped to handle such a conflict.<ref name"B"/> In the last two years of the war the Austro-Hungarian armed forces lost all ability to act independently of Germany. As of 7 September 1916, the German emperor was given full control of all the armed forces of the Central Powers and Austria-Hungary effectively became a satellite of Germany.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBassett \|firstRichard \|titleFor God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619-1918 \|date2015 \|publisherYale University Press \|isbn978-0-3001-7858-6 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idy_PzCAAAQBAJ&pgPA506 506]}}</ref> The Austrians viewed the German army favorably; on the other hand, by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria–Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastUyar \|firstMesut \|date2015 \|titleReview of Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans during World War I \|journalReviews in History \|doi10.14296/RiH/2014/1846 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> 1918: Demise, disintegration, dissolution {{Main\|Dissolution of Austria-Hungary}} envisaged the Habsburg Empire as being made up of five Kingdoms, in a last desperate attempt to save the Monarchy.]] " of the Austrian Empire, published in Kraków in late 1918. Translation:<br/>"Overwhelmed with joy, until recently enslaved and now free Nations announce that their wicked step-mother AUSTRIA the WITCH, operated in William’s Clinic, died from senility after severe spasms, cursed by all those who had the infelicity of having to do with her. Her dreadful funeral took place during these days in the fields of Macedonia, on the Piave River and across the Rhine. Let her rest in eternal peace and may she never raise from the dead.<br/> POLES, CZECHO-SLOVAKS, YUGOSLAVS<br/> Funeral home Wilson & Co."]] By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated and governmental failure on the homefront ended popular support for the war.{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014\|p536}} The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace.{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014\|pp536–540}} As the war went on, the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration.<ref name"Stevenson, 1988 pp 139"/> With apparent Allied victory approaching, nationalist movements seized ethnic resentment to erode social unity. The military breakdown of the Italian front marked the start of the rebellion for the numerous ethnicities who made up the multiethnic Empire, as they refused to keep on fighting for a cause that now appeared senseless. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated.{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014\|pp536–540}} On 14 October 1918, Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz{{Sfn\|Nagy\|2006}} asked for an armistice based on President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and two days later Emperor Karl I issued a proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918") altering the empire into a federal union to give ethnic groups decentralization and representation.<ref>{{Cite thesis \|lastGiant \|firstTibor \|titleThrough the Prism of the Habsburg Monarchy: Hungary in American Diplomacy and Public Opinion During the First World War \|dateOctober 1996 \|degreepdf \|publisherUniversity of Warwick \|urlhttp://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/74531 \|pages81–82 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240814020848/https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/74531 \|archive-date14 August 2024 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth of the Fourteen Points – was no longer enough. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state in the 1917 Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav Committee. The Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. Lansing's response was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria–Hungary.{{Sfn\|Nagy\|2006}}{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014\|pp541–542}} During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October (later declared the birth of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks did the same. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria–Hungary proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in a large South Slav state. On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2023}} On 17 October 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. The most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi, seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to formally repudiate the compromise agreement on 31 October, effectively terminating the personal union with Austria and thus officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCornelius \|firstDeborah S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCInVseCvW-wC \|titleHungary in World War II: Caught in the Cauldron \|date2011 \|publisherFordham University Press \|isbn978-0-8232-3343-4 \|pages9–10 \|access-date2 December 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231110001205/https://books.google.com/books?idCInVseCvW-wC \|archive-date10 November 2023 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state council.{{Sfn\|Watson\|2014\|pp542–556}} Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, concluded that Karl's position was untenable. Lammasch persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority. On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish(ed) every participation" in Austrian state affairs.<ref>[https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/emperor-karl-abdication-proclamation The 1918 Karl's proclamation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308101912/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/emperor-karl-abdication-proclamation \|date8 March 2021}}. British Library.</ref> On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austrian politics, the German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the Hungarian Democratic Republic.Successor states {{Main\|Treaty of Trianon\|Treaty of Saint Germain}} : Kingdom of Hungary lost 72% of its land and 3.3 million people of Hungarian ethnicity.]] There were two legal successor states of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy:<ref name"successorStates">{{Cite web \|lastStangl \|firstAndrea \|date21 June 2014 \|titleThe successor states to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy \|urlhttps://ww1.habsburger.net/en/developments/successor-states-austro-hungarian-monarchy \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230605041932/https://ww1.habsburger.net/en/developments/successor-states-austro-hungarian-monarchy \|archive-date5 June 2023 \|access-date3 March 2021 \|website=habsburger.net}}</ref> * German Austria (which became the Republic of Austria) * Hungarian Democratic Republic (which after a few other short-lived intermediaries became the Kingdom of Hungary) The 1919 Treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (between the victors of World War I and Austria) and Trianon (between the victors and Hungary) regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, reducing them to small-sized and landlocked states. The Entente not only assumed without question that the minority peoples wished to leave Austria and Hungary, but allowed them to claim vast territories containing sizeable German- and Hungarian-speaking populations. With this in mind, in regard to areas without a decisive national majority, the Entente powers ruled in many cases in favour of the newly emancipated independent nation-states. The Republic of Austria lost roughly 60% of the old Austrian Empire's territory. It also had to drop its plans for union with Germany, as it was not allowed to unite with Germany without League approval.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2023}} Hungary, however, was severely disrupted by the loss of 72% of its territory, 64% of its population and most of its natural resources. The Hungarian Democratic Republic was short-lived and was temporarily replaced by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. Romanian troops ousted Béla Kun and his communist government during the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2023}} In the summer of 1919, a Habsburg, Archduke Joseph August, became regent, but was forced to stand down after only two weeks when it became apparent the Allies would not recognise him.<ref>{{Cite web \|date24 August 1919 \|titleDie amtliche Meldung über den Rücktritt \|urlhttp://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?apm0&aidnfp&datum19190824&seite2&zoom2 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151226211328/http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?apm0&aidnfp&datum19190824&seite2&zoom2 \|archive-date26 December 2015 \|access-date2 June 2017 \|publisherNeue Freie Presse, Morgenblatt \|page2 \|languagede}}</ref> Finally, in March 1920, royal powers were entrusted to a regent, Miklós Horthy, who had been the last commanding admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy and had helped organize the counter-revolutionary forces. It was this government that signed the Treaty of Trianon under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. The restored Kingdom of Hungary lost roughly 72% of the pre-war territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name"Columbia">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleTrianon, Treaty of \|encyclopediaThe Columbia Encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-TrianonTr.html \|access-date28 August 2016 \|date2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081228011000/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-TrianonTr.html \|archive-date28 December 2008}}</ref><ref name"encyclopedia of ww1">{{Cite book \|last1Tucker \|first1Spencer \|titleEncyclopedia of World War I \|last2Priscilla Mary Roberts \|date2005 \|publisherABC-CLIO \|isbn978-1-8510-9420-2 \|edition1st \|page1183 \|quoteVirtually the entire population of what remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision began immediately}}</ref> Habsburg banishment Austria had passed the "Habsburg Law", which both dethroned the Habsburgs and banished all Habsburgs from Austrian territory. While Karl was banned from ever returning to Austria again, other Habsburgs could return if they gave up all claims to the defunct throne. In March and again in October 1921, ill-prepared attempts by Karl to regain the throne in Budapest collapsed. The initially wavering Horthy, after receiving threats of intervention from the Allied Powers and the Little Entente, refused his cooperation. Soon afterward, the Hungarian government nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, effectively dethroning the Habsburgs. Subsequently, the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he died the following year.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2023}}Territorial legacyImmediately after World War I and Saint Germain (1919–1920)]] and Saint Germain{{Legend-line\|gray solid 2px\|Border of Austria–Hungary in 1914}} {{Legend-line\|black solid 2px\|Borders in 1914}} {{Legend-line\|red solid 2px\|Borders in 1920}} {{Legend\|#EB955C\|Empire of Austria in 1914}} {{Legend\|#FAF0EE\|Kingdom of Hungary in 1914\|outline=silver}} {{Legend\|#92A2CB\|Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1914}}]] The following states were formed, re-established or expanded at the dissolution of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy:<ref name="successorStates"/> * German Austria (which became the Republic of Austria) * First Hungarian Republic which became the Hungarian Soviet Republic, subsequently briefly restored and replaced by the Hungarian Republic, ultimately transformed into the Kingdom of Hungary * First Czechoslovak Republic, later "Czechoslovakia" * Second Polish Republic, contested by the short-lived proto-states of Tarnobrzeg Republic and Polish Soviet Socialist Republic * State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia, both later absorbed into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes * Greater Romania * Kingdom of Italy * Republic of China (former Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin) * the short-lived Ruthenian (Ukrainian and Rusyn) proto-states of West Ukrainian People's Republic (later absorbed into Ukrainian People's Republic), Hutsul Republic, Lemko Republic, Komancza Republic and the Galician Soviet Socialist Republic; all were ultimately absorbed mostly into Poland, but also into Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. The Principality of Liechtenstein, which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection and whose ruling house held sizable real estate in Cisleithania, formed a customs and defense union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919, Vorarlberg{{Mdash}}the westernmost province of Austria{{Mdash}}voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however, both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result. Present {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; width:300px; font-size:90%;" \|+ Kingdoms and countries of Austria–Hungary \|- \| <br/>Cisleithania (Empire of Austria<ref nameah1911/>): 1. Bohemia, 2. Bukovina, 3. Carinthia, 4. Carniola, 5. Dalmatia, 6. Galicia, 7. Küstenland, 8. Lower Austria, 9. Moravia, 10. Salzburg, 11. Silesia, 12. Styria, 13. Tyrol, 14. Upper Austria, 15. Vorarlberg;<br/>Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary<ref nameah1911/>): 16. Hungary proper 17. Croatia-Slavonia; 18. Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian condominium) \|} The following present-day countries and parts of countries were within the boundaries of Austria–Hungary when the empire was dissolved. Some other provinces of Europe had been part of the Habsburg monarchy at one time before 1867. Empire of Austria (Cisleithania): * Austria (except Burgenland without Sopron) * Czech Republic (except the Hlučínsko area) * Slovenia (except Prekmurje) * Italy (Trentino, South Tyrol, parts of the province of Belluno and small portions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia) * Croatia (Dalmatia, Istria) * Poland (voivodeships of Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, southernmost part of Silesia (Bielsko and Cieszyn)) * Ukraine (oblasts of Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil (except its northern corner) and most of the oblast of Chernivtsi) * Romania (county of Suceava) * Montenegro (bay of Boka Kotorska, the coast and the immediate hinterland around the cities of Budva, Petrovac and Sutomore) Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania): * Hungary * Slovakia * Austria (Burgenland except Sopron) * Slovenia (Prekmurje) * Croatia (Croatian Baranja and Međimurje county, Fiume as corpus separatum along with Slavonia and Central Croatia were not part of Hungary proper, the latter two were part of the sovereign Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia) * Ukraine (oblast of Zakarpattia) * Romania (region of Transylvania, Partium and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș) * Serbia (autonomous province of Vojvodina and northern Belgrade region) * Poland (Polish parts of Orava and Spiš) Austro-Hungarian Condominium * Bosnia and Herzegovina (the villages of Zavalje, Mali Skočaj and Veliki Skočaj including the immediate surrounding area west of the city of Bihać) * Montenegro (Sutorina – western part of the Municipality of Herceg Novi between present borders with Croatia (SW) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (NW), Adriatic coast (E) and the township of Igalo (NE)) * Sandžak-Raška region, Austro-Hungarian occupied 1878 until withdrawal in 1908 whilst formally part of the Ottoman Empire * The Empire treated Bosnia-Herzegovina in much the same way the other powers treated their overseas colonies{{Sfn\|Williamson\|1991\|p63\|loc"Through the occupation Austria-Hungary became a colonial power."}} Other possessions of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy * People's Republic of China (former Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin) See also * Aftermath of World War I * Austrian nobility * Corporative federalism, a form of administration adopted by the Austro-Hungarian Empire * Diplomatic history of World War I * Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I * Ethnic composition of Austria–Hungary * Former countries in Europe after 1815 * Hungarian nobility * Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918) * United States of Greater Austria Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist\|refs<ref name"B">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAustria \|encyclopediaBritannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44183/Austria/33365/Austria-Hungary-1867-1918#toctoc33365 \|access-date24 March 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313102504/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44183/Austria/33365/Austria-Hungary-1867-1918#toctoc33365 \|archive-date=13 March 2012}}</ref> <ref name"aeiou">{{Cite web \|date31 July 2001 \|titleÖsterreichischer Lloyd \|urlhttp://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.o/o755244.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111207160038/http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.o/o755244.htm \|archive-date7 December 2011 \|access-date11 September 2011 \|publisher=Aeiou.at}}</ref> <ref name"dame">{{Cite web \|date16 June 1908 \|titleBaron Gautsch \|urlhttp://members.dame.at/diverpeter/baron_gautsch.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110830204726/http://members.dame.at/diverpeter/baron_gautsch.htm \|archive-date30 August 2011 \|access-date11 September 2011 \|publisher=Members.dame.at}}</ref> <ref name"danube">{{Cite web \|date13 November 2006 \|titleDDSG Blue Danube GmbH \|urlhttp://www.ddsg-blue-danube.at \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110902132632/http://www.ddsg-blue-danube.at \|archive-date2 September 2011 \|access-date11 September 2011 \|publisher=Ddsg-blue-danube.at}}</ref> <ref name"dradio">{{Cite web \|titleDeutschlandfunk&nbsp;– Essay und Diskurs \|urlhttp://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/essayunddiskurs/1318640 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110914131346/http://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/essayunddiskurs/1318640 \|archive-date14 September 2011 \|access-date11 September 2011 \|publisherDradio.de}}</ref> <ref name="economic">Good, David. 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Rothenberg}} <!-- S --> * {{Cite book \|lastSked \|firstAlan \|author-linkAlan Sked \|titleThe Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918 \|date1989 \|publisherLongman \|location=London}} * {{Cite web \|titleStaatsgrundgesetz über die allgemeinen Rechte und Staatsbürger für die im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreiche und Länder \|date21 December 1867 \|urlhttps://www.verfassungen.at/at-18/stgg67-2.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612173122/https://www.verfassungen.at/at-18/stgg67-2.htm \|archive-date12 June 2024 \|access-date24 December 2024 \|langde \|trans-titleBasic Law on the General Rights of Nationals of the Kingdoms and Länder represented in the Council of the Realm \|ref{{SfnRef\|Staatsgrundgesetz 1867}}}} * {{Cite book \|editor-lastSugar \|editor-firstPeter F. \|editor-last2Hanak \|editor-first2Peter \|titleA History of Hungary \|date1990}} * {{Cite web \|lastSwiggum \|firstSue \|date3 May 2008 \|titleUnione Austriaca (Austro-Americana) / Cosulich Line \|urlhttp://www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/cosulich.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111001234457/http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/cosulich.html \|archive-date1 October 2011 \|access-date11 September 2011 \|publisher=Theshipslist.com}} <!-- T --> * {{Cite book \|lastTaylor \|firstA.J.P. \|author-linkA. J. P. Taylor \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/habsburgmonarchy00tayl \|titleThe Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria–Hungary \|date1964 \|publisherPenguin Books \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|url-accessregistration}}; politics and diplomacy * {{Cite book \|lastTomasevich \|firstJozo \|author-linkJozo Tomasevich \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfqUSGevFe5MC&pgPA485 \|titleWar and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945 \|date2001 \|publisherStanford University Press \|isbn978-0-8047-7924-1 \|access-date4 December 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240217084942/https://books.google.com/books?idfqUSGevFe5MC&pgPA485#vonepage&q&ffalse \|archive-date17 February 2024 \|url-statuslive}} <!-- U --> <!-- V --> <!-- W --> * {{Cite book \|lastWank \|firstSolomon \|titleIn the Twilight of Empire. Count Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal (1854–1912): Imperial Habsburg Patriot and Statesman \|date2020 \|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht \|volume2: From Foreign Minister in Waiting to de facto Chancellor}} * {{Cite book \|lastWatson \|firstAlexander \|titleRing of Steel: Germany and Austria–Hungary at War, 1914–1918 \|date2014 \|publisherBasic Books \|isbn978-0-4650-9488-2}} * {{Cite book \|lastWilliamson \|firstSamuel R. \|titleAustria–Hungary and the Origins of the First World War \|date1991 \|isbn978-0-3334-2081-2 \|doi10.1007/978-1-349-21163-0}} * {{Cite web \|titleWörthersee Schifffahrt \|urlhttp://www.stw.at/inhalt/Schifffahrt.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090328121836/http://www.stw.at/inhalt/schifffahrt.htm \|archive-date28 March 2009 \|access-date28 August 2016 \|ref={{SfnRef\|Wörthersee Schifffahrt}}}} <!-- X --> <!-- Y --> <!-- Z --> {{Refend}} Further reading {{Refbegin\|30em\|indent=yes}} * {{Cite news \|date3 February 2000 \|titleAnalysis: Austria's troubled history \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/629969.stm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110623060404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/629969.stm \|archive-date23 June 2011 \|access-date19 August 2010 \|workBBC News}} * {{Cite journal \|lastArmour \|firstIan D. \|date2009 \|titleApple of Discord: Austria-Hungary, Serbia and the Bosnian Question 1867-71. \|journalSlavonic and East European Review \|volume87 \|issue4 \|pages629–680 \|doi10.1353/see.2009.0004 \|jstor40650848 \|s2cid=151977197}} * {{Cite book \|lastBagger \|firstEugene S. \|titleFrancis Joseph: emperor of Austria — King of Hungary \|date1927 \|oclc1149195550 \|ol13524274M}} * {{Cite book \|titleThe Emergence of Industrial Societies vol 4 part 1 \|date1973 \|publisherFontana Economic History of Europe \|editor-lastCipolla \|editor-firstCarlo M. \|locationGlasgow \|pages=228–278}} [https://archive.org/details/emergenceofindus0000unse online] * {{Cite book \|lastBrauneder \|firstWilhelm \|titleÖsterreichische Verfassungsgeschichte \|date2009 \|publisherManzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung \|isbn978-3-2141-4876-8 \|edition11th \|locationVienna \|language=de}} * {{Cite book \|titleThe Last Years of Austria–Hungary: Essays in political and military history, 1908–1918 \|date2002 \|publisherUniversity of Exeter Press \|isbn0-8598-9563-7 \|editor-lastCornwall \|editor-firstMark \|oclc1150075157 \|ol1313375M}} * {{Cite book \|lastDžaja \|firstSrećko M. \|titleBosnien-Herzegowina in der österreichisch-ungarischen Epoche 1878–1918 \|date1994 \|publisherOldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag \|isbn3-4865-6079-4 \|language=de}} * {{Cite book \|lastEvans \|firstR. J. W. \|titleAustria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Central Europe c.1683–1867 \|date2008 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-1995-4162-1 \|doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.001.0001 \|ol28444909M}} * Good, David. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire (1984) * Herman, Arthur. ''What Life Was Like: At Empire's End : Austro-Hungarian Empire 1848–1918 (Time Life, 2000) * {{Cite book \|lastHoke \|firstRudolf \|titleÖsterreichische und deutsche Rechtsgeschichte \|date1996 \|publisherBöhlau Studienbücher \|isbn3-2059-8179-0 \|edition2nd \|locationVienna \|language=de}} * Jelavich, Barbara. Modern Austria: Empire and Republic, 1815–1986 (Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp.&nbsp;72–150. * {{Cite book \|lastJudson \|firstPieter M. \|titleThe Habsburg Empire \|date2016 \|isbn978-0-6749-6934-6 \|pages264–436 \|doi10.4159/9780674969346 \|s2cid167195732}} * Johnston, William M. The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938 (University of California Press, 1972) * Macartney, Carlile Aylmer The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918, New York, Macmillan 1969. * Mason, John W. The Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867–1918 (Routledge, 2014). * May, Arthur J. The Hapsburg Monarchy 1867–1914 (Harvard University Press, 1951). [https://archive.org/details/hapsburgmonarchy0000maya online] * Milward, Alan, and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914 (1977) pp.&nbsp;271–331. [https://archive.org/details/developmentofeco0000milw online] * {{Cite book \|lastMitchell \|firstA. \|urlhttps://refubium.fu-berlin.de/handle/fub188/3106 \|titleThe Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire \|date2018 \|isbn978-1-4008-8996-9 \|doi10.23943/9781400889969 \|access-date23 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230609081747/https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/handle/fub188/3106 \|archive-date9 June 2023 \|url-statuslive \|s2cid239313989}} * Palmer, Alan. Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995. {{ISBN\|0-8711-3665-1}} * {{Cite EB1922 \|titleAustrian Empire \|volume30 \|pages313–343 \|firstAlfred Francis \|lastPribram \|author-linkAlfred Francis Pribram \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabri30chisrich/page/313/mode/1up?viewtheater}} * Redlich, Joseph. [https://archive.org/details/emperorfrancisjo002603mbp Emperor Francis Joseph Of Austria.] New York: Macmillan, 1929. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176378 online free] * Rudolph, Richard L. Banking and industrialization in Austria-Hungary: the role of banks in the industrialization of the Czech crownlands, 1873–1914'' (1976) [https://archive.org/details/bankingindustria0000rudo online] * Sauer, Walter. "Habsburg Colonial: Austria-Hungary's Role in European Overseas Expansion Reconsidered", Austrian Studies (2012) 20:5–23 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/austrianstudies.20.2012.0005 ONLINE] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210805211103/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/austrianstudies.20.2012.0005 \|date5 August 2021}} * {{Cite book \|lastSteed \|firstHenry Wickham \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ashorthistoryau00hanngoog \|titleA Short History of Austria–Hungary and Poland \|date1914 \|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica Company \|page[https://archive.org/details/ashorthistoryau00hanngoog/page/n163 145] \|display-authorsetal}} * Tschuppik, Karl. The reign of the Emperor Fransis Joseph (1930) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227241 online] * Turnock, David. Eastern Europe: An Historical Geography: 1815–1945 (1989) * Usher, Roland G. "Austro-German Relations Since 1866." American Historical Review 23.3 (1918): 577–595 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1835275.pdf online]. * Várdy, Steven, and Agnes Várdy. The Austro-Hungarian mind: at home and abroad (East European Monographs, 1989) * Vermes, Gabor. "The Impact of the Dual Alliance on the Magyars of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy" East Central Europe (1980) vol 7 DOI: 10.1163/187633080x00211 * {{Cite web \|titleWho's Who&nbsp;– Emperor Franz Josef I \|urlhttp://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/franzjosef.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090510124227/http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/franzjosef.htm \|archive-date10 May 2009 \|access-date5 May 2009 \|publisher=First World War.com}} * {{Cite book \|lastZovko \|firstLjubomir \|titleStudije iz pravne povijesti Bosne i Hercegovine: 1878 - 1941 \|date2007 \|publisherUniversity of Mostar \|isbn978-9-9589-2712-6 \|languagehr}}World war {{Further\|Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I#Further reading}} * Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2016) * {{Cite journal \|lastBoyer \|firstJohn W. \|date2003 \|titleSilent War and Bitter Peace: The Revolution of 1918 in Austria \|urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4ec5/cde9559a18aaacc0df715782bf8226b55798.pdf \|url-statusdead \|journalAustrian History Yearbook \|volume34 \|pages1–56 \|doi10.1017/S0067237800020427 \|s2cid145716467 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200211151007/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4ec5/cde9559a18aaacc0df715782bf8226b55798.pdf \|archive-date=11 February 2020}} * {{Cite journal \|lastCornwall \|firstMark \|date1992 \|titleNews, Rumour and the Control of Information in Austria–Hungary, 1914–1918 \|journalHistory \|volume77 \|issue249 \|pages50–64 \|doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1992.tb02392.x}} * {{Cite book \|lastCornwall \|firstMark \|titleThe Undermining of Austria–Hungary \|date2000 \|isbn978-1-3494-2240-1 \|doi10.1057/9780230286351}} * {{Cite journal \|lastCraig \|firstGordon A. \|date1965 \|titleThe World War I Alliance of the Central Powers in Retrospect: The Military Cohesion of the Alliance \|journalThe Journal of Modern History \|volume37 \|issue3 \|pages336–344 \|doi10.1086/600693 \|jstor1875406 \|s2cid=154381768}} * Crankshaw, Edward. The Fall of the House of Habsburg (Viking, 1963). pp.&nbsp;449. * Deak, John, and Jonathan E. Gumz. "How to Break a State: The Habsburg Monarchy's Internal War, 1914–1918" American Historical Review 122.4 (2017): 1105–1136. [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/267287355.pdf online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230316112725/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/267287355.pdf \|date16 March 2023}} * {{Cite book \|lastDedijer \|firstVladimir \|titleThe Road to Sarajevo \|date1966}}<!--comprehensive history of the assassination with detailed material on the Empire and Serbia.--> * {{Cite book \|last1Grátz \|first1Gusztáv \|titleThe economic policy of Austria-Hungary during the war in its external relations \|last2Schüller \|first2Richard \|date1928 \|publisherYale University Press \|oclc1065632 \|ol=6715012M}} * {{Cite book \|lastHealy \|firstMaureen \|titleVienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I \|date2007}} * {{Cite book \|lastHerweg \|firstHolger H. \|titleThe First World War: Germany and Austria–Hungary 1914–1918 \|date2009}} * {{Cite book \|lastJászi \|firstOszkár \|author-linkOszkár Jászi \|titleThe Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy \|date1966 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151077 online] * {{Cite book \|lastJung \|firstPeter \|titleThe Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War I (2) \|date2003 \|publisherBloomsbury USA \|isbn1-8417-6594-5}} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/habsburgempirein00kann \|titleThe Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort \|date1977 \|publisherEast European Quarterly \|isbn0-9147-1016-8 \|editor-lastKann \|editor-firstRobert A. \|display-editorset al.}} * {{Cite book \|lastKatzenstein \|firstPeter J. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/disjoinedpartner00katz \|titleDisjoined partners: Austria and Germany since 1815 \|date1976 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn=978-0-5200-2945-3}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKapp \|firstRichard W. \|date1984 \|titleDivided Loyalties: The German Reich and Austria–Hungary in Austro-German Discussions of War Aims, 1914–1916 \|journalCentral European History \|volume17 \|issue2–3 \|pages120–139 \|doi10.1017/S0008938900016435 \|s2cid96478651}} * Kronenbitter, Günther. "Pre-war Military Planning (Austria–Hungary)." [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online-pre-war_military_planning_austria-hungary-2016-06-21.pdf online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305225841/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online-pre-war_military_planning_austria-hungary-2016-06-21.pdf \|date5 March 2023}} * {{Cite book \|lastRauchensteiner \|firstManfried \|titleThe First World War and the End of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1914–1918 \|date2014 \|publisherBöhlau Verlag \|isbn978-3-2057-9588-9 \|location=Wien/Köln/Weimar}} * Sked, Alan. "Austria–Hungary and the First World War." Histoire@ Politique 1 (2014): 16–49. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo:NIaCAcV_OMIJ:scholar.google.com/&sciodt1,27&scillfp13511954571189006328&oill Online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220601210553/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo:NIaCAcV_OMIJ:scholar.google.com/&sciodt1,27&scillfp13511954571189006328&oill \|date1 June 2022}} * Tunstall, Graydon A. Austro-Hungarian Army and the First World War (Cambridge University Press 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id57600 online review] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212212922/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id57600 \|date12 December 2022}} * Vermes, Gabor István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist (Columbia University Press, 1986); [https://www.proquest.com/openview/72fa47c8eff2b658abec0b721f4c8656/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl1819308 online review] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305222523/https://www.proquest.com/openview/72fa47c8eff2b658abec0b721f4c8656/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl1819308 \|date5 March 2023}} * {{Cite book \|lastWawro \|firstGeoffrey \|titleA Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire \|date2014}} * {{Cite book \|lastZametica \|firstJohn \|titleFolly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One \|date2017 \|publisherShepheard–Walwyn \|locationLondon \|pages416}}Primary sources * Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Austro-Hungarian red book. (1915) English translations of official documents to justify the war. [https://archive.org/details/austrohungarianr00inaust online] * {{Cite journal \|lastBaedeker \|firstKarl \|date1906 \|titleAustria–Hungary, Including Dalmatia and Bosnia. Handbook for Travellers \|journalBulletin of the American Geographical Society \|volume38 \|issue3 \|pages208 \|doi10.2307/197930 \|jstor197930 \|hdl-accessfree \|hdl2027/mdp.39015004037399}} * Gooch, G. P. Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1940), pp.&nbsp;103–159 summarizes memoirs of major participants * Steed, Henry Wickham. The Hapsburg monarchy (1919) [https://archive.org/details/hapsburgmonarchy00steeuoft online] detailed contemporary account Historiography and memory * Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (Rutledge, 1999) 1:60–63, historiography * {{Cite journal \|lastDeak \|firstJohn \|date2014 \|titleThe Great War and the Forgotten Realm: The Habsburg Monarchy and the First World War \|journalThe Journal of Modern History \|volume86 \|issue2 \|pages336–380 \|doi10.1086/675880 \|s2cid143481172}} * Körner, Axel. "Beyond Nation States: New Perspectives on the Habsburg Empire." European History Quarterly 48.3 (2018): 516–533. [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10054341/3/Korner_EHQ%20open%20access.pdf online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305230254/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10054341/3/Korner_EHQ%20open%20access.pdf \|date5 March 2023}} * {{Cite book \|lastKożuchowski \|firstAdam \|titleThe Afterlife of Austria–Hungary \|date2013 \|isbn978-0-8229-7917-3 \|doi10.2307/j.ctt7zw9vt}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKwan \|firstJonathan \|date2011 \|titleReview Article: Nationalism and all that: Reassessing the Habsburg Monarchy and its legacy \|urlhttps://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/2267107 \|url-statuslive \|journalEuropean History Quarterly \|volume41 \|pages88–108 \|doi10.1177/0265691410386424 \|s2cid143745426 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230222223838/https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/2267107 \|archive-date22 February 2023 \|access-date26 May 2021}} * Sked, Alan. "Explaining the Habsburg Empire, 1830–90." in Pamela Pilbeam, ed., Themes in Modern European History 1830–1890 (Routledge, 2002) pp.&nbsp;141–176. * Sked, Alan. "Austria–Hungary and the First World War." Histoire Politique 1 (2014): 16–49. [https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-politique-2014-1-page-16.htm online free] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180831072114/https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-politique-2014-1-page-16.htm \|date31 August 2018}} historiography In German * {{Lang\|de\|Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde an der österreichischen Mittelschulen}}. (ed.: Rudolf Rothaug), K. u. k. Hof-Kartographische Anstalt G. Freytag & Berndt, Vienna, 1911. {{Refend}} External links {{Wikivoyage\|Austro-Hungarian Empire}} {{Commons category\|Austria-Hungary}} * Articles relating to [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/regions/Austria-Hungary Austria–Hungary] at the International Encyclopedia of the First World War. * [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/germany/haxhabsbdaust.html Habsburg Empire Austrian line] * [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579967_1____7/austria-hungary.html Microsoft Encarta: The height of the dual monarchy] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090828223628/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579967_1____7/austria-hungary.html Archived] 31 October 2009) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190103094710/http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/ The Austro-Hungarian Military] * [http://www.ngw.nl/int/oos/ooshong/ooshong.htm Heraldry of the Austro-Hungarian Empire] * {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080112124023/http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Austria_Hungary.html\|date12 January 2008\|title=Austria–Hungary}} – extensive list of heads of state, ministers, and ambassadors * [http://www.geldschein.at/ History of Austro-Hungarian currency] * [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.o/o818181.htm;internal&action_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGEen Austria–Hungary, Dual Monarchy] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120414175743/http://maps.omniatlas.com/europe/19181025/ Map of Europe] and the collapse of Austria–Hungary at omniatlas.com * [http://hdl.handle.net/1911/15059 Mangham, Arthur Neal. The Social Bases of Austrian Politics: The German Electoral Districts of Cisleithania, 1900–1914. Ph.D. thesis 1974] * [http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/index.htm Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848–1918] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140528102034/http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/index.htm \|date28 May 2014}} * [http://www.oldphoto.info Oldphoto.info – Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Army] * [http://www.h-net.org/~habsweb/ HABSBURG is an email discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500], with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994 {{Dissolution of Austria–Hungary}} {{Subdivisions of Austria-Hungary}} {{Elections in Austria-Hungary}} {{Military of Austria-Hungary}} {{Empires}} {{Austria topics}} {{Former Monarchies}} {{Hungary topics\|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{Wikidatacoord\|Q28513\|display=title}} Austria-Hungary Category:Former countries in the Balkans Category:Former empires Category:Former monarchies of Europe Category:Habsburg monarchy Category:House of Habsburg-Lorraine Category:Modern history of Austria Category:Modern history of Hungary Hungary under Habsburg rule<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:States and territories established in 1867 Category:1867 establishments in Europe Category:States and territories disestablished in 1918 * Category:1918 disestablishments in Europe Category:Christian states	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary	2025-04-05T18:26:14.319920
2986	Abracadabra	{{short description\|Magic word used by stage magicians}} {{About\|an incantational word}} {{Italic title}} from the 6th or 7th century, inscribed with words similar to abracadabra]] Abracadabra is a magic word, historically used as an apotropaic incantation on amulets and common today in stage magic. It is of unknown origin.<!-- {{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2013}} - citation provided below --> Etymology {{listen \|filenamePl-abrakadabra.ogg \|titlePronunciation \|descriptionMale native of Poland pronouncing Abracadabra}} Abracadabra is of unknown origin, and is first attested in a second-century work of Serenus Sammonicus.<ref name"OED">{{citation\|titleOxford English Dictionary\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2009\|section=abracadabra}}</ref> Some conjectural etymologies are:<ref name"graham">{{citation\|urlhttp://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2016/12/performative-utterances/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170226114659/http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2016/12/performative-utterances/\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2017\|titleMagic words: performative utterance in fact and fantasy\|authorElyse Graham\|publisherOxford University Press\|dateDecember 30, 2016\|workOxford Dictionaries}}</ref> from phrases in Hebrew that mean "I will create as I speak",<ref>{{cite book\|lastKushner\|firstLawrence\|titleThe Book of Words: Talking Spiritual Life, Living Spiritual Talk\|date1998\|publisherJewish Lights Publishing\|isbn1580230202\|page11\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhhtaTSSZmDYC&q%22The+Book+of+Words%22+kushner+abracadabra}}</ref> or Aramaic "I create like the word" ({{lang\|arc\|אברא כדברא}}),<ref>{{cite book\|last1Lew\|first1Alan\|titleThis is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared\|dateAugust 2003\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVVRAqM2D_7sC&qalan+lew+abracadabra&pgPT108\|publisherLittle, Brown and Company\|isbn9780759528215\|access-date16 March 2015}}</ref> to etymologies that point to similar words in Latin and Greek such as abraxas<ref name"OEDOnline">{{citation\|urlhttp://oed.com/view/Entry/539\|sectionabracadabra\|titleOxford English Dictionary Online\|access-dateSeptember 1, 2017}}</ref> or to its similarity to the first four letters of the Greek alphabet (alpha-beta-gamma-delta or ΑΒΓΔ).<ref>{{cite book\|lastFlanders\|firstJudith\|titleA Place for Everything:The Curious History of Alphabetical Order\|date2020\|publisherBasic Books\|isbn9781541675070\|pagexxv}}</ref> However, "no documentation has been found to support any of the various conjectures".<ref name"OEDOnline" /> The historian Don Skemer suggests that it might originate from the Hebrew phrase ha brachah dabarah (name of the blessed), said to be a magical phrase.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 1, 2024 \|titleThe ancient—and mysterious—history of 'abracadabra' \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/abracadabra-meaning-malaria-spell-magic \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC \|languageen \|quote=Medieval historian Don Skemer, a specialist in magic and former curator of manuscripts at Princeton University, suggests abracadabra could derive from the Hebrew phrase “ha brachah dabarah,” which means “name of the blessed” and was regarded as a magical name.}}</ref> The Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso argues that Abracadabra can neither be Aramaic nor Hebrew, and suggests that the popularisation of the mistaken etymology is a result of an extended discussion on an early internet message board, which credits rabbi Lawrence Kushner with publishing a modern etymology.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastCaruso \|firstSteve \|date29 January 2014 \| titleAbracadabra is NOT Aramaic \|urlhttp://aramaicnt.org/2014/01/29/abracadabra-is-not-aramaic/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastThe Straight Dope Message Board \|date1 March 1999 \|titleAbracadabra \|urlhttps://boards.straightdope.com/t/abracadabra/144 }}</ref>History ]] {{Anchor\|Amulet}}{{Anchor\|Triangle}}The first known mention of the word was in the second century AD in a book called {{lang\|la\|Liber Medicinalis}} (sometimes known as {{lang\|la\|De Medicina Praecepta Saluberrima}}) by Serenus Sammonicus,<ref name"Vollmer">{{cite book\|lastSammonicus\|firstQuintus Serenus \|author-linkSerenus Sammonicus\|titleQuinti Sereni Samonici De medicina praecepta salvberrima\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy5FOAAAAYAAJ\|year1786\|publisherIn bibliopolio I.G. Mülleriano\|page4}}</ref> physician to the Roman emperor Caracalla, who in chapter 52 prescribed that malaria sufferers wear an amulet containing Abracadabra written in the form of a triangle.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Shah \|first1Sonia \|titleThe Tenacious Buzz of Malaria \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704111704575354911834340450 \|access-date17 June 2018 \|workWall Street Journal \|date10 July 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/A0022100.html Bartleby] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081122135703/http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/A0022100.html \|date=November 22, 2008 }}</ref> The power of the amulet, he claimed, makes lethal diseases go away. Other Roman emperors, including Geta and Severus Alexander, were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and may have used the incantation as well.<ref name="Vollmer" /> It was used as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and misfortune.<ref name"EB1911">{{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAbracadabra}}</ref> It is found on Abraxas stones, which were worn as amulets. Subsequently, its use spread beyond the Gnostics. A Jewish codex from 16th century Italy titled {{lang\|he\|Ets ha-Da’at}} (The Tree of Knowledge) and described as a collection of magical spells contains the word Abracadabra'', referring to an amulet. It was described as a "cure from heavens" for "all sorts of fever[s]", consumption, and fire.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBuda \|firstZsófi \|dateAugust 19, 2020 \|titleThe Tree of Knowledge: magic spells from a Jewish potion book \|urlhttps://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2020/08/the-tree-of-knowledge.html \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteBritish Library Asian and African studies blog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 1, 2024 \|titleThe ancient—and mysterious—history of 'abracadabra' \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/abracadabra-meaning-malaria-spell-magic \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|workNational Geographic \|languageen \|quoteA 16th century Jewish manuscript from Italy records a version of the abracadabra spell for an amulet to prevent fever}}</ref> The Puritan minister Increase Mather dismissed the word as bereft of power. Daniel Defoe wrote dismissively about Londoners who posted the word on their doorways to ward off sickness during the Great Plague of London.<ref>Daniel Defoe. [https://archive.org/stream/journalofplagu00defo#page/38/mode/2up A Journal of the Plague Year]. London, Dent, 1911 (1722)</ref> In the early 1800s, the word was used as an example of what magicians would say.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 1, 2024 \|titleThe ancient—and mysterious—history of 'abracadabra' \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/abracadabra-meaning-malaria-spell-magic \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC \|languageen}}</ref> Abracadabra is now more commonly used in the performance of stage magic as a magic word at the culmination of a trick.<ref name"randi-1995">{{Cite book \|lastRandi \|firstJames \|titleAn encyclopedia of claims, frauds, and hoaxes of the occult and supernatural: decidedly sceptical definitions of alternative realities \|date1995 \|publisherSt. Martin's Griffin \|isbn978-0-312-15119-5 \|locationNew York, NY\|author-link=James Randi}}</ref> Aleister Crowley adapted the word Abracadabra into the word Abrahadabra in The Book of the Law, the central sacred text of Thelema.<ref> {{cite book \|lastSutin \|firstLawrence \|titleDo What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dowhatthouwiltli0000suti \|url-accessregistration \|publisherMacmillan \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-312-25243-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 1, 2024 \|titleThe ancient—and mysterious—history of 'abracadabra' \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/abracadabra-meaning-malaria-spell-magic \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC \|languageen \|quoteBut the word seems to have lost its usefulness as a remedy, and in the early 1800s it appeared in a stage play written by William Thomas Moncrieff, as an example of a word magicians would utter. Its only notable reference in the 20th century may be in the Thelema religion founded in the early 1900s by Aleister Crowley. The occultist often used the word “abrahadabra” in his 1904 Liber Al Vel Legis (“Book of the Law,”) saying it was the name of a new age of humanity; and he claimed to have derived it from the numerology system known as Hermetic Qabalah, which induced him to swap out the C of abracadabra for an H.}}</ref>See also {{annotated link\|Avada kedavra}} — Spell from the Harry Potter series {{annotated link\|Barbarous name}} {{annotated link\|Hocus-pocus}} {{annotated link\|Open sesame}} {{annotated link\|Sator Square}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Wiktionary\|abracadabra}} [http://www.skepdic.com/abracadabra.html Abracadabra ] Robert Todd Carroll, ''Skeptic's Dictionary'' {{Wikisource-inline\|list{{Cite EB9\|wstitleAbracadabra\|volume1 \|shortx \|noicon=x}} {{Cite AmCyc\|wstitleAbracadabra \|shortx \|noicon=x}} {{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleAbracadabra \|volume 1 \|page69 \|short1}} *{{Cite Collier's\|wstitleAbracadabra \|shortx \|noicon=x}} }} {{Amulets and talismans}} Category:Amulets Category:Magic words Category:Incantation Category:Superstitions of Europe Category:Macaronic language Category:Culture of ancient Rome	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abracadabra	2025-04-05T18:26:14.332831
2987	Acts of Union 1707	{{Short description\|Acts of Parliament creating the Kingdom of Great Britain}} {{distinguish\|Union of the Crowns}} {{Redirect-distinguish\|Union of England and Scotland\|Union of England and Scotland Act 1603\|Treaty of Union}} {{Other\|Act of Union (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2022}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2017}} {{Infobox UK legislation \| short_title = Union with Scotland Act 1706{{efn\|The citation of this Act by this short title was authorised by section 1 of, and Schedule 1 to, the Short Titles Act 1896. Due to the repeal of those provisions, it is now authorised by section 19(2) of the Interpretation Act 1978.}} \| type = Act \| parliament = Parliament of England \| long_title = An Act for a Union of the Two Kingdoms of England and Scotland. \| year = 1706 \| citation = 6 Ann. c. 11{{br}}(Ruffhead: 5 Ann. c. 8) \| introduced_commons \| introduced_lords \| territorial_extent = Kingdom of England \| royal_assent 6 March 1707{{efn\|The date would have been recorded at the time as 6 March 1706 (rather than 1707), because England (unlike Scotland) began each legal year on 25 March until the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 changed it to 1 January. Separately, the act itself is dated 1706 because, before the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793, the date on which a Bill became law was the first day of the parliamentary session in which it was passed, unless the act contained a provision to the contrary.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Statutes at Large : {{lang\|la\|Anno tricesimo tertio}} George III {{lang\|la\|Regis}} \|year1794 \|editor-lastPickering \|editor-firstDanby \|volumeXXXIX \|locationCambridge \|pages32, 33 \|chapterCAP. XIII An act to prevent acts of parliament from taking effect from a time prior to the passing thereof \|access-date29 January 2021 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXwbC08mcZ-4C&pgPA32 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230320201653/https://books.google.com/books?idXwbC08mcZ-4C&pgPA32 \|url-statuslive \|archive-date20 March 2023}} (33 Geo. 3. c. 13: "Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793")</ref>}} \| commencement = 1 May 1707 \| expiry_date \| repeal_date \| amends \| replaces \| amendments = {{ubli\|Statute Law Revision Act 1867\|Promissory Oaths Act 1871\|Weights and Measures Act 1878\|Statute Law Revision Act 1948\|Peerage Act 1963\|Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1973\|Scotland Act 1998}} \| repealing_legislation \| related_legislation Exchequer Court (Scotland) Act 1707 \| status = Current \| legislation_history \| theyworkforyou \| millbankhansard \| original_text \| revised_text \| use_new_UK-LEG \| UK-LEG_title = Union with Scotland Act 1706 \| collapsed = }} {{Infobox UK legislation \| short_title = Union with England Act 1707{{efn\|The citation of this act by this short title was authorised by the Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964, section 2 and schedule 2. Due to the repeal of those provisions it is now authorised by section 19(2) of the Interpretation Act 1978.}} \| type = Act \| parliament = Parliament of Scotland \| long_title = Act Ratifying and Approving the Treaty of Union of the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England. \| year = 1707 \| citation = 1707 c. 7 \| introduced_commons \| introduced_lords \| territorial_extent = Kingdom of Scotland \| royal_assent = 16 January 1707 \| commencement = 1 May 1707 \| expiry_date \| repeal_date \| amends \| replaces \| amendments = {{ubli\|Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1906\|Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964\|Criminal Justice Act 1948\|Peerage Act 1963\|Scotland Act 1998}} \| repealing_legislation \| related_legislation \| status = Current \| legislation_history \| theyworkforyou \| millbankhansard \| original_text \| revised_text \| use_new_UK-LEG \| UK-LEG_title = Union with England Act 1707 \| collapsed = }} {{United Kingdom constitutional formation}} The Acts of Union{{efn\|{{langx\|gd\|Achd an Aonaidh}}}} refer to two acts of Parliament, one by the Parliament of Scotland in March 1707, followed shortly thereafter by an equivalent act of the Parliament of England.<!-- 1706 for England is true but the detail that England used years running from 25 March is needless detail for the lead. --> They put into effect the International Treaty of Union agreed on 22 July 1706, which politically joined the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single "political state", the Kingdom of Great Britain, with Queen Anne as sovereign of both Kingdoms. The English and Scottish acts of ratification took effect on 1 May 1707, creating the new kingdom, <!-- not "United", that took another 93 years to arrive --> with its parliament based in the Palace of Westminster. The two countries had shared a monarch since the "personal" Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his cousin Elizabeth I to become (in addition) 'James I of England', styled James VI and I. Attempts had been made to try to unite the two separate countries, in 1606, 1667, and in 1689 (following the 1688 Dutch invasion of England, and subsequent deposition of James II of England by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange), but it was not until the early 18th century that both nations via separate groups of English and Scots Royal Commissioners and their respective political establishments, "though not the Scots people",{{cn\|dateJanuary 2025}} came to support the idea of an international "Treaty of political, monetary and trade Union", albeit for different reasons.Political backgroundPrior to 1603, England and Scotland had different monarchs, but when Elizabeth I died without children, she was succeeded as King of England by her distant relative, James VI of Scotland. After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James (reigning as James VI and I), who announced his intention to unite the two realms.{{sfn\|Lockyer\|1998\|pp51–52}} The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but Parliament of England was concerned this would lead to an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, but used the royal prerogative to take the title "King of Great Britain".{{sfn\|Larkin\|Hughes\|1973\|page=19}}<ref>[https://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/britstyles.htm#1604 Royal Proclamation 1604]: Heraldica.ca</ref> Attempts to revive the project of union in 1610 were met with hostility.{{sfn\|Lockyer\|1998\|pp54–59}} English opponents such as Sir Edwin Sandys argued that changing the name of England "were as {{notatypo\|yf}} {{sic}} to make a conquest of our name, which was more than ever the Dane or Norman could do".<ref nameRussell>Russell, Conrad: [https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Elizabeth/Russell.pdf James VI and I and rule over two kingdoms: an English view] (King's College, London)</ref> Instead, James set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state.{{sfn\|Stephen\|2010\|pp=55–58}} However, despite both being nominally Episcopal in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland, or kirk, was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism.{{sfn\|McDonald\|1998\|pp75–76}} As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639–1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed the primacy of the Scots kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when the First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of an English Royalist victory.{{sfn\|Kaplan\|1970\|pp50–70}} Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Scots Presbyterian kirk.{{sfn\|Robertson\|2014\|p=125}} Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Scots Parliament agreed to provide military support to its English counterpart in return for a united Presbyterian church, but did not explicitly commit to political union. As the war progressed, Scots and English Presbyterians increasingly viewed the English Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers, as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, an English pro-Royalist faction known as the Engagers allied with their former enemies to restore him to the English throne.{{sfn\|Harris\|2015\|pp=53–54}} by Andrew Carrick Gow''. Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth after defeat in the 1650–1652 Anglo-Scots War.]] After defeat in the 1647–1648 Second English Civil War, Scotland was occupied by English troops, which were withdrawn once those whom Cromwell held responsible had been replaced by the Kirk Party. In December 1648, Pride's Purge paved the way for the Trial of Charles I in England by excluding MPs who opposed it. Following the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the Scots Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scots and England and, in the 1650 Treaty of Breda, resolved to restore him to the English throne. Instead, defeat in the Anglo-Scottish War resulted in Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth in 1653, largely driven by Cromwell's determination to break the power of the Scots kirk.{{sfn\|Morrill\|1990\|p=162}} The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland, creating the Commonwealth of England and Scotland.<ref> {{cite book \|editor-firstSamuel Rawson \|editor-lastGardiner \|titleThe constitutional documents of the Puritan revolution, 1625-1660 \|chapterThe Union with Scotland \|page[https://archive.org/details/constitutionaldo00garduoft/page/418/mode/2up?viewtheater 418] \|date1906 \|viaInternet Archive}} (photocopy: machine-readable text of this page available at {{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur098.htm \|websiteConstitution.org \|title98. An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland \|archive-date22 February 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200222133532/https://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur098.htm \|url-statusdead }})</ref> It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members.<ref>The 1657 Act's long title was An Act and Declaration touching several Acts and Ordinances made since 20 April 1653, and before 3 September 1654, and other Acts</ref> 1660–1707 While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England, the economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation.<ref name"parliament.uk">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/tk_02_cromwell.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081012160340/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/tk_02_cromwell.html \|archive-date12 October 2008 \|titleCromwell's Britain \|publisherHouse of Lords \|date2007 }}</ref> Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either Country, and the union was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the (protectionist) English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and England's wars with the Dutch Republic, Scotland's major export market. An Anglo-Scots Trade Commission was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks on "political union"; his motives may have been to weaken Scotland's commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I and VI.{{sfn\|MacIntosh\|2007\|pp79–87}} On the Scottish side, the proposed union received parliamentary support, boosted by the desire to ensure free trade. Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669.<ref>Ronald Arthur Lee: '[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/293062616.pdf Government and politics in Scotland, 1661–1681]', 1995</ref>{{sfn\|Whatley\|2001\|p95}} Following the 1688 invasion of England by a Dutch fleet and army led by Prince William of Orange and his wife Mary (daughter of James II), and their deposition of James II as King of England, a Scottish Convention of the Estates (a sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new Constitutional settlement for Scotland. The Convention of the Estates issued an address to William and Mary "as both kingdomes are united in one head and soveraigne so they may become one body pollitick, one nation to be represented in one parliament", reserving "our church government, as it shall be established at the tyme of the union".<ref>The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707; 1689/3/159], K.M. Brown et al eds (St Andrews, 2007-2024) </ref> William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and the English Parliament.{{sfn\|Lynch\|1992\|p305}} Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union.{{sfn\|Harris\|2007\|pp404–406}} The 1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England.{{sfn\|Whatley\|2006\|p91}} In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.{{sfn\|Mitchison\|2002\|pp301–302}} The Company invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia.{{sfn\|Richards\|2004\|p79}} The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over £150,000{{efn\|Equivalent to about £{{inflation\|UK-GDP\|0.15\|1700\|r0}} million in {{Inflation/year\|UK-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK-GDP}}}} severely impacted the Scottish commercial system.{{sfn\|Mitchison\|2002\|p314}}Political motivationsThe International Treaty, and English and Scots acts of ratification of Union may be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of France, Sweden, Denmark-Norway and Spain. While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice, the trend was clear.{{sfn\|Munck\|2005\|pp429–431}} The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II (of England, VII of Scots) succeeding his brother Charles II. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner; in August, the Parliament of Scotland passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir "regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the Independence of the Scots Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scots throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without "the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war".{{sfn\|Jackson\|2003\|pp=38–54}} The issue reappeared during the 1688 Dutch invasion and {{lang\|fr\|coup d'etat}} (subsequently entitled as "the Glorious Revolution"). The English Convention Parliament generally supported replacing King James II with his Protestant daughter Mary, holding to their "legal fiction" that James, by fleeing to France, had abandoned his English subjects and "abdicated". They resisted, however, making her Dutch husband William of Orange joint ruler. They gave way "fearing the return of James" only when William threatened to take his troops and fleet and return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him.{{sfn\|Horwitz\|1986\|pp=10–11}} In Scotland, it became a Constitutional issue. The fact that James VII of Scots had not been present in the Scotland meant that the question of abdication need not arise. On 4 April 1689 a Convention of the Three Estates of Scotland (sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) declared that James VII "had acted irregularly" by assuming regal power (government) "without ever taking the Coronation Oath required by Scots Law". Thus, he had "FOREFALTED [forfeited] the Right to the Scots Crown, and the Scots Throne is become vacant". This was a fundamental difference; if the Parliament of Scotland could decide James VII had "Forfaulted" his Scots throne by actions having, in the words of the "Claim of Right" act 1689 "Invaded the fundamentall Constitution of the Kingdome and altered it from a legall limited monarchy To ane arbitrary despotick power". "Scots monarchs derived legitimacy from the Convention of the Estates", later declared a Parliament of Scotland, not God,{{cn\|dateJanuary 2025}} thus ending the principle of divine right of kings.{{cn\|dateJanuary 2025}} Enshrined in the Union with England Act 1707: {{quote\|The haill other acts of parliament relating thereto in prosecution of the Declaration of the Estates of this kingdom containing the "Claim of Right" bearing date the eleventh of aprile one thousand six hundred and eighty nine.}} Conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles, an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 Jacobite Rising.{{sfn\|Lynch\|1992\|pp=300–303}} William's attempts to have the Claim of Right amended were directed through the "Court faction" which began arguing from 1699 onwards that: # The Convention of the Estates was not a parliament so the act did not really count as binding and # the Convention of the Estates was a parliament and so parliament could just rewrite it. A year and a half after William's death, the Parliament of Scotland "put a period on the end of that sentence" by passing an act which recognised the standing of the Convention of the Estates as a parliament in its own right and made it "high treason" to impugn its authority or to so much as suggest attempting to alter the Claim of Right. Here is the Claim of Right understood and upheld for its secular constitutional provisions quite as much as for its religious provisions. {{quote\|Our sovereign lady, with advice and consent of the estates of parliament, ratites, approves and perpetually confirms the first act of King William and Queen Mary's parliament, dated 5 June 1689, entitled act declaring the meeting of the estates to be a parliament, and of new enacts and declares that the three estates then met together the said 5 June 1689, consisting of noblemen, barons and burghs, were a lawful and free parliament, and it is declared that it shall be "high treason" for any person to disown, quarrel or impugn the dignity and authority of the said Parliament. And further, the queen's majesty, with consent foresaid, statutes and declares that it shall be 'high treason' in any of the subjects of this kingdom to quarrel, impugn or endeavour by writing, malicious and advised speaking, or other open act or deed, to alter or innovate the Claim of Right or any article thereof.}} English perspective in 1702]] The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the union of parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne, who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a union was "very necessary".<ref name":0" /> The Scottish Act of Security 1704, however, was passed after the English parliament, without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress Sophia of Hanover (granddaughter of James I and VI) as Anne's successor, if Anne died childless. The Act of Security granted the Parliament of Scotland, the three Estates,<ref name":0" /> the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Then the Alien Act 1705 was passed in the English parliament, designating Scots in England as "foreign nationals" and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union.<ref name":0" /> To encourage a union, "honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs".<ref name":1">{{Cite web\|titleRatification, October 1706 – March 1707\|urlhttps://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act-of-union-1707/overview/ratification-october-1706---march-1707/\|access-date2020-09-27\|publisherParliament of the United Kingdom\|languageen\|archive-date22 September 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200922184448/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act-of-union-1707/overview/ratification-october-1706---march-1707/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Scottish perspective The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688–1697 Nine Years' War and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession, with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the Darien scheme, and the seven ill years of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation.{{sfn\|Cullen\|2010\|p117}} The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England.{{sfn\|Whatley\|2001\|p48}} The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, combined with the majority of the Squadrone Volante, were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty.<ref name":0" /> Article 15 granted £398,085 and ten shillings sterling to Scotland,{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK-GDP\|0.398\|1706\|r0}} million in {{Inflation/year\|UK-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK-GDP}}}} a sum known as The Equivalent, to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was £18 million,{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK-GDP\|0.018\|1706\|r1}} billion in {{Inflation/year\|UK-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK-GDP}}}} but as Scotland had no national debt,<ref name":0" /> most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58.6% of the fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors.{{sfn\|Watt\|2007\|p?}}{{page?\|dateMay 2024}} The role played by bribery has long been debated. £20,000 was distributed by David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow,{{efn\|About £{{inflation\|UK-GDP\|0.020\|1706\|r1}} million in {{Inflation/year\|UK-GDP}}.{{Inflation/fn\|UK-GDP}}}} of which 60% went to the Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament. Another negotiator, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll was given an English dukedom.<ref name":0" /> Robert Burns is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption: "We're bought and sold for English Gold, Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation." As historian Christopher Whatley points out, this was actually a 17th-century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs,<ref name":1" /> even if it was reluctantly.{{sfn\|Whatley \|1989\|pp160–165}} Professor Sir Tom Devine agreed that promises of "favours, sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities".<ref>{{Cite book\|lastDevine\|firstThomas Martin\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004568536\|titleThe Scottish nation: a modern history\|year2012\|publisherPenguin\|isbn978-0-7181-9673-8\|locationLondon\|oclc=1004568536}}</ref> As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords.<ref name=":0" /> The Union was carried by members of the Scottish elite against the wishes of the great majority. Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath, the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted "the whole nation appears against (it)". Another negotiator, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, who was an ardent Unionist, observed it was "contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom".<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707.shtml \|titleScottish Referendums \|publisherBBC \|access-date16 March 2016 \|archive-date12 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112021734/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/devolution/scotland/briefing/1707.shtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises.{{sfn\|Bambery\|2014\|p?}}{{page?\|dateMay 2024}} As the treaty passed through the Parliament of Scotland, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimed: {{blockquote\|we are not against an honourable and safe union with England, [...&nbsp;but] the condition of the people of Scotland, (cannot be) improved without a Scots Parliament.<ref>The Humble Address of the Commissioners to the General Convention of the Royal Burrows of this Ancient Kingdom Convened the Twenty-Ninth of October 1706, at Edinburgh.</ref>}} Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carillonneur in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells to the tune of "Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?"<ref>Notes by John Purser to CD ''Scotland's Music, [http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm Facts about Edinburgh] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210107025416/http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/magazine/augsep2003/edinburgh.htm \|date7 January 2021 }}.</ref> Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law. Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707.<ref name"Bowie">{{cite journal \|last1Bowie \|first1Karin \|date2003 \|titlePublic Opinion, Popular Politics and the Union of 1707 \|urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/25529719 \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|journalThe Scottish Historical Review \|volume82 \|issue214 \|pages226–260\|doi10.3366/shr.2003.82.2.226 \|jstor25529719 }}</ref> Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of the Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the Worcester seizure all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland.<ref name"Bowie"/> According to Scottish historian William Ferguson, the Acts of Union were a "political job" by England that was achieved by economic incentives, patronage and bribery to secure the passage of the Union treaty in the Scottish Parliament in order satisfy English political imperatives, with the union being unacceptable to the Scottish people, including both the Jacobites and Covenanters. The differences between Scottish were "subsumed by the same sort of patriotism or nationalism that first appeared in the Declaration of Arbroath of 1320."<ref name"Bowie"/> Ferguson highlights the well-timed payments of salary arrears to members of Parliament as proof of bribery and argues that the Scottish people had been betrayed by their Parliament.<ref name"Bowie"/> Ireland Ireland, though a kingdom under the same crown, was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom, unrepresented in Parliament, and was legally subordinate to Great Britain until the Renunciation Act 1783. In July 1707 each House of the Parliament of Ireland passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that "May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idkaVRAAAAYAAJ&pgPA448 The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceedings and Debates of the Houses of Lords and Commons], p. 448</ref><ref>Journals of the Irish Commons, vol. iii. p. 421</ref> The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801. Treaty and passage of the 1707 acts Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland (the {{visible anchor\|Act for a Treaty with England 1705}}) agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705. Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was the Duke of Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield.<ref name"commissioners">{{cite web \| url http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_01_commissioners.html \| title The commissioners \| publisher UK Parliament website \| year 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090619224021/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_01_commissioners.html \| archive-date 19 June 2009 \| access-date 5 February 2013}}</ref> The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, William Cowper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners.<ref name="commissioners"/> Negotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own particular concerns. Within a few days, and with only one face to face meeting of all 62 commissioners,<ref name":0">{{Cite news\|lastMacPherson\|firstHamish\|date27 September 2020\|titleHow the Act of Union came about through a corrupt fixed deal in 1706\|workThe National\|urlhttps://www.thenational.scot/news/18751278.act-union-came-corrupt-fixed-deal-1706/\|access-date27 September 2020\|archive-date27 September 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200927163955/https://www.thenational.scot/news/18751278.act-union-came-corrupt-fixed-deal-1706/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> England had gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade.<ref name"negotiations">{{cite web \| url http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_02_course.html \| title The course of negotiations \| publisher UK Parliament website \| year 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090721014514/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_02_course.html \| archive-date 21 July 2009 \| access-date = 5 February 2013}}</ref> After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the James Graham, 4th Marquess of Montrose and John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton, John Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done.<ref name":0" /> The Court party enjoyed significant funding from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts following the Darien Disaster.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/05_ratification.html \| title Ratification \| publisher UK parliament website \| year 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090619224031/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/05_ratification.html \| archive-date 19 June 2009 \| access-date 5 February 2013}}</ref> The act ratifying the Treaty of Union was finally carried in the Parliament of Scotland by 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707, with a number of key amendments. News of the ratification and of the amendments was received in Westminster, where the Act was passed quickly through both Houses and received the royal assent on 6 March.<ref>Macrae, The Rev. Alexander: Scotland Since the Union'' (1902)</ref> Though the English Act was later in date, it bore the year '1706' while Scotland's was '1707', as the legal year in England began only on 25 March. In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he was greeted by stones and eggs but in England he was cheered for his action.<ref name"Union 08" /> He had personally received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster Treasury.{{cn\|dateMay 2024}} In April 1707, he travelled to London to attend celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry lined along the road. From Barnet, the route was lined with crowds of cheering people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace and the Acts came into effect on 1 May 1707.<ref name"Union 08">{{cite web \| url http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html \| title 1 May 1707 – the Union comes into effect \| publisher UK Parliament website \| year 2007 \| url-statusdead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090619224036/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html \| archive-date 19 June 2009 \| access-date 5 February 2013}}</ref> A day of thanksgiving was declared in England and Ireland but not in Scotland, where the bells of St Giles rang out the tune of "why should I be so sad on my wedding day".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_01_thanksgiving.html \|titleThanksgiving and lament \|publisherUK Parliament website \|year2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090619042200/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_01_thanksgiving.html \|archive-date19 June 2009 \|access-date8 May 2024}}</ref>Provisions {{Main\|Treaty of Union}} of Queen Anne, depicting the Tudor rose and the Scottish thistle growing from the same stem]] The Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69.{{sfn\|Riley\|1969\|pp=523–524}} The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union. The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void". Related acts The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed a similar Act, 6 Ann. c. 8. Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Ann. c. 40{{mdash}}later named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707{{mdash}}united the Privy Council of England and Privy Council of Scotland and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice. On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland. In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of treason and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain. Evaluations Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining "freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was <blockquote>of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations ... The sweeping successes of the eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations.<ref>G.N. Clark, The Later Stuarts, 1660–1714 (2nd ed. 1956) pp 290–93.</ref></blockquote> By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain.<ref>{{cite book\|authorGordon Brown\|titleMy Scotland, Our Britain: A Future Worth Sharing\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddRz1AgAAQBAJ&pgPA150\|year2014\|publisherSimon & Schuster UK\|page150\|isbn9781471137518}}</ref> Economic perspective '' by Godfrey Kneller, 1708. Smith was one of the commissioners who negotiated the union and was Speaker of the House of Commons in the new united parliament. He is shown by Kneller holding a copy of the Act of Union.]] According to the Scottish historian Christopher Smout, prior to the Union of the Crowns the Scottish economy had been flourishing completely independently of the English one, with little to no interaction between each other. Developing a closer economic partnership with England was unsustainable, and Scotland's main trade partner was continental Europe, especially the Netherlands, where Scotland could trade its wool and fish for luxurious imports such as iron, spices or wine. Scotland and England were generally hostile to each other and were often at war, and the alliance with France gave Scotland privileges that further encouraged developing cultural and economic ties with the continent rather than England. The union of 1603 only served the political and dynastic ambitions of King James and was detrimental to Scotland economically – exports that Scotland offered were largely irrelevant to English economy, and while the Privy Council of Scotland did keep its ability to manage internal economic policy, the foreign policy of Scotland was now in English hands. This limited Scotland's hitherto expansive trade with continental Europe, and forced it into English wars.<ref name"smout">{{cite journal \|lastSmout \|firstThomas Christopher \|author-linkChristopher Smout \|date1964 \|titleThe Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707 {{!}} I. The Economic Background\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/2592848 \|journalThe Economic History Review \|volume16 \|number3 \|pages455–467 \|publisherWiley on behalf of the Economic History Society \|doi10.2307/2592848 \|jstor2592848 }}</ref> While the Scottish economy already suffered because of English wars with France and Spain in the 1620s, the civil wars in England had a particularly disastrous effect on Scotland and left it relatively impoverished as a result. The economy would slowly recover afterwards, but at the cost of being increasingly dependent on trade with England. A power struggle developed between Scotland and England in the 1680s, as Scotland recovered from the political turmoil and set on its own economic ambitions, which London considered a threat to its dominant and well-established position. English wars with continental powers undermined Scottish trade with France and the Netherlands, countries that used to be the Scotland's main trade partners before the union, and the English Navigation Acts severely limited Scottish ability to trade by sea, and made the Scottish ambitions to expand the trade beyond Europe unachievable. Opinion in Scotland at the time was that England was sabotaging Scottish economic expansion.<ref name="smout"/> In the years leading to 1707, Scottish economy was lagging behind not only from the impact of wars, but also because of chronic deflation and industrial underdevelopment. Scotland remained a predominantly agrarian society, and the lack of manpower caused by previous conflicts contributed to an underwhelming agricultural output, which intermittently escalated into local food shortages or famines. In turn, the overreliance of Scottish landowners on foreign goods led to a deficit of financial capital, as gold and silver were exported overseas and deflation occurred. The Scottish Parliament attempted to combat the issue by attracting foreign investment - duty on ship building materials was lifted, taxes on new manufacturing stocks were cut, and customs on textile and linen goods were removed.<ref name"reubens">{{cite journal \|titleScottish Economic Development in the face of English Hegemony: Trade Imbalances, Banking, and the Union of 1707 \|journalProceedings of GREAT Day \|volume2012 \|issue17 \|lastReubens \|firstThomas \|year2013 \|urlhttps://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1234&contextproceedings-of-great-day \|pages301–311}}</ref> Scotland grew increasingly dependent on its linen industry, which became the biggest source of employment after agriculture and constituted one-third of Scottish industry. Continental linen industries could outcompete Scotland, and protectionist tariffs implemented by Scotland led to tariff wars as European countries closed their markets to Scotland. In this situation, England became the largest foreign market for Scottish linen; however, while the tariffs in place shielded Scotland from the much larger English industry, England also retaliated against them. This forced Scotland to seek economic alternatives.<ref name"reubens"/> At the time, trade with colonies was rapidly growing in importance in Europe, and trade with colonies was very attractive to Scotland, given its pastoral economy. American colonies had a high demand of agricultural goods such as leather skins of goats and sheep, which would have provided Scotland a valuable source of income. Search for colonial trade, along with the frustration caused by economic and political rivalry with England, led to the Darien scheme - an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Scottish colony in the Gulf of Darién.<ref name"hland"/> The scheme was sabotaged by England in various ways - it was seen as a threat to the privileged position of the East India Company, prompting England to ensure the plan's failure via political and diplomatic overtures to prevent the Netherlands and Hamburg from investing into the scheme and denying assistance.<ref name"ramos">{{cite book \|titleShifting Capital Mercantilism and the Economics of the Act of Union of 1707 \|firstAida \|lastRamos \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|isbn978-3-319-96403-4 \|doi10.1007/978-3-319-96403-4 \|locationCham, Switzerland \|seriesPalgrave Studies in the History of Economic Thought \|date2018 \|pages=28–36}}</ref> In what was dubbed the "affair of Hamburgh" in Scotland, William III of England persuaded European powers against buying stocks in the scheme; William commented on Darien: {{blockquote\|I have been ill-served in Scotland; but I hope some remedies may be found to prevent the inconveniences which may arise from this Act.<ref>"Act of Parliament constituting the Company of Scotland, Trading to Africa and the Indies." Edinburgh, 26 June 1695 in {{cite book \|lastHart \|firstFrancis Russell \|titleThe Disaster of Darien: The Story of the Scots Settlement and the Causes of its Failure 1699–1701 \|locationCambridge, MA \|publisherRiverside Press \|date1929 \|page=190}}</ref>}} English actions against the Darien scheme were also motivated by other factors – the decline in the East India Company's stock values, concerns of Darien causing a labour shortage in the Colony of Jamaica, and the scheme being seen as a threat to "the general peace of Christendom", as Catholic Spain laid a territorial claim to the area.<ref name="reubens"/> The failure of the Darien scheme led to a financial crisis in Scotland. The high cost of its project exacerbated the deflation in Scotland.<ref name"reubens"/> The Bank of Scotland had dangerously low reserves, and in early 1700s a run on the bank occurred, along with temporary suspension of business. Ultimately, the Scottish bank managed to stay solvent, although the persisting deflation and low reserves largely contributed to the feeling of Scottish economy being in a precarious position. Economist Aida Ramos argues that the Darien scheme could have succeeded if it was to receive support from either England or Spain, and that it lacked the capability to create a threat to England or its interests. According to Ramos, the English intervention against the scheme was to meet the expansionary aims of England, as to ensure both its colonial dominance as well as the annexation of Scotland.<ref name"ramos"/> By 1703, the Scottish government was highly disillusioned with the union, and many believed that the only way to let the Scottish economy flourish was to separate from England. John Clerk of Eldin declared that "the Scots had become England's slaves, since they were denied not only their rights as fellow-Britons but their rights under the Law of Nations", and writer David Black wrote: "England affords us but little of what is necessary, yet they drain us more than any nation". The anti-English sentiment led to accusation of King William orchestrating the 1699 Glencoe Massacre, and in 1703 the Scottish Parliament started adopting legislation to counter the English aggression - the first was the Act Anent Peace and War, which was to guarantee that the Scottish foreign policy would be independent of England.<ref name="ramos"/> Scotland would try to establish further autonomy from England with the Act of Security 1704, which provoked a retaliation from England - Scottish ministers were bribed, and Alien Act 1705 was passed. According to the Alien Act, unless Scotland appointed commissioners to negotiate for union by Christmas, every Scot in England would be treated as an alien, leading to the confiscation of their English estates. Additionally, Scottish wares were to be banned from England. Christopher Smout notes that England desired to expand its influence by annexing Scotland: {{blockquote\|textIn sum, England was now seeking Parliamentary Union for political reasons at a moment when the Scots had become dissatisfied with Regal Union for economic reasons: and one of the main weapons chosen by the English to enforce their will was the threat of economic sanctions. The repeal of the Alien Act before it could come into force scarcely reduced its menace: a big stick is a big stick, even if it is replaced in the cupboard unused.<ref name"smout" />}} The act sparked vehement anti-English sentiment in Scotland, and made the already hostile Scottish public more opposed to England: {{blockquote\|textThe crew of an English East Indiaman, the Worcester, that had put into Leith to escape a storm was arrested on a spurious charge of piracy and executed after a parody of a trial, victims of a wave of anti-English hysteria which the Ministers of the Crown dared not be seen to oppose. As late as June, the Scottish Uniornist Cockburn of Ormiston declared he could not find ten men in Parliament willing to join England in a full Union - an exaggeration no doubt, but an indication of the contemporary force of feeling.<ref name"smout" />}} The Scottish economy was now facing a crisis, and the parliament was polarised into pro-union and anti-union factions, with the former led by Daniel Defoe. The unionists stressed how important trade with England is to the Scottish economy, and seen trade with continental Europe as not beneficial. They argued that the Scottish economy could survive by trading with England, and sanctions that would result from the Alien Act would collapse the economy. For Defoe, joining the union would not only prevent the Alien Act, but also remove additional limitations and regulations and lead Scotland to prosperity. Anti-unionists questioned the English goodwill and criticised the unionist faction for submitting to the English blackmail. They argued that Scotland could make a recovery by trading with the Netherlands, Spain and Norway, allowing Scotland to diversify its own industries as well. They argued that the union would make Scotland unable to conduct independent trade policy, meaning that any possibility to remove the flaws in Scottish economy would be gone forever, which would turn Scotland into a "mere satellite of the richer kingdom".<ref name="smout" /> Ultimately, Scottish ministers voted in favour of the union, despite the lack of public support, with the overwhelming majority of the Scottish population at the time protesting vociferously against any union with England.<ref name"Bowie"/> Many Scots considered themselves to have been betrayed by their own elites, and that the union bill was able to pass only thanks to English bribery.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Treaty of Union of Scotland and England, 1707 \|firstGeorge S. \|lastPride \|pages31–34 \|year1950 \|locationLondon \|publisherNelson}}</ref> In the first few decades after the union, England did not end up becoming the main trading partner of Scotland, as other European powers became the primary source of imported goods for Scotland. For at least the first 40 years after the union, Scotland persisted in its traditional trade patterns, and the economic situation of Scotland was not as dire as that described in the months leading up to the Acts of Union.<ref name"hland">{{cite web \|titleThe Act of Union: Death or Reprieve for the Highlands? A Study of the Socio-Economic Impact of the Union on the Highlands of Scotland, 1707-1745 \|firstLauchlin Alexander \|lastCruickshanks \|year2008 \|urlhttps://digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu/_flysystem/fedora/2023-03/22531-Original%20File.pdf \|publisherWesleyan University \|locationMiddletown, Connecticut \|pages81–83}}</ref> 300th anniversary A commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary—of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id2006-11-06a.79.0 \|titleAct of Union 1707: 300th Anniversary (House of Lords – Written answers, 6 November 2006) \|website= TheyWorkForYou.com}}</ref> The Scottish Government held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland.<ref>Announced by the Scottish Culture Minister, Patricia Ferguson, 9 November 2006</ref> Scottish voting records thumb\|Map of commissioner voting on the ratification of the Treaty of Union:<br /> {{legend\|#666666\|All (or sole) Commissioners absent}} {{legend\|#008000\|All Commissioners present voting for Union}} {{legend\|#24B14C\|Majority of Commissioners present voting for Union}} {{legend\|#E6E6E6\|Equal number of Commissioners voting for and against}} {{legend\|#DF0A24\|Majority of Commissioners present voting against Union}} {{legend\|#AA0000\|All Commissioners present voting against Union}} {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"align:left; font-size: 95%;" \|+Voting records for 16 January 1707 ratification of the Treaty of Union \|- ! colspan"2" style"background:#e9e9e9 text-align:left;"\|Commissioner ! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"\|Constituency/Position ! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"\|Party ! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"\|Vote \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Graham, 1st Duke of Montrose \| style="text-align:left" \|Lord President of the Council of Scotland/Stirlingshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Hay, 2nd Marquess of Tweeddale \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Kerr, 2nd Marquess of Lothian \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Erskine, Earl of Mar \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Hamilton-Leslie, 9th Earl of Rothes \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Douglas, 11th Earl of Morton \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Cunningham, 12th Earl of Glencairn \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Maitland, 5th Earl of Lauderdale \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Ramsay, 5th Earl of Dalhousie \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Ogilvy, 4th Earl of Findlater \| style="text-align:left" \|Banffshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Leslie, 3rd Earl of Leven \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Carnegie, 4th Earl of Northesk \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Colin Lindsay, 3rd Earl of Balcarres \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Archibald Douglas, 1st Earl of Forfar \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Keith, 1st Earl of Kintore \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Patrick Hume, 1st Earl of Marchmont \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Archibald Primrose, 1st Earl of Rosebery \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Charles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun \| style="text-align:left" \|likely Linlithgowshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Archibald Campbell, Earl of Illay \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Hay, Viscount Dupplin \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Forbes, 12th Lord Forbes \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Elphinstone, 8th Lord Elphinstone \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Ross, 12th Lord Ross \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Sandilands, 7th Lord Torphichen \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Lord Fraser \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Ogilvy, 3rd Lord Banff \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Kenneth Sutherland, 3rd Lord Duffus \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Robert Rollo, 4th Lord Rollo \| style="text-align:left" \|Stirlingshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Murray, Lord Philiphaugh \| style="text-align:left" \|Lord Clerk Register/Selkirkshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Adam Cockburn, Lord Ormiston \| style="text-align:left" \|Lord Justice Clerk \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Robert Dickson of Inverask \| style="text-align:left" \|Edinburghshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Nisbet of Dirletoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Haddingtonshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Cockburn, younger, of Ormestoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Haddingtonshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Swintoun of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Berwickshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Alexander Campbell of Cessnock \| style="text-align:left" \|Berwickshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir William Kerr of Greenhead \| style="text-align:left" \|Roxburghshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Archibald Douglas, 13th of Cavers \| style="text-align:left" \|Roxburghshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Bennet of Grubbet \| style="text-align:left" \|Roxburghshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Murray of Bowhill \| style="text-align:left" \|Selkirkshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Pringle of Haining \| style="text-align:left" \|Selkirkshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Morison of Prestongrange \| style="text-align:left" \|Peeblesshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Horseburgh of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Peeblesshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Baillie of Jerviswood \| style="text-align:left" \|Lanarkshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Johnstoun of Westerhall \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumfriesshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Dowglass of Dornock \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumfriesshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr William Stewart of Castlestewart \| style="text-align:left" \|Wigtownshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Stewart of Sorbie \| style="text-align:left" \|Wigtownshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Francis Montgomery of Giffan \| style="text-align:left" \|Ayrshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr William Dalrymple of Glenmuir \| style="text-align:left" \|Ayrshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Robert Stewart of Tillicultrie \| style="text-align:left" \|Buteshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Robert Pollock of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Renfrewshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Montgomery of Wrae \| style="text-align:left" \|Linlithgowshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Halden of Glenagies \| style="text-align:left" \|Perthshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mongo Graham of Gorthie \| style="text-align:left" \|Perthshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Thomas Burnet of Leyes \| style="text-align:left" \|Kincardineshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Seton, younger, of Pitmedden \| style="text-align:left" \|Aberdeenshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Grant, younger, of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Inverness-shire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir William Mackenzie \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Aeneas McLeod of Cadboll \| style="text-align:left" \|Cromartyshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Campbell of Mammore \| style="text-align:left" \|Argyllshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir James Campbell of Auchinbreck \| style="text-align:left" \|Argyllshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Campbell, younger, of Ardkinglass \| style="text-align:left" \|Argyllshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir William Anstruther of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Fife \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Halyburton of Pitcurr \| style="text-align:left" \|Forfarshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Abercrombie of Glassoch \| style="text-align:left" \|Banffshire \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr James Dunbarr, younger, of Hemprigs \| style="text-align:left" \|Caithness \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Douglas of Eagleshay \| style="text-align:left" \|Orkney and Shetland \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Bruce, 2nd Baronet \| style="text-align:left" \|Kinross-shire \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Scrimsour \| style="text-align:left" \|Dundee \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Lieutenant Colonel John Areskine \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Mure \| style="text-align:left" \|Likely Ayr \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Scott \| style="text-align:left" \|Montrose \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Anstruther, 1st Baronet, of Anstruther \| style="text-align:left" \|Anstruther Easter \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Spittle \| style="text-align:left" \|Inverkeithing \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Patrick Moncrieff \| style="text-align:left" \|Kinghorn \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Andrew Home \| style="text-align:left" \|Kirkcudbright \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#dfd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Peter Halket \| style="text-align:left" \|Dunfermline \| style="text-align:left" \|Squadrone Volante \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir James Smollet \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumbarton \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr William Carmichell \| style="text-align:left" \|Lanark \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr William Sutherland \| style="text-align:left" \|Elgin \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Captain Daniel McLeod \| style="text-align:left" \|Tain \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir David Dalrymple, 1st Baronet \| style="text-align:left" \|Culross \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Alexander Ogilvie \| style="text-align:left" \|Banff \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Clerk \| style="text-align:left" \|Whithorn \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Ross \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick \| style="text-align:left" \|North Berwick \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Patrick Ogilvie \| style="text-align:left" \|Cullen \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Allardyce \| style="text-align:left" \|Kintore \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Avis \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr James Bethun \| style="text-align:left" \|Kilrenny \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Roderick McKenzie \| style="text-align:left" \|Fortrose \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Urquhart \| style="text-align:left" \|Dornoch \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Daniel Campbell \| style="text-align:left" \|Inveraray \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Robert Forbes \| style="text-align:left" \|Inverurie \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Robert Dowglass \| style="text-align:left" \|Kirkwall \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Alexander Maitland \| style="text-align:left" \|Inverbervie \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr George Dalrymple \| style="text-align:left" \|Stranraer \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Charles Campbell \| style="text-align:left" \|Campbeltown \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|Yes \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Johnstone, 1st Marquess of Annandale \| style="text-align:left" \|Annan \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Charles Hay, 13th Earl of Erroll \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Keith, 9th Earl Marischal \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Erskine, 9th Earl of Buchan \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Sinclair, 9th Earl of Caithness \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Fleming, 6th Earl of Wigtown \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Stewart, 5th Earl of Galloway \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Livingston, 3rd Viscount of Kilsyth \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Francis Sempill, 10th Lord Sempill \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Charles Oliphant, 7th Lord Oliphant \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Elphinstone, 4th Lord Balmerino \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Walter Stuart, 6th Lord Blantyre \| style="text-align:left" \|Linlithgow \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Hamilton, 3rd Lord Bargany \| style="text-align:left" \|Queensferry \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Lord Colvill \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Patrick Kinnaird, 3rd Lord Kinnaird \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Lawder of Fountainhall \| style="text-align:left" \|Haddingtonshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Haddingtonshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Robert Sinclair, 3rd Baronet \| style="text-align:left" \|Berwickshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Patrick Home of Rentoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Berwickshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto \| style="text-align:left" \|Roxburghshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Bayllie of Lamingtoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Lanarkshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Sinclair, younger, of Stevensone \| style="text-align:left" \|Lanarkshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Hamilton of Aikenhead \| style="text-align:left" \|Lanarkshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Alexander Fergusson of Isle \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumfriesshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Hugh Cathcart of Carletoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Ayrshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Brisbane, younger, of Bishoptoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Ayrshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr William Cochrane of Kilmaronock \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumbartonshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Humphray Colquhoun of Luss \| style="text-align:left" \|Dumbartonshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir John Houstoun of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Renfrewshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Robert Rollo of Powhouse \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Thomas Sharp of Houstoun \| style="text-align:left" \|Linlithgowshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Murray of Strowan \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Gordon of Pitlurg \| style="text-align:left" \|Aberdeenshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Forbes of Colloden \| style="text-align:left" \|Nairnshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Bethun of Balfour \| style="text-align:left" \|Fife \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Major Henry Balfour of Dunboog \| style="text-align:left" \|Fife \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Thomas Hope of Rankeillor \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Patrick Lyon of Auchterhouse \| style="text-align:left" \|Forfarshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr James Carnagie of Phinhaven \| style="text-align:left" \|Forfarshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|David Graham, younger, of Fintrie \| style="text-align:left" \|Forfarshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|William Maxwell of Cardines \| style="text-align:left" \|Kirkcudbrightshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander McKye of Palgown \| style="text-align:left" \|Kirkcudbrightshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|James Sinclair of Stempster \| style="text-align:left" \|Caithness \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir Henry Innes, younger, of that ilk \| style="text-align:left" \|Elginshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr George McKenzie of Inchcoulter \| style="text-align:left" \|Ross-shire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Robert Inglis \| style="text-align:left" \|Edinburgh \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Robertson \| style="text-align:left" \|Perth \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Walter Stewart \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#def;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Hugh Montgomery \| style="text-align:left" \|Glasgow \| style="text-align:left" \|Court Party \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Edgar \| style="text-align:left" \|Haddington \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Alexander Duff \| style="text-align:left" \|Banffshire \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Francis Molison \| style="text-align:left" \|Brechin \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Walter Scott \| style="text-align:left" \|Jedburgh \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Robert Scott \| style="text-align:left" \|Selkirk \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Robert Kellie \| style="text-align:left" \|Dunbar \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Hutchesone \| style="text-align:left" \|Arbroath \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Archibald Scheills \| style="text-align:left" \|Peebles \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Lyon \| style="text-align:left" \|Forfar \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Brodie \| style="text-align:left" \|Forres \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Spens \| style="text-align:left" \|Rutherglen \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Sir David Cuningham \| style="text-align:left" \|Lauder \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr John Carruthers \| style="text-align:left" \|Lochmaben \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|George Home \| style="text-align:left" \|New Galloway \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|John Bayne \| style="text-align:left" \|Dingwall \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- \| style="background:#ddd;"\| \| style="text-align:left" \|Mr Robert Fraser \| style="text-align:left" \|Wick \| style="text-align:left" \| \| style="text-align:right" \|No \|- ! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:lightgreen;"\|Total Ayes ! style="text-align:right" \|106 \|- ! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:pink;"\|Total Noes ! style="text-align:right" \|69 \|- ! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:lightgrey;"\|Total Votes ! style="text-align:right" \|175 \|- ! style"text-align:left" colspan5\|Sources: Records of the Parliament of Scotland, [http://dbooks.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/books/PDFs/555089378.pdf Parliamentary Register, p.598] \|} See also * Acts of Union 1800 (Kingdom of Great Britain with Kingdom of Ireland) *Kingdom of Ireland English independence * List of treaties * MacCormick v Lord Advocate * Parliament of the United Kingdom * Political union * Real union * Scottish independence * Unionism in Scotland * Welsh independence Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Works cited {{Refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book \|lastBambery \|firstChris \|titleA People's History of Scotland \|title-linkA People's History of Scotland \|date2014 \|publisherVerso \|isbn=978-1-7866-3787-1}} * {{Cite journal \|lastCampbell \|firstR. H. \|date1964 \|titleThe Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. II. The Economic Consequences \|journalThe Economic History Review \|volume16 \|issue3 \|pages468–477 \|doi10.2307/2592849 \|jstor2592849}} * {{Cite book \|lastCullen \|firstK. J. \|titleFamine in Scotland: The "Ill Years" of the 1690s \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|date2010 \|isbn978-0-7486-3887-1}} * {{Cite book \|lastHarris \|firstTim \|titleRevolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720 \|date2007 \|publisherPenguin \|isbn978-0-1410-1652-8}} * {{Cite book \|lastHarris \|firstTim \|titleRebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567–1642 \|date2015 \|publisherOUP Oxford \|isbn978-0-1987-4311-8}} * {{Cite book \|lastHorwitz \|firstHenry \|titleParliament, Policy and Politics in the Reign of William III. \|date1986 \|publisherMUP \|isbn978-0-7190-0661-6}} * {{Cite book \|lastJackson \|firstClare \|titleRestoration Scotland, 1660–1690: Royalist Politics, Religion and Ideas \|date2003 \|publisherBoydell Press \|isbn978-0-8511-5930-0}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKaplan \|firstLawrence \|dateMay 1970 \|titleSteps to War: The Scots and Parliament, 1642–1643 \|journalJournal of British Studies \|volume9 \|issue2 \|pages50–70 \|doi10.1086/385591 \|jstor175155 \|s2cid=145723008}} * {{Cite book \|titleStuart Royal Proclamations: Volume I \|publisherClarendon Press \|date1973 \|editor-lastLarkin \|editor-firstJames F. \|editor-last2Hughes \|editor-first2=Paul L.}} * {{Cite book \|lastLynch \|firstMichael \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/scotlandnewhisto0000lync_b2x2 \|titleScotland: a New History \|date1992 \|publisherPimlico Publishing \|isbn=978-0-7126-9893-1}} * {{Cite book \|lastLockyer \|firstR \|titleJames VI and I \|publisherAddison Wesley Longman \|date1998 \|isbn978-0-5822-7962-9 \|location=London}} * {{Cite book \|lastMacIntosh \|firstGillian \|titleScottish Parliament under Charles II, 1660–1685 \|date2007 \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|isbn978-0-7486-2457-7}} * {{Cite book \|lastMcDonald \|firstAlan \|titleThe Jacobean Kirk, 1567–1625: Sovereignty, Polity and Liturgy \|date1998 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-8592-8373-8}} * {{Cite book \|lastMitchison \|firstRosalind \|titleA History of Scotland \|date2002 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-4152-7880-5}} * {{Cite book \|lastMorrill \|firstJohn \|titleOliver Cromwell and the English Revolution \|date1990 \|publisherLongman \|isbn978-0-5820-1675-0}} * {{Cite book \|lastMunck \|firstThomas \|titleSeventeenth-Century Europe: State, Conflict and Social Order in Europe 1598–1700 \|date2005 \|publisherPalgrave \|isbn978-1-4039-3619-6}} * {{Cite book \|lastRichards \|firstE \|titleOBritannia's Children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600 \|date2004 \|publisherContinuum \|isbn1-8528-5441-3}} * {{Cite journal \|lastRiley \|firstP.J.W. \|date1969 \|titleThe Union of 1707 as an Episode in English Politics \|journalThe English Historical Review \|volume84 \|issue332 \|pages498–527 \|jstor=562482}} * {{Cite book \|lastRobertson \|firstBarry \|titleRoyalists at War in Scotland and Ireland, 1638–1650 \|date2014 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-3170-6106-9}} * {{Cite journal \|lastSmout \|firstT. C. \|date1964 \|titleThe Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. I. The Economic Background \|journalThe Economic History Review \|volume16 \|issue3 \|pages455–467 \|doi10.2307/2592848 \|jstor2592848}} * {{Cite journal \|lastStephen \|firstJeffrey \|date2010 \|titleScottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism: The Edinburgh Council, 1745 \|journalJournal of British Studies \|languageen \|volume49 \|issue1 \|pages47–72 \|doi10.1086/644534 \|issn0021-9371 \|s2cid144730991}} * {{Cite book \|lastWatt \|firstDouglas \|titleThe Price of Scotland: Darien, Union and the wealth of nations \|date2007 \|publisherLuath Press \|isbn978-1-9063-0709-7}} * {{Cite book \|lastWhatley \|firstC \|titleBought and sold for English Gold? Explaining the Union of 1707 \|publisherTuckwell Press \|date2001 \|isbn978-1-8623-2140-3 \|location=East Linton}} * {{Cite book \|lastWhatley \|firstC \|titleThe Scots and the Union \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|date2006 \|isbn978-0-7486-1685-5}} * {{Cite journal \|lastWhatley \|firstChristopher \|date1989 \|titleEconomic Causes and Consequences of the Union of 1707: A Survey \|journalScottish Historical Review \|volume68 \|issue186 \|pages150–181 \|jstor=25530416}} {{Refend}} Further reading * Defoe, Daniel. ''A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–1727 * Defoe, Daniel. The Letters of Daniel Defoe, GH Healey editor. Oxford: 1955. * Fletcher, Andrew (Saltoun). An Account of a Conversation'' * Lockhart, George, "The Lockhart Papers", 1702–1728 External links * {{Wikisource-inline\|Act of Union 1707\|single=true}} * [http://rahbarnes.co.uk/union/union-of-1707/ Union with England Act and Union with Scotland Act – Full original text] * [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/collectionsp-bin/colldisp/l0/c81 Treaty of Union and the Darien Experiment], University of Guelph, McLaughlin Library, Library and Archives Canada * {{UK-LEG\|title=Union with Scotland Act 1706}} * {{UK-LEG\|title=Union with England Act 1707}} * [https://rps.ac.uk/search.php?actionfetch_jump&filenameanne_trans&jumpanne_m1706_10_257_d6_ms&typetrans&fragment=t1706_10_257_d6_trans Union with England Act 1707, from Records of the Parliaments of Scotland] * [https://archives.parliament.uk/collections/getrecord/GB61_HL_PO_PU_1_1706_5and6An14 Image of original act from the Parliamentary Archives website] {{Navboxes \|list = {{Kingdom of England}} {{Kingdom of Scotland}} {{Scotland topics}} {{Kingdom of Great Britain}} {{Early Modern Scotland}} {{Eighteenth-century Scotland}} {{Succession to the British throne}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Acts of Union 1707}} Category:1706 in England Category:1706 in law Category:1707 in law Category:1707 in Scotland Category:Acts of the Parliament of England 1707 Category:Acts of the Parliament of England still in force Category:Unionism in the United Kingdom Category:Constitutional laws of the United Kingdom Category:England–Scotland relations Category:Politics of the Kingdom of Great Britain Category:National unifications Category:Political charters Category:Unionism in Scotland Category:Treaties of England Category:Treaties of Scotland Category:1707 in British law Category:1706 in politics Category:Church of Scotland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707	2025-04-05T18:26:14.452617
2988	Admiralty (United Kingdom)	{{Short description\|British Government ministry responsible for the Royal Navy until 1964}} {{About\|the period from 1707–1964\|the preceding period 1546–1707\|Admiralty in the 16th century{{!}}Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office \|the succeeding period 1964–1997\|Navy Department (Ministry of Defence)}} {{Use British English\|date=August 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox government agency \|type = Department \|agency_name = Department of Admiralty \|motto \|logo File:Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government) (St Edwards Crown).svg \|logo_width \|logo_caption Royal Arms of HM Government \|seal \|seal_width \|seal_caption \|preceding1 Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office \|jurisdiction = Government of the United Kingdom \|headquarters = War Office building <br />Whitehall<br />London \|formed = 1707 \|dissolved = 1964 \|superseding = Navy Department \|employees \|budget \|chief1_name = First Lord of the Admiralty \|chief1_position \|chief2_name \|chief2_position \|parent_agency HM Government \|child1_agency \|website }} The Admiralty was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite book\|last1Hamilton\|first1C. I.\|titleThe Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making, 1805–1927\|date3 February 2011\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9781139496544\|page56\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8S4yyAkysYgC&qAdmiralty+was+a+government+department&pgPA56\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|authorMinistry of Defence\|titleThe Government's expenditure plans 2004–05 to 2005–06\|date2004\|publisherStationery Office\|locationLondon\|isbn9780101621229\|page8}}</ref> responsible for the command of the Royal Navy until 1964, historically under its titular head, the Lord High Admiral – one of the Great Officers of State. For much of its history, from the early 18th century until its abolition, the role of the Lord High Admiral was almost invariably put "in commission" and exercised by the Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty, who sat on the governing Board of Admiralty, rather than by a single person. The Admiralty was replaced by the Admiralty Board in 1964, as part of the reforms that created the Ministry of Defence and its Navy Department (later Navy Command).<ref>{{cite web\|last1Archives\|first1The National\|titleAdmiralty, and Ministry of Defence, Navy Department: Correspondence and Papers\|urlhttp://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C1710\|websitediscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk\|publisherNational Archives, 1660–1976, ADM 1\|access-date3 March 2017}}</ref> Before the Acts of Union 1707, the Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs<ref>{{cite book\|last1Knighton\|first1C. S.\|last2Loades\|first2David\|last3Loades\|first3Professor of History David\|titleElizabethan Naval Administration\|date29 April 2016\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn9781317145035\|page8\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK50WDAAAQBAJ&qseas\|languageen}}</ref> administered the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of England, which merged with the Royal Scots Navy and then absorbed the responsibilities of the Lord High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland with the unification of the Kingdom of Great Britain.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Lawrence\|first1Nicholas Blake, Richard\|titleThe illustrated companion to Nelson's navy\|date2005\|publisherStackpole Books\|locationMechanicsburg, Pa.\|isbn9780811732758\|page8\|editionPaperback}}</ref> The Admiralty was among the most important departments of the British Government, because of the Royal Navy's role in the expansion and maintenance of the English overseas possessions in the 17th century, the British Empire in the 18th century, and subsequently. The modern Admiralty Board, to which the functions of the Admiralty were transferred in 1964, is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. This Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historic Navy Board). It is common for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply 'The Admiralty'. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday and since his death in 2021 has reverted to the monarch.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13730067 \|titleNew title for Duke of Edinburgh as he turns 90, who remains the incumbent. \|workBBC News \|publisherBBC \|date10 June 2011 \|access-date10 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date15 June 2021\|titleLord High Admiral - a Freedom of Information request to Royal Navy\|urlhttps://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/lord_high_admiral\|access-date21 September 2021\|websiteWhatDoTheyKnow}}</ref> There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices.HistoryThe office of Admiral of England (later Lord Admiral, and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400; there had previously been Admirals of the northern and western seas.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Durston\|first1Gregory\|titleThe Admiralty Sessions, 1536-1834: Maritime Crime and the Silver Oar\|date2017\|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing\|isbn9781443873611\|page4\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjVwpDwAAQBAJ&qAdmiral+of+the+North+and+Admiral+of+the+West+were+unified+with+Lord+High+Admiral&pgPA4\|languageen}}</ref> King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine—later to become the Navy Board—in 1546, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. This management approach would continue in force in the Royal Navy until 1832.<ref name"Oxford University Press">{{Cite encyclopedia\|urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105310974\|encyclopediaThe Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.)\|titleLord High Admiral\|editor-last1Kemp\|editor-first1Dear\|editor-last2Kemp\|editor-first2Peter\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2007\|isbn9780191727504}}</ref> King Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission in 1628, and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in the early 19th century).<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> In this organization a dual system operated the Lord High Admiral (from 1546) then Commissioners of the Admiralty (from 1628) exercised the function of general control (military administration) of the Navy and they were usually responsible for the conduct of any war, while the actual supply lines, support and services were managed by four principal officers, namely, the Treasurer, Comptroller, Surveyor and Clerk of the Acts, responsible individually for finance, supervision of accounts, Shipbuilding and maintenance of ships, and record of business. These principal officers came to be known as the Navy Board responsible for 'civil administration' of the navy, from 1546 to 1832.<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> This structure of administering the navy lasted for 285 years, however, the supply system was often inefficient and corrupt its deficiencies were due as much to its limitations of the times they operated in. The various functions within the Admiralty were not coordinated effectively and lacked inter-dependency with each other, with the result that in 1832, Sir James Graham abolished the Navy Board and merged its functions within those of the Board of Admiralty. At the time this had distinct advantages; however, it failed to retain the principle of distinctions between the Admiralty and supply, and a lot of bureaucracy followed with the merger.<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> In 1860 saw big growth in the development of technical crafts, the expansion of more admiralty branches that really began with age of steam that would have an enormous influence on the navy and naval thought. Between 1860 and 1908, there was no real study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service; it was practically ignored. All the Navy's talent flowed to the great technical universities. This school of thought for the next 50 years was exclusively technically based. The first serious attempt to introduce a sole management body to administer the naval service manifested itself in the creation of the Admiralty Navy War Council in 1909.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Kennedy\|first1Paul\|titleThe War Plans of the Great Powers (RLE The First World War): 1880–1914\|date24 April 2014\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn9781317702528\|page128\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddbtwAwAAQBAJ&qAdmiral+Fisher+Naval+War+Council&pgPA128\|languageen}}</ref> Following this, a new advisory body called the Admiralty War Staff was then instituted in 1912,<ref>{{cite news \|titleObituary: Sir Reginald Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax – First Director of the Naval Staff College \|workThe Times \|date18 October 1967\|page12 }}</ref> headed by the Chief of the War Staff who was responsible for administering three new sub-divisions responsible for operations, intelligence and mobilisation. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it continually struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. There were no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions. A Trade Division was created in 1914. Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty in 1916. He re-organized the war staff as following: Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilisation, Trade.<ref namejellicoe>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.naval-history.net/WW1Book-Jellicoe-Crisis_of_%20the_%20Naval_%20War.htm\|titleThe Crisis of the Naval War (1917)\|firstAdmiral of the Fleet Viscount \|lastJellicoe of Scapa\|publisherNaval History.net\|access-date=9 September 2022}}</ref> It was not until 1917 that the admiralty department was again properly reorganized and began to function as a professional military staff. In May 1917, the term "Admiralty War Staff" was renamed and that department and its functional role were superseded by a new "Admiralty Naval Staff";<ref>{{cite book\|last1Moretz\|first1Joseph\|titleThe Royal Navy and the Capital Ship in the Interwar Period: An Operational Perspective\|date6 December 2012\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn9781136340369\|page247\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlvgrBgAAQBAJ&pgPA247}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|last1Archives\|first1The National\|titleThe Discovery Service\|urlhttp://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C1917\|websitediscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk\|publisherNational Archives\|access-date19 January 2017}}</ref> in addition, the newly created office of Chief of the Naval Staff was merged in the office of the First Sea Lord. Also appointed was a new post, that of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, and an Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff; all were given seats on the Board of Admiralty. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the board; the presence of three senior naval senior members on the board ensured the necessary authority to carry through any operation of war. The Deputy Chief of Naval Staff would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations.<ref namejellicoe/> The office of Controller would be re-established to deal with all questions relating to supply; on 6 September 1917, a Deputy First Sea Lord, was added to the Board who would administer operations abroad and deal with questions of foreign policy. In October 1917, the development of the staff was carried one step further by the creation of two sub-committees of the Board—the Operations Committee and the Maintenance Committee. The First Lord of the Admiralty was chairman of both committees, and the Operations Committee consisted of the First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff, the Deputy First Sea Lord, Assistant Chief of Naval Staff, and Fifth Sea Lord.<ref name=jellicoe/> Full operational control of the Royal Navy was finally handed over to the Chief of Naval Staff (CNS) by an order in Council, effective October 1917, under which he became responsible for the issuing of orders affecting all war operations directly to the fleet. It also empowered the CNS to issue orders in their own name, as opposed to them previously being issued by the Permanent Secretary of the Admiralty in the name of the Board. In 1964, the Admiralty—along with the War Office and the Air Ministry—were abolished as separate departments of state, and placed under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy, the Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/49053/history_of_mod.pdf\|titleHistory of the Ministry of Defence\|publisherMinistry of Defence\|access-date9 September 2022}}</ref> Organizational structure , Whitehall, London, about 1810]] In the 20th century the structure of the Admiralty Headquarters was predominantly organized into four parts:<ref name"auto">{{cite book \|last1Great Britain \|first1Parliament, House of Commons \|titleHouse of Commons Papers, Volume 5 \|date1959 \|publisherHM Stationery Office \|locationLondon, England \|pages5–24 \|chapter=Admiralty Office}}</ref> # The Board of Admiralty, which directs and controls the whole machine chaired by a civilian government minister the First Lord of the Admiralty. His chief military adviser was the First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff as the Senior Naval Lord to the board.<ref name="auto"/> # The Admiralty Naval Staff, advised and assisted the Board in chief strategic and operational planning, in the distributing of fleets and the allocating of assets to major naval commands and stations and in formulating official policy on tactical doctrine and requirements in regard to men and material. In order to deliver this the Naval Staff was organised into specialist Divisions and Sections. When the Admiralty unified with the Ministry of Defence in 1964 they were re designated as Directorates of the Naval Staff.<ref name="auto"/> # The Admiralty Departments, which provides the men, ships, aircraft and supplies to carry out the approved policy. The departments are superintended by the various offices of the Sea Lords.<ref name="auto"/> # The Department of the Permanent Secretary which was the general co-ordinating agency, regulating naval finance, providing advice on policy, conducing all correspondence on behalf of the Board and maintaining admiralty records. Its primary component to deliver this is the Admiralty Secretariat, sections of the Secretariat (other than those which provide Common Services) were known as Branches.<ref name="auto"/> Board of Admiralty {{main\|Board of Admiralty}} When the office of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by a Board of Admiralty, officially known as the Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c. (alternatively of England, Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending on the period). The Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, normally politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord.<ref name="auto"/> Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty (1628–1964) {{main\|Board of Admiralty}} The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty were the members of The Board of Admiralty, which exercised the office of Lord High Admiral when it was not vested in a single person. The commissioners were a mixture of politicians without naval experience and professional naval officers, the proportion of naval officers generally increasing over time.<ref name="auto"/> Key Officials First Lord of the Admiralty {{main\|First Lord of the Admiralty}} The First Lord of the Admiralty or formally the Office of the First Lord of the Admiralty was the British government's senior civilian adviser on all naval affairs and the minister responsible for the direction and control of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office later the Department of Admiralty.(+) His office was supported by the Naval Secretariat.<ref name="auto"/> First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff {{main\|First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff}} The First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff was the Chief Naval Adviser on the Board of Admiralty to the First Lord and superintended the offices of the sea lords and the admiralty naval staff.<ref name="auto"/> Navy Board {{main\|Navy Board}} The Navy Board was an independent board from 1546 until 1628 when it became subordinate to, yet autonomous of the Board of Admiralty until 1832. Its principal commissioners of the Navy advised the board in relation to civil administration of the naval affairs. The Navy Board was based at the Navy Office. Board of Admiralty civilian members responsible other important civil functions # Office of the Civil Lord of the Admiralty.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of the Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of the Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty.<ref name="auto"/> Admiralty Naval Staff {{main\|Admiralty Naval Staff}} It evolved from Admiralty Navy War Council, (1909–1912) which in turn became the Admiralty War Staff, (1912–1917) before finally becoming the Admiralty Naval Staff in 1917. It was the former senior command, operational planning, policy and strategy department within the British Admiralty. It was established in 1917 and existed until 1964 when the department of the Admiralty was abolished, and the staff departments function continued within the Navy Department of the Ministry of Defence until 1971 when its functions became part of the new Naval Staff, Navy Department of the Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Stationery Office\|first1H.M.\|titleThe Navy List\|date31 October 1967\|publisherSpink and Sons Ltd, London, England\|pages524–532}}</ref> Offices of the Naval Staff # Office of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of the Vice Chief of the Naval Staff.<ref name="auto"/> # Offices of the Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff.<ref name="auto"/> Admiralty Departments<br /> The Admiralty Departments were distinct and component parts of the Department of Admiralty that were superintended by the various offices of the Sea Lords responsible for them; they were primarily administrative, research, scientific and logistical support organisations. The departments role was to provide the men, ships, aircraft and supplies to carry out the approved policy of the Board of Admiralty and conveyed to them during 20th century by the Admiralty Naval Staff.<ref name="auto"/> Offices of the Sea Lords # Office of the Deputy First Sea Lord # Office of the Second Sea Lord.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of the Third Sea Lord.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of the Fourth Sea Lord.<ref name="auto"/> # Office of Fifth Sea Lord Department of the Permanent Secretary {{main\|Department of the Permanent Secretary (Royal Navy)}} The Secretary's Department consisted of members of the civil service it was directed and controlled by a senior civil servant Permanent Secretary to the Board of Admiralty he was not a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty, he functioned as a member of the board, and attended all of its meetings.<ref name"auto"/>Organizational structure by time period{{Further\|Admiralty in the 16th century\|Admiralty in the 17th century\|Admiralty in the 18th century\|Admiralty in the 19th century\|Admiralty in the 20th century}}"Admiralty" as a metonym for "sea power" In some cases, the term admiralty is used in a wider sense, as meaning sea power or rule over the seas, rather than in strict reference to the institution exercising such power. For example, the well-known lines from Kipling's Song of the Dead: {{Blockquote\|If blood be the price of admiralty, Lord God, we ha' paid in full!<ref>{{cite book\|last1Kipling\|first1Rudyard\|titleStories and Poems\|date2015\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn9780198723431\|page471\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqaI1CgAAQBAJ&qIf+blood+be+the+price+of+admiralty%2C+Lord+God%2C+we+ha%27+paid+in+full%21&pgPA471\|languageen}}</ref> }} See also {{Portal\|Law\|Oceans\|Transport\|United Kingdom}} Admiralty administration * Admiralty buildings * Admiralty chart * Admiralty Inlet * Admiralty Peak * Navy Department (Ministry of Defence) * Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom * List of first lords of the Admiralty * List of lords commissioners of the Admiralty * Lord High Admiral of Scotland * St Boniface's Catholic College References {{Reflist}} Further reading * Daniel A. Baugh, Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole (Princeton, 1965). * Sir John Barrow, An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart., Late of the Admiralty (London, 1847). * John Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III: Its State and Direction (Cambridge, 1953). * C. I. Hamilton, The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making 1805–1927 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). * C. I. Hamilton, "Selections from the Phinn Committee of Inquiry of October–November 1853 into the State of the Office of Secretary to the Admiralty, in The Naval Miscellany, volume V, edited by N. A. M. Rodger, (London: Navy Records Society, London, 1984). * C. S. Knighton, Pepys and the Navy (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003). * Christopher Lloyd, Mr Barrow of the Admiralty (London, 1970). * Malcolm H. Murfett, The First Sea Lords: From Fisher to Mountbatten (Westport: Praeger, 1995). * Lady Murray, The Making of a Civil Servant: Sir Oswyn Murray, Secretary of the Admiralty 1917–1936 (London, 1940). * N.A.M. Rodger, The Admiralty (Lavenham, 1979) * J.C. Sainty, Admiralty Officials, 1660–1870 (London, 1975) * Sir Charles Walker, Thirty-Six Years at the Admiralty (London, 1933) External links {{Commons category}} * [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=68108 The Admiralty] at the Survey of London online {{Admiralty Department\|state=collapsed}} {{Naval Service (British)}} {{Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom}} {{Authority control}} Category:Defunct departments of the Government of the United Kingdom Category:Royal Navy * Category:History of the Royal Navy * Category:1964 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Category:United Kingdom in World War II Category:Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II Category:1707 establishments in England	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)	2025-04-05T18:26:14.466200
2991	Amphibian (disambiguation)	An amphibian is a member of the class Amphibia of ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates Amphibian may also refer to: Amphibian (comics), two superheroes from Marvel Comics "Amphibian" (song), by Björk Amphibious vehicle, a vehicle that can operate on water or land Amphibious aircraft, an aircraft for land, air, and sea Loening OL or Loening Amphibian, an amphibious biplane built for the US Army Air Corps and Navy Mark IV Amphibian, a type of World War II period British rebreather See also Amphibia (disambiguation) Amphibious (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:26:14.470311
2992	Amputation	{{Short description\|Medical procedure that removes a part of the body}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Amputation \| image = Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_U.S._Army_World_Class_Athlete_Program_Paralympic.jpg \| caption = An amputee running with a blade prosthetic \| pronounce \| field Surgery Physical medicine and rehabilitation Emergency medicine \| symptoms \| complications Phantom limb syndrome \| onset \| duration \| types \| causes Trauma or intentional as part of surgery and sometimes corporal punishment. \| risks \| diagnosis \| differential \| prevention \| treatment \| medication \| prognosis \| frequency \| deaths \|alt}} {{corporal punishment}} {{Criminal procedure (trial)}} Amputation is the removal of a limb or other body part by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, judicial amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes.<ref name"iran">{{Cite news \|lastFathi \|firstNazila \|date2008-01-11 \|titleSpate of Executions and Amputations in Iran \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/11/world/middleeast/11iran.html \|url-accesslimited \|access-date2021-06-27}}</ref><ref name"Chuback 2005">{{Cite conference \|lastChuback \|firstJennifer E. \|dateMarch 2005 \|editor-lastWhitelaw \|editor-firstW.A. \|titleThe history of rhinoplasty \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/16854023 \|conference14th Annual History of Medicine Days \|publisherUniversity of Calgary \|publication-placeCalgary, Alberta, Canada \|pages10–15 \|viaResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastKocharkarn\|firstWachira \| name-list-style vanc \|dateSummer 2000\|titleTraumatic amputation of the penis\|urlhttp://brazjurol.com.br/pdf/kochakarn_385_389.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://brazjurol.com.br/pdf/kochakarn_385_389.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalBrazilian Journal of Urology\|volume26\|pages385–389\|viaOfficial Journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIm95I7FjrvwC&qamputation+punishment&pgPR7\|titleCrime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century\|lastPeters\|firstRudolph\| name-list-style vanc \|date2005\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9780521792264 }}</ref> Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bosmia AN, Griessenauer CJ, Tubbs RS \| title Yubitsume: ritualistic self-amputation of proximal digits among the Yakuza \| journal Journal of Injury and Violence Research \| volume 6 \| issue 2 \| pages 54–6 \| date July 2014 \| pmid 24284812 \| pmc 4009169 \| doi 10.5249/jivr.v6i2.489 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kepe T \| title 'Secrets' that kill: crisis, custodianship and responsibility in ritual male circumcision in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa \| journal Social Science & Medicine \| volume 70 \| issue 5 \| pages 729–35 \| date March 2010 \| pmid 20053494 \| doi 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Grisaru N, Lezer S, Belmaker RH \| title Ritual female genital surgery among Ethiopian Jews \| journal Archives of Sexual Behavior \| volume 26 \| issue 2 \| pages 211–5 \| date April 1997 \| pmid 9101034 \| doi 10.1023/a:1024562512475 \| s2cid 32053425 }}</ref> When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAmputator \|encyclopediaMerriam-Webster \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amputator \|access-date28 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAmputee \|encyclopediaMerriam-Webster \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amputee \|access-date28 June 2021}}</ref> The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Maloney\|first1T.R.\|last2Dilkes-Hall\|first2I.E.\|last3Vlok\|first3M\|titleSurgical amputation of a limb 31,000 years ago in Borneo\|journalNature\|issue7927\|pages547–551\|year2022\|volume609 \|doi10.1038/s41586-022-05160-8\|pmid36071168 \|pmc9477728 \|bibcode2022Natur.609..547M }}</ref> A prosthesis or a bioelectric replantation restores sensation of the amputated limb.Types{{more citations needed section\|dateJune 2021}} Leg Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations. Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pinzur MS, Stuck RM, Sage R, Hunt N, Rabinovich Z \| title Syme ankle disarticulation in patients with diabetes \| journal The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume \| volume 85 \| issue 9 \| pages 1667–72 \| date September 2003 \| pmid 12954823 \| doi = 10.2106/00004623-200309000-00003 }}</ref> A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee. Types of amputations include: ; partial foot amputation: amputation of the lower limb distal to the ankle joint ; ankle disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the ankle joint ; {{anchor\|BTK}}trans-tibial amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the knee joint and the ankle joint, commonly referred to as a below-knee amputation ; {{anchor\|BKA}}knee disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the knee joint ; trans-femoral amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the hip joint and the knee joint, commonly referred to an above-knee amputation ; hip disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the hip joint ; trans-pelvic disarticulation: amputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation Arm Types of upper extremity amputations include: * partial hand amputation * wrist disarticulation * trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation * elbow disarticulation * trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation * shoulder disarticulation * forequarter amputation A variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action. Other ]] * Facial amputations include but are not limited to: amputation of the ears amputation of the nose (rhinotomy) amputation of the tongue (glossectomy). amputation of the eyes (enucleation). ** amputation of the teeth (Dental evulsion). Removal of teeth, mainly incisors, is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa). * Breasts: ** amputation of the breasts (mastectomy). * Genitals: amputation of the testicles (castration). amputation of the penis (penectomy). amputation of the foreskin (circumcision). amputation of the clitoris (clitoridectomy). * Radicals: Amputation of the waist (Hemicorporectomy) Amputation of the head (Decapitation) Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease. Laryngectomy is the amputation of the larynx. Self-amputation {{See also\|Autotomy\|Body integrity identity disorder}} In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated their own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRansom \|firstCliff \|date24 July 2003 \|titleDid Climber Have to Cut Off Arm to Save Life? \|workNational Geographic \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/climber-ralston-amputate-arm-utah/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190106010831/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2003/07/climber-ralston-amputate-arm-utah/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJanuary 6, 2019 \|access-date5 January 2019}}</ref> Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMüller \|firstSabine \|date2009-01-05 \|titleBody Integrity Identity Disorder (BIID)—Is the Amputation of Healthy Limbs Ethically Justified? \|urlhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15265160802588194 \|journalThe American Journal of Bioethics \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages36–43 \|doi10.1080/15265160802588194 \|pmid19132621 \|issn1526-5161}}</ref>UrgentIn surgery, a guillotine amputation is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting.<ref nameGuilAnk>{{cite journal\|last1Panchbhavi\|first1Vinod K\|titleGuillotine Ankle Amputation\|urlhttp://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1894411-overview\|websiteMedscape\|date8 June 2021}}</ref> Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene.<ref nameGuilAnk/> A guillotine amputation is typically followed with a more time-consuming, definitive amputation such as an above or below knee amputation.<ref nameGuilAnk/> Causes Circulatory disorders * Diabetic vasculopathy * Sepsis with peripheral necrosis * Peripheral artery disease which can lead to gangrene * A severe deep vein thrombosis (phlegmasia cerulea dolens) can cause compartment syndrome and gangrene<ref nameCompartment>{{cite journal \| vauthors Abdul W, Hickey B, Wilson C \| title Lower extremity compartment syndrome in the setting of iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis, phlegmasia cerulea dolens and factor VII deficiency \| journal BMJ Case Reports \| volume 2016 \| date April 2016 \| pages bcr2016215078 \| pmid 27113791 \| pmc 4854131 \| doi 10.1136/bcr-2016-215078 }}</ref> Neoplasm ]] * Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma), melanoma<ref>{{Citation \|last1Ragnarsson \|first1Kristjan T. \|titleCancer of the Limbs \|date2003 \|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK13778/ \|workHolland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition \|access-date2024-01-09 \|publisherBC Decker \|languageen \|last2Thomas \|first2David C.}}</ref>Trauma .]] * Severe limb injuries in which the efforts to save the limb fail or the limb cannot be saved. * Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example, a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw) * Amputation in utero (Amniotic band) Congenital anomalies * Deformities of digits and/or limbs (e.g., proximal femoral focal deficiency, Fibular hemimelia) * Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g., polydactyly) Infection {{columns-list\|colwidth=25em\| * Animal bites * Bubonic plague * Diabetic foot infections * Gangrene * Gas gangrene * Influenza A Virus * Legionella * Meningococcal meningitis * Necrosis * Necrotizing fasciitis * Osteomyelitis (bone infection) * Sepsis * Streptococcus * Trench foot * Vibrio vulnificus }} Frostbite Frostbite is a cold-related injury occurring when an area (typically a limb or other extremity)<ref>{{Cite web \|date2017-10-19 \|titleFrostbite \|urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/frostbite/ \|access-date2022-06-29 \|websitenhs.uk \|languageen}}</ref> is exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues.<ref name"handford2017">{{Cite journal \|last1Handford \|first1Charles \|last2Thomas \|first2Owen \|last3Imray \|first3Christopher H. E. \|date2017-05-01 \|titleFrostbite \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0733862716301201 \|journalEmergency Medicine Clinics of North America \|seriesWilderness and Environmental Medicine \|languageen \|volume35 \|issue2 \|pages281–299 \|doi10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.006 \|pmid28411928 \|issn0733-8627}}</ref> Its pathophysiology involves the formation of ice crystals upon freezing and blood clots upon thawing, leading to cell damage and cell death.<ref name"handford2017" /> Treatment of severe frostbite may require surgical amputation of the affected tissue or limb;<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Handford \|first1Charles \|last2Buxton \|first2Pauline \|last3Russell \|first3Katie \|last4Imray \|first4Caitlin Ea \|last5McIntosh \|first5Scott E. \|last6Freer \|first6Luanne \|last7Cochran \|first7Amalia \|last8Imray \|first8Christopher He \|date2014 \|titleFrostbite: a practical approach to hospital management \|journalExtreme Physiology & Medicine \|volume3 \|pages7 \|doi10.1186/2046-7648-3-7 \|issn2046-7648 \|pmc3994495 \|pmid24764516 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> if there is deep injury autoamputation may occur.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFrostbite Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination, Complications \|urlhttps://emedicine.medscape.com/article/926249-clinical \|access-date2022-06-29 \|websiteemedicine.medscape.com}}</ref> Athletic performance Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance. * Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMurray \|firstShane \|date2002-01-22 \|titleRTE: Aussie Rules star has finger removed \|websiteRTÉ.ie \|urlhttp://www.rte.ie/sport/2002/0122/aussierules.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071214022643/http://www.rte.ie/sport/2002/0122/aussierules.html \|archive-date2007-12-14 \|access-date2007-10-19}}</ref> * Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed.<ref>{{cite web \|authorAustralian Rugby Union \|urlhttp://www.sportsaustralia.com/articles/oct06/artid6659.html \|titleTawake undergoes surgery to remove finger \|publisherSportsAustralia.com \|date2006-10-17 \|access-date2013-04-22 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501093242/http://sportsaustralia.com/articles/oct06/artid6659.html \|archive-date2013-05-01 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> * National Football League safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his little finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|magazineSports Illustrated\|titleRonnie Lott's Amputated Pinkie Finger\|firstRobert\|lastKlemko\|urlhttps://www.si.com/nfl/2014/06/17/nfl-history-in-95-objects-ronnie-lott-amputated-pinkie-finger\|date2014-06-17\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220815042211/https://www.si.com/nfl/2014/06/17/nfl-history-in-95-objects-ronnie-lott-amputated-pinkie-finger\|archive-date2022-08-15}}</ref> Criminal penalties {{anchor\|Criminal penalty}} * According to Quran 5:38, the punishment for stealing is the amputation of the hand. Under Sharia law, after repeated offense, the foot may also be cut off. This is still in practice today in countries like Brunei, the United Arab Emirates,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBurglar's hand to be amputated\|urlhttps://gulfnews.com/uae/crime/burglars-hand-to-be-amputated-1.343257\|access-date2021-11-03\|websitegulfnews.com\|date30 December 2004 \|languageen}}</ref> Iran,<ref>{{Cite news \|date2010-10-17 \|titleIranian chocolate thief faces hand amputation \|workBBC News Online \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-11559750 \|access-date2021-06-28}}</ref><ref name"Telegraph 2008">{{Cite news \|lastDovan \|firstFiona \|date2008-02-09 \|titleIran envoy defends amputation \|workThe Telegraph \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1578146/Iran-envoy-defends-amputation.html \|url-accesslimited \|access-date2021-06-28}}</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref name"MC 2007">{{Cite news \|date2007-11-05 \|titleSaudi Arabia chops off hand of Egyptian for theft \|workMonsters and Critics \|urlhttp://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1371270.php/Saudi_Arabia_chops_off_hand_of_Egyptian_for_theft \|url-statusdead \|access-date2021-06-27 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100811044139/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1371270.php/Saudi_Arabia_chops_off_hand_of_Egyptian_for_theft \|archive-date2010-08-11}}</ref> Yemen,<ref>{{Cite web\|date2013-09-16\|titleYemeni man sentenced to hand and foot amputation for armed robbery\|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2013/09/yemeni-man-sentenced-hand-and-foot-amputation-armed-robbery/\|access-date2021-11-03\|websiteAmnesty International\|languageen}}</ref> and 11 of the 36 states within Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastBamford \|firstDavid \|date2001-07-01 \|titleHand amputation in Nigeria \|workBBC News Online \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1428159.stm \|access-date2021-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastBello \|firstAdemola \|date2010-06-11 \|titleWho Will Save Amputees of Sharia Law in Nigeria? \|workHuffington Post \|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/who-will-save-amputees-of_b_532949 \|access-date=2021-06-28}}</ref> * Cross-amputation is one of the Hudud punishments prescribed under Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia law) and involves cutting off the right hand and left foot of the alleged transgressor.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTarabella \|firstMarc \|titleParliamentary question {{!}} VP/HR - Cross-amputation in Yemen {{!}} E-011050/2013 {{!}} European Parliament \|urlhttps://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-7-2013-011050_EN.html \|access-date2023-08-07 \|websitewww.europarl.europa.eu \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastPeters \|firstRudolph \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIm95I7FjrvwC \|titleCrime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century \|date2005 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-79226-4 \|pages166 \|languageen}}</ref> The scriptural authority for the double amputation procedure is in the Quran (surah 5.33-34) which stipulates:{{blockquote\|The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger, and strive with might for mischief through the land is execution or crucifixion, or cutting of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land. As for the thief, male or female, cut off their hands and feet from opposite ends in recompense for what they have committed.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Quran, sura 5, verse 33 \|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D5%3Averse%3D33 \|websitewww.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>}} The severe punishment, for "highway robbery (hirabah, ''qat' al-tariq'') and civil disturbance against Islam", is usually carried out in a single session in public, without anaesthetic and using a sword. The ancient punishment is practised in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia;<ref>{{Cite web \|date2011-12-16 \|titleSaudi Arabia: King urged to commute "cross amputation" sentences \|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2011/12/saudi-arabia-king-urged-commute-cross-amputation-sentences/ \|access-date2023-08-07 \|websiteAmnesty International \|languageen}}</ref> Sudan;<ref>{{cite web \|titleSudanese man sentenced to cross amputation for committing armed robbery – African Centre for Justice and Peace Studies \|urlhttps://www.acjps.org/sudanese-man-sentenced-to-cross-amputation-for-committing-armed-robbery/}}</ref> Somalia;<ref>{{cite web \|last1Rice \|first1Xan \|titleSomali schoolboy tells of how Islamists cut off his leg and hand \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/20/somali-islamists-schoolboy-amputation-ordeal \|websiteThe Guardian \|date20 October 2010}}</ref> Mauritania, the Maldives;<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/34967/chapter-abstract/298608517?redirectedFromfulltext \|websiteacademic.oup.com\| title Shariah Punishments in the Islamic Republics of Mauritania and Maldives, and Islamic State of Yemen\|date2019 \|doi10.1093/oso/9780190910648.003.0032 \|last1Kamali \|first1Mohammad Hashim \|pages321–328 \|isbn978-0-19-091064-8 }}</ref> Iran;<ref>{{cite news \|last1Pannier \|first1Bruce \|titleCriminals Lose Hands And Feet As Shari'a Law Imposed \|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/1079325.html \|websiteRadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \|languageen}}</ref> Taliban-era Afghanistan and Yemen.<ref>{{cite web \|authorNewsweek Staff \|titleThe World's Most Barbaric Punishments \|urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/worlds-most-barbaric-punishments-74537 \|websiteNewsweek \|languageen \|date=8 July 2010}}</ref> * In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a bill to the Virginia Assembly that ostensibly would have replaced capital punishment with other penalties, including amputation, for certain crimes,<ref name"Boyd TJP">{{cite book \|editor-lastBoyd \|editor-firstJulian P. \|editor-linkJulian P. Boyd \|date1950 \|titleThe Papers of Thomas Jefferson \|volume2 \|chapterBill No. 64. A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments in Cases Heretofore Capital \|pages492–507 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/thepapersofthoma0002unse/page/492/mode/2up \|chapter-url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Wilson Bill 64" /> although not all were really punishable by death at the time.<ref>{{harvnb\|Boyd\|1950\|p505}}</ref> For the crimes of rape, sodomy, and polygamy (the latter removed from a later version), the punishment was to be castration for men or rhinotomy for women.<ref>{{harvnb\|Boyd\|1950\|pp497,506n12}}</ref> For intentional maiming, the bill specified literal eye for an eye retribution.<ref>{{harvnb\|Boyd\|1950\|p498}}</ref> The bill never passed, due to the combination of its perceived barbarity in some parts and perceived leniency in others.<ref name"Wilson Bill 64">{{cite encyclopedia \|encyclopediaThomas Jefferson Encyclopedia \|titleBill 64 \|lastWilson \|firstGaye \|dateMay 1999 \|urlhttps://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/bill-64/ \|publisherThomas Jefferson Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Boyd\|1950\|pp=505–506}}</ref> * From the 16th century, English law provided for cutting off a hand as punishment for striking someone inside a courtroom. Thomas Jefferson's punishments revision bill also intended to repeal this.<ref>{{harvnb\|Boyd\|1950\|p=493}}. Jefferson cited a work of Stamford and the Offences within the Court Act 1541 (33.H.8 {{circa\|12}}).</ref> * As of 2021, this form of punishment is controversial, as most modern cultures consider it to be morally abhorrent, as it has the effect of permanently disabling a person and constitutes torture. It is thus seen as grossly disproportionate for crimes less than those such as murder.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID18282 \|titleAIUK : Somalia: Amputation punishments are 'torture' says Amnesty \|access-date2021-01-08 \|archive-date2013-10-03 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131003223301/https://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID18282 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Surgery Method Surgeons performing an amputation have to first ligate the supplying artery and vein, so as to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis. , commander of the Brazilian Battleship Tamandaré (Henrique Fleiuss, Semana Illustrada, 1866)]] Distal stabilisation of muscles is often performed. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles are attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Smith DG \|titleAtlas of Amputations and Limb Deficiencies: Surgical, Prosthetic and Rehabilitation Principles\|date2004\|publisherAmerican Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons\|isbn978-0892033133\|pages21–30\|chapter=Chapter 2. General principles of amputation surgery.}}</ref> An experimental technique known as the "Ewing amputation" aims to improve post-amputation proprioception.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSpringer \|firstShira \|date2018-04-13 \|titleHow The Marathon Bombing Helped Bring Innovation To Amputation \|workWBUR \|urlhttps://www.wbur.org/news/2018/04/13/stepping-strong-brigham-amputation \|access-date2021-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2016-11-21 \|titleJim Ewing, Dynamic-Model Amputation Patient \|urlhttps://www.brighamandwomensfaulkner.org/about-bwfh/news/ewing \|access-date2021-06-28 \|websiteBrigham and Women's Faulkner Hospital}}</ref> Another technique with similar goals, which has been tested in a clinical trial,<ref>[https://news.mit.edu/2021/surgery-control-prosthetic-limbs-0215 New surgery may enable better control of prosthetic limbs]</ref> is Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI).<ref>[https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/agonist-antagonist-myoneural-interface-ami/overview/ Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI)]</ref> In 1920,&nbsp; Dr. Janos Ertl Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ertlreconstruction.com/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040201185051/http://www.ertlreconstruction.com/\|url-statususurped\|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2004\|titleErtl Reconstruction - amputation\|websitewww.ertlreconstruction.com\|access-date2018-11-24}}</ref> The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal \|vauthorsFischgrund JS \|dateJune 2016 \|titleJAAOS Research \|journalThe Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons \|volume24 \|issue6 \|page392 \|doi10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00309 \|pmid27213622 }}</ref> Post-operative management A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial (below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case-by-case basis: rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls; soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kwah LK, Webb MT, Goh L, Harvey LA \| title Rigid dressings versus soft dressings for transtibial amputations \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2019 \| pages CD012427 \| date June 2019 \| issue 6 \| pmid 31204792 \| pmc 6573094 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.cd012427.pub2 }}</ref> A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings (RRD's) in trans-tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Reichmann JP, Stevens PM, Rheinstein J, Kreulen CD \| title Removable Rigid Dressings for Postoperative Management of Transtibial Amputations: A Review of Published Evidence \| journal PM&R \| volume 10 \| issue 5 \| pages 516–523 \| date May 2018 \| pmid 29054690 \| doi 10.1016/j.pmrj.2017.10.002 \| s2cid 21732925 }}</ref> Post-operative management, in addition to wound healing, considers maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb (if applicable) and stump desensitization. Trauma Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/book.aspx?bookid675 \|titleCurrent Diagnosis & Treatment in Orthopedics \|vauthorsSmith DG, Skinner HB \|date2014 \|publisherMcGraw-Hill Education. \|isbn978-0-07-159075-4 \|veditorsSkinner HB, McMahon PJ \|edition5th \|chapterAmputations \|chapter-urlhttps://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid675&sectionid45451717}}</ref><ref name"Watson1986">{{Cite book \|titleHand Injuries and Infections \|vauthorsWatson N \|publisherGower Medical \|year1986 \|isbn0906923808 \|locationLondon}}</ref> Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss.<ref>{{Cite journal \|vauthorsRamirez C, Menaker J \|date2017-05-01 \|titleTraumatic Amputations \|urlhttps://www.reliasmedia.com/articles/140552-traumatic-amputations \|journalTrauma Reports \|volume18 \|issue=3}}</ref> Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Johansen K, Daines M, Howey T, Helfet D, Hansen ST \| title Objective criteria accurately predict amputation following lower extremity trauma \| journal The Journal of Trauma \| volume 30 \| issue 5 \| pages 568–72; discussion 572–3 \| date May 1990 \| pmid 2342140 \| doi 10.1097/00005373-199005000-00007 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Causes by a bayonet to the knee.]] Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:<ref>{{Cite web \|date2017-10-17 \|titleAmputation \|urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/amputation/ \|access-date2022-09-07 \|websitenhs.uk \|languageen}}</ref> * Vehicle accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.) * Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.) * Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment * Electric shock hazards * Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives * Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope * Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries) * Building doors and car doors * Animal attacks * Gas cylinder explosions<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateFebruary 2011 \|editor-lastDavison \|editor-firstBen \|titleScuba Tanks as Lethal Weapons \|urlhttps://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/dive_magazine/2011/LethalWeapons201102.html \|url-statuslive \|magazineUndercurrent \|publication-placeSausalito, California \|volume26 \|issue2 \|pages8–9 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428060005/https://www.undercurrent.org/UCnow/dive_magazine/2011/LethalWeapons201102.html \|archive-date2021-04-28 \|access-date28 June 2021}}</ref> * Other rare accidents<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Clasper \|first1Jon \|last2Ramasamy \|first2Arul \|date2013 \|titleTraumatic amputations \|journalBritish Journal of Pain \|volume7 \|issue2 \|pages67–73 \|doi10.1177/2049463713487324 \|issn2049-4637 \|pmc4590129 \|pmid26516502}}</ref> Treatment The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Yoo \|first1Hyokyung \|last2Kim \|first2Byung Jun \|date2021-07-27 \|titleHistory and Recent Advances in Microsurgery \|urlhttps://synapse.koreamed.org/articles/1147742 \|journalArchives of Hand and Microsurgery \|volume26 \|issue3 \|pages174–183 \|doi10.12790/ahm.21.0097\|doi-access=free }}</ref> * 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis * 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction. * 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969) * 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000)<ref name"Watson1986" />Epidemiology.<ref>{{cite news \|title'A new life': Ukrainian war amputees travel to Germany for custom-made limbs \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2024/06/03/europe/ukraine-soldiers-germany-prosthetic-limbs-intl-cmd/index.html \|workCNN \|date=3 June 2024}}</ref>]] * In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents.<ref name"amstat.org">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.amstat.org//\|titleAmerican Statistical Association (ASA)\|websitewww.amstat.org}}</ref>{{Nonspecific\|date=June 2021}} * The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers.<ref name"amstat.org"/>{{Nonspecific\|dateJune 2021}} * A study found that in 2010, 22.8% of patients undergoing amputation of a lower extremity in the United States were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days.<ref>{{Cite journal \|vauthorsWeiss AJ, Elixhauser A, Steiner C \|dateApril 2013 \|titleReadmissions to U.S. Hospitals by Procedure, 2010 \|urlhttps://hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb154.jsp \|journalHCUP Statistical Brief \|issue154 \|publisherU.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality \|pmid24006552 \|publication-place=Rockville, Maryland}}</ref> * In 2017, an estimated 57.7 million people globally were living with existing traumatic limb injuries. Of these 57.7 million, the leading causes of amputation "were falls (36.2%), road injuries (15.7%), other transportation injuries (11.2%), and mechanical forces (10.4%)."<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1McDonald \|first1Cody L. \|last2Westcott-McCoy \|first2Sarah \|last3Weaver \|first3Marcia R. \|last4Haagsma \|first4Juanita \|last5Kartin \|first5Deborah \|date2021-04-01 \|titleGlobal prevalence of traumatic non-fatal limb amputation \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33274665/ \|journalProsthetics and Orthotics International \|volume45 \|issue2 \|pages105–114 \|doi10.1177/0309364620972258 \|issn1746-1553 \|pmid33274665}}</ref> * On 2 August 2023, an investigation by The Wall Street Journal found that Ukrainian medical amputations in the war came to between 20,000 and 50,000 including both military and civilians. In comparison, during World War One 41,000 British and 67,000 Germans needed amputations.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/amputations-ukraine-levels-not-seen-since-world-war-i-report-2023-8 \|titleAmputations in Ukraine are as widespread as in the trenches of World War I due to Russia's heavy use of mines and artillery: report \|date2 August 2023 \|lastPorter \|firstTom \|workBusiness Insider}}</ref> * In 2024 Gaza was the site of the most child amputees in the history.<ref>[https://www.aljazeera.com/program/the-stream/2024/7/2/the-amputee-crisis-in-the-war-on-gaza The amputee crisis in the war on Gaza], 2 Jul 2024</ref> Prevention Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which, when widespread, necessitates amputation.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-11-19 \|titleGangrene \|urlhttps://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/gangrene \|access-date2023-10-31 \|websitewww.hopkinsmedicine.org \|languageen}}</ref> There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastCDC \|date2023-04-07 \|titlePreventing Diabetes-Related Amputations (Part 1) \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/amputations.html \|access-date2023-10-31 \|websiteCenters for Disease Control and Prevention \|languageen-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleAvoiding Amputations \|urlhttps://www.templehealth.org/services/heart-vascular/patient-care/patient-support/understanding-heart-vascular-disease/avoiding-amputations \|access-date2023-10-31 \|websiteTemple Health \|languageen}}</ref> Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHyperbaric oxygen therapy - Mayo Clinic \|urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hyperbaric-oxygen-therapy/about/pac-20394380 \|access-date2023-10-31 \|websitewww.mayoclinic.org \|language=en}}</ref> A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis.<ref namedillon1>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bouskela E, Donyo KA \| title Effects of oral administration of purified micronized flavonoid fraction on increased microvascular permeability induced by various agents and on ischemia/reperfusion in the hamster cheek pouch \| journal Angiology \| volume 48 \| issue 5 \| pages 391–9 \| date May 1997 \| pmid 9158383 \| doi 10.1177/000331979704800503 \| s2cid 28978927 \| url http://www.circulatorboot.com/literature/angiology1.html \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101125035502/http://circulatorboot.com/literature/angiology1.html \| url-status dead \| archive-date 2010-11-25 \| access-date 2010-06-24 }}</ref><ref namedillon2>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dillon RS \| title Patient assessment and examples of a method of treatment. Use of the circulator boot in peripheral vascular disease \| journal Angiology \| volume 48 \| issue 5 Pt 2 \| pages S35–58 \| date May 1997 \| pmid 9158380 \| doi 10.1177/000331979704800504 \| s2cid 23512929 \| url http://www.circulatorboot.com/literature/angiology1.html \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101125035502/http://circulatorboot.com/literature/angiology1.html \| url-status dead \| archive-date 2010-11-25 \| access-date 2010-06-24 }}</ref> Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease.<ref namevella>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vella A, Carlson LA, Blier B, Felty C, Kuiper JD, Rooke TW \| title Circulator boot therapy alters the natural history of ischemic limb ulceration \| journal Vascular Medicine \| volume 5 \| issue 1 \| pages 21–5 \| year 2000 \| pmid 10737152 \| doi 10.1177/1358836X0000500104 }}</ref> The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.<ref>{{Cite AV media \|urlhttps://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/circulator-boot/ \|titleCirculator Boot \|date2008-07-11 \|lastWilliams \|firstVivien \|typevideo \|publisherMayo Clinic News Network \|time1:08–1:32 \|access-date=2021-06-27}}</ref> For victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible. The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Roon \|first1Anthony J. \|last2Moore \|first2Wesley S. \|last3Goldstone \|first3Jerry \|date1977 \|titleBelow-knee amputation: A modern approach \|journalThe American Journal of Surgery \|volume134 \|issue1 \|pages153–158 \|doi10.1016/0002-9610(77)90299-9 \|pmid879408 \|issn0002-9610}}</ref>PrognosisThe individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations.<ref name"Amputation">{{Cite web \|date2023-03-15 \|titleAmputation \|urlhttps://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/amputation \|access-date2023-10-31 \|websitewww.hopkinsmedicine.org \|languageen}}</ref> A large proportion of amputees (from 50-80% to 80-100%, according to different studies) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs;<ref>{{cite journal\|dateJanuary 2005 \|titleThe Science of Things \| first Heidi \| last Schultz \| name-list-style vanc \|journalNational Geographic Magazine \|urlhttp://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/resources_who.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080906143209/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/resources_who.html \|archive-dateSeptember 6, 2008 }}</ref><ref name"PhantomReview2007">{{cite journal \|last1Chahine \|first1Lama \|last2Kanazi \|first2Ghassan \|date2007 \|titlePhantom limb syndrome: A review \|urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0f8d/2b80b5c20ed0e21076de4b5ac48327ca05d2.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190721010514/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0f8d/2b80b5c20ed0e21076de4b5ac48327ca05d2.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-date2019-07-21 \|journal MEJ Anesth\|volume19 \|issue 2\|pages345–55 \|s2cid16240786 \|access-date=July 20, 2019 }}</ref> they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome). A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (Phantoms in the Brain: V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1MacIver \|first1K. \|last2Lloyd \|first2D. M. \|last3Kelly \|first3S. \|last4Roberts \|first4N. \|last5Nurmikko \|first5T. \|dateAugust 2008 \|titlePhantom limb pain, cortical reorganization and the therapeutic effect of mental imagery \|journalBrain \|volume131 \|issue8 \|pages2181–2191 \|doi10.1093/brain/awn124 \|issn0006-8950 \|pmid18567624\|pmc2494616 }}</ref> In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis.<ref name="Amputation"/> Another side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f/c/a/2006/03/26/MNSOLDIERS26.DTL \|titleWar without end / Damaged soldiers start their agonizing recoveries \|firstJoan \|lastRyan \|name-list-stylevanc \|dateMarch 25, 2006 \|workThe San Francisco Chronicle \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110208093622/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F03%2F26%2FMNSOLDIERS26.DTL \|archive-dateFebruary 8, 2011 \|url-statuslive \|access-date=June 4, 2017 }}</ref> Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHoock \|firstMaja \|dateSeptember 2021 \|titleInnovative prostheses positively change the Paralympics \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2021/03/article_0007.html \|access-dateOctober 30, 2023 \|website=WIPO}}</ref> Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Robbins JM, Strauss G, Aron D, Long J, Kuba J, Kaplan Y \| s2cid 38232703 \| title Mortality rates and diabetic foot ulcers: is it time to communicate mortality risk to patients with diabetic foot ulceration? \| journal Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association \| volume 98 \| issue 6 \| pages 489–93 \| date November 2008 \| pmid 19017860 \| doi 10.7547/0980489 }}</ref> Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Savage PE \|chapterThe diabetic foot\|date1983\|pages69–73\|publisherSpringer Netherlands\|isbn9789401166508\|doi10.1007/978-94-011-6648-5_12\|titleProblems in Peripheral Vascular Disease}}</ref> Etymology The word amputation is borrowed from Latin amputātus, past participle of amputāre "to prune back (a plant), prune away, remove by cutting (unwanted parts or features), cut off (a branch, limb, body part)," from am-, assimilated variant of amb- "about, around" + putāre "to prune, make clean or tidy, scour (wool)". The English word "Poes" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th-century French texts tended to use extirper), "disarticulation", and "dismemberment" (from the Old French desmembrer and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLowe \|firstPeter \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/b30327994_0003 \|titleA discourse of the whole art of chyrurgerie. Wherein is exactly set downe the definition, causes, accidents, prognostications, and cures of all sorts of diseases ... Wherunto is added the rule of making remedies which chirurgions doe commonly use: with the Presages of divine Hyppocrates \|date1612 \|publisherLondon : Thomas Purfoot \|othersWellcome Library}}</ref>Notable cases{{columns-list\|colwidth25em\| Without prosthesis * Rick Allen * Bethany Hamilton With prosthesis * Götz of the Iron Hand Other * Patch Adams * Douglas Bader * Carl Brashear * Lisa Bufano * Roberto Carlos * Tammy Duckworth * Kalamandalam Sankaran Embranthiri * Terry Fox * Zach Gowen * Pete Gray * Shaquem Griffin * Robert David Hall * Hugh Herr * Frida Kahlo * Ronnie Lott * Hari Budha Magar * Aimee Mullins * Oscar Pistorius * Amy Purdy * Aron Ralston * Hans-Ulrich Rudel * Alex Zanardi }} See also {{columns-list\|colwidth=25em\| * Acrotomophilia * Adapted automobile * Flail limb * Robotic prosthesis control }} References {{reflist\|colwidth30em}} Further reading * Bilguer, Johann Ulrich, (1764), [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44089 A dissertation on the inutility of the amputation of limbs]. * Miller, Brian Craig. Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp. {{Medical resources \| DiseasesDB \| ICD11 Medical: {{ICD11\|PK80.80}}; Traumatic: {{ICD11\|NA09}}, {{ICD11\|NA63}}, {{ICD11\|NB33}}, {{ICD11\|NC18}}, {{ICD11\|NC38}}, {{ICD11\|NC59}}, {{ICD11\|NC78}}, {{ICD11\|NC98}}, {{ICD11\|ND19}}, {{ICD11\|ND35}}<br /> \| ICD10 = Medical: {{ICD10\|Y83.5}}; Traumatic: S*8 (e.g. {{ICD10\|S68}}), {{ICD10\|T05}}, {{ICD10\|T09.6}}, {{ICD10\|T11.6}}, {{ICD10\|T13.6}}, {{ICD10\|T14.7}}<br /> \| ICD9 \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus \| eMedicineSubj \| eMedicineTopic \| MeshID = D000673 }} {{Muscle/soft tissue procedures}} {{Substantive human rights}} {{Authority control}} Category:Surgical removal procedures Category:Acute pain Category:Punishments Category:Surgery	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amputation	2025-04-05T18:26:14.504971
2994	Anemometer	{{Short description\|Instrument for measuring wind speed}} {{pp-semi-indef}} ]] In meteorology, an anemometer ({{etymology\|grc\|{{wikt-lang\|grc\|άνεμος}} ({{grc-transl\|άνεμος}})\|wind\|\|{{wikt-lang\|grc\|μέτρον}} ({{grc-transl\|μέτρον}})\|measure}}) is a device that measures wind speed and direction. It is a common instrument used in weather stations. The earliest known description of an anemometer was by Italian architect and author Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) in 1450. History ]] The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Alberti is said to have invented it around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including Robert Hooke (1635–1703), developed their own versions, with some mistakenly credited as its inventor. In 1846, Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882) improved the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (1872–1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.windlogger.com/blogs/news/history-of-the-anemometer \|titleHistory of the Anemometer\|publisherLogic Energy\|date2012-06-18}}</ref> Velocity anemometers Cup anemometers A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev. Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups on horizontal arms mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate roughly proportional to the wind's speed. Therefore, counting the shaft's revolutions over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. This type of instrument is also called a rotational anemometer. Four cup With a four-cup anemometer, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it, and is blowing on the back of the opposing cup. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side,<ref>{{Citation\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/FluidDynamicDragHoerner1965 \|titleSighard Hoerner's Fluid Dynamic Drag\|pages3–17, Figure 32\|date1965}} (pg 60 of 455)</ref> more force is generated on the cup that presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the anemometer's axis, causing it to spin. Theoretically, the anemometer's speed of rotation should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the gas or fluid flowing past it. However, in practice, other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque produced by the cups and support arms, and friction on the mount point. When Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the anemometer factor, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and can have a value between two and a little over three. Once the error was discovered, all previous experiments involving anemometers had to be repeated. Three cup The three-cup anemometer developed by Canadian John Patterson in 1926, and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935, led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and an error of less than 3% up to {{convert\|60\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbron}}. Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.Three cup wind direction The three-cup anemometer was further modified by Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to also measure wind direction. He added a tag to one cup, causing the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moved alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed. Three-cup anemometers are currently the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies and practice. Vane anemometers One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the vane anemometer. It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. A vane anemometer thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument.<ref nameWMO>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.eumetcal.org/resources/ukmeteocal/rapid_cyclo/www/english/glossary/vaneanem.htm\|titleVane anemometer\|authorWorld Meteorological Organization\|author-linkWorld Meteorological Organization\|workEumetcal\|access-date6 April 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140408221107/http://www.eumetcal.org/resources/ukmeteocal/rapid_cyclo/www/english/glossary/vaneanem.htm\|archive-date8 April 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The speed of the fan is measured by a revolution counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastVarious\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiUFjDwAAQBAJ&qIn+cases+where+the+direction+of+the+air+motion+is+always+the+same%2C+as+in+ventilating+shafts+of+mines+and+buildings%2C+wind+vanes+known+as+air+meters+are+employed%2C+and+give+satisfactory+results.&pgPP8\|titleEncyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1\|date2018-01-01\|publisherPrabhat Prakashan\|language=en}}</ref> <gallery caption"Vane anemometers" class"center"> File:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg\|Vane style of anemometer File:Prop vane anemometer.jpg\|Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation File:Anemometer-IMG 4734-white.jpg\|Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer File:Digital_Handheld_Anemometer.jpg\|Hand-held digital anemometer or Byram anenometer. </gallery> Hot-wire anemometers Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/hot_wires/hot_wires_intro.cfm\|titleHot-wire Anemometer explanation\|publishereFunda\|access-date18 September 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061010125307/http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/hot_wires/hot_wires_intro.cfm \|archive-date10 October 2006\|url-status=live}}</ref> In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane. Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (constant current anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm's law. Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again. Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest. An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer. Laser Doppler anemometers In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.<ref>{{cite web\|lastIten\|firstPaul D.\|date29 June 1976\|urlhttp://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber3966324\|titleLaser Doppler Anemometer\|publisherUnited States Patent and Trademark Office\|access-date18 September 2006}}</ref> Ultrasonic anemometers Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers.<ref>{{Citation \| titleSonic Anemometers (Centre for Atmospheric Science - The University of Manchester) \| urlhttp://www.cas.manchester.ac.uk/restools/instruments/meteorology/sonic/ \| access-date=29 February 2024}}</ref> The time that a sonic pulse takes to travel from one transducer to its pair is inversely proportionate to the speed of sound in air plus the wind velocity in the same direction: <math>t\frac{L}{(c+v)}</math> where <math>t</math> is the time of flight, <math>L</math> is the distance between transducers, <math>c</math> is the speed of sound in air and <math>v</math> is the wind velocity. In other words, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the sound pulse travels. To correct for the speed of sound in air (which varies according to temperature, pressure and humidity) sound pulses are sent in both directions and the wind velocity is calculated using the forward and reverse times of flight: <math>v\frac{1}{2} L(\frac{1}{t_1}-\frac{1}{t_2})</math> where <math>t_1</math> is the forward time of flight and <math>t_2</math> the reverse. Because ultrasonic anenometers have no moving parts, they need little maintenance and can be used in harsh environments. They operate over a wide range of wind speeds. They can measure rapid changes in wind speed and direction, taking many measurements each second, and so are useful in measuring turbulent air flow patterns. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Rain drops or ice on the transducers can also cause inaccuracies. Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers. Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3&nbsp;Hz,<ref>{{cite book \|lastGiebhardt \|firstJochen \|editor1-lastDalsgaard Sørensen \|editor1-firstJohn \|editor2-lastN Sørensen \|editor2-firstJens \|titleWind Energy Systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation \|publisherElsevier \|dateDecember 20, 2010 \|pages329–349 \|chapterChapter 11: Wind turbine condition monitoring systems and techniques \|isbn9780857090638 }}</ref> easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers. Acoustic resonance anemometers Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas Kapartis and patented in 1999.<ref>Kapartis, Savvas (1999) "Anemometer employing standing wave normal to fluid flow and travelling wave normal to standing wave" {{US Patent\|5877416}}</ref> Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction. Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed. Pressure anemometers clubhouse tour, burgee, and wind gauge on roof]] The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes. Plate anemometers These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first such mechanical anemometer;<ref>{{cite web \|titleWindvanes and anemometers \|urlhttps://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/multimedia/WindvanesAndAnemometers.html\|publisherMuseo Galileo - Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza \|seriesScientific itineraries in Tuscany}}</ref> in 1663 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke.<ref>{{cite book \|contributionA Method for making a History of the Weather \|contributor-firstRobert \|contributor-lastHooke \|titleThe History of the Royal Society of London \|firstThomas \|lastSprat \|author-linkThomas Sprat \|date1746 \|orig-date=1663 \|contribution-urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_History_of_the_Royal_Society_of_London/Chapter_8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleHistory of the Meteorological Office \|firstMalcolm \|lastWalker \|publisherCambridge University Press \|quoteThe habit of making weather observations regularly and systematically was encouraged by the Royal Society, and as early as 1663 Hooke presented to the Society his paper titled 'A method for making a history of the weather' \|urlhttps://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/59851/excerpt/9780521859851_excerpt.htm}}</ref> Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.Tube anemometers . The pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.]] James Lind's anemometer of 1775 consisted of a vertically mounted glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with one end bent out in a horizontal direction to face the wind flow and the other vertical end capped. Though the Lind was not the first, it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube, it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading. The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleAnemometer Comparisons\|firstW. H.\|lastDines\|journalQuarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society\|date1892\|volume18\|issue83\|page168\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/quarterlyjourna33britgoog \|access-date14 July 2014\|doi10.1002/qj.4970188303\|bibcode1892QJRMS..18..165D}}</ref> The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus, if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10&nbsp;mi/h (16&nbsp;km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration. While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at {{convert\|10\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbron}}, it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem.Pitot tube static anemometersModern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer, but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot-static tube, which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing the wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube.<ref>{{cite web\|titleInstrumentation: Pitot Tube Static Anemometer, Part 1\|urlhttp://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-blogs/clarkb/instrumentation/14828\|publisherMt. Washington Observatory\|access-date14 July 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714135450/http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-blogs/clarkb/instrumentation/14828\|archive-date14 July 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders.<ref>{{cite web\|titleInstrumentation: Pitot Tube Static Anemometer, Part 2\|urlhttp://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-blogs/clarkb/instrumentation-1/15065\|publisherMt. Washington Observatory\|access-date14 July 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714232314/http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-blogs/clarkb/instrumentation-1/15065\|archive-date14 July 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Ping-pong ball anemometers A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed. This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the Phoenix Mars Lander.<ref>[http://marslab.au.dk/research/instrument-development/the-telltale-project/ "The Telltale project."] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120220080017/http://www.marslab.dk/TelltaleProject.html \|date20 February 2012 }}</ref> Effect of density on measurements In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000&nbsp;ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level. Effect of icing At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1175/1520-0426(2001)018<1457:AIIC>2.0.CO;2\|year2001\|volume18\|issue9\|pages1457\|bibcode2001JAtOT..18.1457M\|titleAnemometry in Icing Conditions\|journalJournal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology\|last1Makkonen\|first1Lasse\|last2Lehtonen\|first2Pertti\|last3Helle\|first3Lauri\|doi-accessfree}} {{free access}}</ref> Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions.Instrument locationIn order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters.<ref>{{cite book\|lastOke\|firstTim R.\|titleInitial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations At Urban Sites\|chapter-urlhttps://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-81/IOM-81-UrbanMetObs.pdf#page23&zoomauto,-16,235 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-81/IOM-81-UrbanMetObs.pdf#page23&zoomauto,-16,235 \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date4 February 2013\|seriesInstruments and Observing Methods\|volume81\|year2006\|publisherWorld Meteorological Organization\|pages19–26\|chapter3.5 Wind speed and direction}}</ref>See also {{Portal\|Geography}} * Air flow meter * Anemoi, for the ancient origin of the name of this technology * Anemoscope, ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather * Automated airport weather station * Night of the Big Wind * Particle image velocimetry * Savonius wind turbine * Wind power forecasting * Wind run * Windsock, a simple high-visibility indicator of approximate wind speed and direction Notes {{Reflist\|30em}} References {{Refbegin}} Meteorological Instruments, W.E. Knowles Middleton and Athelstan F. Spilhaus, Third Edition revised, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1953 Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, W. E. Knowles Middleton, The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1969 {{Refend}} External links {{Commons}} {{Wiktionary\|anemometer}} * {{cite EB9 \|wstitleAnemometer \|volume2 \|pages24–26 \|shortx}} * {{cite EB1911 \|lastDines \|firstWilliam Henry \|author-linkWilliam Henry Dines \|wstitleAnemometer \|volume2 \|pages2–3 \|short=x}} [http://www.dl1glh.de/ultrasonic-anemometer.html Description of the development and the construction of an ultrasonic anemometer] [http://www.gill.co.uk/products/anemometer/principleofoperation.htm Animation Showing Sonic Principle of Operation (Time of Flight Theory)] – Gill Instruments [http://www.geag.de/txt_sammlung.htm Collection of historical anemometer] [http://www.fttechnologies.com/About-FT/FT-Technologies/Acu-Res-Technology Principle of Operation: Acoustic Resonance measurement] – FT Technologies * [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/558 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (laser doppler)"] * [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/559 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (pulsed thermal)"] * [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/560 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (vane)"] * [http://users.tpg.com.au/derekwtpg/diy_anemometer/anemain.htm The Rotorvane Anemometer. Measuring both wind speed and direction using a tagged three-cup sensor] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190910132555/http://users.tpg.com.au/derekwtpg/diy_anemometer/anemain.htm \|date2019-09-10 }} {{Meteorological equipment}} {{Authority control}} Category:Italian inventions Category:Measuring instruments Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment Category:Navigational equipment Category:Wind power Category:15th-century inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer	2025-04-05T18:26:14.516020
2995	Archaeopteryx	{{Short description\|Extinct genus of bird-like dinosaurs}} {{About\| the dinosaur\| the ancient plant \| Archaeopteris \|other uses\| Archaeopteryx (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Use British English\|date=March 2016}} {{Use Oxford spelling\|date = August 2022}} {{Automatic taxobox \| fossil_range = Late Jurassic (Tithonian), {{fossil range\|150.8\|148.5}} \| image = Archaeopteryx lithographica (Berlin specimen).jpg \| image_caption = The Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii) \| image_alt = Fossil of complete Archaeopteryx, including indentations of feathers on wings and tail \| taxon = Archaeopteryx \| authority = Meyer, 1861<br/>(conserved name) \| type_species = {{extinct}}Archaeopteryx lithographica \| type_species_authority = Meyer, 1861 (conserved name) \| subdivision_ranks = Referred species \| subdivision = {{extinct}}A. siemensii<br/><small>Dames, 1897</small> {{extinct}}A. albersdoerferi<br/><small>Kundrat et al., 2018</small> \| display_parents = 2 \| synonyms {{collapsible list\|bullets false \|title=<small>Genus synonymy</small> \|Griphosaurus<br/><small>Wagner, 1862 (rejected name)</small> \|Griphornis<br/><small>Woodward, 1862 (rejected name)</small> \|Archaeornis<br/><small>Petronievics, 1917</small> \|Jurapteryx<br/><small>Howgate, 1984</small> \|Wellnhoferia?<br/><small>Elżanowski, 2001</small> }} {{collapsible list\|bullets = true \|title=<small>Species synonymy</small> \|Griphosaurus problematicus<br/><small>Wagner, 1862 vide Woodward 1862 nomen rejectum</small> \|Griphornis longicaudatus<br/><small>Owen 1862 vide Woodward 1862 nomen rejectum</small> \|Griphosaurus longicaudatus<br/><small>(Owen 1862 vide Woodward 1862) Owen 1862 vide Brodkorb 1863 nomen rejectum</small> \|Archaeopteryx macrura<br/><small>Owen, 1862 (rejected name)</small> \|Archaeopteryx siemensii?<br/><small>(Dames, 1897)</small> \|Archaeornis siemensii<br/><small>(Dames, 1897) Peteronievics vide Petroneivics & Woodward 1917</small> \|Archaeopteryx owenii<br/><small>Petronievics, 1917 (rejected name)</small> \|Archaeopteryx recurva<br/><small>Howgate, 1984</small> \|Jurapteryx recurva<br/><small>(Howgate, 1984) Howgate 1985</small> \|Archaeopteryx bavarica<br/><small>Wellnhofer, 1993</small> \|?Wellnhoferia grandis<br/><small>Elżanowski, 2001</small> }} \| synonyms_ref <ref>{{Cite web \|titleTroodontidae Gilmore, 1924 \|urlhttp://theropoddatabase.com/Troodontidae.htm#Troodontidae \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403063849/http://theropoddatabase.com/Troodontidae.htm#Troodontidae \|archive-date3 April 2019 \|websitetheropoddatabase.com}}</ref> }} Archaeopteryx ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|ɑːr\|k\|iː\|ˈ\|ɒ\|p\|t\|ər\|ᵻ\|k\|s}}; {{lit\|old-wing}}), sometimes referred to by its German name, "{{lang\|de\|Urvogel}}" ({{lit}} Primeval Bird) is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|{{linktext\|ἀρχαῖος}}}} (archaîos), meaning "ancient", and {{lang\|grc\|{{linktext\|πτέρυξ}}}} (ptéryx), meaning "feather" or "wing". Between the late 19th century and the early 21st century, Archaeopteryx was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae).<ref name"Xiaotingia">{{Cite journal \|last1Xu \|first1X \|last2You \|first2H \|last3Du \|first3K \|last4Han \|first4F \|date28 July 2011 \|titleAn Archaeopteryx-like theropod from China and the origin of Avialae \|urlhttp://www.ivpp.ac.cn/qt/papers/201403/P020140314389417822583.pdf \|url-statusdead \|journalNature \|volume475 \|issue7357 \|pages465–470 \|doi10.1038/nature10288 \|pmid21796204 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220071919/http://www.ivpp.ac.cn/qt/papers/201403/P020140314389417822583.pdf \|archive-date20 December 2016 \|access-date5 November 2016 \|s2cid205225790}}</ref> Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, Aurornis,<ref name"pascal">{{Cite journal \|last1Godefroit \|first1Pascal \|last2Cau \|first2Andrea \|last3Hu \|first3Dong-Yu \|last4Escuillié \|first4François \|last5Wu \|first5Wenhao \|last6Dyke \|first6Gareth \|year2013 \|titleA Jurassic avialan dinosaur from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds \|journalNature \|volume498 \|issue7454 \|pages359–362 \|bibcode2013Natur.498..359G \|doi10.1038/nature12168 \|pmid23719374 \|s2cid4364892}}</ref> and Baminornis zhenghensis.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastChen \|firstRunsheng \|last2Wang \|first2Min \|last3Dong \|first3Liping \|last4Zhou \|first4Guowu \|last5Xu \|first5Xing \|last6Deng \|first6Ke \|last7Xu \|first7Liming \|last8Zhang \|first8Chi \|last9Wang \|first9Linchang \|last10Du \|first10Honggang \|last11Lin \|first11Ganmin \|last12Lin \|first12Min \|last13Zhou \|first13Zhonghe \|date12 February 2025 \|titleEarliest short-tailed bird from the Late Jurassic of China \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08410-z \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume638 \|issue8050 \|pages441–448 \|doi10.1038/s41586-024-08410-z \|issn1476-4687}}</ref> Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150&nbsp;million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven,<ref nameErickson_etal_2009/> the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about {{cvt\|0.5\|m}} in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, Archaeopteryx had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes ("killing claw"), feathers (which also suggest warm-bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton.<ref nameYalden_1/><ref name=UCal_Chiappe/> These features make Archaeopteryx a clear candidate for a transitional fossil between non-avian dinosaurs and avian dinosaurs (birds).<ref nameUCal_MoP/><ref nameUCalg_Long/> Thus, Archaeopteryx plays an important role, not only in the study of the origin of birds, but in the study of dinosaurs. It was named from a single feather in 1861,<ref nameGriffiths/> the identity of which has been controversial.<ref namefeather/><ref name=Carney2020/> That same year, the first complete specimen of Archaeopteryx was announced. Over the years, eleven more fossils of Archaeopteryx have surfaced. Despite variation among these fossils, most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species, although this is still debated. Most of these twelve fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic.<ref nameweln_04/> The type specimen of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of evolution. Archaeopteryx was long considered to be the beginning of the evolutionary tree of birds. However, in recent years, the discovery of several small, feathered dinosaurs has created a mystery for palaeontologists, raising questions about which animals are the ancestors of modern birds and which are their relatives.<ref name":02">{{Cite journal\|lastKaplan \|firstMatt \|date27 July 2011 \|titleArchaeopteryx no longer first bird \|urlhttp://www.nature.com/articles/news.2011.443 \|journalNature \|languageen \|pagesnews.2011.443 \|doi10.1038/news.2011.443 \|issn0028-0836}}</ref> History of discovery {{Main\|Specimens of Archaeopteryx}} Over the years, fourteen body fossil specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Solnhofen}}, Germany. These quarries excavate sediments from the Solnhofen Limestone formation and related units.<ref nameChiappe_07/><ref name=Natgeo1/> The initial specimen was the first dinosaur to be discovered with feathers. The initial discovery, a single feather, was unearthed in 1860 or 1861 and described in 1861 by {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Hermann von Meyer}}.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMeyer \|firstHermann von \|date15 August 1861 \|titleVogel-Federn und Palpipes priscus von Solenhofen \|trans-titleBird feathers and Palpipes priscus [a crustacean] from Solenhofen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6RAFAAAAQAAJ&pgPA561 \|journalNeues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde \|languagede \|page561}} "Aus dem lithographischen Schiefer der Brüche von Solenhofen in Bayern ist mir in den beiden Gegenplatten eine auf der Ablösungs- oder Spaltungs-Fläche des Gesteins liegende Versteinerung mitgetheilt worden, die mit grosser Deutlichkeit eine Feder erkennen lässt, welche von den Vogel-Federn nicht zu unterscheiden ist." (From the lithographic slates of the faults of Solenhofen in Bavaria, there has been reported to me a fossil lying on the stone's surface of detachment or cleavage, in both opposing slabs, which can be recognized with great clarity [to be] a feather, which is indistinguishable from a bird's feather.)</ref> It is now in the Natural History Museum of Berlin. Though it was the initial holotype, there were indications that it might not have been from the same animal as the body fossils.<ref nameGriffiths/> In 2019 it was reported that laser imaging had revealed the structure of the quill (which had not been visible since some time after the feather was described), and that the feather was inconsistent with the morphology of all other Archaeopteryx feathers known, leading to the conclusion that it originated from another dinosaur.<ref name"feather">{{Cite journal \|last1Kaye \|first1T.G. \|last2Pittman \|first2M. \|last3Mayr \|first3G. \|last4Schwarz \|first4D. \|last5Xu \|first5X. \|year2019 \|titleDetection of lost calamus challenges identity of isolated Archaeopteryx feather \|journalScientific Reports \|volume9 \|issue1 \|page1182 \|bibcode2019NatSR...9.1182K \|doi10.1038/s41598-018-37343-7 \|pmc6362147 \|pmid30718905}}</ref> This conclusion was challenged in 2020 as being unlikely; the feather was identified on the basis of morphology as most likely having been an upper major primary covert feather.<ref name=Carney2020/> The first skeleton, known as the London Specimen (BMNH 37001),<ref nameBMNH_37001/> was unearthed in 1861 near {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Langenaltheim}}, Germany, and perhaps given to local physician {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Karl Häberlein}} in return for medical services. He then sold it for £700 (roughly £83,000 in 2020<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1861?amount700 \|titleUK inflation calculator \|access-date4 April 2020 \|archive-date17 January 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220117225656/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1861?amount700 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>) to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains.<ref nameChiappe_07/> Missing most of its head and neck, it was described in 1863 by Richard Owen as Archaeopteryx macrura, allowing for the possibility it did not belong to the same species as the feather. In the subsequent fourth edition of his On the Origin of Species,<ref nameDarwin_1/> Charles Darwin described how some authors had maintained "that the whole class of birds came suddenly into existence during the eocene period; but now we know, on the authority of Professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand; and still more recently, that strange bird, the Archaeopteryx, with a long lizard-like tail, bearing a pair of feathers on each joint, and with its wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solnhofen. Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world."<ref nameDarwin_2/> The Greek word {{lang\|grc-Latn\|archaīos}} ({{wikt-lang\|grc\|ἀρχαῖος}}) means 'ancient, primeval'. {{lang\|grc-Latn\|Ptéryx}} primarily means 'wing', but it can also be just 'feather'. Meyer suggested this in his description. At first he referred to a single feather which appeared to resemble a modern bird's remex (wing feather), but he had heard of and been shown a rough sketch of the London specimen, to which he referred as a "{{lang\|de\|Skelett eines mit ähnlichen Federn bedeckten Tieres}}" ("skeleton of an animal covered in similar feathers"). In German, this ambiguity is resolved by the term {{lang\|de\|Schwinge}} which does not necessarily mean a wing used for flying. {{lang\|de\|Urschwinge}} was the favoured translation of Archaeopteryx among German scholars in the late nineteenth century. In English, 'ancient pinion' offers a rough approximation to this.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2022}} Since then, twelve specimens have been recovered: The Berlin Specimen (HMN 1880/81) was discovered in 1874 or 1875 on the Blumenberg near {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Eichstätt}}, Germany, by farmer Jakob Niemeyer. He sold this precious fossil for the money to buy a cow in 1876, to innkeeper Johann Dörr, who again sold it to Ernst Otto Häberlein, the son of K. Häberlein. Placed on sale between 1877 and 1881, with potential buyers including O. C. Marsh of Yale University's Peabody Museum, it eventually was bought for 20,000 Goldmark by the Berlin's Natural History Museum, where it now is displayed. The transaction was financed by Ernst Werner von Siemens, founder of the company that bears his name.<ref nameChiappe_07/> Described in 1884 by Wilhelm Dames, it is the most complete specimen, and the first with a complete head. In 1897 it was named by Dames as a new species, A. siemensii; though often considered a synonym of A. lithographica, several 21st century studies have concluded that it is a distinct species which includes the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens.<ref nameElzanowski2002/><ref name10th_find/> Composed of a torso, the Maxberg Specimen (S5) was discovered in 1956 near Langenaltheim; it was brought to the attention of professor Florian Heller in 1958 and described by him in 1959. The specimen is missing its head and tail, although the rest of the skeleton is mostly intact. Although it was once exhibited at the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen, it is currently missing. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum until 1974. After his death in 1991, it was discovered that the specimen was missing and may have been stolen or sold.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLost treasures: The Maxberg Archaeopteryx \|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328501-800-lost-treasures-the-maxberg-archaeopteryx \|lastHecht \|firstJeff \|date1 February 2012 \|access-date2 June 2022 \|websiteNew Scientist \|languageen-US \|archive-date2 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220602140934/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328501-800-lost-treasures-the-maxberg-archaeopteryx/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> The Haarlem Specimen (TM 6428/29, also known as the Teylers Specimen) was discovered in 1855 near {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Riedenburg}}, Germany, and described as a Pterodactylus crassipes in 1857 by Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen found, but was incorrectly classified at the time. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones, isolated cervical vertebrae, and ribs. In 2017 it was named as a separate genus Ostromia, considered more closely related to Anchiornis from China.<ref name"desc">{{Cite journal \|last1Foth \|first1C. \|last2Rauhut \|first2O.W.M. \|date2017 \|titleRe-evaluation of the Haarlem Archaeopteryx and the radiation of maniraptoran theropod dinosaurs \|journalBMC Evolutionary Biology \|volume17 \|issue1 \|page236 \|doi10.1186/s12862-017-1076-y \|pmc5712154 \|pmid29197327 \|bibcode2017BMCEE..17..236F \|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Eichstätt Specimen (JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell, Germany, and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest known specimen and has the second-best head. It is possibly a separate genus (Jurapteryx recurva) or species (A. recurva).<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHowgate \|firstM. E. \|dateSeptember 1984 \|titleThe teeth of Archaeopteryx and a reinterpretation of the Eichstätt specimen \|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1984.tb00540.x \|journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society \|languageen \|volume82 \|issue1–2 \|pages159–175 \|doi10.1111/j.1096-3642.1984.tb00540.x \|archive-date15 August 2022 \|access-date21 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220815210439/https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1984.tb00540.x \|url-status=live }}</ref> The Solnhofen Specimen (unnumbered specimen) was discovered in the 1970s near Eichstätt, Germany, and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen, it originally was classified as Compsognathus by an amateur collector, the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, Wellnhoferia grandis. It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head.<ref>Elżanowski A 2001b. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228707898_A_new_genus_and_species_for_the_largest_specimen_of_Archaeopteryx A new genus and species for the largest specimen of Archaeopteryx] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220909102548/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228707898_A_new_genus_and_species_for_the_largest_specimen_of_Archaeopteryx \|date9 September 2022 }}". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 46: 519–532.</ref> The Munich Specimen (BSP 1999 I 50, formerly known as the Solenhofer-Aktien-Verein Specimen) was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich, to which it was sold in 1999 for 1.9 million Deutschmark. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid,<ref nameWellnhofer/> but a cartilaginous sternum may have been present. Only the front of its face is missing. It has been used as the basis for a distinct species, A. bavarica,<ref>Wellnhofer, Peter. Archaeopteryx. Der Urvogel Von Solnhofen. München: Friedrich Pfeil, 2008, p. 54.</ref> but more recent studies suggest it belongs to A. siemensii.<ref name10th_find/> of A. albersdoerferi]] An eighth, fragmentary specimen was discovered in 1990 in the younger Mörnsheim Formation at Daiting, Suevia. Therefore, it is known as the Daiting Specimen, and had been known since 1996 only from a cast, briefly shown at the Naturkundemuseum in Bamberg. The original was purchased by palaeontologist Raimund Albertsdörfer in 2009.<ref nameSensation/> It was on display for the first time with six other original fossils of Archaeopteryx at the Munich Mineral Show in October 2009.<ref nameSammler/> The Daiting Specimen was subsequently named Archaeopteryx albersdoerferi by Kundrat et al. (2018).<ref nameWiedergefundener/><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kundrát \|first1Martin \|last2Nudds \|first2John \|last3Kear \|first3Benjamin P. \|last4Lü \|first4Junchang \|last5Ahlberg \|first5Per \|year2019 \|titleThe first specimen of Archaeopteryx from the Upper Jurassic Mörnsheim Formation of Germany \|journalHistorical Biology \|volume31 \|issue1 \|pages3–63 \|doi10.1080/08912963.2018.1518443 \|bibcode2019HBio...31....3K \|s2cid91497638}}</ref> After a lengthy period in a closed private collection, it was moved to the Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark (Denmark) in 2022, where it has since been on display and also been made available for researchers.<ref>{{cite news \| lastFrandsen \| firstP.N. \| date16 November 2022 \| titleVerdens vigtigste fossil kommer til Lolland \| urlhttps://folketidende.dk/lolland/verdens-vigtigste-fossil-kommer-til-lolland \| publisherFolketidende \| access-date1 July 2023 \| languageda \| archive-date1 July 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230701100658/https://folketidende.dk/lolland/verdens-vigtigste-fossil-kommer-til-lolland \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| date15 November 2022 \| titleKnuthenborg Safaripark åbner sin største satsning nogensinde \| urlhttps://via.ritzau.dk/pressemeddelelse/knuthenborg-safaripark-abner-sin-storste-satsning-nogensinde?publisherId13560971&releaseId13664363 \| publisherRitzau \| access-date1 July 2023 \| languageda \| archive-date1 July 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230701100658/https://via.ritzau.dk/pressemeddelelse/knuthenborg-safaripark-abner-sin-storste-satsning-nogensinde?publisherId13560971&releaseId13664363 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Another fragmentary fossil was found in 2000. It is in private possession and, since 2004, on loan to the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum in Solnhofen, so it is called the Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen; the institute itself officially refers to it as the "Exemplar of the families Ottman & Steil, Solnhofen". As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of Archaeopteryx, it is colloquially known as "chicken wing".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Voeten \|first1Dennis F. A. E. \|last2Cubo \|first2Jorge \|last3de Margerie \|first3Emmanuel \|last4Röper \|first4Martin \|last5Beyrand \|first5Vincent \|last6Bureš \|first6Stanislav \|last7Tafforeau \|first7Paul \|last8Sanchez \|first8Sophie \|date2018 \|titleWing bone geometry reveals active flight in Archaeopteryx \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03296-8 \|journalNature Communications \|volume9 \|issue923 \|page6 \|bibcode2018NatCo...9..923V \|doi10.1038/s41467-018-03296-8 \|pmc5849612 \|pmid29535376 \|access-date17 June 2022}}</ref> Long in a private collection in Switzerland, the Thermopolis Specimen (WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The "Thermopolis" specimen was described on 2 December 2005 Science journal article as "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features"; it shows that Archaeopteryx lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle.<ref nameMayr_1/> This has been interpreted as evidence of theropod ancestry. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul claimed to have found evidence of a hyperextensible second toe,<ref namePaul_1988/> but this was not verified and accepted by other scientists until the Thermopolis specimen was described. "Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the deinonychosaurs."<ref nameNatgeo1/> The Thermopolis Specimen was assigned to Archaeopteryx siemensii in 2007.<ref name10th_find/> The specimen is considered to represent the most complete and best-preserved Archaeopteryx remains yet.<ref name=10th_find/> The discovery of an eleventh specimen was announced in 2011; it was described in 2014. It is one of the more complete specimens, but is missing much of the skull and one forelimb. It is privately owned and has yet to be given a name.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSwitek \|firstBrian \|date19 October 2011 \|titlePaleontologists Unveil the 11th Archaeopteryx \|urlhttp://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur/2011/10/paleontologists-unveil-the-11th-archaeopteryx/ \|websiteDinosaur Tracking Blog \|publisherSmithsonian Institution \|access-date30 October 2011 \|archive-date22 October 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111022024203/http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur/2011/10/paleontologists-unveil-the-11th-archaeopteryx/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHecht \|firstJeff \|date20 October 2011 \|titleAnother stunning Archaeopteryx fossil found in Germany \|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/10/stunning-new-archaeopteryx-fos.html \|journalNew Scientist \|archive-date21 March 2015 \|access-date24 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150321065515/http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/10/stunning-new-archaeopteryx-fos.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Palaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen, which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage, such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus, and the only preserved tail tip.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Foth \|first1C \|last2Tischlinger \|first2H \|last3Rauhut \|first3O. W \|date3 July 2014 \|titleNew specimen of Archaeopteryx provides insights into the evolution of pennaceous feathers \|journalNature \|volume511 \|issue7507 \|pages79–82 \|bibcode2014Natur.511...79F \|doi10.1038/nature13467 \|pmid24990749 \|s2cid4464659}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleFirst show off, then take off \|date3 July 2014 \|urlhttp://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/news/press-services/press-releases/2014/archaeopteryx.html \|publisherLudwig-Maximilians-Universität \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140707074102/http://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/news/press-services/press-releases/2014/archaeopteryx.html \|archive-date=7 July 2014}}</ref> A twelfth specimen had been discovered by an amateur collector in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry, but the finding was only announced in February 2014.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSchamhaupten: Fossil des Archaeopteryx entdeckt \|urlhttp://www.donaukurier.de/lokales/kurzmeldungen/riedenburg/Fossil-des-Archaeopteryx-entdeckt;art74375,2880005#plx982820499 \|websitedonaukurier.de \|access-date18 February 2014 \|archive-date19 October 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141019150803/http://www.donaukurier.de/lokales/kurzmeldungen/riedenburg/Fossil-des-Archaeopteryx-entdeckt;art74375,2880005#plx982820499 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> It was scientifically described in 2018. It represents a complete and mostly articulated skeleton with skull. It is the only specimen lacking preserved feathers. It is from the Painten Formation and somewhat older than the other specimens.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Rauhut \|first1Oliver W.M. \|last2Foth \|first2Christian \|last3Tischlinger \|first3Helmut \|year2018 \|titleThe oldest Archaeopteryx (Theropoda: Avialiae): a new specimen from the Kimmeridgian/Tithonian boundary of Schamhaupten, Bavaria \|journalPeerJ \|volume6 \|pagese4191 \|doi10.7717/peerj.4191 \|pmc5788062 \|pmid29383285 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The existence of a thirteenth specimen (the Chicago specimen) was announced in 2024 by the Field Museum in Chicago, US. One of two specimens in an institution outside Europe, the specimen was originally identified in a private collection in Switzerland, and had been acquired by these collectors in 1990, prior to Germany's 2015 ban on exporting Archaeopteryx specimens. The specimen was acquired by the Field Museum in 2022, and went on public display in 2024 following two years of preparation. The specimen is to be studied by famed paleornithologist Jingmai O'Connor.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMeet the Chicago Archaeopteryx - Field Museum \|urlhttps://www.fieldmuseum.org/exhibition/meet-the-chicago-archaeopteryx \|access-date6 May 2024 \|websitewww.fieldmuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastTribune \|firstJennifer Day {{!}} Chicago \|date6 May 2024 \|titleField Museum has a new fossil of an avian dinosaur, unveiled at an event Monday \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/2024/05/06/field-museum-has-a-new-fossil-of-an-avian-dinosaur-unveiled-at-an-event-monday/ \|access-date6 May 2024 \|websiteChicago Tribune \|languageen-US \|archive-date17 June 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240617222229/https://www.chicagotribune.com/2024/05/06/field-museum-has-a-new-fossil-of-an-avian-dinosaur-unveiled-at-an-event-monday/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> A fourteenth specimen, SMNK-PAL 10,000, was published in January 2025, this one from the Mörnsheim Formation. It preserves the right forelimb, shoulder, and fragments of the other limbs, with various features of the shoulder and forelimb resembling Archaeopteryx more than any other avialan within the Mörnsheim Formation. However, due to the fragmentary nature of this specimen, it cannot be assigned to a specific species within Archaeopteryx.<ref nameFoth2025>{{cite journal \|last1Foth \|first1Christian \|last2van de Kamp \|first2Thomas \|last3Tischlinger \|first3Helmut \|last4Kantelis \|first4Theron \|last5Carney \|first5Ryan M. \|last6Zuber \|first6Marcus \|last7Hamann \|first7Elias \|last8Wallaard \|first8Jonathan J. W. \|last9Lenz \|first9Norbert \|last10Rauhut \|first10Oliver W. M. \|last11Frey \|first11Eberhard \|titleA new Archaeopteryx from the lower Tithonian Mörnsheim Formation at Mühlheim (Late Jurassic) \|journalFossil Record \|date3 January 2025 \|volume28 \|issue1 \|pages17–43 \|doi10.3897/fr.28.e131671\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Authenticity Beginning in 1985, an amateur group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner, published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of Archaeopteryx were forged.<ref nameHoyle_85/><ref nameRSW_85a/><ref nameRSW_85b/><ref nameRSW_85c/> Their claims were repudiated by Alan J. Charig and others at the Natural History Museum in London.<ref nameACetal86/> Most of their supposed evidence for a forgery was based on unfamiliarity with the processes of lithification; for example, they proposed that, based on the difference in texture associated with the feathers, feather impressions were applied to a thin layer of cement,<ref nameRSW_85a/> without realizing that feathers themselves would have caused a textural difference.<ref nameACetal86/> They also misinterpreted the fossils, claiming that the tail was forged as one large feather,<ref nameRSW_85a/> when visibly this is not the case.<ref nameACetal86/> In addition, they claimed that the other specimens of Archaeopteryx known at the time did not have feathers,<ref nameHoyle_85/><ref nameRSW_85a/> which is incorrect; the Maxberg and Eichstätt specimens have obvious feathers.<ref name=ACetal86/> They also expressed disbelief that slabs would split so smoothly, or that one half of a slab containing fossils would have good preservation, but not the counterslab.<ref name"Hoyle_85"/><ref name"RSW_85b"/> These are common properties of Solnhofen fossils, because the dead animals would fall onto hardened surfaces, which would form a natural plane for the future slabs to split along and would leave the bulk of the fossil on one side and little on the other.<ref name="ACetal86"/> Finally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and are contradictory; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which is unlikely given Owen's views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen, so such an action would certainly backfire.<ref name="Talk_Origin_1"/> Charig et al. pointed to the presence of hairline cracks in the slabs running through both rock and fossil impressions, and mineral growth over the slabs that had occurred before discovery and preparation, as evidence that the feathers were original.<ref nameACetal86/> Spetner et al. then attempted to show that the cracks would have propagated naturally through their postulated cement layer,<ref nameLMS88/> but neglected to account for the fact that the cracks were old and had been filled with calcite, and thus were not able to propagate.<ref nameTalk_Origin_1/> They also attempted to show the presence of cement on the London specimen through X-ray spectroscopy, and did find something that was not rock;<ref nameLMS88/> it was not cement either, and is most probably a fragment of silicone rubber left behind when moulds were made of the specimen.<ref nameTalk_Origin_1/> Their suggestions have not been taken seriously by palaeontologists, as their evidence was largely based on misunderstandings of geology, and they never discussed the other feather-bearing specimens, which have increased in number since then. Charig et al. reported a discolouration: a dark band between two layers of limestone – they say it is the product of sedimentation.<ref nameACetal86/> It is natural for limestone to take on the colour of its surroundings and most limestones are coloured (if not colour banded) to some degree, so the darkness was attributed to such impurities.<ref nameEncarta/> They also mention that a complete absence of air bubbles in the rock slabs is further proof that the specimen is authentic.<ref nameACetal86/> Description in scale]] Most of the specimens of Archaeopteryx that have been discovered come from the Solnhofen limestone in Bavaria, southern Germany, which is a {{lang\|de\|italicsunset\|Lagerstätte}}, a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils laid down during the early Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period,<ref nameLambert/> approximately 150.8–148.5{{nbsp}}million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSchweigert \|firstG. \|year2007 \|titleAmmonite biostratigraphy as a tool for dating Upper Jurassic lithographic limestones from South Germany – first results and open questions \|journalNeues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen \|volume245 \|issue1 \|pages117–125 \|doi10.1127/0077-7749/2007/0245-0117\|s2cid140597349 \|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/13825/files/PAL_E722.pdf }}</ref> Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a raven,<ref nameErickson_etal_2009/> with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length. It could reach up to {{convert\|0.5\|m\|ftin}} in body length and {{convert\|0.7\|m\|ftin}} in wingspan, with an estimated mass of {{convert\|0.5\|to\|1\|kg}}.<ref nameErickson_etal_2009/><ref>{{Cite book \|lastPaul \|firstGregory S. \|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/985402380 \|titleThe Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|year2016 \|isbn978-1-78684-190-2 \|pages144 \|oclc985402380}}</ref> Archaeopteryx feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure to modern-day bird feathers.<ref nameLambert/> Despite the presence of numerous avian features,<ref nameHoltz/> Archaeopteryx had many non-avian theropod dinosaur characteristics. Unlike modern birds, Archaeopteryx had small teeth,<ref nameLambert/> as well as a long bony tail, features which Archaeopteryx shared with other dinosaurs of the time.<ref name=Paleogeo/> Because it displays features common to both birds and non-avian dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx has often been considered a link between them.<ref nameLambert/> In the 1970s, John Ostrom, following Thomas Henry Huxley's lead in 1868, argued that birds evolved within theropod dinosaurs and Archaeopteryx was a critical piece of evidence for this argument; it had several avian features, such as a wishbone, flight feathers, wings, and a partially reversed first toe along with dinosaur and theropod features. For instance, it has a long ascending process of the ankle bone, interdental plates, an obturator process of the ischium, and long chevrons in the tail. In particular, Ostrom found that Archaeopteryx was remarkably similar to the theropod family Dromaeosauridae.<ref nameBuhler/><ref nameOlson_1/><ref nameOstrom_1/><ref name=Ostrom_2/> Archaeopteryx had three separate digits on each fore-leg each ending with a "claw". Few birds have such features. Some birds, such as ducks, swans, Jacanas (Jacana sp.), and the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), have them concealed beneath their leg-feathers.<ref>{{cite book \|lastAttenborough \|firstDavid \|titleThe Life of Birds \|publisherBBC Books \|year1998 \|isbn0563387920 \|author-linkDavid Attenborough}}</ref> Plumage Specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb-barbule-barbicel arrangement.<ref name"Feduc 2"/> The tail feathers were less asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds and also had firm vanes. The thumb did not yet bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers. The body plumage of Archaeopteryx is less well-documented and has only been properly researched in the well-preserved Berlin specimen. Thus, as more than one species seems to be involved, the research into the Berlin specimen's feathers does not necessarily hold true for the rest of the species of Archaeopteryx. In the Berlin specimen, there are "trousers" of well-developed feathers on the legs; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure, but are somewhat decomposed (they lack barbicels as in ratites).<ref nameChrist_Bond_04/> In part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight.<ref nameLongrich_1/> A patch of pennaceous feathers is found running along its back, which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm, although not as stiff as the flight-related feathers. Apart from that, the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of "proto-down" not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur Sinosauropteryx: decomposed and fluffy, and possibly even appearing more like fur than feathers in life (although not in their microscopic structure). These occur on the remainder of the body—although some feathers did not fossilize and others were obliterated during preparation, leaving bare patches on specimens—and the lower neck.<ref name=Christ_Bond_04/> There is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head. While these conceivably may have been nude, this may still be an artefact of preservation. It appears that most Archaeopteryx specimens became embedded in anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their backs in the sea—the head, neck and the tail are generally bent downward, which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded, with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape (death pose) of the fossil specimens was achieved.<ref name"reisdorf2012">{{Cite journal \|last1Reisdorf \|first1A. G. \|last2Wuttke \|first2M. \|year2012 \|titleRe-evaluating Moodie's Opisthotonic-Posture Hypothesis in fossil vertebrates. Part I: Reptiles – The taphonomy of the bipedal dinosaurs Compsognathus longipes and Juravenator starki from the Solnhofen Archipelago (Jurassic, Germany) \|journalPalaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments \|volume92 \|issue1 \|pages119–168 \|doi10.1007/s12549-011-0068-y \|bibcode2012PdPe...92..119R \|s2cid129785393}}</ref> This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained.<ref nameElzanowski2002/> Colouration In 2011, graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues performed the first colour study on an Archaeopteryx specimen.<ref name"NatureComm"/> Using scanning electron microscopy technology and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, the team was able to detect the structure of melanosomes in the isolated feather specimen described in 1861. The resultant measurements were then compared to those of 87{{nbsp}}modern bird species, and the original colour was calculated with a 95% likelihood to be black. The feather was determined to be black throughout, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tip. The feather studied was most probably a dorsal covert, which would have partly covered the primary feathers on the wings. The study does not mean that Archaeopteryx was entirely black, but suggests that it had some black colouration which included the coverts. Carney pointed out that this is consistent with what is known of modern flight characteristics, in that black melanosomes have structural properties that strengthen feathers for flight.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSwitek \|firstBrian \|date9 November 2011 \|titleArchaeopteryx was robed in black \|workNew Scientist \|locationLas Vegas \|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21146-archaeopteryx-was-robed-in-black.html \|archive-date26 April 2015 \|access-date24 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150426132408/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21146-archaeopteryx-was-robed-in-black.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, new analyses of Archaeopteryx{{'}}s feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark-coloured plumage, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tips and outer vanes.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Manning, Phillip. L. \|last2Edwards \|first2Nicholas P. \|last3Wogelius \|first3Roy A. \|last4Bergmann \|first4Uwe \|last5Barden \|first5Holly E. \|last6Larson \|first6Peter L. \|last7Schwarz-Wings \|first7Daniela \|last8Egerton \|first8Victoria M. \|last9Sokaras \|first9Dimosthenis \|display-authorsetal \|year2013 \|titleSynchrotron-based chemical imaging reveals plumage patterns in a 150 million year old early bird \|journalJournal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry \|volume28 \|issue7 \|page1024 \|doi10.1039/c3ja50077b \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> This analysis of colour distribution was based primarily on the distribution of sulphate within the fossil. An author on the previous Archaeopteryx colour study argued against the interpretation of such biomarkers as an indicator of eumelanin in the full Archaeopteryx specimen.<ref name"Vinther2015">{{Cite journal \|lastVinther \|firstJ \|year2015 \|titleA guide to the field of palaeo colour: melanin and other pigments can fossilise: reconstructing colour patterns from ancient organisms can give new insights to ecology and behaviour \|journalBioEssays \|volume6 \|issue37 \|pages643–656 \|doi10.1002/bies.201500018 \|pmid25854512 \|s2cid24966334}}</ref> Carney and other colleagues also argued against the 2013 study's interpretation of the sulphate and trace metals,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Carney \|first1Ryan \|last2Molnar \|first2Julia \|last3Updike \|first3Earl \|last4Brown \|first4William \|last5Jackson \|first5Jessie \|last6Shawkey \|first6Matthew \|last7Lindgren \|first7Johan \|last8Sjövall \|first8Peter \|last9Falkingham \|first9Peter \|last10Gauthier \|first10Jacques \|date2014 \|titleArchaeopteryx in 4D \|urlhttp://vertpaleo.org/GlobalPDFS/SVP-2014-Program-and-Abstract-Book-9-18-2014.aspx \|journalJournal of Vertebrate Paleontology \|languageen \|volume103 \|access-date15 January 2018 \|archive-date25 April 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180425135859/http://vertpaleo.org/GlobalPDFS/SVP-2014-Program-and-Abstract-Book-9-18-2014.aspx \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleSVP – Press Release – Taking a Deeper Look at "Ancient Wing" \|urlhttp://vertpaleo.org/Society-News/SVP-Paleo-News/Society-News,-Press-Releases/Press-Release-Taking-a-Deeper-Look-at-Ancient-Wing.aspx \|access-date3 April 2016 \|websitevertpaleo.org \|archive-date19 April 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160419054434/http://vertpaleo.org/Society-News/SVP-Paleo-News/Society-News,-Press-Releases/Press-Release-Taking-a-Deeper-Look-at-Ancient-Wing.aspx \|url-statusdead }}</ref> and in a 2020 study published in Scientific Reports demonstrated that the isolated covert feather was entirely matte black (as opposed to black and white, or iridescent) and that the remaining "plumage patterns of Archaeopteryx remain unknown".<ref nameCarney2020/> Classification Today, fossils of the genus Archaeopteryx are usually assigned to one or two species, A. lithographica and A. siemensii, but their taxonomic history is complicated. Ten names have been published for the handful of specimens. As interpreted today, the name A. lithographica only referred to the single feather described by Meyer. In 1954 Gavin de Beer concluded that the London specimen was the holotype. In 1960, Swinton accordingly proposed that the name Archaeopteryx lithographica be placed on the official genera list making the alternative names Griphosaurus and Griphornis invalid.<ref nameSwinton/> The ICZN, implicitly accepting De Beer's standpoint, did indeed suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens,<ref nameICZN_1961/> which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between Meyer and his opponent Johann Andreas Wagner (whose Griphosaurus problematicus—'problematic riddle-lizard'—was a vitriolic sneer at Meyer's Archaeopteryx).<ref nameWagner_1/> In addition, in 1977, the Commission ruled that the first species name of the Haarlem specimen, crassipes, described by Meyer as a pterosaur before its true nature was realized, was not to be given preference over lithographica in instances where scientists considered them to represent the same species.<ref nameUCal_MoP/><ref name=ICZN_1977/> It has been noted that the feather, the first specimen of Archaeopteryx described, does not correspond well with the flight-related feathers of Archaeopteryx. It certainly is a flight feather of a contemporary species, but its size and proportions indicate that it may belong to another, smaller species of feathered theropod, of which only this feather is known so far.<ref nameGriffiths/> As the feather had been designated the type specimen, the name Archaeopteryx should then no longer be applied to the skeletons, thus creating significant nomenclatorial confusion. In 2007, two sets of scientists therefore petitioned the ICZN requesting that the London specimen explicitly be made the type by designating it as the new holotype specimen, or neotype.<ref name"icznneotype">{{Cite journal \|last1Bock \|first1W. J. \|last2Bühler \|first2P. \|year2007 \|titleArchaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861 (Aves): proposed conservation of usage by designation of a neotype \|urlhttp://iczn.org/content/archaeopteryx-lithographica-von-meyer-1861-aves-proposed-conservation-usage-designation-neot \|journalBulletin of Zoological Nomenclature \|volume64 \|issue4 \|pages261–262 \|archive-date6 March 2012 \|access-date8 January 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120306012804/http://iczn.org/content/archaeopteryx-lithographica-von-meyer-1861-aves-proposed-conservation-usage-designation-neot \|url-statuslive }}</ref> This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate, and the London specimen was designated the neotype on 3 October 2011.<ref name"icznneotypeconfirmed">{{Cite journal \|lastICZN \|year2011 \|titleOPINION 2283 (Case 3390) Archaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861 (Aves): conservation of usage by designation of a neotype \|urlhttp://iczn.org/content/opinion-2283-case-3390-archaeopteryx-lithographica-von-meyer-1861-aves-conservation-usage-de \|journalBulletin of Zoological Nomenclature \|volume68 \|issue3 \|pages230–233 \|doi10.21805/bzn.v68i3.a16 \|s2cid160784119 \|archive-date18 March 2012 \|access-date7 October 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120318171909/http://iczn.org/content/opinion-2283-case-3390-archaeopteryx-lithographica-von-meyer-1861-aves-conservation-usage-de \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Below is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit et al.<ref name="pascal"/> {{clade\| style=font-size:100%; line-height:100% \|label1=Avialae \|1={{clade \|1=Aurornis \|2={{clade \|1=Anchiornis \|2={{clade \|1=Archaeopteryx \|2={{clade \|1=Xiaotingia \|2={{clade \|1={{clade \|1=Jeholornis \|2=Rahonavis }} \|2={{clade \|1=Balaur \|2={{clade \|1Avebrevicauda (includes modern birds) }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} Species It has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species, A. lithographica.<ref nameNew_Scientist_1/> Differences do exist among the specimens, and while some researchers regard these as due to the different ages of the specimens, some may be related to actual species diversity. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen, and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts lined with forward-pointing teeth, and the possible presence of a sternum. Due to these differences, most individual specimens have been given their own species name at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been designated as Archaeornis siemensii, the Eichstätt specimen as Jurapteryx recurva, the Munich specimen as Archaeopteryx bavarica, and the Solnhofen specimen as Wellnhoferia grandis.<ref name=Elzanowski2002/> In 2007, a review of all well-preserved specimens including the then-newly discovered Thermopolis specimen concluded that two distinct species of Archaeopteryx could be supported: A. lithographica (consisting of at least the London and Solnhofen specimens), and A. siemensii (consisting of at least the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens). The two species are distinguished primarily by large flexor tubercles on the foot claws in A. lithographica (the claws of A. siemensii specimens being relatively simple and straight). A. lithographica also had a constricted portion of the crown in some teeth and a stouter metatarsus. A supposed additional species, Wellnhoferia grandis (based on the Solnhofen specimen), seems to be indistinguishable from A. lithographica except in its larger size.<ref name10th_find/> Synonyms '']] If two names are given, the first denotes the original describer of the "species", the second the author on whom the given name combination is based. As always in zoological nomenclature, putting an author's name in parentheses denotes that the taxon was originally described in a different genus. * Archaeopteryx lithographica Meyer, 1861 <small>[conserved name]</small> Archaeopterix lithographica Anon., 1861 <small>[lapsus]</small> Griphosaurus problematicus Wagner, 1862 <small>[rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small> Griphornis longicaudatus Owen vide Woodward, 1862 <small>[rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small> Archaeopteryx macrura Owen, 1862 <small>[rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small> Archaeopteryx oweni Petronievics, 1917 <small>[rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small> Archaeopteryx recurva Howgate, 1984 Jurapteryx recurva (Howgate, 1984) Howgate, 1985 Wellnhoferia grandis Elżanowski, 2001 * Archaeopteryx siemensii Dames, 1897 Archaeornis siemensii (Dames, 1897) Petronievics, 1917<ref name=10th_find/> Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer, 1993 "Archaeopteryx" vicensensis (Anon. fide Lambrecht, 1933) is a nomen nudum for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur. Phylogenetic position (left)]] Modern palaeontology has often classified Archaeopteryx as the most primitive bird. However, it is not thought to be a true ancestor of modern birds, but rather a close relative of that ancestor.<ref name"Clarke&Norell2002"/> Nonetheless, Archaeopteryx was often used as a model of the true ancestral bird. Several authors have done so.<ref nameWitmer02/> Lowe (1935)<ref nameLowe_1935/> and Thulborn (1984)<ref nameThulborn_1984/> questioned whether Archaeopteryx truly was the first bird. They suggested that Archaeopteryx was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups. Kurzanov (1987) suggested that Avimimus was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than Archaeopteryx.<ref nameKurzanov_1987/> Barsbold (1983)<ref nameBarsbold_1983/> and Zweers and Van den Berge (1997)<ref name="Zweers&VandenBerge1997"/> noted that many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike, and they suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors. The discovery of the closely related Xiaotingia in 2011 led to new phylogenetic analyses that suggested that Archaeopteryx is a deinonychosaur rather than an avialan, and therefore, not a "bird" under most common uses of that term.<ref name"Xiaotingia"/> A more thorough analysis was published soon after to test this hypothesis, and failed to arrive at the same result; it found Archaeopteryx in its traditional position at the base of Avialae, while Xiaotingia was recovered as a basal dromaeosaurid or troodontid. The authors of the follow-up study noted that uncertainties still exist, and that it may not be possible to state confidently whether or not Archaeopteryx is a member of Avialae or not, barring new and better specimens of relevant species.<ref name"leeetal2011">{{Cite journal \|last1Lee \|first1M. S. \|last2Worthy \|first2T. H. \|year2012 \|titleLikelihood reinstates Archaeopteryx as a primitive bird \|journalBiology Letters \|volume8 \|issue2 \|pages299–303 \|doi10.1098/rsbl.2011.0884 \|pmc3297401 \|pmid=22031726}}</ref> Phylogenetic studies conducted by Senter, et al. (2012) and Turner, Makovicky, and Norell (2012) also found Archaeopteryx to be more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Senter \|first1Phil \|last2Kirkland, James I. \|last3DeBlieux, Donald D. \|last4Madsen, Scott \|last5Toth, Natalie \|year2012 \|editor-lastDodson \|editor-firstPeter \|titleNew Dromaeosaurids (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Lower Cretaceous of Utah, and the Evolution of the Dromaeosaurid Tail \|journalPLOS ONE \|volume7 \|issue5 \|pagese36790 \|bibcode2012PLoSO...736790S \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0036790 \|pmc3352940 \|pmid22615813 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"TurneretalBAMNH">{{Cite journal \|last1Turner \|first1Alan H. \|last2Makovicky \|first2Peter J. \|last3Norell \|first3Mark A. \|year2012 \|titleA review of dromaeosaurid systematics and paravian phylogeny \|urlhttp://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/6352/5/B371-cover.pdf \|archive-url https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/6352/5/B371-cover.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|journalBulletin of the American Museum of Natural History \|volume371 \|pages1–206 \|doi10.1206/748.1 \|hdl2246/6352 \|s2cid83572446}}</ref> On the other hand, Godefroit et al. (2013) recovered Archaeopteryx as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna. The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing Xiaotingia, adding Jinfengopteryx elegans and Eosinopteryx brevipenna to it, as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage. Unlike the analysis from the description of Xiaotingia, the analysis conducted by Godefroit, et al. did not find Archaeopteryx to be related particularly closely to Anchiornis and Xiaotingia, which were recovered as basal troodontids instead.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Godefroit \|first1P \|last2Demuynck \|first2H \|last3Dyke \|first3G \|last4Hu \|first4D \|last5Escuillié \|first5F \|last6Claeys \|first6P \|year2013 \|titleReduced plumage and flight ability of a new Jurassic paravian theropod from China \|journalNature Communications \|volume4 \|pagesArticle number 1394 \|bibcode2013NatCo...4.1394G \|doi10.1038/ncomms2389 \|pmid23340434 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Agnolín and Novas (2013) found Archaeopteryx and (possibly synonymous) Wellnhoferia to form a clade sister to the lineage including Jeholornis and Pygostylia, with Microraptoria, Unenlagiinae, and the clade containing Anchiornis and Xiaotingia being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae (defined by the authors as the clade stemming from the last common ancestor of Archaeopteryx and Aves).<ref name"avianancestry">{{Cite book \|last1Agnolin \|first1Federico \|titleAvian ancestors. A review of the phylogenetic relationships of the theropods Unenlagiidae, Microraptoria, Anchiornis, and Scansoriopterygidae \|last2Novas \|first2Fernando E \|year2013 \|isbn978-94-007-5636-6 \|seriesSpringerBriefs in Earth System Sciences \|pages1–96 \|doi10.1007/978-94-007-5637-3 \|s2cid199493087}}</ref> Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit, et al., using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna, also found Archaeopteryx to be a member of Avialae (defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing Passer domesticus, but not Dromaeosaurus albertensis or Troodon formosus). Archaeopteryx was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with Xiaotingia, Anchiornis, and Aurornis. Compared to Archaeopteryx, Xiaotingia was found to be more closely related to extant birds, while both Anchiornis and Aurornis were found to be more distantly so.<ref name="pascal"/> Hu et al. (2018),<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hu \|first1Dongyu \|last2Clarke \|first2Julia A. \|last3Eliason \|first3Chad M. \|last4Qiu \|first4Rui \|last5Li \|first5Quanguo \|last6Shawkey \|first6Matthew D. \|last7Zhao \|first7Cuilin \|last8D’Alba \|first8Liliana \|last9Jiang \|first9Jinkai \|last10Xu \|first10Xing \|date15 January 2018 \|titleA bony-crested Jurassic dinosaur with evidence of iridescent plumage highlights complexity in early paravian evolution \|journalNature Communications \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages217 \|bibcode2018NatCo...9..217H \|doi10.1038/s41467-017-02515-y \|issn2041-1723 \|pmc5768872 \|pmid29335537 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Wang et al. (2018)<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Wang \|first1Min \|last2O’Connor \|first2Jingmai K. \|last3Xu \|first3Xing \|last4Zhou \|first4Zhonghe \|dateMay 2019 \|titleA new Jurassic scansoriopterygid and the loss of membranous wings in theropod dinosaurs \|urlhttp://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1137-z \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume569 \|issue7755 \|pages256–259 \|bibcode2019Natur.569..256W \|doi10.1038/s41586-019-1137-z \|issn0028-0836 \|pmid31068719 \|s2cid148571099 \|archive-date8 January 2021 \|access-date11 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210108062142/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1137-z \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and Hartman et al. (2019)<ref name":1">{{Cite journal\|last1Hartman \|first1Scott \|last2Mortimer \|first2Mickey \|last3Wahl \|first3William R. \|last4Lomax \|first4Dean R. \|last5Lippincott \|first5Jessica \|last6Lovelace \|first6David M. \|date10 July 2019 \|titleA new paravian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of North America supports a late acquisition of avian flight \|journalPeerJ \|volume7 \|pagese7247 \|doi10.7717/peerj.7247 \|issn2167-8359 \|pmc6626525 \|pmid31333906 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> found Archaeopteryx to have been a deinonychosaur instead of an avialan. More specifically, it and closely related taxa were considered basal deinonychosaurs, with dromaeosaurids and troodontids forming together a parallel lineage within the group. Because Hartman et al. found Archaeopteryx isolated in a group of flightless deinonychosaurs (otherwise considered "anchiornithids"), they considered it highly probable that this animal evolved flight independently from bird ancestors (and from Microraptor and Yi). The following cladogram illustrates their hypothesis regarding the position of Archaeopteryx: {{clade \|1=Oviraptorosauria \|label2=Paraves \|2={{clade \|1=Avialae \|label2=Deinonychosauria \|2={{clade \|1={{clade \|1=Unenlagiidae \|2={{clade \|1=Dromaeosauridae \|2=Troodontidae }} }} \|label2Archaeopterygidae (Anchiornithidae) \|2={{clade \|1=Serikornis \|2={{clade \|1=Caihong \|2={{clade \|1=Anchiornis \|2={{clade \|1=Archaeopteryx \|2={{clade \|1=Eosinopteryx \|2=Aurornis }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} The authors, however, found that the Archaeopteryx being an avialan was only slightly less likely than this hypothesis, and as likely as Archaeopterygidae and Troodontidae being sister clades.<ref name":1"/> Palaeobiology Flight <!-- <ref nameLindhe_50:921/> -->As in the wings of modern birds, the flight feathers of Archaeopteryx were somewhat asymmetrical and the tail feathers were rather broad. This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation, but it is unclear whether Archaeopteryx was capable of flapping flight or simply a glider. The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that Archaeopteryx was not a very strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the thick, boomerang-shaped wishbone, the platelike coracoids, or perhaps, to a cartilaginous sternum. The sideways orientation of the glenoid (shoulder) joint between scapula, coracoid, and humerus—instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds—may indicate that Archaeopteryx was unable to lift its wings above its back, a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight. According to a study by Philip Senter in 2006, Archaeopteryx was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do, but it may well have used a downstroke-only flap-assisted gliding technique.<ref namesenter_1/> However, a more recent study solves this issue by suggesting a different flight stroke configuration for non-avian flying theropods.<ref name"Voeten">{{Cite journal \|lastVoeten \|firstDennis F.A.E. \|display-authorsetal \|year2018 \|titleWing bone geometry reveals active flight in Archaeopteryx \|journalNature Communications \|volume9 \|issue1 \|page923 \|bibcode2018NatCo...9..923V \|doi10.1038/s41467-018-03296-8 \|pmc5849612 \|pmid=29535376}}</ref> Archaeopteryx wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor, also would have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%.<ref name=Longrich_1/> The feathers of Archaeopteryx were asymmetrical. This has been interpreted as evidence that it was a flyer, because flightless birds tend to have symmetrical feathers. Some scientists, including Thomson and Speakman, have questioned this. They studied more than 70 families of living birds, and found that some flightless types do have a range of asymmetry in their feathers, and that the feathers of Archaeopteryx fall into this range.<ref name"speakmanthomson1994">{{Cite journal \|last1Speakman \|first1J. R. \|last2Thomson \|first2S. C. \|year1994 \|titleFlight capabilities of Archaeopteryx \|journalNature \|volume370 \|issue6490 \|pages336–340 \|bibcode1994Natur.370..514S \|doi10.1038/370514a0 \|pmid28568098 \|s2cid4248184\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The degree of asymmetry seen in Archaeopteryx is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNorberg \|firstR. A. \|year1995 \|titleFeather asymmetry in Archaeopteryx \|journalNature \|volume374 \|issue6519 \|page211 \|bibcode1995Natur.374..211M \|doi10.1038/374211a0 \|doi-accessfree \|s2cid4352260}}</ref> In 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal Science published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx. The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis, were unable to use flapping flight.<ref name"Nudds&Dyke2010">{{Cite journal \|last1Nudds \|first1Robert L. \|last2Dyke \|first2Gareth J. \|date14 May 2010 \|titleNarrow Primary Feather Rachises in Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx Suggest Poor Flight Ability \|journalScience \|volume328 \|issue5980 \|pages887–889 \|bibcode2010Sci...328..887N \|doi10.1126/science.1188895 \|pmid20466930 \|s2cid12340187}}</ref> This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water.<ref name"sciencefeatherdebate">Balter, M. (2010). [http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/05/did-first-feathers-prevent-early.html "Did First Feathers Prevent Early Flight?"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100518072039/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/05/did-first-feathers-prevent-early.html \|date18 May 2010 }} Science Now, 13 May 2010.</ref> Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of {{cvt\|250\|g}} for the Munich specimen Archaeopteryx'', a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about {{cvt\|140\|g}}. Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of {{cvt\|0.75\|mm\|+2}} for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises {{cvt\|1.25–1.4\|mm}} across.<ref name"paul2010">{{Cite journal \|lastPaul \|firstG. S. \|date15 October 2010 \|titleComment on 'Narrow Primary Feather Rachises in Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx Suggest Poor Flight Ability.' \|journalScience \|volume330 \|issue6002 \|page320 \|bibcode2010Sci...330..320P \|doi10.1126/science.1192963 \|pmid20947747 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul's statement, that an adult Archaeopteryx would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented.<ref name"Nudds&Dyke_October2010">{{Cite journal \|last1Dyke \|first1G. J. \|last2Nudds \|first2R. L. \|date15 October 2010 \|titleResponse to Comments on "Narrow Primary Feather Rachises in Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx Suggest Poor Flight Ability" \|urlhttp://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/330/6002/320-d.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/330/6002/320-d.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|journalScience \|volume330 \|issue6002 \|page320 \|bibcode2010Sci...330..320N \|doi10.1126/science.1193474 \|doi-accessfree \|s2cid85044108}}</ref> Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits (see Origin of avian flight).<ref>Videler, JJ (2005) Avian Flight. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|0-19-856603-4}} pages&nbsp;98–117</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastVideler, John J \|dateJanuary 2005 \|titleHow Archaeopteryx could run over water \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/38957284 \|website=ResearchGate}}</ref> In 2004, scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London Archaeopteryx concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination.<ref nameWitmer_1/> The skull scan also revealed the structure of its inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of non-avian reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that Archaeopteryx had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception, and coordination needed to fly.<ref nameAlonso/> Archaeopteryx had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds from the condition of non-coelurosaurian dinosaurs such as Carcharodontosaurus or Allosaurus, which had a crocodile-like anatomy of the brain and inner ear.<ref name"Larsson2001">Larsson, H. C. E. (2001). "Endocranial anatomy of Carcharodontosaurus saharicus (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) and its implications for theropod brain evolution". In: Tanke, D. H.; Carpenter, K.; Skrepnick, M. W. (eds.) Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press. pp.&nbsp;19–33.</ref> Newer research shows that while the Archaeopteryx brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods, it had a more generalized brain volume among Maniraptora dinosaurs, even smaller than that of other non-avian dinosaurs in several instances, which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Balanoff \|first1Amy M. \|last2Bever \|first2Gabe S. \|last3Rowe \|first3Timothy B. \|last4Norell \|first4Mark A. \|year2013 \|titleEvolutionary origins of the avian brain \|journalNature \|volume501 \|issue7465 \|pages93–6 \|bibcode2013Natur.501...93B \|doi10.1038/nature12424 \|pmid23903660 \|s2cid=4451895}}</ref> Recent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of the feather, whereas Archaeopteryx lacks this large barb angle, indicating potentially weak flight abilities.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Feo \|first1Teresa J. \|last2Field \|first2Daniel J. \|last3Prum \|first3Richard O. \|date22 March 2015 \|titleBarb geometry of asymmetrical feathers reveals a transitional morphology in the evolution of avian flight \|journalProceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences \|volume282 \|issue1803 \|page20142864 \|doi10.1098/rspb.2014.2864 \|issn0962-8452 \|pmc4345455 \|pmid25673687}}</ref> ]] Archaeopteryx continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh). Other scientists see Archaeopteryx as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that Archaeopteryx might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what currently is considered best supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that Archaeopteryx used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively, to cover longer distances (mainly) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops.<ref name=Elzanowski2002/> In March 2018, scientists reported that Archaeopteryx was likely capable of a flight stroke cycle morphologically closer to the grabbing motion of maniraptorans and distinct from that of modern birds.<ref name"NAT-20180313">{{Cite journal \|lastVoeten, Dennis F.A.E. \|display-authorset al \|date13 March 2018 \|titleWing bone geometry reveals active flight in Archaeopteryx \|journalNature Communications \|volume9 \|pages923 \|bibcode2018NatCo...9..923V \|doi10.1038/s41467-018-03296-8 \|pmc5849612 \|pmid29535376 \|number923}}</ref><ref name"WP-20180313">{{Cite news \|lastGuarino \|firstBen \|date13 March 2018 \|titleThis feathery dinosaur probably flew, but not like any bird you know \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/03/13/this-feathery-dinosaur-probably-flew-but-not-like-any-bird-you-know/ \|access-date13 March 2018 \|archive-date26 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180626030303/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/03/13/this-feathery-dinosaur-probably-flew-but-not-like-any-bird-you-know/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> This study on Archaeopteryx{{'}}s bone histology identified biomechanical and physiological adaptations exhibited by modern volant birds that perform intermittent flapping, such as pheasants and other burst flyers. Some researchers suggested that the feather sheaths of Archaeopteryx shows a center-out, flight related moulting strategy like modern birds. As it was a weak flier, this would have been extremely advantageous in preserving its maximum flight performance.<ref>{{Cite journal\|vauthorsKaye TG, Pittman M, Wahl WR\|year2020\|titleArchaeopteryx feather sheaths reveal sequential center-out flight-related molting strategy\|journalCommunications Biology\|volume3\|issue1\|pagesArticle number 745\|doi10.1038/s42003-020-01467-2\|pmc7722847\|pmid33293660}}</ref> Kiat and colleagues reinterpreted this purported moulting evidence to be problematic and equivocal at best, and considered that these structures more likely represents the calami traces of the fully grown feathers,<ref>{{Cite journal\|vauthorsKiat Y, Pyle P, Balaban A, O'Connor JK\|year2021\|titleReinterpretation of purported molting evidence in the Thermopolis Archaeopteryx\|journalCommunications Biology\|volume4\|issue1\|pagesArticle number 837\|doi10.1038/s42003-021-02349-x\|pmc8257594\|pmid34226661\|s2cid235738230}}</ref> though the original authors still remained by their conclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal\|vauthorsKaye TG, Pittman M\|year2021\|titleReply to: Reinterpretation of purported molting evidence in the Thermopolis Archaeopteryx\|journalCommunications Biology\|volume4\|issue1\|pagesArticle number 839\|doi10.1038/s42003-021-02367-9\|pmc8257677\|pmid34226634\|s2cid235738222}}</ref> Growth An histological study by Erickson, Norell, Zhongue, and others in 2009 estimated that Archaeopteryx grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds, presumably because the outermost portions of Archaeopteryx bones appear poorly vascularized;<ref nameErickson_etal_2009/> in living vertebrates, poorly vascularized bone is correlated with slow growth rate. They also assume that all known skeletons of Archaeopteryx come from juvenile specimens. Because the bones of Archaeopteryx could not be histologically sectioned in a formal skeletochronological (growth ring) analysis, Erickson and colleagues used bone vascularity (porosity) to estimate bone growth rate. They assumed that poorly vascularized bone grows at similar rates in all birds and in Archaeopteryx. The poorly vascularized bone of Archaeopteryx might have grown as slowly as that in a mallard (2.5{{nbsp}}micrometres per day) or as fast as that in an ostrich (4.2{{nbsp}}micrometres per day). Using this range of bone growth rates, they calculated how long it would take to "grow" each specimen of Archaeopteryx to the observed size; it may have taken at least 970 days (there were 375 days in a Late Jurassic year) to reach an adult size of {{cvt\|0.8–1\|kg}}. The study also found that the avialans Jeholornis and Sapeornis grew relatively slowly, as did the dromaeosaurid Mahakala. The avialans Confuciusornis and Ichthyornis grew relatively quickly, following a growth trend similar to that of modern birds.<ref>EurekAlert! (8 October 2009), [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-10/amon-wn100809.php "Archaeopteryx was not very bird-like"].</ref> One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi, and the authors speculated that Archaeopteryx and the kiwi had similar basal metabolic rate.<ref nameErickson_etal_2009/> Daily activity patterns Comparisons between the scleral rings of Archaeopteryx and modern birds and reptiles indicate that it may have been diurnal, similar to most modern birds.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Schmitz, L. \|last2Motani, R. \|year2011 \|titleNocturnality in Dinosaurs Inferred from Scleral Ring and Orbit Morphology \|journalScience \|volume332 \|issue6030 \|pages705–8 \|bibcode2011Sci...332..705S \|doi10.1126/science.1200043 \|pmid21493820 \|s2cid33253407}}</ref> Palaeoecology ]] The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, although scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs, and Compsognathus.<ref name=Chiappe_07/> The excellent preservation of Archaeopteryx fossils and other terrestrial fossils found at Solnhofen indicates that they did not travel far before becoming preserved.<ref nameDavis_1/> The Archaeopteryx specimens found were therefore likely to have lived on the low islands surrounding the Solnhofen lagoon rather than to have been corpses that drifted in from farther away. Archaeopteryx skeletons are considerably less numerous in the deposits of Solnhofen than those of pterosaurs, of which seven genera have been found.<ref nameBartell_90/> The pterosaurs included species such as Rhamphorhynchus belonging to the Rhamphorhynchidae, the group which dominated the ecological niche currently occupied by seabirds, and which became extinct at the end of the Jurassic. The pterosaurs, which also included Pterodactylus, were common enough that it is unlikely that the specimens found are vagrants from the larger islands {{cvt\|50\|km}} to the north.<ref name=Paul_1/> The islands that surrounded the Solnhofen lagoon were low lying, semi-arid, and sub-tropical with a long dry season and little rain.<ref nameBuison/> The closest modern analogue for the Solnhofen conditions is said to be Orca Basin in the northern Gulf of Mexico, although it is much deeper than the Solnhofen lagoons.<ref nameBartell_90/> The flora of these islands was adapted to these dry conditions and consisted mostly of low ({{cvt\|3\|m\|dispsqbr\|0}}) shrubs.<ref namePaul_1/> Contrary to reconstructions of Archaeopteryx climbing large trees, these seem to have been mostly absent from the islands; few trunks have been found in the sediments and fossilized tree pollen also is absent. The lifestyle of Archaeopteryx is difficult to reconstruct and there are several theories regarding it. Some researchers suggest that it was primarily adapted to life on the ground,<ref nameOstrom_3/> while other researchers suggest that it was principally arboreal on the basis of the curvature of the claws<ref name"Feduc 1"/> which has since been questioned.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Pike \|first1A. V. L. \|last2Maitland \|first2D. P. \|date2004 \|titleScaling of bird claws \|journalJournal of Zoology \|languageen \|volume262 \|issue1 \|pages73–81 \|doi10.1017/s0952836903004382 \|issn0952-8369}}</ref> The absence of trees does not preclude Archaeopteryx from an arboreal lifestyle, as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of Archaeopteryx point to either an arboreal or ground existence, including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground, as well as along the shores of the lagoon.<ref namePaul_1/> It most likely hunted small prey, seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough, or with its claws if it was larger.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2024}} See also {{Portal\|Paleontology\|Dinosaurs\|Birds\|Evolutionary biology}} * Dinosaur coloration * Evolution of birds * Feathered dinosaur * Origin of birds * Ostromia * Rhamphorhynchus * Temporal paradox (paleontology) * Xiaotingia References {{Reflist\|30em\|refs<ref name"10th_find">{{Cite journal \|last1Mayr \|first1Gerald \|last2Pohl \|first2Burkhard \|last3Hartman \|first3Scott \|last4Peters \|first4D. 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M. \|year1985 \|titleArchaeopteryx – more evidence \|journalBritish Journal of Photography \|volume132 \|pages=468–470}}</ref> <ref name"Sammler">[https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wissen/archaeopteryx-fossilien-stelldichein-der-urvoegel-1.25046-2 Sammler und Forscher – ein schwieriges Verhältnis] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181026222455/https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wissen/archaeopteryx-fossilien-stelldichein-der-urvoegel-1.25046-2 \|date=26 October 2018 }} {{in lang\|de}}, Sueddeutsche Zeitung; published: 17 May 2010; accessed: 26 October 2018.</ref> <ref name="Sensation">Archäologischer Sensationsfund in Daiting, {{in lang\|de}} Augsburger Allgemeine – Donauwörth edition; published: 28 November 2009; accessed: 23 December 2009.</ref> <ref name"senter_1">{{Cite journal \|lastSenter \|firstPhil \|date2006 \|titleScapular orientation in theropods and basal birds, and the origin of flapping flight \|urlhttps://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app51-305.html \|journalActa Palaeontologica Polonica \|volume51 \|issue2 \|pages305–313}}</ref> <ref name"Swinton">{{Cite journal \|lastSwinton \|firstW. 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(1861). {{lang\|de\|Über ein neues, angeblich mit Vogelfedern versehenes Reptil aus dem Solnhofener lithographischen Schiefer.}} {{lang\|de\|Sitzungberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, mathematisch-physikalische Classe}} 146–154.</ref> <ref name="Wellnhofer">Wellnhofer, P., & Tischlinger, H. (2004). {{lang\|de\|Das "Brustbein" von Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer 1993 – eine Revision}}. Archaeopteryx. 22: 3–15. [Article in German].</ref> <ref name"weln_04">{{Cite book \|lastP. Wellnhofer \|titleFeathered Dragons \|publisherIndiana University Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-253-34373-4 \|veditorsCurrie PJ, Koppelhus EB, Shugar MA, Wright JL \|pages282–300 \|chapter=The Plumage of Archaeopteryx}}</ref> <ref name"Wiedergefundener">[http://www.focus.de/wissen/natur/messen-wiedergefundener-archaeopteryx-ist-wohl-neue-art_aid_448677.html {{lang\|de\|Wiedergefundener Archaeopteryx ist wohl neue Art}}] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924230031/http://www.focus.de/wissen/natur/messen-wiedergefundener-archaeopteryx-ist-wohl-neue-art_aid_448677.html \|date=24 September 2015 }} {{in lang\|de}}. Die Zeit. Accessed: 17 July 2012.</ref> <ref name"Witmer_1">{{Cite journal \|lastWitmer \|firstLawrence M. \|date4 August 2004 \|titleInside the oldest bird brain \|journalNature \|volume430 \|issue7000 \|pages619–620 \|doi10.1038/430619a \|pmid15295579 \|s2cid1317955}}</ref> <ref name"Witmer02">{{Cite book \|lastWitmer \|firstLawrence M. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mesozoicbirdsabo00chia_070 \|titleMesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-520-20094-4 \|editor-lastWitmer, L. \|locationBerkeley \|pages[https://archive.org/details/mesozoicbirdsabo00chia_070/page/n13 3]–30 \|chapterThe debate on avian ancestry \|editor-last2Chiappe, L. \|url-accesslimited}}</ref> <ref name"Yalden_1">{{Cite journal \|lastYalden D. W. \|year1984 \|titleWhat size was Archaeopteryx? \|journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume82 \|issue1–2 \|pages177–188 \|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1984.tb00541.x}}</ref> <ref name"Zweers&VandenBerge1997">{{Cite journal \|last1Zweers \|first1G. A. \|last2Van den Berge, J. C. \|year1997 \|titleEvolutionary patterns of avian trophic diversification \|journalZoology: Analysis of Complex Systems \|volume100 \|pages25–57 \|issn0944-2006}}</ref> }} Further reading * G. R. de Beer (1954). Archaeopteryx lithographica: a study based upon the British Museum specimen. Trustees of the British Museum, London. * P. Chambers (2002). Bones of Contention: The Fossil that Shook Science. John Murray, London. {{ISBN\|0-7195-6059-4}}. * A. Feduccia (1996). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press, New Haven. {{ISBN\|0-300-06460-8}}. * Heilmann, G. (1926). The Origin of Birds. Witherby, London. * T. H. Huxley. (1871). Manual of the anatomy of vertebrate animals. London. * H. von Meyer (1861). Archaeopterix<!-- sic --> lithographica (Vogel-Feder) und Pterodactylus von Solenhofen. {{lang\|de\|Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefakten-Kunde}}. 1861: 678–679, plate V. [Article in German]. [https://books.google.com/books?id6RAFAAAAQAAJ&pgPA678 Full text, Google Books]. * P. Shipman (1998). Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. {{ISBN\|0-297-84156-4}}. * P. Wellnhofer (2008). Archaeopteryx – Der Urvogel von Solnhofen (in German). Verlag Friedrich Pfeil, Munich. {{ISBN\|978-3-89937-076-8}}. External links {{Sister project links\|auto=1}} * [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/archaeopteryx/info.html All About Archaeopteryx], from Talk.Origins. * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100510151348.htm Use of SSRL X-ray takes 'transformative glimpse'] – A look at chemicals linking birds and dinosaurs * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/archaeopteryx.html Archaeopteryx: An Early Bird] – University of California Museum of Paleontology * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html Are Birds Really Dinosaurs?] – University of California Museum of Paleontology {{Jurassic Footer}} {{Paraves\|A.\|state=autocollapse}} {{Birds}} {{Taxonbar\|from=Q100196}} {{Authority control}} Category:Archaeopterygidae Category:Feathered dinosaurs Category:Late Jurassic dinosaurs of Europe Category:Jurassic Germany Category:Solnhofen fauna Category:Fossils of Germany Category:Transitional fossils Category:Fossil taxa described in 1861 Category:Taxa named by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer Category:Multispecific non-avian dinosaur genera	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopteryx	2025-04-05T18:26:14.602314
2999	Arthur Laurents	{{short description\|American playwright, theatre director and screenwriter (1917–2011)}} {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see :Template:Infobox writer/doc --> \| name = Arthur Laurents \| image = Arthur Laurents, director La Cage aux Folles.jpg \| imagesize \| alt \| caption = Laurents in 1983 \| pseudonym \| birth_name Arthur Levine \| birth_date = {{Birth date\|1917\|7\|14}} \| birth_place = New York City, U.S. \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|2011\|05\|05\|1917\|07\|14}} \| death_place = New York City, U.S. \| resting_place Quogue, New York<ref name"John M. Clum 2014">John M. Clum. The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2014.</ref> \| occupation = {{hlist\|Playwright\|theatre director\|film producer\|screenwriter}} \| alma_mater = Cornell University \| period = 1945–2011 \| language = English \| partner = Tom Hatcher ({{abbr\|co.\|cohabited}} 1954; {{abbr\|d.\|died}} 2006) \| relatives \| awards 1968 Tony Award for Best Musical – Hallelujah, Baby!<br />1975 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical – Gypsy<br />1977 Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay – The Turning Point<br />1984 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – La Cage aux Folles \| signature \| website \| portaldisp = }} Arthur Laurents (July 14, 1917&nbsp;– May 5, 2011) was an American playwright, theatre director, film producer and screenwriter.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/dance-obituaries/8498850/Arthur-Laurents.html "Obituaries: Arthur Laurents"]. The Daily Telegraph. May 6, 2011.</ref> With a career spanning seven decades he received numerous accolades including two Tony Awards, a Drama Desk Award, and nominations for two Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, and a Golden Globe Award. After writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U.S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes West Side Story (1957), Gypsy (1959), and Hallelujah, Baby! (1967), winning the Tony Award for Best Musical for the latter. He directed the musical La Cage aux Folles in 1983 and received the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical. Laurents also worked as a screenwriter on Hollywood films such as Alfred Hitchcock's thriller Rope (1948), Anastasia (1956), Bonjour Tristesse (1958) and Sydney Pollack's romance The Way We Were (1973). He received two Academy Award nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay for the Herbert Ross drama film The Turning Point (1977). Early life Born Arthur Levine, Laurents was the son of middle-class Jewish parents, his father a lawyer and his mother a schoolteacher, who gave up her career when she married.<ref nameMag>[https://nymag.com/arts/theater/profiles/55341/index3.html "When You’re a Shark You’re a Shark All the Way"]. New York.</ref><ref>{{cite news\|lastHawtree\|firstChristopher\|titleArthur Laurents obituary: Playwright and screenwriter who wrote the book for West Side Story\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/may/06/arthur-laurents-obituary\|access-date6 August 2012\|newspaperThe Guardian\|dateMay 6, 2011}}</ref> He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School.<ref>Hutchinson, Bill (May 6, 2011). [http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music/2011/05/06/2011-05-06_playwright_behind_west_side_story_and_gypsy_arthur_laurents_dies_at_age_93.html "Playwright Behind 'West Side Story' and 'Gypsy,' Arthur Laurents, Dies at Age 93"]. Daily News.</ref><ref namebloomberg>Arnold, Laurence (May 5, 2011). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-05-06/arthur-laurents-writer-of-west-side-story-gypsy-scripts-dies-at-93.html "Arthur Laurents, Writer of 'West Side Story,' 'Gypsy' Scripts, Dies at 93"]. Bloomberg News.</ref> His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child.<ref>Laurents, Arthur. [https://books.google.com/books?id0XbXeMf8LOsC&qChorea&pgPA34 "Beginnings"] Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood, Hal Leonard Corporation, 2001, {{ISBN\|1-55783-467-9}}, pp. 10–11, 34–35.</ref> His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother's parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents's religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions,<ref>Laurents, Arthur. Original Story By. New York: Alfred A. Knopf (2000). {{ISBN\|0-375-40055-9}}, pp. 6–7.</ref> although he continued to identify himself as Jewish.<ref>Laurents, p. 133.</ref> However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish-sounding Laurents, "to get a job."<ref name=Mag /> After graduating from Cornell University, Laurents took an evening class in radio writing at New York University. William N. Robson, his instructor, a CBS Radio director/producer, submitted his script Now Playing Tomorrow, a comedic fantasy about clairvoyance, to the network, and it was produced in the Columbia Workshop series on January 30, 1939, with Shirley Booth in the lead role. It was Laurents' first professional credit. The show's success led to him being hired to write scripts for various radio shows, among them Lux Radio Theater.<ref>Laurents, pp. 12–13.</ref> Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U.S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for Armed Service Force Presents, a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces.<ref>Laurents, pp. 22–28.</ref> Career Theatre , Jerry Herman, Arthur Laurents, creators of the musical La Cage Aux Folles, in front of the Palace theater where it is playing, 1983]] According to John Clum, "Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II."<ref>Clum, John, "The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal", November 2014, Cambria Press, {{ISBN\|1604978848}}</ref> After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents, who was gay, went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for Armed Service Force Presents, brought him into contact with some of the best film directors—distinguished director George Cukor directed his first script. Laurents's work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play, Home of the Brave, was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of Rope for Alfred Hitchcock.<ref>Clum, John, "The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal"</ref> Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with Fancy Free, Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. In 1962, Laurents directed I Can Get It for You Wholesale, which helped to turn then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical Anyone Can Whistle, which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals Hallelujah, Baby! (written for Lena Horne<ref>Laurents, p. 93.</ref> but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and La Cage Aux Folles (1983), which he directed, however Nick & Nora was not successful. In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of Gypsy starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of West Side Story, with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing West Side Story, he noted, "The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity."<ref>Jones, Kenneth (July 16, 2008). [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/119539.html "'West Side Story', This Time With Bilingual Approach, Will Return to Broadway in February 2009"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080907052633/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/119539.html \|date2008-09-07 }}. Playbill.</ref> Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of The New York Times called the translations "an only partly successful experiment" and added, "Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses."<ref>Brantley, Ben (March 20, 2009). [http://theater2.nytimes.com/2009/03/20/theater/reviews/20west.html "Our Gangs"]. The New York Times.</ref> The national tour (2011–2012) was directed by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog were reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%.<ref>Berson, M. (January 8, 2012). [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/thearts/2017161274_westside08.html "'West Side Story': A classic revived"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120112034307/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/thearts/2017161274_westside08.html \|dateJanuary 12, 2012 }}. Seattle Times.</ref> Hollywood Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Director Anatole Litvak, unhappy with the script submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand for The Snake Pit (1948), hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for The Snake Pit.<ref>Laurents, pp. 106–120.</ref> Upon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on The Snake Pit, Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film Rope starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play Rope (1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co-star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay.<ref>Laurents, pp. 115–116, 124–131.</ref> In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers.<ref>Laurents, p. 136.</ref> Laurents also scripted Anastasia (1956) and Bonjour Tristesse (1958). The Way We Were (1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and The Turning Point (1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film Anastasia (1997) was based in part on his screenplay of the live-action 1956 film of the same title.<ref>"[http://forum.bcdb.com/forum/West_Side_Story_author_Arthur_Laurents_dies_93_P112699/ "West Side Story Author Arthur Laurents Dies, 93"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://archive.today/20120709071003/http://forum.bcdb.com/forum/West_Side_Story_author_Arthur_Laurents_dies_93_P112699/ \|dateJuly 9, 2012 }} forum.bcdb.com. May 4, 2011.</ref> Blacklist Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D.C., to account for his political views.<ref>Laurents, p. 29.</ref> He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months.<ref>Laurents, pp. 165–190.</ref> Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed ''Look Ma, I'm Dancin'! (1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang. Laurents left the project, however, and the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee.<ref>Vaill, Amanda (2006). Somewhere: The Life of Jerome Robbins'', Random House, Inc. p. 135. {{ISBN\|0-7679-0420-6}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1648 "'Look Ma, I'm Dancin' listing"]. Internet Broadway Database.</ref> When Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package. It was only then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of Home of the Brave had been published in the Daily Worker. He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he could not have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the Ile de France. While on board, he received a cable from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklisting had ended.<ref>Laurents, pp. 286–289.</ref> Memoirs Laurents wrote Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood, published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher (August 24, 1929 - October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men's clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006.<ref>[http://www.backstage.com/bso/news_reviews/other_news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003345921 "Backstage.com obituary, November 1, 2006"]. Backstage.</ref> Laurents wrote Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals, published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired. His last memoir titled The Rest of the Story was published posthumously in September 2012. Death Laurents died from complications of pneumonia at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011, aged 93.<ref>Berkvist, Robert (May 5, 2011). [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/06/arts/arthur-laurents-playwright-and-director-dies-at-93.html "Arthur Laurents, Playwright and Director on Broadway, Dies at 93"]. The New York Times.</ref> Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p.m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory.<ref>Jones, Kenneth (May 6, 2011). [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/150601-Broadway-Lights-Will-Dim-May-6-in-Memory-of-Arthur-Laurents "Broadway Lights Will Dim May 6 in Memory of Arthur Laurents"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121021033350/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/150601-Broadway-Lights-Will-Dim-May-6-in-Memory-of-Arthur-Laurents \|dateOctober 21, 2012 }}. Playbill.</ref> His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York.<ref name"John M. Clum 2014">John M. Clum. The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2014.</ref>WorkWriting ;Musicals West Side Story – 1957 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical Gypsy – 1959 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical Anyone Can Whistle – 1964 Do I Hear a Waltz? – 1965 Hallelujah, Baby! – 1967 – Tony Award for Best Musical The Madwoman of Central Park West – 1979 Nick & Nora – 1991 ;Novels The Way We Were&nbsp;– 1972; Harper & Row (New York City) The Turning Point&nbsp;– 1977; New American Library (New York City); {{OCLC\|11014907}} ;Plays Home of the Brave – 1945 The Bird Cage – 1950 The Time of the Cuckoo – 1952 A Clearing in the Woods – 1957 Invitation to a March – 1960 The Enclave – 1973 Directing {{Columns-list\|colwidth=30em\| Invitation to a March – 1960 I Can Get It for You Wholesale – 1962 Anyone Can Whistle – 1964 The Enclave – 1973 Gypsy – 1974 – Tony Nomination for Best Direction of a Musical The Madwoman of Central Park West – 1979 La Cage aux Folles – 1983 – Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical Nick & Nora – 1991 West Side Story - 1998 Prince Edward theatre London Gypsy – 2008 – Tony Award nomination as Best Director of a Musical West Side Story – 2009 Broadway Revival }} Additional credits {{Columns-list\|colwidth=30em\| Anna Lucasta (screenwriter) A Clearing in the Woods (playwright) Invitation to a March (playwright, director) The Madwoman of Central Park West (playwright, director) My Good Name (playwright) Jolson Sings Again (playwright) The Enclave (playwright, director) Radical Mystique (playwright, director) Big Potato (playwright) Two Lives (playwright) My Good Name (playwright) Claudia Lazlo (playwright) Attacks on the Heart (playwright) 2 Lives (playwright) ''New Year's Eve (playwright) Come Back, Come Back, Wherever You Are (playwright, director) Caught (screenwriter) Rope (screenwriter) }} Accolades {\| class="wikitable" \|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;" ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Year ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Award ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Category ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Work ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Result ! style="background:#bcbcbc;"\|Ref. \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1977 \| rowspan="2"\| Academy Awards \| Best Picture \| rowspan="2"\| The Turning Point \| {{nom}} \| align"center" rowspan"2"\| <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1978 \|titleThe 50th Academy Awards (1978) Nominees and Winners \|access-date2011-10-05\|workoscars.org}}</ref> \|- \| Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen \| {{nom}} \|- \| 1957 \| rowspan="2"\| British Academy Film Awards \| rowspan="2"\| Best British Screenplay \| Anastasia \| {{nom}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://awards.bafta.org/award/1958/film \|titleBAFTA Awards: Film in 1958 \|websiteBAFTA \|year1958 \|access-date16 September 2016 \|ref={{harvid\|BAFTA\|1958}}}}</ref> \|- \| 1958 \| Bonjour Tristesse \| {{nom}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://awards.bafta.org/award/1959/film \|titleBAFTA Awards: Film in 1959 \|websiteBAFTA \|year1959 \|access-date16 September 2016 \|ref={{harvid\|BAFTA\|1959}}}}</ref> \|- \| 1975 \| Drama Desk Awards \| Outstanding Director of a Musical \| Gypsy \| {{won}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dramadesk.org/awards/nominees-and-recipients/1975-awards/ \|titleNominees and Recipients – 1975 Awards \|websitedramadesk.org \|publisherDrama Desk Awards \|access-dateMay 15, 2021}}</ref> \|- \| 1948 \| Edgar Allan Poe Awards \| Best Motion Picture \| Rope \| {{nom}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://edgarawards.com/category-list-best-motion-picture/ \|titleCategory List – Best Motion Picture \|websiteEdgar Awards \|access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> \|- \| 1977 \| Golden Globe Awards \| Best Screenplay – Motion Picture \| The Turning Point \| {{nom}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.goldenglobes.com/film/turning-point \|titleThe Turning Point – Golden Globes \|websiteHFPA \|access-dateJuly 5, 2021 \|ref{{harvid\|HFPA\|2078}}}}</ref> \|- \| 1999 \| National Board of Review Awards \| Best Screenplay (for career achievement) \| {{n/a}} \| {{won}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://nationalboardofreview.org/award-years/1999/ \|title1999 Award Winners \|websiteNational Board of Review \|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> \|- \| 1975 \| rowspan="3" \|Tony Awards \| rowspan="3" \| Best Direction of a Musical \| Gypsy \| {{nom}} \| align"center" \| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.tonyawards.com/winners/year/1975/category/any/show/any/ \|title1975 Tony Awards \|publisherTony Awards \|access-date=February 20, 2022}}</ref> \|- \| 1984 \| La Cage aux Folles \| {{won}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.tonyawards.com/winners/year/1984/category/any/show/any/ \|title1984 Tony Awards \|publisherTony Awards \|access-date=February 20, 2022}}</ref> \|- \| 2008 \| Gypsy \| {{nom}} \| align"center"\| <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.tonyawards.com/winners/year/2008/category/any/show/any/ \|title2008 Tony Awards \|publisherTony Awards \|access-date=February 20, 2022}}</ref> \|- \| 1973 \| rowspan="2"\| Writers Guild of America Awards \| rowspan="2"\| Best Drama – Written Directly for the Screen \| The Way We Were \| {{nom}} \| align"center" rowspan"2"\| <ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.wga.org/awards/awardssub.aspx?id1551\|titleAwards Winners\|workwga.org\|publisherWriters Guild of America\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121205095022/http://www.wga.org/awards/awardssub.aspx?id1551\|archive-date2012-12-05\|access-date=2010-06-06}}</ref> \|- \| 1977 \| The Turning Point \| {{won}} \|} Legacy A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually "for an un-produced, full-length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright." The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation will give $50,000 to the writer with a grant of $100,000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011.<ref>Gans, Andrew (June 3, 2010). [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140016-New-Award-Named-for-Arthur-Laurents-and-His-Partner-the-Late-Tom-Hatcher "New Award Named for Arthur Laurents and His Partner, the Late Tom Hatcher"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100605000733/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140016-New-Award-Named-for-Arthur-Laurents-and-His-Partner-the-Late-Tom-Hatcher \|dateJune 5, 2010 }}. Playbill.</ref> See also {{Portal\|Biography\|Film\|Music\|Theatre\|Writing}} List of Jewish American playwrights List of novelists from the United States List of people from Brooklyn, New York List of playwrights from the United States List of theatre directors References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading Laurents, Arthur (2000). Original Story by Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood. New York: Knopf. {{ISBN\|0-375-40055-9}}. Laurents, Arthur (2009). Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story, and Other Musicals. New York: Knopf. {{ISBN\|0-307-27088-2}}. Clum, John (2014). The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal''. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. {{ISBN\|978-1-60497-884-1}}. External links {{Archival records\|titleArthur Laurents Papers, circa 1900-2011\|location Music Division, Library of Congress\|description_URL= https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/eadmus.mu012022}} {{IBDB name}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20051105163005/http://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_bypeople&firstArthur&middle&lastLaurents Arthur Laurents at the Internet Off-Broadway Database] {{IMDb name\|491306}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20081203171127/http://www.americantheatrewing.org/biography/detail/arthur_laurents American Theatre Wing biography] * {{OL author}} {{Arthur Laurents}} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Arthur Laurents \|list = {{DramaDesk MusicalDirection 1975–2000}} {{TonyAward MusicalDirection 1976-2000}} {{Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay}} }} {{West Side Story}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Laurents, Arthur}} Category:1917 births Category:2011 deaths Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American memoirists Category:20th-century American novelists Category:21st-century American Jews Category:21st-century American LGBTQ people Category:American LGBTQ novelists Category:American gay writers Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American musical theatre librettists Category:Analysands of Theodor Reik Category:Cornell University alumni Category:Deaths from pneumonia in New York City Category:Drama Desk Award winners Category:Erasmus Hall High School alumni Category:Golden Globe Award–winning producers Category:Hollywood blacklist Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights Category:Jewish American novelists Category:Gay Jews Category:American LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights Category:Gay memoirists Category:LGBTQ people from New York (state) Category:American LGBTQ screenwriters Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:People from Flatbush, Brooklyn Category:Screenwriters from New York (state) Category:Tony Award winners Category:United States Army personnel of World War II Category:Writers from Brooklyn Category:Writers Guild of America Award winners	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Laurents	2025-04-05T18:26:14.633040
3003	Adrian Lamo	{{short description\|American hacker and threat analyst (1981-2018)}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox person \| name = Adrián Lamo \| honorific_suffix \| image Adrian Lamo.png \| caption = Lamo {{circa\|2001}} \| native_name_lang = es \| birth_name = Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood \| birth_date = {{birth date\|1981\|2\|20}} \| death_date = {{death date and age\|2018\|3\|14\|1981\|2\|20}} \| birth_place = Malden, Massachusetts, U.S. \| death_place = Wichita, Kansas, U.S. \| other_names = Adrián Lamo, R. Adrián Lamo \| occupation = Threat analyst, journalist \| years_active = 1999–2018 \| employer = ProjectVIGILANT \| known_for = Computer hacking, reporting Chelsea Manning to the Army's Criminal Investigation Command \| notable_works = Appeared on Hackers Wanted, We Steal Secrets, Good Morning America, Democracy Now!, Aqui y Ahora, and other media outlets, including cover stories in Information Week and SF Weekly \| television = TechTV, KCRA Channel 3 News \| title = Assistant Director for Threat Intelligence \| criminal_penalty two years' probation, with six months to be served in home detention, and ordered to pay $65,000 in restitution<ref nameSentence>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.informationweek.com/hacker-lamo-sentenced-to-home-detention/d/d-id/1026218\|titleHacker Lamo Sentenced To Home Detention\|lastHulme\|firstGeorge V.\|dateJuly 15, 2004\|workInformationWeek\|access-date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref> \| criminal_status = In 2004, pleaded guilty to one felony count in SDNY to hacking The New York Times and Microsoft, Oracle and Johnson and Johnson, subsequently informed them, and helped fix their security holes \| spouse {{marriage\|Lauren Fisher\|2007\|2011\|reasondivorced}} \| website = {{Official URL}} }} Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood<ref name"nyt obit"/> (February 20, 1981 – March 14, 2018) was an American threat analyst<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/profile/adrian-lamo\|titleAdrian Lamo\|workThe Guardian\|dateJanuary 3, 2013\|access-dateDecember 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/felon\|titleAdrian Lamo on Facebook\|authorAdrian Lamo\|websiteFacebook \|dateNovember 17, 2013\|access-dateNovember 17, 2013}}</ref> and hacker.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/hacker-adrian-lamo-expected-to-testify-today-at-bradley-manning-court-martial/2013/06/04/ef380986-cd1e-11e2-8f6b-67f40e176f03_story.html\|titleHacker Adrian Lamo testifies at WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning's court-martial\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|dateJune 4, 2013\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022220012/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-06-04/world/39729591_1_hacker-adrian-lamo-ashden-fein-manning-s\|archive-dateOctober 22, 2013}}</ref> Lamo first gained media attention for breaking into several high-profile computer networks, including those of The New York Times, Yahoo!, and Microsoft, culminating in his 2003 arrest.<ref namekahn>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.04/hacker_pr.html\|titleWired 12.04: The Homeless Hacker v. The New York Times\|magazineWired\|access-date=August 25, 2013}}</ref> Lamo was best known for reporting U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning to Army criminal investigators in 2010<ref name"FeltIsolated">{{Cite news\|titleAlleged Army Whistleblower Felt "Isolated"\|urlhttp://www.cbsnews.com/news/alleged-army-whistleblower-felt-isolated/\|dateJuly 7, 2010\|workCBS News}}</ref> for leaking hundreds of thousands of sensitive U.S. government documents to WikiLeaks.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://translate.google.com/translate?sles&tlen&jsy&prev_t&hlen&ieUTF-8&uhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.semana.com%2Fgente%2Farticulo%2Fel-hacker-sabia-demasiado%2F125731-3&edit-text\|titleSEMANA {{!}} El Hacker Que Sabia Demasiado\|dateDecember 11, 2010\|workSEMANA {{!}} Ideas Que Lideran\|access-dateMay 9, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160525185620/http://www.semana.com/gente/articulo/el-hacker-sabia-demasiado/125731-3\|archive-dateMay 25, 2016\|quoteThis is the story of Adrian Lamo, the cyber-pirate of Colombian origin who revealed to US authorities who leaked the information [about] WikiLeaks. [via Google Translate/]\|viaSEMANA original story}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.quora.com/Did-Adri%C3%A1n-Lamo-ever-help-an-Indian-company-or-the-Indian-government/answer/Adri%C3%A1n-Lamo\|titleAdrián Lamo's answer to Did Adrián Lamo ever help an Indian company or the Indian government?\|websitequora.com\|access-dateSeptember 5, 2017}}</ref> Lamo died on March 14, 2018, at the age of 37.<ref name":0" />Early life and educationAdrian Lamo was born in Malden, Massachusetts.<ref name"nyt obit"/><ref name="mpalm03">{{cite news \| last=Palmquist \| first=Matt \| title=A Duty to Hack \| newspaper=SF Weekly \| date=April 16, 2003 \| url=http://www.sfweekly.com/2003-04-16/news/a-duty-to-hack/full/ \| access-date=June 8, 2013 \| archive-date=July 14, 2013 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714135628/http://www.sfweekly.com/2003-04-16/news/a-duty-to-hack/full \| url-status=dead }}</ref> His father, Mario Ricardo Lamo, was Colombian.<ref name"AA">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.alfonsoarjona.net/2011/02/23/hackers-historicos-adrian-lamo/\|titleHistorical hackers: Adrian Lamo\|dateFebruary 23, 2011\|publisherAlfonso Arjona\|access-dateMarch 19, 2018\|archive-dateMarch 19, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180319213749/http://www.alfonsoarjona.net/2011/02/23/hackers-historicos-adrian-lamo/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Adrian Lamo attended high schools in Bogotá and San Francisco,<ref name"nyt obit">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/17/obituaries/adrian-lamo-dead.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/17/obituaries/adrian-lamo-dead.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleAdrián Lamo, Hacker Who Reported Chelsea Manning to the F.B.I., Dies at 37\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateMarch 17, 2018\|authorMays, Jeffrey C.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> from which he did not graduate,<ref nameHacksSquats>{{cite magazine \|lastShachtman \|firstNoah \|dateMarch 6, 2002 \|titleHe Hacks by Day, Squats by Night \|magazineWired \|access-dateFebruary 24, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080427024818/http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2002/03/50811 \|archive-dateApril 27, 2008 \|url-statuslive \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2002/03/50811 \|quote[...] the suits weren't about to pay attention to some hacker kid who didn't even have a high school diploma. }}</ref><ref>[http://www.informationweek.com/with-friends-like-this/d/d-id/1015608 "With Friends Like This"]. InformationWeek.</ref><ref>[http://www.sfweekly.com/2003-04-16/news/a-duty-to-hack/2/ "A Duty to Hack"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131012110437/http://www.sfweekly.com/2003-04-16/news/a-duty-to-hack/2/ \|dateOctober 12, 2013 }}. SF Weekly.</ref> but received a GED and was court-ordered to take courses at American River College,<ref>Mills, Elinor. "[http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-10271162-83.html Q&A: Adrian Lamo, the hacker philosopher] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090805181134/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-10271162-83.html \|dateAugust 5, 2009 }}." CNET. June 24, 2009. Retrieved February 24, 2014. "In terms of higher education, I was court-ordered to attend school after I was arrested and I studied journalism at American River College in Carmichael, Calif."</ref> a community college in Sacramento County, California.<ref>{{cite magazine\|author1Shachtman, Noah\|titleAdrian Lamo Cuts Deal With Feds\|urlhttp://archive.wired.com/techbiz/it/news/2004/01/61831?currentPageall\|magazineWired\|dateSeptember 1, 2004\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015202422/http://archive.wired.com/techbiz/it/news/2004/01/61831?currentPageall\|archive-dateOctober 15, 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-10271162-83.html "Q&A: Adrian Lamo, the hacker philosopher"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090805181134/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-10271162-83.html \|dateAugust 5, 2009 }}. CNET (CBS Interactive).</ref> Lamo began his hacking efforts by hacking games on the Commodore 64 and through phone phreaking.<ref name":1" />Activities and legal issues Lamo first became known for operating AOL watchdog site Inside-AOL.com.<ref> {{cite news \|last = Brown \|first = Janelle \|title = Can AOL silence its critics? \|work = Salon \|date = July 1, 1999 \|url = http://archive.salon.com/tech/log/1999/07/01/inside_aol/ \|access-date = February 1, 2006 \|url-status = dead \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060512131351/http://archive.salon.com/tech/log/1999/07/01/inside_aol/ \|archive-date = May 12, 2006 \|df = mdy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Hijackers take AIM accounts \| website=SecurityFocus \| date=November 29, 2000 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/119 \| access-date=February 1, 2006}} </ref> Security compromise Lamo was a grey hat hacker who viewed the rise of the World Wide Web with a mixture of excitement and alarm. He felt that others failed to see the importance of internet security in the Web's early days. Lamo broke into corporate computer systems but never damaged them. Instead, he would offer to fix the security flaws free of charge, and if the flaw was not fixed, he would alert the media.<ref name"HacksSquats" /> Lamo hoped to be hired by a corporation to attempt to break into systems and test their security, a practice that came to be known as red teaming. But by the time this practice was common, his felony conviction prevented him from being hired.<ref name":1" /> In December 2001, Worldcom praised Lamo for helping to fortify its corporate security.<ref>{{cite news\|lastPoulsen\|firstKevin\|titleFBI reportedly hunting Adrian Lamo\|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/09/05/fbi_reportedly_hunting_adrian_lamo/\|workThe Register}}</ref> In February 2002, he broke into the internal computer network of The New York Times, added his name to the internal database of expert sources, and used the paper's LexisNexis account to research high-profile subjects. The New York Times filed a complaint, and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15-month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15&nbsp;a.m. on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and pleaded guilty to one felony count of computer crimes against Microsoft, LexisNexis, and The New York Times on January 8, 2004.<ref>{{cite magazine\|firstNoah\|lastShachtman\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/news/2004/01/61831\|titleAdrian Lamo Cuts Deal With Feds\|magazineWired\|access-dateAugust 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|authorKevin Poulsen\|urlhttp://www.securityfocus.com/news/7771\|titleLamo Pleads Guilty to Times Hack\|websiteSecurityfocus.com\|dateJanuary 8, 2004\|access-dateAugust 25, 2013\|archive-dateJuly 23, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130723172136/http://www.securityfocus.com/news/7771\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In July 2004, Lamo was sentenced to two years' probation with six months to be served in home detention and ordered to pay $65,000 in restitution.<ref name=Sentence/> He was convicted of compromising security at The New York Times, Microsoft,<ref> {{cite web \| last=Lemos \| first=Robert \| title=Hacker helps Excite@Home toughen defenses \| website=CNET News \| date=May 29, 2001 \| url=http://news.cnet.com/2100-1001-261728.html \| access-dateJanuary 21, 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090806225209/http://news.cnet.com/2100-1001-261728.html\|archive-dateAugust 6, 2009\|url-statuslive}} </ref><ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Proxy exposes Excite@Home data \| website=SecurityFocus \| date=May 5, 2001 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/209 \| access-date=April 24, 2006}} </ref> Yahoo!,<ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Yahoo! News hacked \| website=SecurityFocus \| date=September 9, 2001 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/254 \| access-date=January 21, 2006}} </ref> and WorldCom.<ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Lamo's Adventures in WorldCom \| website=SecurityFocus \| date=December 5, 2001 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/296 \| access-date=January 21, 2006}} </ref> When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, he responded: "Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves". When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo frustrated reporters with non-sequiturs, such as "Faith manages"<ref> {{cite web \| last=McCullagh \| first=Declan \| author-link=Declan McCullagh \| title=The 'homeless hacker' talks \| website=CNET News \| date=September 16, 2003 \| url=http://news.cnet.com/2008-1014_3-5076942.html \| access-dateJanuary 21, 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121104163640/http://news.cnet.com/2008-1014_3-5076942.html\|archive-dateNovember 4, 2012\|url-statuslive}} </ref> and "It's a beautiful day."<ref> {{cite web \| last=McCullagh \| first=Declan \| author-link=Declan McCullagh \| title=Judge Lifts Hacker's PC Restrictions \| website=CNET News \| date=September 12, 2003 \| url=http://news.cnet.com/Judge-lifts-hacker%27s-PC-restrictions/2100-1002_3-5076124.html \| access-date=January 21, 2006}} </ref> At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for the harm his intrusions had caused. The court record quotes him as adding: "I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life."<ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Feds say Lamo inspired other hackers \| website=SecurityFocus \| date=September 15, 2004 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/9520 \| access-date=January 21, 2006}} </ref> He subsequently declared on the question-and-answer site Quora: "We all own our actions in fullness, not just the pleasant aspects of them." Lamo accepted that he had made mistakes.<ref>[https://www.quora.com/How-often-do-criminals-hand-themselves-in/answer/Adri%C3%A1n-Lamo "Adrián Lamo's answer to How often do criminals hand themselves in? – Quora"].</ref> DNA controversy On May 9, 2006, 18 months into a two-year probation sentence, Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample it had demanded to record his DNA in its CODIS system.<ref> {{cite magazine \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Feds Want Hacker's Genetic Code \| magazine=Wired \| date=May 10, 2006 \| url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/05/70869 \| access-date=January 21, 2006}} </ref> According to his attorney at the time, Lamo had a religious objection to giving blood but was willing to give his DNA in another form. On June 15, 2006, Lamo's lawyers filed a motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo's religious opposition to giving blood. On June 20, 2007, Lamo's legal counsel reached a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice whereby Lamo would submit a cheek swab instead of a blood sample.<ref> {{cite magazine \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Hacker Adrian Lamo Wins, Won't Have to Give the FBI His Blood \| magazine=Wired \| date=June 21, 2007 \| url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2007/06/hacker-adrian-l/ \| access-date=March 18, 2018}} </ref> WikiLeaks and Chelsea Manning {{See also\|Chelsea Manning}} In February 2009, a partial list of the anonymous donors to the WikiLeaks website was leaked and published on the site. Some media sources indicated at the time that Lamo was among the donors on the list.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dailytech.com/Wikileaks+Forced+to+Post+Its+Own+Secrets/article14328.htm\|titleWikileaks Forced to Post Its Own Secrets\|websiteDailyTech\|access-dateDecember 20, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120117071425/http://www.dailytech.com/Wikileaks+Forced+to+Post+Its+Own+Secrets/article14328.htm\|archive-dateJanuary 17, 2012\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref namewikileaked>{{cite magazine\|lastSingel\|firstRyan\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2009/02/wikileaks-force/\|titleWikileaks forced to leak its own secret info (Wired)\|magazineWired\|access-dateAugust 30, 2017}}</ref> Lamo commented on his Twitter page, "Thanks WikiLeaks, for leaking your donor list... That's dedication."<ref name=wikileaked /> In May 2010,<ref namewiredIntAnarrest>{{cite magazine\|lastPoulsen\|firstKevin\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/leak/\|titleU.S. Intelligence Analyst Arrested in Wikileaks Video Probe &#124; Threat Level\|magazineWired\|access-dateAugust 25, 2013}}</ref> Lamo informed U.S. Army authorities that Chelsea Manning had claimed to have leaked a large body of classified documents, including 260,000 classified United States diplomatic cables.<ref name"nytimes.com">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/08/world/08leaks.html\|workThe New York Times\|firstElisabeth\|lastBumiller\|titleArmy Leak Suspect Is Turned In, by Ex-Hacker\|dateJune 7, 2010}}</ref> He said that Manning also "took credit for leaking" the video footage of the July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike, which has since come to be known as the "Collateral Murder" video.<ref name="nytimes.com" /><ref> {{cite news \| last=Sheridan \| first=Michael \| title=Report: Soldier Arrested for allegedly leaking 'Collateral Murder' helicopter video to WikiLeaks \| workDaily News\|locationNew York \| date=June 7, 2010 \| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/06/07/2010-06-07_spc_bradley_manning_allegedly_arrested_for_leaking_collateral_murder_helicopter_.html \| access-dateJune 10, 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100609062014/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/06/07/2010-06-07_spc_bradley_manning_allegedly_arrested_for_leaking_collateral_murder_helicopter_.html\|archive-dateJune 9, 2010\|url-statuslive}} </ref><ref> {{cite news \| last=Fildes \| first=Jonathan \| title=Wikileaks site unfazed by arrest of US army 'source' \| work=BBC News \| date=June 8, 2010 \| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/10265430.stm \| access-dateJune 10, 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100610031746/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/10265430.stm\|archive-dateJune 10, 2010\|url-statuslive}} </ref> Lamo said he would not have turned Manning in "if lives weren't in danger". He characterized her as "in a war zone and basically trying to vacuum up as much classified information as [she] could and just throwing it up into the air."<ref namewiredIntAnarrest /> WikiLeaks responded by denouncing Lamo and the author of the article as "notorious felons, informers & manipulators", and said: "journalists should take care."<ref name"nytimes.com" /> Lamo was a volunteer "adversary characterization" analyst for Project Vigilant, a Florida-based government contractor, which encouraged him to inform the government about the alleged WikiLeaks source. The head of Project Vigilant, Chet Uber, claimed, "I'm the one who called the U.S. government... All the people who say that Adrian is a narc, he did a patriotic thing. He sees all kinds of hacks, and he was seriously worried about people dying."<ref name"forbes">{{cite web \|titleAndy Greenberg: Stealthy Government Contractor Monitors U.S. Internet Providers, Worked With Wikileaks Informant, August 1, 2010 \|urlhttps://blogs.forbes.com/firewall/2010/08/01/stealthy-government-contractor-monitors-u-s-internet-providers-says-it-employed-wikileaks-informant/ \|access-dateAugust 25, 2013 \|website=Forbes}}</ref> The Taliban insurgency later announced its intention to execute Afghan nationals named in the leaks as having cooperated with the U.S.-led coalition in Afghanistan. By that time, the U.S. had received months of advance warning that their names were among the leaks.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.newsweek.com/taliban-says-it-will-target-names-exposed-wikileaks-74257\|titleTaliban Says It Will Target Names Exposed by WikiLeaks\|dateJuly 30, 2010\|newspaperNewsweek\|access-dateJanuary 30, 2017}}</ref> Manning was arrested and incarcerated in the U.S. military justice system and later sentenced to 35 years in confinement. President Barack Obama commuted the sentence to seven years,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/17/us/politics/obama-commutes-bulk-of-chelsea-mannings-sentence.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/17/us/politics/obama-commutes-bulk-of-chelsea-mannings-sentence.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleChelsea Manning to Be Released Early as Obama Commutes Sentence\|lastSavage\|firstCharlie\|dateJanuary 17, 2017\|newspaperThe New York Times\|issn0362-4331\|access-dateJanuary 30, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> including time served.<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1Poulsen\|first1Kevin\|author-linkKevin Poulsen\|last2Zetter\|first2Kim\|author-link2Kim Zetter\|titleU.S. Intelligence Analyst Arrested in Wikileaks Video Probe\|magazineWired\|dateJune 6, 2010\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/leak/\|access-dateJune 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleUS intelligence analyst arrested over security leaks\|publisherBBC\|dateJune 7, 2010\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia_pacific/10254072.stm\|access-dateJune 7, 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100607184336/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia_pacific/10254072.stm\|archive-dateJune 7, 2010\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Lamo responded to the commutation with a post on Medium<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://medium.com/@lamo/a-statement-on-the-commutation-of-wikileaker-chelsea-mannings-sentence-from-the-man-who-busted-4faaff042960\|titleA Statement On the Commutation of WikiLeaker Chelsea Manning's Sentence, From The Man Who Busted...\|firstAdrián\|lastLamo\|dateJanuary 17, 2017}}</ref> and an interview with U.S. News & World Report.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2017-01-18/hacker-who-turned-in-chelsea-manning-it-was-not-my-most-honorable-moment\|titleHacker Who Turned in Chelsea Manning: 'It Was Not My Most Honorable Moment'\|lastNelson\|firstSteven\|dateJanuary 18, 2017\|workU.S. News & World Report}}</ref>{{Vague\|date={{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} Lamo characterized his decision to work with the government as morally ambiguous but objectively necessary, writing that "there were no right choices that day, only less wrong ones. It was cold, it was needful, and it was no one's to make except mine."<ref>{{cite news \|lastLamo \|firstAdrian \|dateJanuary 3, 2013 \|titleBradley Manning and me: why I cannot regret turning in the WikiLeaks suspect \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttp://www.securityfocus.com/news/595 \|access-date=March 20, 2013}} </ref> Lamo was criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who labeled him a "snitch."<ref>Bhattacharya, Sanjiv (July 22, 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100722020415/http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/wikileaks-snitch-hacker-adrian-lamo-faces-wrath-of-his-peers/19562042 "WikiLeaks 'Snitch' Hacker Faces Wrath of His Peers"]. AOL News. Archived from [http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/wikileaks-snitch-hacker-adrian-lamo-faces-wrath-of-his-peers/19562042 the original] on July 22, 2010. "According to Emmanuel Goldstein, who organized the panel discussion, 90 percent of the conference was anti-Lamo."</ref> Another told Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion: "from my perspective, I see what you have done as treason."<ref>{{cite web \|dateJuly 27, 2010 \|title"WikiLeaks Is Not One Person...We Are All the Threat" – Hacker Magazine Editor Says WikiLeaks Is Bigger Than Julian Assange \|urlhttp://www.democracynow.org/2010/7/27/wikileaks_is_not_one_personwe_are \|access-dateAugust 25, 2013 \|publisherDemocracynow.org}}</ref>Greenwald, Lamo, and Wired magazineLamo's role in Manning's case drew criticism from Glenn Greenwald, who suggested that Lamo lied to Manning by turning her in and then lied after the fact to cover up the circumstances of her confessions.<ref namegg> {{cite news \|last = Greenwald \|first = Glenn \|author-link = Glenn Greenwald \|title = The strange and consequential case of Bradley Manning, Adrian Lamo and WikiLeaks \|work = Salon \|date = June 18, 2010 \|url = http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2010/06/18/wikileaks \|access-date = June 18, 2010 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100621003856/http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2010/06/18/wikileaks \|archive-date = June 21, 2010 \|url-status = dead \|df = mdy-all }} </ref> In an article about the case, Greenwald mentioned Wired reporter Kevin Poulsen's 1994 felony conviction for computer hacking and wrote that "over the years, Poulsen has served more or less as Lamo's personal media voice."<ref namegg /> In an article titled "The Worsening Journalistic Disgrace at Wired", Greenwald wrote that Wired was "actively conceal[ing] from the public, for months on end, the key evidence [the full Lamo–Manning chat logs] in a political story that has generated headlines around the world."<ref>{{cite news\|lastGreenwald\|firstGlenn\|author-linkGlenn Greenwald\|urlhttp://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2010/12/27/wired\|titleThe worsening journalistic disgrace at Wired\|workSalon\|dateDecember 27, 2010\|access-date=August 25, 2013}}</ref> This drew a response from Wired: "At his most reasonable, Greenwald impugns our motives, attacks the character of our staff and carefully selects his facts and sources to misrepresent the truth and generate outrage in his readership."<ref name"wiredgg">{{cite magazine \|lastHansen \|firstEvan \|dateDecember 31, 2010 \|titlePutting the Record Straight on the Lamo–Manning Chat Logs &#124; Threat Level \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/12/greenwald/ \|magazineWired \|access-dateAugust 25, 2013}}</ref> On July 13, 2011, Wired published the Lamo–Manning chat logs in full, stating: "The most significant of the unpublished details have now been publicly established with sufficient authority that we no longer believe any purpose is served by withholding the logs."<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastHansen \|firstEvan \|dateJuly 13, 2011 \|titleManning–Lamo Chat Logs Revealed \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/ \|magazineWired \|access-dateJuly 14, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110714160225/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/ \|archive-dateJuly 14, 2011}}</ref> Greenwald wrote that the logs validated his claim that Wired had concealed important evidence.<ref>{{cite news\|titleWired publishes the full Manning–Lamo chat logs\|firstGlenn\|lastGreenwald\|author-linkGlenn Greenwald\|urlhttp://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/07/14/wired/index.html\|newspaperSalon\|dateJuly 14, 2011\|access-dateJuly 14, 2011\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110715211508/http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/07/14/wired/index.html\|archive-dateJuly 15, 2011}}</ref> Film and television On August 22, 2002, Lamo was removed from a segment of NBC Nightly News when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC's internal network.<ref> {{cite web \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Lamo Bumped from NBC After Hacking Them \| publisher=SecurityFocus \| date=August 27, 2002 \| url=http://www.securityfocus.com/news/595 \| access-date=January 2, 2007}} </ref> NBC was concerned that it broke the law by taping Lamo while he possibly broke the law. Lamo was a guest on The Screen Savers five times beginning in 2002.<ref> {{cite magazine \| last=Null \| first=Christopher \| author-link=Christopher Null \| title=Lamo Hacks Cingular Claims Site \| magazine=Wired \| date=May 29, 2003 \| url=https://www.wired.com/politics/security/news/2003/05/59024 \| access-date=June 15, 2010 }}</ref> Hackers Wanted, a documentary film focusing on Lamo's life as a hacker, was produced by Trigger Street Productions and narrated by Kevin Spacey.<ref namefilm>{{cite magazine\|lastPoulsen\|firstKevin\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/hackers-wante/\|titleLost Hacking Documentary Surfaces on Pirate Bay &#124; Threat Level\|magazineWired\|dateMay 21, 2010\|access-dateAugust 25, 2013}}</ref> Focusing on the 2003 hacking scene, the film features interviews with Kevin Rose and Steve Wozniak.<ref name=film /> The film has not been conventionally released. In May 2009, a video purporting to be a trailer for Hackers Wanted was allegedly leaked onto the Internet film site Eye Crave Network.<ref> {{cite web\|lastGoodsmith\|firstEd\|dateMay 5, 2009\|titleExclusive: Hackers Wanted (Documentary) Trailer!\|urlhttps://www.eyecrave.net/2008/06/23/eyecravedvd-exclusive-can-you-hack-it-details/\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090511190501/http://eyecrave.net/movies/movie/2521-exclusive-untitled-hacker-movie-can-you-hack-it-trailer/\|archive-dateMay 11, 2009\|access-dateMay 6, 2009\|publisherEve Crave Network\|df=mdy-all}} </ref> In May 2010, an early cut of the film was leaked via BitTorrent.<ref> {{cite web \| last=enigmax \| title=Unreleased 'Hackers Wanted' Movie Leaks To BitTorrent \| publisher=TorrentFreak \| date=May 20, 2010 \| url=http://torrentfreak.com/unreleased-hackers-wanted-movie-leaks-to-bittorrent-100520/ \| access-date=May 20, 2010}} </ref> According to an insider, what was leaked on the Internet was very different from the newer version, which includes additional footage. On June 12, 2010, a director's cut version of the film was leaked onto torrent sites.<ref> {{cite web \| last=enigmax \| title=Director Sam Bozzo On BitTorrent and the Movie Industry \| publisher=TorrentFreak \| date=June 13, 2010 \| url=http://torrentfreak.com/director-sam-bozzo-on-bittorrent-and-the-movie-industry-100613/ \| access-dateJune 13, 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100616060205/http://torrentfreak.com/director-sam-bozzo-on-bittorrent-and-the-movie-industry-100613/\|archive-dateJune 16, 2010\|url-statuslive}} </ref> Lamo also appeared on Good Morning America, Fox News, Democracy Now!, Frontline, and repeatedly on KCRA-TV News as an expert on netcentric crime and incidents. He was interviewed for the documentaries We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks and True Stories: WikiLeaks – Secrets and Lies.<ref>{{cite web \| title=We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks (2013) \| publisher=IMDb \| url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1824254/ \| access-date=January 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| title=True Stories: Wikileaks – Secrets and Lies (2011) \| publisher=IMDb \| url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2123355/ \| access-date=January 19, 2017}}</ref> Lamo reconnected with Leo Laporte in 2015 as a result of a Quora article on the "dark web" for an episode of The New Screen Savers.<ref>{{cite web \| title=Adrian Lamo \| publisher=IMDb \| date=December 24, 2016 \| urlhttps://www.imdb.com/name/nm2238804/?ref1337 \| access-date=December 24, 2016 }}</ref> Lamo wrote the book Ask Adrian,<ref>https://buk.io/@pa4566</ref> a collection of his best Q&A drawn from over 500 pages of Quora answers.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.quora.com/profile/Adri%C3%A1n-Lamo\|titleAdrián Lamo\|websitequora.com\|access-dateSeptember 5, 2017}}</ref> Personal life and death Lamo was known as the "Homeless Hacker" for his reportedly transient lifestyle,<ref>{{cite magazine\|author1Kahn, Jennifer\|dateApril 2004\|titleThe Homeless Hacker v. The New York Times\|urlhttp://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/12.04/hacker_pr.html\|magazineWired Magazine\|locationIssue 12.04\|quoteKnown as the Homeless Hacker before his arrest, Lamo did most of his virtual exploring from the Internet connections at Kinko's copy shops.}}</ref> claiming that he spent much of his travels couch-surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings, and traveling to Internet cafés, libraries, and universities to investigate networks, sometimes exploiting security holes.<ref name"kahn" /> He usually preferred sleeping on couches, and when he did sleep on beds, he did not sleep under covers. He also often wandered through homes and offices in the middle of the night, by the light of a flashlight.<ref name":1">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2019/09/19/760317486/the-mysterious-death-of-the-hacker-who-turned-in-chelsea-manning\|titleThe Mysterious Death of the Hacker Who Turned in Chelsea Manning\|websiteNPR.org \|publisherNPR\|access-dateSeptember 20, 2019}}</ref> Lamo was bisexual<ref>{{cite web \|last1Sledge \|first1Matt \|titleAdrian Lamo, Hacker Who Turned Bradley Manning In, Testifies At Trial \|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/adrian-lamo-bradley-manning_n_3384679?ri18ntrue \|websiteHuffington Post \|access-date5 August 2021 \|date4 June 2013 \|quoteLamo's chat logs reveal that when [Chelsea] Manning said [she] had gender identity issues, Lamo responded that he was bisexual.}}</ref> and volunteered for the gay and lesbian media firm PlanetOut Inc. in the mid-1990s.<ref name"HacksSquats" /><ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.04/hacker_pr.html\|titleWired 12.04: The Homeless Hacker v. The New York Times\|magazineWired\|access-dateDecember 20, 2011}}</ref> In 1998, he was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAgenda & Minutes Archive \|publisherSan Francisco Board of Supervisors \|date3 August 1998 \|urlhttp://www.sfbos.org/index.aspx?page2723 \|access-date23 October 2010 \|quote=Adrian Lamo, Seat No. 10}}</ref> Lamo used a wide variety of supplements and drugs. His wife, Lauren Fisher, called his drug use "body hacking". One of Lamo's preferred supplements was 'kratom' (Mitragyna speciosa), which he used as a less-dangerous alternative to opioids.<ref name":1" /> In 2001, he overdosed on prescription amphetamines.<ref name"mpalm03" /><ref name"jkahn04" /> After he turned in Manning, his drug use escalated, but he later claimed that he was in recovery.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/03/adrian-lamo-bradley-manning-q-and-a \|titleAdrian Lamo on Bradley Manning \|last1Pilkington \|first1Ed \|date3 January 2013 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|access-date10 September 2016}}</ref> In a 2004 interview with Wired, an ex-girlfriend of Lamo's called him "very controlling", alleging "he carried a stun gun, which he used on me". The same article claimed a court had issued a restraining order against Lamo;<ref name="jkahn04"> {{cite magazine \| last=Kahn \| first=Jennifer \| title=The Homeless Hacker v. The New York Times \| magazine=Wired \| year=2004 \| url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.04/hacker_pr.html \| access-date=July 8, 2010}} </ref> he disputed the claim, writing: "I have never been subject to a restraining order in my life".<ref>{{cite web\|lastLamo\|firstAdrian\|titleCitability (is important!)\|publisherGod, Sex, & the FBI: Adrian Lamo's (alleged) blog\|dateJuly 10, 2010\|urlhttp://pax.vox.com/library/post/citability-is-important.html\|access-dateJuly 10, 2010\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100918011521/http://pax.vox.com/library/post/citability-is-important.html\|archive-dateSeptember 18, 2010}}</ref> Lamo said in a Wired article that, in May 2010, after he reported the theft of his backpack, an investigating officer noted unusual behavior and placed him under a 72-hour involuntary psychiatric hold, which was extended to a nine-day hold. Lamo said he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome at the psychiatric ward.<ref> {{cite magazine \| last=Poulsen \| first=Kevin \| author-link=Kevin Poulsen \| title=Ex-Hacker Adrian Lamo Institutionalized for Asperger's \| magazine=Wired \| date=May 20, 2010 \| url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/lamo/ \| access-date=May 23, 2010 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523052217/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/lamo/ \| archive-date=May 23, 2010 \| url-status=live }} </ref> For a period of time in March 2011, Lamo was allegedly "in hiding", claiming that his "life was under threat" after turning in Manning.<ref>{{cite web \| title=Hacker: Why I turned FBI Informer \| publisher=Al Jazeera \| access-date=March 16, 2011 \| url=http://english.aljazeera.net/video/americas/2011/03/2011313202019296426.html \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110316110645/http://english.aljazeera.net/video/americas/2011/03/2011313202019296426.html\|archive-dateMarch 16, 2011\|url-status=live}}</ref> Lamo died on March 14, 2018, in Wichita, Kansas, at age 37.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/groups/majordomo/permalink/10156204603994522/ \|publisherFacebook \|firstMario \|lastLamo \|dateMarch 16, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180316212036/https://www.facebook.com/groups/majordomo/permalink/10156204603994522/ \|archive-dateMarch 16, 2018 \|quoteWith great sadness and a broken heart I have to let know all of Adrian's friends and acquittances that he is dead. \|title2600 The Hacker Quarterly}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/us/adrian-lamo-hacker-who-turned-in-chelsea-manning-to-fbi-found-dead\|titleAdrian Lamo, hacker who turned in Chelsea Manning to FBI, found dead\|publisherFox News Channel\|dateMarch 16, 2018\|access-dateMarch 17, 2018}}</ref><ref name"NYDN">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.kansas.com/news/local/article205629184.html\|titleHacker who turned in Chelsea Manning to FBI, hacked Microsoft, dies in Wichita\|newspaperWichita Eagle\|access-dateMarch 17, 2018\|dateMarch 16, 2018}}</ref> Nearly three months later, the Sedgwick County Regional Forensic Science Center reported that "Despite a complete autopsy and supplemental testing, no definitive cause of death was identified."<ref name":0">{{cite news\|lastLeiker\|firstAmy Renee\|dateJune 6, 2018\|titleWhat killed the computer hacker who turned in Chelsea Manning still a mystery\|urlhttp://www.kansas.com/news/local/crime/article210989594.html\|workThe Wichita Eagle\|access-dateJune 6, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/4498280/Adrian-20-Lamo.pdf \|dateMay 22, 2018 \|first1Timothy P. \|last1Rohrig \|first2Timothy S. \|last2Gorrill \|first3S. \|last3Kipper \|access-dateJune 10, 2018 \|titleAutopsy Report 18-18-0749 \|publisherSedgwick County Forensic Science}}</ref> Many bottles of pills were found in his home, some of which were known to cause severe health problems when combined with kratom. As a result, evidence points to an accidental death due to drug abuse.<ref name":1" /> See also List of unsolved deaths References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Commons category}} {{Official website}} * {{IMDb name\|id=2238804}} {{WikiLeaks}} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|Journalism\|Law\|LGBTQ\|United States}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lamo, Adrian}} Category:1981 births Category:2018 deaths Category:American cybercriminals Category:American people of Colombian descent Category:American River College alumni Category:American bisexual men Category:LGBTQ Hispanic and Latino American people Category:LGBTQ people from Massachusetts Category:Microsoft people Category:The New York Times people Category:People from Boston Category:American people with disabilities Category:People with Asperger syndrome Category:20th-century squatters Category:Unsolved deaths in Kansas Category:WikiLeaks Category:Yahoo! people Category:21st-century American LGBTQ people Category:Autistic LGBTQ people	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Lamo	2025-04-05T18:26:14.656592
3004	Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States	{{Short description\|United States federal judge position}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=November 2021}} {{SCOTUS series}} An associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, other than the chief justice of the United States. The number of associate justices is eight, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869.<ref>{{cite book \|firstKermit L. \|lastHall \|chapterJudiciary Act of 1869 \|titleThe Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States \|editor-firstKermit L. \|editor-lastHall \|editor2-firstJames W. \|editor2-lastEly \|editor3-firstJoel B. \|editor3-lastGrossman \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2005 \|page548 \|isbn9780195176612 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcY3er3ilgjcC&pgPA548 \|access-dateOctober 28, 2018 \|archive-dateJune 30, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200630123429/https://books.google.com/books?idcY3er3ilgjcC&pgPA548 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution of the United States grants plenary power to the president to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution effectively grants life tenure to associate justices, and all other federal judges, which ends only when a justice dies, retires, resigns, or is impeached and convicted.<ref>{{cite web\| last1McMillion\| first1Barry J.\| last2Rutkus\| first2Denis Steven\| dateJuly 6, 2018\| titleSupreme Court Nominations, 1789 to 2017: Actions by the Senate, the Judiciary Committee, and the President\| urlhttps://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33225.pdf\| publisherCongressional Research Service\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateOctober 24, 2018\| archive-dateAugust 9, 2019\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190809152918/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33225.pdf\| url-status=live}}</ref> Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it, and the chief justice's vote counts no more than that of any other justice; however, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. Furthermore, the chief justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion; otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. The chief justice also has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more ($298,500 per year as of 2023, compared to $285,400 per year for an associate justice).<ref name"salary">{{Cite web \|titleJudicial Compensation \|urlhttps://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation \|access-date2023-04-26 \|websiteUnited States Courts \|languageen}}</ref> Associate justices have seniority in order of the date their respective commissions bear, although the chief justice is always considered to be the most senior justice. If two justices are commissioned on the same day, the elder is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Clarence Thomas. By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Supreme Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice is also tasked with carrying out the chief justice's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant. Current associate justices There are currently eight associate justices on the Supreme Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are: <gallery widths"130" heights"150"> File:Clarence Thomas official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\|Clarence Thomas,<br/>since October 23, 1991<ref>{{Cite web\| titleJustice Clarence Thomas\| urlhttp://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-clarence-thomas/\| publisherThe Supreme Court Historical Society\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateJanuary 13, 2018\| archive-dateMay 15, 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200515180814/https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-clarence-thomas/\| url-statusdead}}</ref> File:010 alito.jpg\|Samuel Alito,<br />since January 31, 2006<ref>{{Cite web\| titleJustice Samuel Anthony Alito, Jr.\| urlhttp://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-samuel-anthony-alito-jr/\| publisherThe Supreme Court Historical Society\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateJanuary 13, 2018\| archive-dateJune 16, 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200616065838/http://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-samuel-anthony-alito-jr/\| url-statusdead}}</ref> File:Sonia Sotomayor in SCOTUS robe.jpg\|Sonia Sotomayor,<br />since August 8, 2009<ref>{{Cite web\| titleJustice Sonia Sotomayor\| urlhttp://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-sonia-sotomayor/\| publisherThe Supreme Court Historical Society\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateJanuary 13, 2018\| archive-dateMarch 4, 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200304175151/https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-sonia-sotomayor/\| url-statusdead}}</ref> File:Elena Kagan Official SCOTUS Portrait (2013).jpg\|Elena Kagan,<br />since August 7, 2010<ref>{{Cite web\| titleJustice Elena Kagan\| urlhttp://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-elena-kagan/\| publisherThe Supreme Court Historical Society\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateJanuary 13, 2018\| archive-dateMay 24, 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200524161410/https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-elena-kagan/\| url-statusdead}}</ref> File:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg\|Neil Gorsuch,<br />since April 10, 2017<ref name":2">{{Cite web\| titleJustice Neil M. Gorsuch\| urlhttp://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-neil-gorsuch/index.html\| publisherThe Supreme Court Historical Society\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateJanuary 13, 2018\| archive-dateNovember 22, 2019\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191122034749/http://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court/the-current-court/justice-neil-gorsuch/index.html\| url-status=dead}}</ref> File:Associate Justice Brett Kavanaugh Official Portrait (full length).jpg\|Brett Kavanaugh,<br />since October 6, 2018<ref name":1">{{cite web\| urlhttps://apnews.com/8234f0b8a6194d8b89ff79f9b0c94f35/Kavanaugh-confirmed,-quickly-sworn-in;-major-Trump-victory\| titleKavanaugh sworn to high court after rancorous confirmation\| last1Fram\| first1Alan\| last2Mascaro\| first2Lisa\| last3Daly\| first3Matthew\| dateOctober 6, 2018\| websiteap.org\| locationNew York, New York\| access-dateOctober 6, 2018\| archive-dateJune 16, 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200616065846/https://apnews.com/8234f0b8a6194d8b89ff79f9b0c94f35/Kavanaugh-confirmed,-quickly-sworn-in;-major-Trump-victory\| url-statuslive}}</ref> File:Justice Amy Coney Barrett (cropped).jpg\|Amy Coney Barrett,<br />since October 27, 2020<ref name":0">{{cite web\|authorBarbara Sprunt\|titleAmy Coney Barrett Confirmed To Supreme Court, Takes Constitutional Oath\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2020/10/26/927640619/senate-confirms-amy-coney-barrett-to-the-supreme-court\|websiteNPR \|dateOctober 26, 2020\|access-dateOctober 26, 2020\|archive-dateOctober 27, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201027012410/https://www.npr.org/2020/10/26/927640619/senate-confirms-amy-coney-barrett-to-the-supreme-court\|url-statuslive}}</ref> File:KBJackson.jpg\|alt\|Ketanji Brown Jackson,<br />since June 30, 2022<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-06-30 \|titleWATCH LIVE: Judge Ketanji Brown Jackson sworn in as first Black woman on Supreme Court \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/watch-live-judge-ketanji-brown-jackson-sworn-in-as-first-black-woman-on-supreme-court \|access-date2022-06-30 \|websitePBS NewsHour \|language=en-us}}</ref> </gallery> Retired associate justices An associate justice who leaves the Supreme Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute ({{USCode\|28\|371}}) may retire rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute ({{USCode\|28\|294}}) provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve—if designated and assigned by the chief justice—on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on the U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted to do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a "senior judge". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court.<ref>{{cite book\| author1-linkBob Woodward\| last1Woodward\| first1Robert\| author2-linkScott Armstrong (journalist)\| last2Armstrong\| first2Scott\|titleThe Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court\| date1979\| pages480–488, 526\| isbn978-0-7432-7402-9\| publisherSimon & Schuster\| locationNew York}}</ref> There are currently three living retired associate justices: David Souter, retired June 29, 2009; Anthony Kennedy, retired July 31, 2018; and Stephen Breyer, retired June 30, 2022. Souter has served on panels of the First Circuit Courts of Appeals following his retirement; Kennedy and Breyer have not performed any judicial duties since retiring. List of associate justices Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 104 persons have served as an associate justice:<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSupreme Court Nominations (1789-Present)\| urlhttps://www.senate.gov/legislative/nominations/SupremeCourtNominations1789present.htm\| publisherUnited States Senate\| locationwashington, D.C.\| access-dateFebruary 14, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\| titleJustices 1789 to Present\| urlhttps://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx\| publisherSupreme Court of the United States\| locationWashington, D.C.\| access-dateFebruary 14, 2022}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;" ! colspan=3 \| Associate justice ! Seat ! class = "unsortable"\| Replacing ! Date confirmed<br />(Vote) ! Tenure{{Efn\|name="startend"}} ! Appointed by ! class "unsortable"\| Prior position{{Efn\|name"position"}} \|- \| data-sort-value="Rutledge, John"\| 1 \| \| John Rutledge \| 1st \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|September 26, 1789}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 15, 1790}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 4, 1791</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Resigned)</span></small>{{Efn\|name="Rutledge"}} \| rowspan=8 \|George Washington \| 31st<br />governor of South Carolina<br />(1779–1782)<!-- DO NOT CHANGE TO 1st GOVERNOR. Legally, South Carolina's incumbent governor (as of January 24, 2017), Henry McMaster, is the 117th Governor of South Carolina, which makes John Rutledge the 31st governor not the 1st. --> \|- \| data-sort-value="Cushing, William"\| 2 \| \| William Cushing{{Efn\|name="Cushing"}} \| 2nd \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|September 26, 1789}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 2, 1790}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 13, 1810</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Superior Court<br />(1777–1789) \|- \| data-sort-value="Wilson, James"\| 3 \| \| James Wilson \| 3rd \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|September 26, 1789}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 5, 1789}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 21, 1798</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Delegate to the<br />Constitutional Convention<br />(1787) \|- \| data-sort-value="Blair, John Jr."\| 4 \| \| John Blair \| 4th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|September 26, 1789}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\| February 2, 1790}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 25, 1795</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| Member of the<br />Virginia House of Burgesses<br />(1766–1770) \|- \| data-sort-value="Iredell, James"\| 5 \| \| James Iredell \| 5th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|February 10, 1790}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|May 12, 1790}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 20, 1799</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| 2nd<br />attorney general of North Carolina<br />(1779–1782) \|- \| data-sort-value="Johnson, Thomas"\| 6 \| \| Thomas Johnson \| rowspan=2 \| 1st \| J. Rutledge \| {{dts\|November 7, 1791}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|September 19, 1791}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">January 16, 1793</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| 1st<br />governor of Maryland<br />(1777–1779) \|- \| data-sort-value="Paterson, William"\| 7 \| \| William Paterson \| T.&nbsp;Johnson \| {{dts\|March 4, 1793}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 11, 1793}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 8, 1806</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| 2nd<br />governor of New Jersey<br />(1790–1793) \|- \| data-sort-value="Chase, Samuel"\| 8 \| \| Samuel Chase{{efn\|name="impeached"}} \| 4th \| Blair \| {{dts\|January 27, 1796}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 4, 1796}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 19, 1811</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Chief Justice of the<br />Maryland General Court<br />(1791–1796) \|- \| data-sort-value="Washington, Bushrod"\| 9 \| \| Bushrod Washington \| 3rd \| Wilson \| {{dts\|December 20, 1798}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|November 9, 1798}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 26, 1829</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=2 \| John Adams \| Delegate to the<br />Virginia Ratifying Convention<br />(1788) \|- \| data-sort-value="Moore, Alfred"\| 10 \| \| Alfred Moore \| 5th \| Iredell \| {{dts\|December 9, 1799}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|April 21, 1800}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 26, 1804</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| 3rd<br />attorney general of North Carolina<br />(1782–1791) \|- \| data-sort-value="Johnson, William"\| 11 \| \| William Johnson \| 5th \| Moore \| {{dts\|March 24, 1804}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|May 7, 1804}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 4, 1834</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Thomas Jefferson \| Speaker of the<br /> South Carolina House of Representatives<br />(1798–1800) \|- \| data-sort-value="Livingston, Henry B."\| 12 \| \| Henry Brockholst Livingston \| 1st \| Paterson \| {{dts\|December 17, 1806}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 20, 1807}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 18, 1823</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Justice of the<br />New York Supreme Court<br />(1802–1807) \|- \| data-sort-value="Todd, Thomas"\| 13 \| \| Thomas Todd \| 6th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|March 2, 1807}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 4, 1807}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 7, 1826</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Chief Justice of the<br />Kentucky Court of Appeals<br />(1806–1807) \|- \| data-sort-value="Duvall, Gabriel"\| 14 \| \| Gabriel Duvall \| 4th \| Chase \| {{dts\|November 18, 1811}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|November 23, 1811}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 12, 1835</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| rowspan=2 \| James Madison \| U.S. representative for<br />Maryland's 2nd district<br />(1794–1796) \|- \| data-sort-value="Story, Joseph"\| 15 \| \| Joseph Story \| 2nd \| Cushing \| {{dts\|November 18, 1811}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 3, 1812}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 10, 1845</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| U.S. representative for<br />Massachusetts's 2nd district<br />(1808–1809) \|- \| data-sort-value="Thompson, Smith"\| 16 \| \| Smith Thompson \| 1st \| Livingston \| {{dts\|December 9, 1823}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|September 1, 1823}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">December 18, 1843</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| James Monroe \| 6th<br />United States secretary of the Navy<br />(1819–1823) \|- \| data-sort-value="Trimble, Robert"\| 17 \| \| Robert Trimble \| rowspan=2 \| 6th \| Todd \| {{dts\|May 9, 1826}}<br />(25–5) \| {{dts\|June 16, 1826}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 25, 1828</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| John Quincy Adams \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the District of Kentucky<br />(1817–1826) \|- \| data-sort-value="McLean, John"\| 18 \| \| John McLean \| Trimble \| {{dts\|March 7, 1829}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 12, 1829}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 4, 1861</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=5 \| Andrew Jackson \| 6th<br />United States postmaster general<br />(1823–1829) \|- \| data-sort-value="Baldwin, Henry"\| 19 \| \| Henry Baldwin \| 3rd \| Washington \| {{dts\|January 6, 1830}}<br />(41–2) \| {{dts\|January 18, 1830}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 21, 1844</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| U.S. representative for<br />Pennsylvania's 14th district<br />(1817–1822) \|- \| data-sort-value="Wayne, James M."\| 20 \| \| James Moore Wayne \| 5th \| W.&nbsp;Johnson \| {{dts\|January 9, 1835}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 14, 1835}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 5, 1867</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} {{small\|(Seat abolished)}} \| U.S. representative for<br />Georgia's at-large district<br />(1829–1835) \|- \| data-sort-value="Barbour, Philip P."\| 21 \| \| Philip P. Barbour \| 4th \| Duvall \| {{dts\|March 15, 1836}}<br />(30–11) \| {{dts\|May 12, 1836}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 25, 1841</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Virginia<br />(1830–1836) \|- \| data-sort-value="Catron, John"\| 22 \| \| John Catron \| 7th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|March 8, 1837}}<br />(28–15) \| {{dts\|May 1, 1837}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 30, 1865</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} {{small\|(Seat abolished)}} \| Judge of the<br />Tennessee Supreme Court<br>of Errors and Appeals<br />(1824–1834) \|- \| data-sort-value="McKinley, John"\| 23 \| \| John McKinley \| 8th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|September 25, 1837}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 9, 1838}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 19, 1852</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=2 \| Martin Van Buren \| United States senator<br />from Alabama<br />(1826–1831, 1837) \|- \| data-sort-value="Daniel, Peter V."\| 24 \| \| Peter Vivian Daniel \| 4th \| Barbour \| {{dts\|March 2, 1841}}<br />(25–5) \| {{dts\|January 10, 1842}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 31, 1860</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Virginia<br />(1836–1841) \|- \| data-sort-value="Nelson, Samuel"\| 25 \| \| Samuel Nelson \| 1st \| Thompson \| {{dts\|February 14, 1845}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 27, 1845}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 28, 1872</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| John Tyler \| Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court<br />(1831–1845) \|- \| data-sort-value="Woodbury, Levi"\| 26 \| \| Levi Woodbury \| 2nd \| Story \| {{dts\|January 31, 1846}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|September 23, 1845}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">September 4, 1851</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=2 \| James K. Polk \| 13th<br />United States secretary of the treasury<br />(1834–1841) \|- \| data-sort-value="Grier, Robert C."\| 27 \| \| Robert Cooper Grier \| 3rd \| Baldwin \| {{dts\|August 4, 1846}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|August 10, 1846}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 1870</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge for the<br />Pennsylvania state District Court<br />for Allegheny County<br />(1833–1846) \|- \| data-sort-value="Curtis, Benjamin R."\| 28 \| \| Benjamin Robbins Curtis \| 2nd \| Woodbury \| {{dts\|December 20, 1851}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 10, 1851}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">September 30, 1857</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| Millard Fillmore \| Massachusetts state representative \|- \| data-sort-value="Campbell, John A."\| 29 \| \| John Archibald Campbell \| 8th \| McKinley \| {{dts\|March 22, 1853}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|April 11, 1853}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 30, 1861</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| Franklin Pierce \| Alabama state representative \|- \| data-sort-value="Clifford, Nathan"\| 30 \| \| Nathan Clifford \| 2nd \| Curtis \| {{dts\|January 12, 1858}}<br />(26–23) \| {{dts\|January 21, 1858}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 25, 1881</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| James Buchanan \| 19th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1846–1848) \|- \| data-sort-value="Swayne, Noah H."\| 31 \| \| Noah Haynes Swayne \| 6th \| McLean \| {{dts\|January 24, 1862}}<br />(38–1) \| {{dts\|January 27, 1862}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 24, 1881</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=4 \| Abraham Lincoln \| U.S. attorney for the<br />District of Ohio<br />(1830–1834) \|- \| data-sort-value="Miller, Samuel F."\| 32 \| \| Samuel Freeman Miller \| 4th \| Daniel \| {{dts\|July 16, 1862}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|July 21, 1862}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 13, 1890</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Lawyer,<br />Private practice \|- \| data-sort-value="Davis, David"\| 33 \| \| David Davis \| 8th \| Campbell \| {{dts\|December 8, 1862}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|December 10, 1862}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 3, 1877</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| Judge of the<br />Illinois 3rd Circuit Court<br />(1848–1862) \|- \| data-sort-value="Field, Stephen J."\| 34 \| \| Stephen Johnson Field \| 9th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|March 10, 1863}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|May 20, 1863}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 1, 1897</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 5th<br />chief justice of California<br />(1859–1863) \|- \| data-sort-value="Strong, William"\| 35 \| \| William Strong \| 3rd \| Grier \| {{dts\|February 18, 1870}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 14, 1870}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 14, 1880</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Ulysses S. Grant \| U.S. representative for<br />Pennsylvania's 9th district<br />(1847–1851) \|- \| data-sort-value="Bradley, Joseph P."\| 36 \| \| Joseph P. Bradley \| 10th \| (new seat) \| {{dts\|March 21, 1870}}<br />(46–9) \| {{dts\|March 23, 1870}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 22, 1892</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Lawyer,<br />Private practice \|- \| data-sort-value="Hunt, Ward"\| 37 \| \| Ward Hunt \| 1st \| Nelson \| {{dts\|December 11, 1872}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 9, 1873}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 27, 1882</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Chief Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals<br />(1868–1872) \|- \| data-sort-value="Harlan, John M."\| 38 \| \| John Marshall Harlan \| 8th \| Davis \| {{dts\|December 10, 1877}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|November 29, 1877}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 14, 1911</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=2 \| Rutherford B. Hayes \| 14th<br />attorney general of Kentucky<br />(1863–1867) \|- \| data-sort-value="Woods, William B."\| 39 \| \| William Burnham Woods \| 3rd \| Strong \| {{dts\|December 21, 1880}}<br />(39–8) \| {{dts\|January 5, 1881}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 14, 1887</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Fifth Circuit<br />(1869–1880) \|- \| data-sort-value="Matthews, Stanley"\| 40 \| \| Stanley Matthews \| 6th \| Swayne \| {{dts\|May 12, 1881}}<br />(24–23) \| {{dts\|May 17, 1881}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 22, 1889</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| James A. Garfield \| United States senator<br />from Ohio<br />(1877–1879) \|- \| data-sort-value="Gray, Horace"\| 41 \| \| Horace Gray \| 2nd \| Clifford \| {{dts\|December 20, 1881}}<br />(51–5) \| {{dts\|January 9, 1882}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 15, 1902</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=2 \| Chester A. Arthur \| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court<br />(1873–1881) \|- \| data-sort-value="Blatchford, Samuel"\| 42 \| \| Samuel Blatchford \| 1st \| Hunt \| {{dts\|March 22, 1882}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|April 3, 1882}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 7, 1893</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1878–1882) \|- \| data-sort-value="Lamar, Lucius Q. C. II"\| 43 \| \| Lucius Quintus<br>Cincinnatus Lamar II \| 3rd \| Woods \| {{dts\|January 16, 1888}}<br />(32–28) \| {{dts\|January 18, 1888}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 23, 1893</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Grover Cleveland \| 16th<br />United States secretary of the interior<br />(1885–1888) \|- \| data-sort-value="Brewer, David J."\| 44 \| \| David Josiah Brewer \| 6th \| Matthews \| {{dts\|December 18, 1889}}<br />(53–11) \| {{dts\|January 6, 1890}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 28, 1910</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=4 \| Benjamin Harrison \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1884–1889) \|- \| data-sort-value="Brown, Henry B."\| 45 \| \| Henry Billings Brown \| 4th \| Miller \| {{dts\|December 29, 1890}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 5, 1891}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 28, 1906</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Michigan<br />(1875–1890) \|- \| data-sort-value="Shiras, George Jr."\| 46 \| \| George Shiras Jr. \| 10th \| Bradley \| {{dts\|July 26, 1892}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 10, 1892}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 23, 1903</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Lawyer,<br />Private practice \|- \| data-sort-value="Jackson, Howell E."\| 47 \| \| Howell Edmunds Jackson \| 3rd \| L. Lamar \| {{dts\|February 18, 1893}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 4, 1893}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 8, 1895</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1891–1893) \|- \| data-sort-value="White, Edward D."\| 48 \| \| Edward Douglass White \| 1st \| Blatchford \| {{dts\|February 19, 1894}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 12, 1894}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 18, 1910</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>{{Efn\|name="White"}} \| rowspan=2 \| Grover Cleveland \| United States senator<br />from Louisiana<br />(1891–1894) \|- \| data-sort-value="Peckham, Rufus W."\| 49 \| \| Rufus W. Peckham \| 3rd \| H. Jackson \| {{dts\|December 9, 1895}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 6, 1896}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 24, 1909</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Associate Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals \|- \| data-sort-value="McKenna, Joseph"\| 50 \| \| Joseph McKenna \| 9th \| Field \| {{dts\|January 21, 1898}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 26, 1898}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 5, 1925</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| William McKinley \| 42nd<br />United States attorney general<br />(1897–1898) \|- \| data-sort-value="Holmes, Oliver W."\| 51 \| \| Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. \| 2nd \| Gray \| {{dts\|December 4, 1902}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|December 8, 1902}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 12, 1932</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Theodore Roosevelt \| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court<br />(1899–1902) \|- \| data-sort-value="Day, William R."\| 52 \| \| William R. Day \| 10th \| Shiras \| {{dts\|February 23, 1903}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 2, 1903}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 13, 1922</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1899–1903) \|- \| data-sort-value="Moody, William H."\| 53 \| \| William Henry Moody \| 4th \| Brown \| {{dts\|December 12, 1906}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|December 17, 1906}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 20, 1910</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 45th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1904–1906) \|- \| data-sort-value="Lurton, Horace H."\| 54 \| \| Horace Harmon Lurton \| 3rd \| Peckham \| {{dts\|December 20, 1909}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 3, 1910}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 12, 1914</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| rowspan=5 \| William Howard Taft \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1893–1909) \|- \| data-sort-value="Hughes, Charles E."\| 55 \| \| Charles Evans Hughes \| 6th \| Brewer \| {{dts\|May 2, 1910}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 10, 1910}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 10, 1916</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Resigned)</span></small>{{Efn\|name="Hughes"}} \| 36th<br />governor of New York<br />(1907–1910) \|- \| data-sort-value="Van Deventer, Willis"\| 56 \| \| Willis Van Devanter \| 1st \| E. White \| {{dts\|December 15, 1910}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 3, 1911}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 2, 1937</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1903–1910) \|- \| data-sort-value="lamar, Joseph R."\| 57 \| \| Joseph Rucker Lamar \| 4th \| Moody \| {{dts\|December 15, 1910}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 3, 1911}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 2, 1916</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Associate Justice of the<br />Supreme Court of Georgia<br />(1901–1905) \|- \| data-sort-value="Pitney, Mahlon"\| 58 \| \| Mahlon Pitney \| 8th \| J. Harlan I \| {{dts\|March 13, 1912}}<br />(50–26) \| {{dts\|March 18, 1912}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 31, 1922</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| U.S. representative for<br />New Jersey's 4th district<br />(1895–1899) \|- \| data-sort-value="McReynolds, James C."\| 59 \| \| James Clark McReynolds \| 3rd \| Lurton \| {{dts\|August 29, 1914}}<br />(44–6) \| {{dts\|October 12, 1914}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 1941</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Woodrow Wilson \| 48th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1913–1914) \|- \| data-sort-value="Brandeis Lewis"\| 60 \| \| Louis Brandeis \| 4th \| J. Lamar \| {{dts\|June 1, 1916}}<br />(47–22) \| {{dts\|June 5, 1916}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 13, 1939</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Lawyer,<br />Private practice:<br />Brandeis Dunbar & Nutter<ref>{{cite book \|first1 Diana \|last1 Klebanow \|first2 Franklin L. \|last2 Jonas \|name-list-style amp \|title People's Lawyers: Crusaders for Justice in American History \|publisher M. E. Sharpe \|year 2003 \|isbn 978-0765606730 \|page 61 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idiwd4Ez3g_vgC&pgPA61 \|via Google Books }}</ref> \|- \| data-sort-value="Clarke, John H."\| 61 \| \| John Hessin Clarke \| rowspan=2 \| 6th \| Hughes \| {{dts\|July 24, 1916}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 9, 1916}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 5, 1922</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Northern District of Ohio<br />(1914–1916) \|- \| data-sort-value="Sutherland, George"\| 62 \| \| George Sutherland \| Clarke \| {{dts\|September 5, 1922}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 2, 1922}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 17, 1938</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Warren G. Harding \| United States senator<br />from Utah<br />(1905–1917) \|- \| data-sort-value="Butler, Pierce"\| 63 \| \| Pierce Butler \| 10th \| Day \| {{dts\|December 21, 1922}}<br />(61–8) \| {{dts\|January 2, 1923}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 16, 1939</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| President of the<br />Minnesota State Bar Association \|- \| data-sort-value="Sanford, Edward T."\| 64 \| \| Edward Terry Sanford \| 8th \| Pitney \| {{dts\|January 29, 1923}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 19, 1923}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 8, 1930</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Middle District of Tennessee<br />(1908–1923) \|- \| data-sort-value="Stone, Harlan F."\| 65 \| \| Harlan F. Stone \| 9th \| McKenna \| {{dts\|February 5, 1925}}<br />(71–6) \| {{dts\|March 2, 1925}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 3, 1941</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>{{Efn\|name="Stone"}} \| Calvin Coolidge \| 52nd<br />United States attorney general<br />(1924–1925) \|- \| data-sort-value="Roberts, Owen J."\| 66 \| \| Owen Roberts \| 8th \| Sanford \| {{dts\|May 20, 1930}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|June 2, 1930}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 31, 1945</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| rowspan=2 \| Herbert Hoover \| Assistant District Attorney for Philadelphia \|- \| data-sort-value="Cardozo, Benjamin N."\| 67 \| \| Benjamin N. Cardozo \| 2nd \| Holmes \| {{dts\|February 24, 1932}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 14, 1932}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 9, 1938</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Chief Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals<br />(1927–1932) \|- \| data-sort-value="Black, Hugo"\| 68 \| \| Hugo Black \| 1st \| Van&nbsp;Devanter \| {{dts\|August 17, 1937}}<br />(63–16) \| {{dts\|August 19, 1937}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 17, 1971</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=8 \| Franklin D. Roosevelt \| United States senator<br />from Alabama<br />(1927–1937) \|- \| data-sort-value="Reed, Stanley F."\| 69 \| \| Stanley Forman Reed \| 6th \| Sutherland \| {{dts\|January 25, 1938}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 31, 1938}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 25, 1957</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 22nd<br />United States solicitor general<br />(1935–1938) \|- \| data-sort-value="Frankfurter, Felix"\| 70 \| \| Felix Frankfurter \| 2nd \| Cardozo \| {{dts\|January 17, 1939}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|January 30, 1939}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 28, 1962</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Chairman of Harvard Law School \|- \| data-sort-value="Douglass, William O."\| 71 \| \| William O. Douglas \| 4th \| Brandeis \| {{dts\|April 4, 1939}}<br />(62–4) \| {{dts\|April 17, 1939}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 12, 1975</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 3rd<br />chairman of the<br />Securities and Exchange Commission<br />(1937–1939) \|- \| data-sort-value="Murphy, Frank"\| 72 \| \| Frank Murphy \| 10th \| Butler \| {{dts\|January 16, 1940}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 5, 1940}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 19, 1949</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| 56th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1939–1940) \|- \| data-sort-value="Byrnes, James F."\| 73 \| \| James F. Byrnes \| 3rd \| McReynolds \| {{dts\|June 12, 1941}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|July 8, 1941}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 3, 1942</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| United States senator<br />from South Carolina<br />(1931–1941) \|- \| data-sort-value="Jackson, Robert H."\| 74 \| \| Robert H. Jackson \| 9th \| Stone \| {{dts\|July 7, 1941}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|July 11, 1941}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 9, 1954</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| 57th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1940–1941) \|- \| data-sort-value="Rutledge, Wiley B."\| 75 \| \| Wiley Blount Rutledge \| 3rd \| Byrnes \| {{dts\|February 8, 1943}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|February 15, 1943}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 10, 1949</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1939–1943) \|- \| data-sort-value="Burton, Harold H."\| 76 \| \| Harold Hitz Burton \| 8th \| Roberts \| {{dts\|September 19, 1945}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 1, 1945}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 13, 1958</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Harry S. Truman \| United States senator<br />from Ohio<br />(1941–1945) \|- \| data-sort-value="Clark, Tom C."\| 77 \| \| Tom C. Clark \| 10th \| Murphy \| {{dts\|August 18, 1949}}<br />(73–8) \| {{dts\|August 24, 1949}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 12, 1967</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 59th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1945–1949) \|- \| data-sort-value="Minton, Sherman"\| 78 \| \| Sherman Minton \| 3rd \| W. Rutledge \| {{dts\|October 12, 1949}}<br />(48–16) \| {{dts\|October 12, 1949}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 15, 1956</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(1941–1949) \|- \| data-sort-value="Harlan, John M. II"\| 79 \| \| John Marshall Harlan \| 9th \| R. Jackson \| {{dts\|March 16, 1955}}<br />(71–11) \| {{dts\|March 28, 1955}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 23, 1971</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=4 \| Dwight D. Eisenhower \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1954–1955) \|- \| data-sort-value="Brennan, William J."\| 80 \| \| William J. Brennan Jr. \| 3rd \| Minton \| {{dts\|March 19, 1957}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 15, 1956}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 20, 1990</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Associate Justice of the<br />Supreme Court of New Jersey<br />(1951–1956) \|- \| data-sort-value="Whittaker, Charles E."\| 81 \| \| Charles Evans Whittaker \| 6th \| Reed \| {{dts\|March 19, 1957}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|March 25, 1957}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 31, 1962</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1956–1957) \|- \| data-sort-value="Potter, Stewart"\| 82 \| \| Potter Stewart \| 8th \| Burton \| {{dts\|May 5, 1959}}<br />(70–17) \| {{dts\|October 14, 1958}}{{Efn\|name"recess"}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 3, 1981</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1954–1958) \|- \| data-sort-value="White, Byron"\| 83 \| \| Byron White \| 6th \| Whittaker \| {{dts\|April 11, 1962}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|April 16, 1962}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 28, 1993</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=2 \| John F. Kennedy \| 4th<br />United States deputy attorney general<br />(1961–1962) \|- \| data-sort-value="Goldberg, Arthur"\| 84 \| \| Arthur Goldberg \| rowspan=2 \| 2nd \| Frankfurter \| {{dts\|September 25, 1962}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 1, 1962}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 26, 1965</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| 9th<br />United States secretary of labor<br />(1961–1962) \|- \| data-sort-value="Fortas, Abe"\| 85 \| \| Abe Fortas \| Goldberg \| {{dts\|August 11, 1965}}<br />(Acclamation) \| {{dts\|October 4, 1965}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 14, 1969</span><br />{{small\|(Resigned)}} \| rowspan=2 \| Lyndon B. Johnson \| United States under secretary of the interior \|- \| data-sort-value="Marshall, Thurgood"\| 86 \| \| Thurgood Marshall \| 10th \| Clark \| {{dts\|August 30, 1967}}<br />(69–11) \| {{dts\|October 2, 1967}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 1, 1991</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| 32nd<br />solicitor general of the United States<br />(1965–1967) \|- \| data-sort-value="Blackman, Harry"\| 87 \| \| Harry Blackmun \| 2nd \| Fortas \| {{dts\|May 12, 1970}}<br />(94–0) \| {{dts\|June 9, 1970}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 3, 1994</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Richard Nixon \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1959–1970) \|- \| data-sort-value="Powell, Lewis F. Jr."\| 88 \| \| Lewis F. Powell Jr. \| 1st \| Black \| {{dts\|December 6, 1971}}<br />(89–1) \| {{dts\|January 7, 1972}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 26, 1987</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| President of the<br />American Bar Association<br />(1964–1965) \|- \| data-sort-value="Rehnquist, William"\| 89 \| \| William Rehnquist \| 9th \| J. Harlan II \| {{dts\|December 10, 1971}}<br />(68–26) \| {{dts\|January 7, 1972}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 26, 1986</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>{{Efn\|name="Rehnquist"}} \| United States assistant attorney general<br />for the Office of Legal Counsel<br />(1969–1971) \|- \| data-sort-value="Stevens, John P."\| 90 \| \| John Paul Stevens \| 4th \| Douglas \| {{dts\|December 17, 1975}}<br />(98–0) \| {{dts\|December 19, 1975}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 29, 2010</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Gerald Ford \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(1970–1975) \|- \| data-sort-value="O'Connor, Sandra D."\| 91 \| \| Sandra Day O'Connor \| 8th \| Stewart \| {{dts\|September 21, 1981}}<br />(99–0) \| {{dts\|September 25, 1981}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 2006</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=3 \| Ronald Reagan \| Judge of the<br />Arizona Court of Appeals<br />(1979–1981) \|- \| data-sort-value="Scalia, Antonin"\| 92 \| \| Antonin Scalia \| 9th \| Rehnquist \| {{dts\|September 17, 1986}}<br />(98–0) \| {{dts\|September 26, 1986}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 13, 2016</span><br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1982–1986) \|- \| data-sort-value="Kennedy, Anthony"\| 93 \| \| Anthony Kennedy \| 1st \| Powell \| {{dts\|February 3, 1988}}<br />(97–0) \| {{dts\|February 18, 1988}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 31, 2018</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Ninth Circuit<br />(1975–1988) \|- \| data-sort-value="Souter, David"\| 94 \| \| David Souter \| 3rd \| Brennan \| {{dts\|October 2, 1990}}<br />(90–9) \| {{dts\|October 9, 1990}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 29, 2009</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| rowspan=2 \| George H. W. Bush \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the First Circuit<br />(1990) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Thomas, Clarence"\| 95 \| \| Clarence Thomas \| 10th \| Marshall \| {{dts\|October 15, 1991}}<br />(52–48) \| {{dts\|October 23, 1991}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1990–1991) \|- \| data-sort-value="Ginsburg, Ruth B."\| 96 \| \| Ruth Bader Ginsburg \| 6th \| B. White \| {{dts\|August 3, 1993}}<br />(96–3) \| {{dts\|August 10, 1993}}<br />–<br />{{dts\|September 18, 2020}}<br />{{small\|(Died)}} \| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan2 \| Bill Clinton \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1980–1993) \|- \| data-sort-value="Breyer, Stephen"\| 97 \| \| Stephen Breyer \| 2nd \| Blackmun \| {{dts\|July 29, 1994}}<br />(87–9) \| {{dts\|August 3, 1994}}<br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 30, 2022</span><br />{{small\|(Retired)}} \| Chief Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the First Circuit<br />(1990–1994) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Alito, Samuel"\| 98 \| \| Samuel Alito \| 8th \| '''O'Connor \| {{dts\|January 31, 2006}}<br />(58–42) \| {{dts\|January 31, 2006}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| style="background:#f9f9f9;" \| George W. Bush \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Third Circuit<br />(1990–2006) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Soromayor, Sonia"\| 99 \| \| Sonia Sotomayor \| 3rd \| Souter \| {{dts\|August 6, 2009}}<br />(68–31) \| {{dts\|August 8, 2009}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan2 \| Barack Obama \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1998–2009) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Kagan, Elena"\| 100 \| \| Elena Kagan \| 4th \| Stevens \| {{dts\|August 5, 2010}}<br />(63–37) \| {{dts\|August 7, 2010}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| 45th<br />solicitor general of the United States<br />(2009–2010) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Gorsuch, Neil"\| 101 \| \| Neil Gorsuch \| 9th \| Scalia \| {{dts\|April 7, 2017}}<br />(54–45) \| {{dts\|April 10, 2017}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan3 \| Donald Trump \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Tenth Circuit<br />(2006–2017) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Kavanaugh, Brett"\| 102 \| \| Brett Kavanaugh \| 1st \| Kennedy \| {{dts\|October 6, 2018}}<br />(50–48) \| {{dts\|October 6, 2018}}<br />–<br />Incumbent \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(2006–2018) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Barrett, Amy Coney"\| 103 \| \| Amy Coney Barrett \| 6th \| Ginsburg \| {{dts\|October 26, 2020}}<br />(52–48) \| {{dts\|October 27, 2020}}<br />–<br /> Incumbent \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(2017–2020) \|- style="background:#FFF;" \| data-sort-value="Jackson, Ketanji Brown"\| 104 \| \| Ketanji Brown Jackson \| 2nd \| Breyer \| {{dts\|April 7, 2022}}<br />(53–47) \| {{dts\|June 30, 2022}}<br />–<br /> Incumbent' \| style="background:#f9f9f9;" \| Joe Biden \| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(2021–2022) \|} Notes {{notelist\|refs{{Efn\|name"startend"\|The start date given here for each associate justice is the day they took the oath of office, and the end date'' is the day of the justice's death, resignation, or retirement.}} {{Efn\|name="position"\|Listed here (unless otherwise noted) is the position—either with a U.S. state or the federal government, or with a private corporation—held by the individual immediately prior to becoming an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.}} {{Efn\|name="Rutledge"\|Later served as chief justice, June 30, 1795 – December 28, 1795.}} {{Efn\|name="recess"\|Recess appointment. Note: the date on which the justice took the judicial oath is here used as the date of the beginning of their service, not the date of the recess appointment.}} {{Efn\|name="Cushing"\|Was confirmed as chief justice on January 26, 1796, but declined and continued to serve as an associate justice.}} {{Efn\|name="impeached"\|Was impeached, but not convicted, and remained in office.}} {{Efn\|name="White"\|Served as chief justice, December 19, 1910 – May 19, 1921.}} {{Efn\|name="Hughes"\|Later served as chief justice, February 24, 1930 – June 30, 1941.}} {{Efn\|name="Stone"\|Served as chief justice, July 3, 1941 – April 22, 1946.}} {{Efn\|name="Rehnquist"\|Served as chief justice, September 26, 1986 – September 3, 2005.}} }} References {{Reflist}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book \|last Abraham \|first Henry J. \|title Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court \|edition 3rd \|publisher Oxford University Press \|year 1992 \|location New York \|isbn 0-19-506557-3 }} * {{cite book \|chapter-url http://www.supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c20_e.html \|last Christensen \|first George A. \|year 1983 \|chapter Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices \|title Yearbook \|publisher Supreme Court Historical Society \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081120003316/http://www.supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c20_e.html \|archive-date November 20, 2008 \|url-status dead \|df = mdy-all }} * {{cite journal \|last Christensen \|first George A. \|title Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited \|journal Journal of Supreme Court History \|volume 33 \|issue 1 \|pages 17–41 \|date February 19, 2008 \|publisher University of Alabama \|doi 10.1111/j.1540-5818.2008.00177.x \|s2cid = 145227968 }} * {{Cite book \|last Cushman \|first Clare \|title The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 \|edition 2nd \|publisher (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books) \|year 2001 \|isbn = 1-56802-126-7 }} * {{Cite book \|last Frank \|first John P. \|editor-last Friedman \|editor-first Leon \|editor2-last Israel \|editor2-first Fred L. \|name-list-style amp \|title The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions \|publisher Chelsea House Publishers \|year 1995 \|isbn 0-7910-1377-4 \|url https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0000unse }} * {{Cite book \|editor-last Hall \|editor-first Kermit L. \|title The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States \|publisher Oxford University Press \|year 1992 \|location New York \|isbn 0-19-505835-6 \|url https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall }} * {{Cite book \|last1 Martin \|first1 Fenton S. \|last2 Goehlert \|first2 Robert U. \|name-list-style amp \|title The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography \|publisher Congressional Quarterly Books \|year 1990 \|location Washington, D.C. \|isbn 0-87187-554-3 \|url = https://archive.org/details/ussupremecourtbi0000mart }} * {{Cite book \|last Toobin \|first Jeffrey \|title The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court \|edition 1st \|publisher Anchor Books \|year 2008 \|location New York \|isbn 978-1-4000-9679-4 \|url = https://archive.org/details/nineinsidesec00toob }} * {{Cite book \|last Urofsky \|first Melvin I. \|title The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary \|publisher Garland Publishing \|year 1994 \|location New York \|pages [https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 590] \|isbn 0-8153-1176-1 \|url = https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 }} {{refend}} External links * [https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/judges.htm Historic Supreme Court Decisions{{snd}}by Justice], Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School * [https://www.supremecourt.gov/ Supreme Court of the United States] (website home page) {{SCOTUS Justices\|associatejustices}} {{SCOTUS horizontal}} {{US Order of Precedence}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Associate Justice Of The Supreme Court Of The United States}} Category:Supreme Court of the United States people Category:United States federal judges Category:Legal professions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States	2025-04-05T18:26:15.349473
3010	Alan Jay Lerner	{{short description\|American lyricist and librettist (1918–1986)}} {{for\|the big band leader\|Al Lerner (composer)}} {{use mdy dates\|date=December 2016}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = Alan Jay Lerner \| image = Alan Jay Lerner (1962).jpg \| caption = Lerner, {{circa}}{{nbsp}}1962 \| image_size \| birth_name \| alias \| birth_date {{birth date\|1918\|8\|31\|mf=y}} \| birth_place = New York City, US \| death_date = {{death date and age\|1986\|6\|14\|1918\|8\|31}} \| death_place = New York City, US \| origin \| instrument \| genre = Musical theatre, popular \| occupations = Lyricist, librettist \| years_active = 1942&ndash;1986 }} Alan Jay Lerner (August 31, 1918 &ndash; June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world's most popular and enduring works of musical theatre both for the stage and on film. Lerner won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors. Early life and education Lerner was born in New York City to a Jewish family. He was the son of Edith ({{née}} Adelson) and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner's cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, (where he wrote "The Choate Marching Song") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock.<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9E0CE7DC1E3AF937A25755C0A964958260 "The Executive Life; And No One Mentions The Many Mosquitoes"]The New York Times, June 14, 1992</ref> At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff.<ref nametcm>[http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/participant.jsp?spid112326&apid8980 "Alan Jay Lerner: Biography"] Turner Classic Movies, accessed August 1, 2009</ref> Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner's case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals.<ref>Green, p.238</ref> During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner's college classmates, collaborated on "Lonely Men of Harvard", a tongue-in-cheek salute to their alma mater. Career Owing to his eye injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, including Your Hit Parade, until he was introduced to German-Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb's Club. While at the Lamb's, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate.<ref>{{cite news\| last1Viertel\| first1Jack\| titleEncores! artistic director Jack Viertel explains how the Lerner and Lowe musical Paint Your Wagon is a fascinating anomaly from the songwriting team best known for My Fair Lady and Camelot\| urlhttp://www.playbill.com/article/how-a-wrong-turn-at-the-lambs-club-introduced-lerner-to-loewe-and-an-anomaly-explained-com-343920\| journalPlaybill\| access-dateDecember 16, 2016\| date=March 15, 2015}}</ref> Lerner and Loewe's first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners's farce The Patsy called Life of the Party for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine-week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for ''What's Up?, which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by The Day Before Spring.<ref>Green, p. 239</ref> Their first hit was Brigadoon (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story Paint Your Wagon''. While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, such as "They Call the Wind Maria", it was less successful than Lerner's previous work. He later said of Paint Your Wagon, it was "a success but not a hit."<ref>{{cite news\| last1Zink\| first1Jack\| titleFolk Musical 'Wagon' Claims Quite A History Lerner And Loewe's 'Paint Your Wagon' Has Had Three Transformations In Its Lifetime. And Now What Is Considered The Best Version Is Being Presented At The Royal Palm Dinner Theatre In Boca Raton\| urlhttp://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1986-10-12/features/8603010966_1_wagon-paint-broadway-musicals\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220131628/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1986-10-12/features/8603010966_1_wagon-paint-broadway-musicals\| url-statusdead\| archive-dateDecember 20, 2016\| newspaperSun-Sentinel\| locationFort Lauderdale, Florida\| access-dateDecember 16, 2016\| date=October 12, 1986}}</ref> Lerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical Love Life (1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical Royal Wedding (1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar-winning original screenplay for An American in Paris, produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create Gigi. In 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled My Fair Lady. By this time, too, Lerner and Burton Lane were already working on a musical about Li'l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to Pygmalion, which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner, "Pygmalion had no subplot". Lerner and Loewe's adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box-office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison. Lerner and Loewe's run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award-winning film musical Gigi, starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co-star Maurice Chevalier. The Lerner-Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian Camelot in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died about a year after the show's Broadway premiere.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTaubman \|firstHoward \|date1960-12-05 \|titleTheatre: 'Camelot Partly Enchanted; Lerner-Loewe Musical Opens at Majestic \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1960/12/05/archives/theatre-camelot-partly-enchanted-lernerloewe-musical-opens-at.html \|access-date2023-06-14 \|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleYoungstown Vindicator - Google News Archive Search \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id-SxAAAAAIBAJ&dqpalm-springs&pg1802,1631321 \|access-date2023-06-14 \|websitenews.google.com}}</ref> Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles. Camelot was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK's administration reminded her of the "one brief shining moment" of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot. As of the early 21st century, Camelot was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years.<ref>{{cite news\| last1Koehler\| first1Robert\| titleStage Review: Retunn to 'Camelot ' -- Sans Inspiration\| urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-12-23-ca-2120-story.html\| newspaperLos Angeles Times\| access-dateDecember 16, 2016\| date=December 23, 1992}}</ref> Loewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals—some successful, some not—with such composers as André Previn (Coco), John Barry (Lolita, My Love), Leonard Bernstein (1600 Pennsylvania Avenue), Burton Lane (Carmelina) and Charles Strouse (Dance a Little Closer, based on the film, ''Idiot's Delight, nicknamed Close A Little Faster'' by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers{{who\|dateJuly 2015}} blame Lerner's professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince. (Moss Hart, who had directed My Fair Lady, died shortly after Camelot opened.) In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project, Doctor Dolittle, but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non-productive months of non-communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse.<ref>{{cite book\| lastHarris\| firstMark\| titlePictures at a Revolution\| urlhttps://archive.org/details/picturesatrevolu00harr_0\| url-accessregistration\| quotelerner bricusse.\| dateFebruary 14, 2008\| publisherPenguin Press\| pages[https://archive.org/details/picturesatrevolu00harr_0/page/77 77]–78\| isbn=978-1101202852}}</ref> Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971. In 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the Gigi score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of The Little Prince, based on the classic children's tale by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following.{{citation needed\|date= August 2017}} Lerner's autobiography, The Street Where I Live (1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe's successful collaborations, My Fair Lady, Gigi, and Camelot, along with personal information. In the last year of his life, he published The Musical Theatre: A Celebration, a well-reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. The Los Angeles Times reviewer wrote: "There are several reasons why this book makes a fine introduction to musical theater. One is that Lerner knows exactly what was new, and when and why....In "The Musical Theatre," one is privy to the judgment of a man... who expresses his opinions in a forthright, warm and personal manner."<ref>Curcio, Vincent. [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-30-bk-107-story.html " 'The Musical Theatre: A Celebration' by Alan Jay Lerner (McGraw-Hill: $24.95; 280 pp., illustrated)"] Los Angeles Times, November 30, 1986</ref> A book of Lerner's lyrics entitled A Hymn To Him, edited by a British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987. At the time of Lerner's death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film My Man Godfrey. He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to The Phantom of the Opera. He wrote "Masquerade", but he then informed Webber that he wanted to leave the project because he was losing his memory (he had developed metastatic lung cancer) and Charles Hart replaced him.<ref>{{cite book\| lastFuria\| firstPhilip\| titleAmerican Song Lyricists, 1920-1960\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMLc7AQAAIAAJ&qAlan+Lerner\| pages322–335\| year2002\| publisherGale\| locationDetroit\| isbn978-0-7876-6009-3\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\| lastCitron\| firstStephen\| titleSondheim and Lloyd-Webber\| urlhttps://archive.org/details/sondheimlloydweb0000citr\| quotelerner.\| dateSeptember 13, 2001\| publisherOxford University Press US\| isbn 978-0195357271\| page[https://archive.org/details/sondheimlloydweb0000citr/page/330 330]\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> He had turned down an invitation to write the English-language lyrics for the musical version of Les Misérables.<ref>{{cite book\| lastBehr\| firstEdward\| titleThe Complete Book of Les Misérables\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqiCO4XZ2K6IC&qlerner\| dateJanuary 1, 1993\| publisherArcade Publishing\| isbn978-1559701563\| page62\| access-date=August 23, 2018}}</ref> After Lerner's death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner's lyrics and life entitled Almost Like Being In Love, which featured music by Loewe, Lane, Previn, Strouse, and Weill.<ref>{{cite news\| titleAlmost Like Being In Love: A Musical Revue\| urlhttp://www.playbill.com/production/almost-like-being-in-love-coms-0000026096\| journalPlaybill\| access-date23 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\| titleTheater Week\| volume3\| issue21\| publisherThat New Magazine, Inc.\| date1990\| page8\| languageen}}</ref> The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Stevens \|first1Rob \|titleTheatre reviews: WEST COAST STAGES. \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/962904448 \|access-date2 December 2020 \|dateDecember 1, 1989\|id{{ProQuest\|962904448}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleAlmost Like Being in Love act \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/Issue24.13/Issue24.13_djvu.txt \|access-date2 December 2020 \|issue3 \|publisherSan Francisco Bay \|dateJanuary 3, 1990\|volume24 }}</ref>SongwritingLerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete "I Could Have Danced All Night" from My Fair Lady in one 24-hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said{{by whom\|dateAugust 2017}} to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind. For instance, he changed the rhymes in some lines of "I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face" to ones that Rex Harrison was more comfortable with.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/easytoremembergr00zins/page/231/mode/1up \|titleEasy to Remember: The Great American Songwriters and Their Songs \|firstWilliam Knowlton \|lastZinsser \|publisherDavid R. Godine \|isbn1567921477 \|pages231–232 \|date2000 \|access-date2024-06-21 \|viaInternet Archive \|url-access=registration}}</ref> Lerner said of writing: {{Blockquote\|You have to keep in mind that there is no such thing as realism or naturalism in the theater. That is a myth. If there was realism in the theater, there would never be a third act. Nothing ends that way. A man's life is made up of thousands and thousands of little pieces. In writing fiction, you select 20 or 30 of them. In a musical, you select even fewer than that.}} {{Blockquote\| First, we decide where a song is needed in a play. Second, what is it going to be about? Third, we discuss the mood of the song. Fourth, I give (Loewe) a title. Then he writes the music to the title and the general feeling of the song is established. After he's written the melody, then I write the lyrics.}} In a 1979 interview on NPR's All Things Considered, Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for My Fair Lady. Professor Henry Higgins sings, "Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / By right she should be taken out and hung / For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue." Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist: {{Blockquote\|I thought, oh well, maybe nobody will notice it, but not at all. Two nights after it opened, I ran into Noël Coward in a restaurant, and he walked over and he said, "Dear boy, it is hanged, not hung." I said, "Oh, Noel, I know it, I know it! You know, shut up!" So, and there's another, "Than to ever let a woman in my life." It should be, "as to ever let a woman in my life," but it just didn't sing well. }} Dramatists Guild Alan Jay Lerner was an advocate for writers' rights in theatre. He was a member of the Dramatists Guild of America. In 1960, he was elected as the twelfth president of the non-profit organization. He continued to serve as the Guild's president until 1964. Personal life For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamines; during the 1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as "Dr. Feelgood", who administered injections of "vitamins with enzymes" that were in fact laced with amphetamines. Lerner's addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson's practice.<ref>{{cite news\| lastBryk\| firstWilliam\| urlhttp://www.nysun.com/out-and-about/dr-feelgood/20251/\| titleDr. Feelgood\| newspaperThe New York Sun\| dateSeptember 20, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\| author-linkNicolas Rasmussen\| lastRasmussen\| firstNicolas\| titleOn Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1mf5eEG0nRUC&qDexamyl%20%22purple%20heart%22&pgPA169\| publisherNew York University Press\| locationNew York City\| dateMarch 1, 2008\| page169\| isbn978-0814776278}}</ref>Marriages and childrenLerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd (1940–1947), singer Marion Bell (1947–1949), actress Nancy Olson (1950–1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (1957–1965), editor Karen Gundersen (1966–1974), Sandra Payne (1974–1976), Nina Bushkin (1977–1981) and Liz Robertson (1981–1986 [his death]). Four of his eight wives — Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson — were actresses.<ref nametcm/> His seventh wife, Nina Bushkin, whom he married on May 30, 1977, was the director of development at Mannes College of Music and the daughter of composer and musician Joey Bushkin.<ref>"Note on People", The New York Times, June 10, 1977, p. 19</ref> After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of $50,000.<ref>{{cite book\| lastLees\| firstGene\| titleThe musical worlds of Lerner and Loewe\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEujKPSbVOooC&qsaiger\| year2005\| publisherU of Nebraska Press\| isbn978-0803280403\| page309\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> Lerner wrote in his autobiography (as quoted by The New York Times): "All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood."<ref nametimes>{{cite news\| lastFreedman\| firstSamuel\| newspaperThe New York Times\| titleAlan Jay Lerner, the Lyricist and Playwright, Is Dead at 67\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/06/15/obituaries/alan-jay-lerner-the-lyricist-and-playwright-is-dead-at-67.html\| dateJune 15, 1986\| page1\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> All of this lent some irony to the lyrics for his song Get Me to the Church on Time. Lerner had four children&nbsp;— three daughters, Susan (by Boyd), Liza, and Jennifer (by Olson), and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner (by di Borgo). in London]] Lerner's multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth. Still, he was primarily responsible for his financial ups and downs and was less than truthful about his financial fecklessness.<ref>{{cite book\| last1Brown\| first1Gordon W.\| last2Myers\| first2Scott\| titleAdministration of wills, trusts, and estates\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideaoKAAAAQBAJ&qLerner\| dateFebruary 22, 2012\| publisherCengage Learning\| isbn978-1285401034\| page358}}</ref> It was claimed that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (his fourth wife) cost him an estimated $1 million in 1965. This was untrue.<ref>{{cite news\| titleMrs. Lerner in Las Vegas Preparing to Ask Divorce\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1965/09/01/archives/mrs-lerner-in-las-vegas-preparing-to-ask-divorce.html\| newspaperThe New York Times\| dateSeptember 1, 1965\| page28\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> Lerner's pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986 when he reportedly owed the U.S. Internal Revenue Service over US$1 million {{USDCY\|1e6\|1986}} in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/20/arts/alan-jay-lerner-sued-by-us-for-1.4-million.html\| titleAlan Jay Lerner Sued By U.S. for $1.4 Million\| agencyAssociated Press\| newspaperThe New York Times\| dateFebruary 20, 1986\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> Death On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior.<ref nametimes/> He lived in Center Island, New York.<ref nameLIX>{{cite web\| urlhttps://www.longislandexchange.com/towns/centre-island/\| titleCentre Island\| websiteLong Island Exchange\| dateDecember 31, 2013\| access-dateAugust 23, 2018}}</ref> He has a memorial plaque in St Paul's Church, the Actors' Church in Covent Garden in London.Awards and honorsAmerican Theater Hall of Fame 1979<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1979/11/19/archives/theater-hall-of-fame-enshrines-51-artists-great-things-and-blank.html\|titleTheater Hall of Fame Enshrines 51 Artists\|newspaperNew York Times\|dateNovember 19, 1979\|access-dateFebruary 7, 2019}}</ref> Kennedy Center Honors 1985<ref>[https://www.kennedy-center.org/pages/specialevents/honors "Honors, 1985"] kennedy-center.org, retrieved July 13, 2019</ref> ;Academy Award Best Original Screenplay, 1951 An American in Paris Best Adapted Screenplay, 1958 Gigi Best Original Song, 1958 Gigi ;Golden Globes<ref>[https://www.goldenglobes.com/person/alan-jay-lerner "Alan Jay Lerner"] goldenglobes.com, retrieved July 13, 2019</ref> Best Original Song, 1968 Camelot Best Original Score, 1975 The Little Prince ;Tony Award<ref name=play1>[http://www.playbill.com/person/alan-jay-lerner-vault-0000000316 "Alan Jay Lerner Broadway"] playbill.com, retrieved July 13, 2019</ref> Best Book of a Musical, 1957 My Fair Lady Best Original Score, 1957 My Fair Lady and 1974 Gigi ;New York Drama Critics Circle<ref name=play1/> Best Musical, 1947 Brigadoon Best Musical, 1956 My Fair Lady ;Johnny Mercer Award<ref>[https://www.songhall.org/awards/1985_awards_ceremony "1985 Awards Ceremony"] songhall.org, retrieved July 13, 2019</ref> Lyric Writing, 1985, Lifetime Works Stage * Life of the Party (1942), with Frederick Loewe * ''What's Up? (1943), with Frederick Loewe * The Day Before Spring (1945), with Frederick Loewe * Brigadoon (1947), with Frederick Loewe * Love Life (1948), with Kurt Weill * Paint Your Wagon (1951), Frederick Loewe * My Fair Lady (1956), with Frederick Loewe * Camelot (1960), with Frederick Loewe * On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (1965), with Burton Lane * Coco (1969), with André Previn * Lolita, My Love (1971), with John Barry * Gigi (1973), based on the 1958 film of the same name, with Frederick Loewe * 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (1976), with Leonard Bernstein * Carmelina (1979), with Burton Lane and Joseph Stein * Dance a Little Closer (1983), with Charles Strouse * My Man Godfrey'' (1984), unfinished, with Gerard Kenny<ref>{{cite web \|firstEnid \|lastNemy \|title'My Man Godfrey' Bound For Broadway \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/1985/03/19/my-man-godfrey-bound-for-broadway/ \|workChicago Tribune \|dateMarch 19, 1985 \|access-dateJuly 13, 2019}}</ref>Films Source: TCM<ref>[http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/112326\|8980/Alan-Jay-Lerner/filmography.html "Alan Jay Lerner Filmography"] tcm.com, retrieved July 13, 2019</ref> Royal Wedding, 1951 (screenwriter/lyricist) An American in Paris (1951) (writer) Brigadoon, 1954 (film) (screenwriter/lyricist) Gigi, 1958 (screenwriter/lyricist) The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1960 (lyricist) My Fair Lady, 1964 (screenwriter/lyricist) Camelot, 1967 (screenwriter/lyricist) Paint Your Wagon, 1969 (producer/screenwriter/lyricist) On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, 1970 (screenwriter/lyricist) The Little Prince, 1974 (screenwriter/lyricist) Tribute, 1980 ("It's All for the Best", lyricist) Secret Places, 1984 (title song lyricist) See also Lerner and Loewe Notes {{Reflist}} References Green, Stanley. The world of musical comedy (Edition 4, 1984), Da Capo Press, {{ISBN\|0-306-80207-4}} Further reading * Lerner, Alan Jay (1985). The Street Where I Live. Da Capo Press. {{ISBN\|0-306-80602-9}} * Shapiro, Doris (1989). We Danced All Night: My Life Behind the Scenes With Alan Jay Lerner. Barricade Books. {{ISBN\|0-942637-98-4}} * Jablonski, Edward (1996). Alan Jay Lerner: A Biography. Henry Holt & Co. {{ISBN\|0-8050-4076-5}} * Citron, David (1995). The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein 2nd and Alan Jay Lerner. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|0-19-508386-5}} * Green, Benny, Editor (1987). A Hymn to Him : The Lyrics of Alan Jay Lerner. Hal Leonard Corporation. {{ISBN\|0-87910-109-1}} * Garebian, Keith (1998). The Making of My Fair Lady. Publisher: Mosaic Press. {{ISBN\|0-88962-653-7}} {{Use mdy dates\|dateSeptember 2014}}External links{{Archival records\|titleAlan Jay Lerner papers, 1880-1997\|locationMusic Division, Library of Congress\|description_URLhttps://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/eadmus.mu016005}} {{Spoken Wikipedia\|Alan_Jay_Lerner.ogg\|date=2020-04-03}} * {{IBDB name}} * {{iobdb name\|1551}} * {{IMDb name\| 503585 }} * {{Shof\| 42 }} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Alan Jay Lerner \|list = {{AcademyAwardBestOriginalScreenplay 1940-1960}} {{AcademyAwardBestAdaptedScreenplay 1941-1960}} {{AcademyAwardBestOriginalSong 1951–1960}} {{Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score 1970–1989}} {{Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song}} {{Kennedy Center Honorees 1980s}} {{TonyAward MusicalScore 1947–1975}} {{Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Musical}} }} {{Lerner and Loewe}} {{My Fair Lady}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lerner, Alan Jay}} Category:1918 births Category:1986 deaths Category:American musical theatre librettists Category:American musical theatre lyricists Category:Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners Category:Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners Category:Best Original Song Academy Award–winning songwriters Category:Golden Globe Award–winning musicians Category:Broadway composers and lyricists Category:Choate Rosemary Hall alumni Category:Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state) Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Jewish American songwriters Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:People educated at Bedales School Category:People from Wallingford, Connecticut Category:Songwriters from New York (state) Category:Writers from New York City Category:Tony Award winners Category:People from Centre Island, New York Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American biographers Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century American Jews Category:Members of The Lambs Club Category:20th-century American songwriters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Jay_Lerner	2025-04-05T18:26:15.372918
3012	Al Capp	{{Short description\|American cartoonist and humorist (1909–1979)}} {{Distinguish\|Al Capps\|Andy Capp}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2020}} {{Infobox person \| name = Al Capp \| image = Alcappself.png \| image_size = 200px \| caption = Self-portrait \| birth_name = Alfred Gerald Caplin \| birth_date {{birth date\|1909\|09\|28\|mfy}} \| birth_place = New Haven, Connecticut, U.S. \| death_date {{death date and age\|1979\|11\|05\|1909\|09\|28\|mfy}} \| death_place = South Hampton, New Hampshire, U.S. \| occupation = Cartoonist, satirist, radio and television commentator \| spouse = Catherine Wingate (Cameron) Capp (1932–1979; his death) \| children = Julie Ann Cairol, Catherine Jan Peirce, Colin Cameron Capp (adopted) \| awards Inkpot Award (1978)<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.comic-con.org/awards/inkpot\|titleInkpot Award\|dateDecember 6, 2012\|websiteComic-Con International: San Diego\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> \| known_for = ''L'il Abner }} Alfred Gerald Caplin (September 28, 1909&nbsp;– November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip Li'l Abner, which he created in 1934 and continued writing and (with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips Abbie an' Slats (in the years 1937–45) and Long Sam'' (1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award, posthumously for his "unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning". Capp's comic strips dealt with urban experiences in the Northern United States until the year he introduced "Li'l Abner". Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years writing about the fictional Southern town of Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in more than 900 American newspapers and 100 more papers in 28 countries internationally. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune through the strip and "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South".<ref>M. Thomas Inge, "Li'l Abner, Snuffy, Pogo, and Friends: The South in the American Comic Strip," Southern Quarterly (2011) 48#2 pp 6–74</ref> Early life and education Capp was born in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage. He was the eldest child of Otto Philip Caplin (1885–1964)<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.geni.com/people/Otto-Caplin/6000000003443607986 \|title Otto Philip Caplin\| websitegeni.com \| publisher \|year\|quote 1885 \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin (1884–1948).<ref>{{Cite web\| url https://www.geni.com/people/Matilda-Davidson/6000000003443619277\|titleMatilda Davidson\|website geni.com \|date\| quoteDecember 17, 1884 \|access-date= October 29, 2020}}</ref> Otto Caplion was a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist; Al's brothers Elliot and Jerome were also cartoonists, and his sister Madeline was a publicist. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven in the 1880s. "My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants", wrote Capp in 1978. "Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true — it was no crime to be a Jew." The Caplins were indigent; Capp recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal. In August 1919, at age nine, Capp was run over by a trolley car and had his left leg amputated above the knee.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://lil-abner.com/al-capp/ \| website lil-abner.com\| publisherLi'l Abner Official Site\| title Al Capp biography\| date\| access-date }}</ref> According to his father Otto's unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg had been removed.<ref>{{cite book\| last1Kitchen\| first1 Denis\| first2Michael\| last2 Schumacher\| titleAl Capp: A Life to the Contrary\| year 2013\| publisher\| page 4\| isbn}}</ref> He was eventually given a prosthetic leg but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he aged.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.tcj.com/reviews/al-capp-a-life-to-the-contrary/ \|titleReviews: 'Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary,'\| first R. C.\| lastHarvey\| date March 14, 2013\| websitetcj.com; The Comics Journal\| publisher \| access-dateMarch 25, 2025}}</ref> The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp's cynical worldview, which was darker and more sardonic than that of most newspaper cartoonists.<ref name inhuman>{{cite news\| urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811832,00.html \| archiveurl https://web.archive.org/web/20100204233957/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811832,00.html \|titleInhuman Man\| work Time\| dateFebruary 6, 1950\| archivedate 2010-02-04\| access-date}}</ref> "I was indignant as hell about that leg," he revealed in a November 1950 interview in Time magazine.<ref name inhuman /> "The secret of how to live without resentment or embarrassment in a world in which I was different from everyone else", Capp philosophically wrote, "was to be indifferent to that difference."<ref>{{cite magazine\| titleMy Well-balanced Life on a Wooden Leg\| first Al\| lastCapp\| work Life\| dateMay 23, 1960\| url https://books.google.com/books?id3k4EAAAAMBAJ&dqAl+Capp&pgPA129 \|page [https://books.google.com/books?id3k4EAAAAMBAJ&dqAl+Capp&pgPA130 130] \| publisher \| viaGoogle Books\| access-date March 25, 2025}}</ref> The prevailing opinion among his friends was that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability. ]] Capp's father introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, advancing mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were Punch cartoonist–illustrator Phil May and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus, and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw before he was 13 years old. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman. Capp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut, without receiving a diploma. He liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bridgeport.ct.schoolwebpages.com/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectiondetailid5111 \|titleWeb page at Bridgeport Central High School devoted to Al Capp \|website bridgeport.ct.schoolwebpages.com \|publisherCentral High School\| date September 30, 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930185724/http://bridgeport.ct.schoolwebpages.com/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectiondetailid5111 \|archive-dateSeptember 30, 2007 \|url-statusdead \|access-date= March 25, 2025}}</ref> His formal training came from a series of art schools in the Northeast. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition—the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston—the last before launching his career. Capp already had decided to become a cartoonist. "I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of Mutt and Jeff) got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses", Capp said. "I decided that was for me." In early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in "airless rat holes" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at $2 each while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing Colonel Gilfeather, a single-panel, AP-owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to Mister Gilfeather but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff and the two became lifelong friends. Capp moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96. Leaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression. "I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything." There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on Joe Palooka. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's Joe Palooka story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named "Big Leviticus", a crude prototype. (Leviticus was much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg than to the much more appealing and innocent Li'l Abner.) Also during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that eventually became ''Li'l Abner. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met {{citation needed span\|textwhile hitchhiking through rural West Virginia and the Cumberland Valley as a teenager.\|reasonThis activity needs to be substantiated, not just claimed. When did he do it (and why)? He spent five years just in high school in Bridgeport, Connecticut, as a teen, then attended three art schools in the Northeast shortly afterwards. In 1932, he hitchikes from Massachusetts to New York City (as 23). A reliable citation is required.\|date=January 2025}} (This would have been before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933 began the years-long process of bringing basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving Joe Palooka, Capp sold Li'l Abner to United Feature Syndicate (later known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers—including the New York Mirror—and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became "Al Capp" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame.<ref>A review of the 1934 strips reveals that the earliest strips were signed "Al G. Cap", which became "Al G. Capp" and, finally, "Al Capp". However, the middle initial ("Al G. Capp") appeared from time to time during the first year.</ref> Capp had his name changed legally in 1949. His younger brother, Elliot Caplin, also became a comic strip writer, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip The Heart of Juliet Jones with artist Stan Drake and conceiving the comic strip character Broom-Hilda with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot authored several off-Broadway plays, including A Nickel for Picasso (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/08/nyregion/theater-a-new-play-explores-fantasies-of-a-man-at-60.html\|titleTHEATER; A New Play Explores Fantasies of a Man at 60 \| firstAlvin\|lastKlein\| newspaperThe New York Times \|dateNovember 8, 1987\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref>Li'l Abner'' {{Main\|Li'l Abner}} What began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the twentieth century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor, and biting social commentary, ''Li'l Abner'' is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li'l Abner Yokum—the simple-minded, loutish but good-natured, and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents—scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Berger \|first1Arthur Asa \|titleLi'l Abner: A Study in American Satire \|date1969 \|publisherTwayne Publishers \|locationNew York, NY}}</ref> "Yokum" was a combination of yokel and hokum, although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965–1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price: {{Blockquote\|It's phonetic Hebrew—that's what it is, all right—and that's what I was getting at with the name Yokum, more so than any attempt to sound hickish. That was a fortunate coincidence, of course, that the name should pack a backwoods connotation. But it's a godly conceit, really, playing off a godly name—Joachim means 'God's determination', something like that—that also happens to have a rustic ring to it.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.comicmix.com/2007/11/11/li-l-abner-lost-in-hollywood-shuffle-by-michael-h-price/\|titleLi'l Abner Lost in Hollywood, by Michael H. Price\|dateNovember 11, 2007\|websiteComicMix\|access-date=2020-10-29}}</ref>}} The Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as "an average stone-age community", Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, "tarnip" fields, and "hawg" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed, but virtuous girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of Life on March 31, 1952.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Capp \|first1Al \|title'It's Hideously True': Creator of Li'l Abner Tells Why His Hero Is (Sob!) Wed \|journalLife Magazine \|date31 March 1952 \|volume32 \|issue13 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSFUEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA108 \|access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref> Capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the (shudder!) Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Especially notable, certainly from a G.I. point of view, are the beautiful, full-figured women — Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones, and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt) — all of whom found their way onto the nose art of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://main.nc.us/books/books.cgi?theshortlife&happytimesoftheshmoo \|firstKNS \|lastMaré \|websiteMountain Area Information Network \|year2002 \|titleThe Short Life & Happy Times of the Shmoo by Al Capp; with a foreword by Harlan Ellison \|accessdate2012-12-10 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120617090532/http://main.nc.us/books/books.cgi?theshortlife&happytimesoftheshmoo \|archive-date2012-06-17 }}</ref> Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is "the world's worst jinx", bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name is "pronounced" by simply blowing a "raspberry" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Raymond \|first1Ed \|dateNovember 1, 2012 \|titleThe Resurrection of Al Capp's Joe Btfsplk \|urlhttps://duluthreader.com/articles/2012/11/02/101028-the-resurrection-of-al-capps-joe-btfsplk \|websiteDuluth Reader \|publisher=Reader Weekly, Inc.}}</ref> Dogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials, and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention, including El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference.<ref>{{cite news \|lastBaker \|firstRussell \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/13/opinion/observer-hillary-in-lower-slobbovia.html \|titleHillary in Lower Slobbovia – NY Times Jan. 13, 1996 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|dateJanuary 13, 1996 \|access-date=2009-08-29 }}</ref> According to cultural historian Anthony Harkins: {{blockquote\|Indeed, ''Li'l Abner'' incorporates such a panoply of characters and ideas that it defies summary. Yet though Capp's storylines often wandered far afield, his hillbilly setting remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society.<ref>Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon by Anthony Harkins (2004, Oxford Univ. Press) pp. 124–136</ref>}} The strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers to eventually more than 900. At its peak, ''Li'l Abner'' was estimated to have been read daily in the United States by 60 to 70 million people (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools, and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances patterned after the similar annual event in the strip.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastParkin\|firstKatharine\|date2021\|titleSadie Hawkins in American Life, 1937-1957\|journalJournal of Family History\|volume46\|issue4\|pages391–413\|doi10.1177/03631990211021153\|s2cid237456812}}</ref> Li'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question "Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer: "Both." Capp said he finally found the right "look" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936).<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU99JAAAAMAAJ&qfonda+%22li'l+abner%22\|titleHollywood Speaks: An Oral History\|firstMike\|lastSteen\|dateOctober 29, 1974\|publisherPutnam\|isbn9780399111624\|access-date2020-10-29 \|via=Google Books}}</ref> In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastVanHaren \|firstRoger \|date2016-02-13 \|titleRemembering the days of Dogpatch \|urlhttps://www.wiscnews.com/opinion/remembering-the-days-of-dogpatch/article_4aed5b23-3535-5fc6-a739-b68404ff5da2.html \|access-date2022-11-09 \|websiteWiscNews \|languageen}}</ref> Parodies, toppers, and alternate strips ''Li'l Abner also features a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick'' is a parody of Chester Gould's Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and it proved so popular that it ran intermittently during the next 35 years. Gould was parodied personally in the series as cartoonist "Lester Gooch"—the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged "creator" of Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicks Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes. Besides Dick Tracy, Capp parodied many other comic strips in ''Li'l Abner—including Steve Canyon, Superman (at least twice; first as "Jack Jawbreaker" in 1947, and again in 1966 as "Chickensouperman"), Mary Worth as "Mary Worm", Peanuts (in 1968, with "Peewee", a parody of Charlie Brown, and "Croopy", a parody of Snoopy, drawn by "Bedley Damp", a parody of Charles Schulz), Rex Morgan, M.D., Little Annie Rooney, and Little Orphan Annie (in which Punjab became "Punjbag", an oleaginous slob). Fearless Fosdick''—and Capp's other spoofs such as "Little Fanny Gooney" (1952) and "Jack Jawbreaker"—were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's Mad Magazine, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner. Capp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, including Elvis Presley ("Hawg McCall", 1957), Liberace ("Loverboynik", 1956), the Beatles ("the Beasties", 1964)—and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. "Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about," Capp once said. "I called him 'Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant{{nbsp}}..." (from Frank Sinatra, My Father by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was "cut to the quick" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action—as would Joan Baez later, over "Joanie Phoanie" in 1967.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.upi.com/topic/Al_Capp/\|titleAl Capp News &#124; Wiki - UPI.com\|websiteUPI\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Capp was just as likely to parody himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in ''Li'l Abner.<ref>Anything Can Happen in a Comic Strip: Centennial Reflections on an American Art Form'' by M. Thomas Inge (1995) University Press of Mississippi, pp. 18–19</ref> The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with "fans" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, "Hal Yappland". Just about anything could be a target for Capp's satire—in one storyline Li'l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first president of the United States. In addition to creating ''Li'l Abner, Capp also co-created two other newspaper strips: Abbie an' Slats with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and Long Sam with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday "topper" strips Washable Jones, Small Fry (a.k.a. Small Change), and Advice fo' Chillun. Critical recognition According to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception: Li'l Abner. "When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner. The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique—as invigorating as it was unorthodox—was later adopted by cartoonists such as Walt Kelly [Pogo] and Garry Trudeau [Doonesbury]", wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall, Li'l Abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book America's Great Comic Strip Artists'' (1989), Marschall's analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext. Over the years, ''Li'l Abner has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures, and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais.<ref>Brown, Rodger, "Dogpatch USA: The Road to Hokum" article, Southern Changes: The Journal of the Southern Regional Council'', Vol. 15, No. 3, 1993, pp. 18–26</ref> Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck—who called Capp "possibly the best writer in the world today" in 1953 and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature—to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp "the only robust satirical force in American life". John Updike, comparing Abner to a "hillbilly Candide", added that the strip's "richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean".<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.city-journal.org/html/exile-dogpatch-13284.html\|titleExile in Dogpatch\|dateDecember 23, 2015\|websiteCity Journal\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/ape-spotlight-on-daniel-clowes/\|titleAPE: Spotlight on Daniel Clowes\|dateOctober 18, 2010\|websiteCBR\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of ''Li'l Abner. Li'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire'' by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature, and grotesquerie, the place of ''Li'l Abner in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. "One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture," wrote Professor Berger, "Li'l Abner'' is worth studying ... because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance." It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994. The 1940s and 1950s During World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946, Capp created a special full-color comic book, ''Al Capp by Li'l Abner'', to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp also was involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fundraising appeals, and entertained disabled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories, and sketches.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.lettersofnote.com/2010/05/dont-keep-remembering-what-youve-lost.html\|titleLetters of Note: Dear Chip... (Columbus Hospital, 28 May 1964)\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020\|archive-dateOctober 15, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181015153014/http://www.lettersofnote.com/2010/05/dont-keep-remembering-what-youve-lost.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1959/12/12/archives/the-screen-lil-abner.html\|titleThe Screen: 'Li'l Abner' (Published 1959)\|firstBosley\|lastCrowther\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateDecember 12, 1959\|access-date=October 29, 2020}}</ref> Other highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's "ideel" (hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff, and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of Gone With the Wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, "Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman. It was later reprinted in ''The World of Li'l Abner (1953). (Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a Superman story in Action Comics #55, December 1942, in which a cartoonist named "Al Hatt" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly "Tiny Rufe".) In 1947, Capp earned a Newsweek cover story. That same year the New Yorker's'' profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War. Following his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with Steve Canyon), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950—including a Time cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence, The Life and Times of the Shmoo, became a bestseller for Simon & Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other Shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of Shmoo apparel, including "Shmooveralls". The original sequence and its 1959 sequel The Return of the Shmoo have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos later had their own animated television series. Capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic "Kigmies", who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded "Nogoodniks" (or bad shmoos), and the irresistible "Bald Iggle", a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness—with predictably disastrous results. ''Li'l Abner was censored for the first time, but not the last, in September 1947 and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time'', centered on Capp's portrayal of the United States Senate. Edward Leech of Scripps said, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks&nbsp;... boobs and undesirables."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804275,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071023081224/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804275,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateOctober 23, 2007\|titleTain't Funny – TIME\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Capp criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a "poet". "He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants," said Capp. "He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve."<ref>"Poet: Cartoonist Al Capp said in New York{{nbsp}}..." quoted in The Argus, May 10, 1954</ref> Capp received the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year. (When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female members the following year. In December 1952, Capp published an article in Real magazine entitled "The REAL Powers in America" that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day: "The real powers in America are women—the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies...." Highlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son "Honest Abe" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954 the introduction of Abner's enormous, long-lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both Life and TV Guide. The year 1956 saw the debut of Bald Iggle, considered by some Abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the "Square Eyes" Family—Capp's thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery! and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp's studio issued Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation.<ref nameGrio>Love, David A. [http://thegrio.com/2011/02/02/eygptians-draw-inspiration-from-civil-rights-movement-comic-book/ "Egyptians draw inspiration from Civil Rights Movement comic book."] The Grio (February 2, 2011).</ref><ref>[http://comicon.com/pulse/index.php/2010/03/07/al-capps-martin-luther-king-comic/ "Al Capp's Martin Luther King Comic,"] Comicon.com's The Pulse (March 7, 2010). {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120322210437/http://comicon.com/pulse/index.php/2010/03/07/al-capps-martin-luther-king-comic/ \|date=March 22, 2012}}</ref> Often, Capp had parodied corporate greed—pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress "...what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa", he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires—the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying "What's good for General Bullmoose is good for the USA!" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of "haves" versus "have-nots". This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and increased their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s. Feud with Ham Fisher After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's Joe Palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had "stolen" his idea. For years, Fisher brought the characters back to his strip, billing them as "The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters" and advising readers not to be "fooled by imitations". (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character—Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence—bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 Time article, "Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,813720-7,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081006105827/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,813720-7,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateOctober 6, 2008\|titleDie Monstersinger – TIME\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> "Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family&nbsp;– but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public," (from Don Markstein's Toonopedia).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.toonopedia.com/abner.htm\|titleDon Markstein's Toonopedia: Li'l Abner\|websitewww.toonopedia.com\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> The Capp-Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed Joe Palooka in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in ''Li'l Abner'' named "Ham's Nose-Bob". In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named "Happy Vermin"—a caricature of Fisher—who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet (after sacking his previous "temporary" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: "I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do&nbsp;– I'll get you a new light bulb!!" Traveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the New York Daily News in 1998: "They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/1998/09/18/1998-09-18_spitting_on_pictures_funny_p.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091008035428/http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/1998/09/18/1998-09-18_spitting_on_pictures_funny_p.html\|url-statusdead\|titleMaeder, Jay. "Spitting on Pictures Funny Papers, 1955", Daily News, September 18, 1998.\|websiteNew York Daily News\|archive-dateOctober 8, 2009\|access-date=October 29, 2020}}</ref> In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for The Atlantic, entitled "I Remember Monster". The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed "benefactor" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly-veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher. Fisher retaliated, doctoring photostats of ''Li'l Abner and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of Li'l Abner'' to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had been drawn there by Fisher. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork. In 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic ''Li'l Abner'' drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a storm. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery, Strip for Murder by Max Allan Collins. Another "feud" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip Mary Worth as "Mary Worm". The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the Mary Worth strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character "Hal Rapp", a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically, as Capp was a teetotaler<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1Maloney \|first1Russell \|titleLi'l Abner's Capp: His Characters are America's Favorite Hillbillies \|magazineLife \|dateJune 24, 1946 \|volume20 \|issue25 \|page76 \|quoteHe is an unostentatious teetotaler, willing to hold a drink in his hand to keep his host from asking questions. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLkoEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA76}}</ref><ref>Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing, p.40</ref>) inebriated cartoonist. Later, the "feud" was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders "feud" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips—and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893653,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071023075814/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893653,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateOctober 23, 2007\|titleRap for Capp – TIME\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Production methods Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson, and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics, and other specialty work—in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early 1940s to the late 1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the Abner characters, and in the 1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks—including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice—and General Electric and Procter & Gamble products, all requiring special artwork. No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on his drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands—especially of Abner and Daisy Mae—and his distinctive touch is often discernible. "He had the touch," Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. "He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent." As is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photographs of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was "ghosted" by other hands. The production of ''Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Frazetta authority David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in Li'l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20 (Kitchen Sink, 1994): {{Blockquote\|text=By the time Frazetta began working on the strip, the work of producing Li'l Abner'' was too much for one person. Capp had a group of assistants who he taught to reproduce his distinctive individual style, working under his direct supervision. Actual production of the strip began with a rough layout in pencil done by Al Capp, from Capp's script or a co-authored script, and the page passed to Andy Amato and Walter Johnson. Amato inked the figures, then Johnson added backgrounds and any mechanical objects. Harvey Curtis was responsible for the lettering and also shared inking duties with Amato&nbsp;... To make sure that the work stayed true to his style, the final touches were added by Capp himself. He enjoyed adding a distinctive glint to an eye or an idiosyncratic contortion to a character's face. The finished strip was truly an ensemble effort, a skillful blending of talents.}} There was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, including Shmoo Comics featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 entitled The Boss Is Crazy, Too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby "the five funniest years of my life". Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the "four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz, and Milton Caniff. Capp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described "The Mechanics of the Comic Strip".<ref>[http://www.folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=1284 An Interview with Al Capp – Smithsonian Folkways]</ref> Frazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named "Frankie", a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of ''Li'l Abner greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. "[Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. I said goodbye," (from Frazetta: Painting with Fire). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space'', distributed by the Job Corps in 1965. Personality Although he was often considered a difficult person,<ref name"printmag.com">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.printmag.com/post/lil-abner-al-capp-monster-cartoonist\|titleLi'l Abner's Al Capp: A Monstrous Creature, a Masterful Cartoonist\|firstSteven\|lastHeller\|dateMarch 4, 2013\|websitePRINT\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side. In 1973, upon learning that 12-year-old Ted Kennedy Jr., the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy Sr., had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy an encouraging letter that gave candid advice about dealing with the loss of a limb,<ref>Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing, p.243</ref> which Capp himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp's grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist's cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre.<ref>Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing, p.244</ref> Capp gave money anonymously to charities and "people in need" at various points in his life.<ref name"printmag.com"/>Sexual harassment and assault claimsTwo biographies, one of Grace Kelly and the other of Goldie Hawn, describe Capp as trying to force the younger women to have sex with him.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/life/books/2013/07/12/cartoonist-al-capp-exposed-in-new-bio/2511355/\|titleCartoonist Al Capp exposed in 'Life to the Contrary'\|websiteUSA Today\|access-date2020-10-29 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|lastKilian\|firstMichael\|dateMay 3, 1987\|titleOH, GRACE, WE HARDLY KNEW YOU\|workChicago Tribune\|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1987-05-03-8702020869-story.html}}</ref> While no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced regarding Kelly,<ref nameJS/> in her autobiography, Hawn stated that Capp sexually propositioned her on a casting couch and exposed himself to her when she was 19 years old. When she refused his advances, Capp became angry and told her that she was "never gonna make anything in your life" and that she should "go and marry a Jewish dentist. You'll never get anywhere in this business."<ref namecouch>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://people.com/movies/goldie-hawn-remembers-casting-couch-sexual-predator-who-left-her-in-tears-at-19/\|titleGoldie Hawn Remembers the Casting-Couch Sexual Predator Who Left Her in Tears\|websitePeople\|access-date2020-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLrI-86BHE0QC&qa+lotus+grows+in+the+mud+al+capp&pgPT113 \|titleA Lotus Grows in the Mud \|lastHawn \|firstGoldie \|dateFebruary 28, 2006 \|publisherPenguin \|isbn9781101205327 \|language=en}}</ref> In 1971, investigative journalist Jack Anderson wrote that Capp had exposed his genitals to four female students at the University of Alabama.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/life/books/2013/07/12/cartoonist-al-capp-exposed-in-new-bio/2511355/\|titleCartoonist Al Capp exposed in 'Life to the Contrary'\|websiteUSA Today\|languageen\|access-date=2019-10-04}}</ref> In 1972, after an incident at the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, Capp was arrested. He pleaded guilty to a charge of attempted adultery, while charges of indecent exposure and sodomy were dropped. He was fined US$500 ({{Inflation\|US\|500\|1972\|fmteq}}).<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/12/archives/al-capp-is-fined-500-plus-costs-in-morals-charge.html\|titleAl Capp Is Fined $500 Plus Costs In Morals Charge\|dateFebruary 12, 1972\|newspaper=NYTimes.com}}</ref> In 2019, Jean Kilbourne was inspired by the MeToo movement to publish in ''Hogan's Alley'' her own experience of being groped and sexually solicited by Al Capp while doing freelance writing and research work for him in contemplation of a permanent job in 1967.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.hoganmag.com/blog/2019/4/15/dogpatch-dispatch-my-encounter-with-al-capp\|titleDogpatch Dispatch: My Encounter with Al Capp\|dateApril 15, 2019\|workHogan's Magazine}}</ref> Public service works Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies, and charitable or nonprofit organizations, spanning several decades.<ref>[http://cartoonician.com/2012/05/presarvin-freedom-al-capp-treasury-man/"Presarvin' Freedom: Al Capp, Treasury Man," ''Hogan's Alley Online Magazine, 9 May 2012] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://archive.today/20120708021015/http://cartoonician.com/2012/05/presarvin-freedom-al-capp-treasury-man/ \|dateJuly 8, 2012 }}</ref> The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services: Al Capp by Li'l Abner— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946) Yo' Bets Yo' Life!— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army ({{circa\|1950}}) Li'l Abner Joins the Navy— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950) Fearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951) The Youth You Supervise— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956) Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!''— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956) Operation: Survival!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957) Natural Disasters!— Public service giveaway issued by the Department of Civil Defense (1957) Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958)<ref name=Grio /> ''Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space— Public service giveaway issued by the Job Corps (1965) Statue of Josiah Flintabattey Flonatin''— design of a statue for the northern Manitoba city of Flin Flon's mascot [City of Flin Flon's tribute [https://www.cityofflinflon.ca/p/-statue-of-josiah-flintabattey-flonatin]] (1962) In addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U.S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans,<ref name"news.google.com">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid2506&dat19500511&idDZZIAAAAIBAJ&pg4808,2345975\|title"Al Capp Replies to Critic of Newspaper Comic Strips;" The News and Courier, 11 May 1950\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}{{Dead link\|dateOctober 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> among others.Public figure In the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As ''Li'l Abner reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. "Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era," writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. "His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program{{nbsp}}..." He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with The Phantom cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas, and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined. (He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a $100-a-plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.) ]] Besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,779734,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071023075534/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,779734,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateOctober 23, 2007\|titleThe Press: Bane of the Bassinet, Time'', 15 March 1948\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by television; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reportsitem.aspx?id102060\|titleAl Capp Views the Networks (April 1952) Nieman Reports\|workNieman Reports \|access-date=October 29, 2020}}</ref> Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics (1948–'54) and made regular, weekly appearances on Today in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? (1948–'55), and co-hosted DuMont's ''What's the Story? (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least five television shows–three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (1952 and 1968) and Al Capp'' (1971–'72), ''Al Capp's America (a live "chalk talk", with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called Anyone Can Win'' (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio—and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including NBC Radio's long-running Monitor with its famous Monitor Beacon audio signature, as a commentator dubbed "An expert of nothing with opinions on everything." His frequent appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar, and Johnny Carson), from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, "Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda," to which Capp replied, "Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called "The Tommy Wholesome Show".) Capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film That Certain Feeling, for which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on Person to Person on November 27, 1959, by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and guested on Ralph Edwards' This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961, with honoree Peter Palmer (the actor who played Li'l Abner in the Paramount film). Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including Life, Show, Pageant, The Atlantic, Esquire, Coronet, and The Saturday Evening Post. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and—with an irony that became apparent later—a brand of cigarettes (Chesterfield). Capp resumed visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956),<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.reuben.org/ncs/members/memorium/capp.jpg\|titleAl Capp's biography card from the National Cartoonists Society\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://cartoonician.com/presarvin-freedom-al-capp-treasury-man/ \|titleFreedom: Al Capp, Treasury Man," ''Hogan's Alley Online Magazine'', 9 May 2012 \|access-dateJanuary 16, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131014185427/http://cartoonician.com/presarvin-freedom-al-capp-treasury-man/ \|archive-dateOctober 14, 2013 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of "Operation: Little Vittles". Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. "When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted," (reported in Newsweek—October 11, 1948). In addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for disabled people, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column ("Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street") challenging federally funded public television endowments in favor of educational comics—which, according to Capp, "didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy Sesame Street without learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips unless he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense." Capp's academic interests included being one of nineteen original "Trustees and Advisors" for "Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman", located in Pride's Crossing (Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from what is now the 4-year school known as Endicott College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a "Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate" and a resident of New York City. "Comics", wrote Capp in 1970, "can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are." Capp produced many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and nonprofit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others.<ref name="news.google.com"/> They were also used to help sell Christmas Seals. In the early 1960s, Capp regularly wrote a column entitled ''Al Capp's Column for the newspaper The Schenectady Gazette (currently The Daily Gazette). He was the Playboy interview subject in December 1965, in a conversation conducted by Alvin Toffler. In August 1967, Capp was the narrator and host of an ABC network special called Do Blondes Have More Fun? In 1970, he was the subject of a provocative NBC documentary called This Is Al Capp''. The 1960s and 1970s Capp and his family lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, near Harvard University, during the entire Vietnam War protest era. The turmoil that Americans were watching on their television sets was happening live—right in his own neighborhood. Campus radicals and "hippies" inevitably became one of Capp's favorite targets in the sixties. Alongside his long-established caricatures of right-wing, big business types such as General Bullmoose and J. Roaringham Fatback, Capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as Joan Baez (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars' worth of "protest songs").<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,843312,00.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930200736/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,843312,00.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateSeptember 30, 2007 \|titleWhich One Is the Phoanie? – Time \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as "Senator O. Noble McGesture", resident of "Hyideelsport". The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived. Capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in ''Li'l Abner as "Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!" (SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to Time'', Capp insisted, "The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do."<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,844734-3,00.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090114074951/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,844734-3,00.html \|url-statusdead\|archive-dateJanuary 14, 2009 \|titleLetters page April 18, 1969 – TIME \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Capp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during television appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the Tonight Show. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called Al Capp On Campus. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as "sensitivity training", "humanitarianism", "abstract art" (Capp hated it), and "student protest". The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like "End Capp Brutality", "Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot", "Capp Is Over [30, 40, 50—all crossed out] the Hill!!", and "If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!" Highlights of the strip's final decades include the stories "Boomchik" (1961), in which America's international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum, "Daisy Mae Steps Out" (1966), a female-empowering tale of Daisy's brazenly audacious "homewrecker gland", "The Lips of Marcia Perkins" (1967), a satirical, thinly-veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings, "Ignoble Savages" (1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and "Corporal Crock" (1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting. The cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed-In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon (1988). Introducing himself with the words "I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?", Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their Two Virgins nude album cover: "I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it." Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono ("Good God, you've gotta live with that?"), and was asked to "get out" by Lennon publicist Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay, however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his song "The Ballad of John and Yoko" with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: "Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin' / They're gonna crucify Capp! "<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.script-o-rama.com/movie_scripts/i/imagine-john-lennon-script-transcript.html \|titleImagine: John Lennon Script – transcript from the screenplay and/or documentary movie about John Lennon \|websitewww.script-o-rama.com \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Despite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been liberal in some particular causes; he supported gay rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes.<ref name="printmag.com"/> He is also said to have supported Martin Luther King Jr. and the fight for racial equality in American society, although he was very sceptical of the tactics of the Black Panthers and Malcolm X.<ref>Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 196</ref> In 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. By 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch "founder" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) had been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and was slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness. On April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that in February 1968 Capp had made indecent advances to four female students when he was invited to speak at the University of Alabama. Anderson and an associate confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity.<ref>Anderson, Jack, "Washington Merry-Go-Round," April 22, 1971</ref> The following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.<ref>"Al Capp Accused on Moral Counts at Eau Claire U."; The Capital Times, May 7, 1971</ref> Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included "sodomy". As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of "attempted adultery" (adultery was a felony in Wisconsin),<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.vanwagnerwood.com/CM/Custom/Adultery.asp \|title Adultery is a crime in Wisconsin {{!}} Law Offices of criminal defense attorneys Christopher Van Wagner and Tracey Wood, Madison WI \|access-dateJune 30, 2008 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080516092007/http://www.vanwagnerwood.com/CM/Custom/Adultery.asp \|archive-dateMay 16, 2008 \|url-status dead }}</ref> and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined $500 and court costs.<ref>"Al Capp Admits One Morals Count; Pays $500 Fine"; The Capital Times, February 12, 1972</ref> In a December 1992 article for The New Yorker, Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U.S. Senate. "Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp's very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public", Hersh wrote. "The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the president by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the president was told that one of Colson's people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors." Colson's efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge.<ref>Hersh, Seymour, "Nixon's Last Cover-Up: The Tapes He Wants the Archives to Suppress"; The New Yorker, December 14, 1992, pp. 80–81</ref> In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D.A.'s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment. The resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip,<ref name"salon">[http://dir.salon.com/story/books/feature/2002/09/30/capp/index.html?pn Dogpatch confidential – Salon.com] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080304230031/http://dir.salon.com/story/books/feature/2002/09/30/capp/index.html?pn \|dateMarch 4, 2008}}</ref> and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced.<ref nameJS>Spada, James, Grace: The Secret Lives of a Princess. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1987, p.37</ref> "From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in Abner waned, and this showed in the strip itself," according to Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Although Capp had used assistants on the strip practically since the beginning, in the final years his own involvement in the strip decreased. His health issues made it increasingly difficult for Capp to work, recalled his assistants.<ref>Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013), Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 256</ref> On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. "If you have any sense of humor about your strip—and I had a sense of humor about mine—you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948819,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090809053521/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948819,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateAugust 9, 2009\|titleMr. Dogpatch – 1979 TIME obituary\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> adding that he couldn't breathe anymore. "When he retired ''Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times'' devoted nearly a full page to the event", wrote publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.newburyportnews.com/news/local_news/al-capp-was-here/article_cc584e07-2488-5600-ad8c-2ae89a39255d.html \|titleAl Capp was here \|firstLynne \|lastHendricks \|websiteThe Daily News of Newburyport \|dateSeptember 27, 2009 \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray: The plowman homeward plods his weary way / And leaves the world to darkness and to me (from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 1751).Legacy "Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service", according to Toonopedia. ''Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004. Sadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo also has entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than four separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing (a microbiological term for the "budding" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a "shmoo" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to "widgets" which require resources and active production). In the field of particle physics, "shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as used at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of Li'l Abner''. Al Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating the 100th anniversary of his birth. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.newburyportnews.com/news/local_news/town-to-honor-famous-cartoonist-who-lived-worked-in-amesbury/article_57103373-3bee-5328-8770-434d1d9b115d.html\|titleTown to honor famous cartoonist who lived, worked in Amesbury\|firstLynne\|lastHendricks\|websiteThe Daily News of Newburyport\|dateApril 20, 2010 \|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://archive.boston.com/ae/theater_arts/articles/2010/05/15/amesbury_gives_lil_abner_his_due/?pagefull\|titleAmesbury gives 'Li'l Abner' his due\|firstJames\|lastSullivan\|newspaperBoston.com\|dateMay 15, 2010\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020\|viaThe Boston Globe}}</ref> According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET-TV American Masters documentary, The Life and Times of Al Capp, produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning. Since his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and ''Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a biographical monograph on Al Capp. At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays as part of their ongoing The Library of American Comics series. The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the entire 43-year history of Li'l Abner, spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.libraryofamericancomics.com/catalog/series/1101/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100511032402/http://www.libraryofamericancomics.com/catalog/series/1101/\|url-statusdead\|titleIDW Library of American Comics\|archive-dateMay 11, 2010\|access-dateOctober 29, 2020}}</ref> Notes {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{Refbegin\|2}} Capp, Al, Li'l Abner in New York (1936) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Among the Millionaires (1939) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and Sadie Hawkins Day (1940) Saalfield Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and the Ratfields (1940) Saalfield Publishing Sheridan, Martin, Comics and Their Creators (1942) R.T. Hale & Co, (1977) Hyperion Press Waugh, Coulton, The Comics (1947) Macmillan Publishers Capp, Al, Newsweek Magazine'' (November 24, 1947) "Li'l Abner's Mad Capp" Capp, Al, Saturday Review of Literature (March 20, 1948) "The Case for the Comics" Capp, Al, The Life and Times of the Shmoo (1948) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, The Nation (March 21, 1949) "There Is a Real Shmoo" Capp, Al, Cosmopolitan Magazine (June 1949) "I Don't Like Shmoos" Capp, Al, Atlantic Monthly (April 1950) "I Remember Monster" Capp, Al, Time Magazine (November 6, 1950) "Die Monstersinger" Capp, Al, Life Magazine (March 31, 1952) "It's Hideously True!!{{nbsp}}..." Capp, Al, Real Magazine (December 1952) "The REAL Powers in America" Capp, Al, ''The World of Li'l Abner (1953) Farrar, Straus & Young Leifer, Fred, The Li'l Abner Official Square Dance Handbook (1953) A.S. Barnes Mikes, George, Eight Humorists (1954) Allen Wingate, (1977) Arden Library Lehrer, Tom, The Tom Lehrer Song Book, introduction by Al Capp (1954) Crown Publishers Capp, Al, Al Capp's Fearless Fosdick: His Life and Deaths (1956) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, Al Capp's Bald Iggle: The Life it Ruins May Be Your Own (1956) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, et al. Famous Artists Cartoon Course&nbsp;– 3 volumes (1956) Famous Artists School Capp, Al, Life Magazine'' (January 14, 1957) "The Dogpatch Saga: Al Capp's Own Story" Brodbeck, Arthur J, et al. "How to Read Li'l Abner Intelligently" from Mass Culture: Popular Arts in America, pp.&nbsp;218–224 (1957) Free Press Capp, Al, The Return of the Shmoo (1959) Simon & Schuster Hart, Johnny, Back to B.C., introduction by Al Capp (1961) Fawcett Publications Lazarus, Mell, Miss Peach, introduction by Al Capp (1962) Pyramid Books Gross, Milt, He Done Her Wrong, introduction by Al Capp (1963 Ed.) Dell Books White, David Manning, and Robert H. Abel, eds. The Funnies: An American Idiom (1963) Free Press White, David Manning, ed. ''From Dogpatch to Slobbovia: The (Gasp!) World of Li'l Abner (1964) Beacon Press Capp, Al, Life International Magazine (June 14, 1965) "My Life as an Immortal Myth" Toffler, Alvin, Playboy Magazine (December 1965) interview with Al Capp, pp.&nbsp;89–100 Moger, Art, et al. Chutzpah Is, introduction by Al Capp (1966) Colony Publishers Berger, Arthur Asa, Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire (1969) Twayne Publishers, (1994) Univ. Press of Mississippi {{ISBN\|0-87805-713-7}} Sugar, Andy, Saga Magazine (December 1969) "On the Campus Firing Line with Al Capp" Gray, Harold, Arf! The Life and Hard Times of Little Orphan Annie, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Arlington House Moger, Art, Some of My Best Friends are People, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Directors Press Capp, Al, The Hardhat's Bedtime Story Book (1971) Harper & Row {{ISBN\|0-06-061311-4}} Robinson, Jerry, The Comics: An Illustrated History of Comic Strip Art'' (1974) G.P. Putnam's Sons Horn, Maurice, The World Encyclopedia of Comics (1976) Chelsea House, (1982) Avon Blackbeard, Bill, ed. The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics (1977) Smithsonian Inst. Press/Harry Abrams Marschall, Rick, Cartoonist PROfiles No. 37 (March 1978) interview with Al Capp Capp, Al, ''The Best of Li'l Abner (1978) Holt, Rinehart & Winston {{ISBN\|0-03-045516-2}} Lardner, Ring, You Know Me Al: The Comic Strip Adventures of Jack Keefe, introduction by Al Capp (1979) Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Van Buren, Raeburn, Abbie an' Slats&nbsp;– 2 volumes (1983) Ken Pierce Books Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: Reuben Award Winner Series Book 1 (1985) Blackthorne Marschall, Rick, Nemo, the Classic Comics Library No. 18, pp.&nbsp;3–32 (April 1986) Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Dailies&nbsp;– 27 volumes (1988–1999) Kitchen Sink Press Marschall, Rick, America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989) Abbeville Press Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick (1990) Kitchen Sink {{ISBN\|0-87816-108-2}} Capp, Al, My Well-Balanced Life on a Wooden Leg (1991) John Daniel & Co. {{ISBN\|0-936784-93-8}} Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick: The Hole Story (1992) Kitchen Sink {{ISBN\|0-87816-164-3}} Goldstein, Kalman, "Al Capp and Walt Kelly: Pioneers of Political and Social Satire in the Comics" from Journal of Popular Culture; Vol. 25, Issue 4 (Spring 1992) Caplin, Elliot, Al Capp Remembered (1994) Bowling Green State University {{ISBN\|0-87972-630-X}} Theroux, Alexander, The Enigma of Al Capp (1999) Fantagraphics Books {{ISBN\|1-56097-340-4}} Lubbers, Bob, Glamour International #26: The Good Girl Art of Bob Lubbers (May 2001) Capp, Al, The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo (2002) Overlook Press {{ISBN\|1-58567-462-1}} Capp, Al, Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years&nbsp;– 4 volumes (2003–2004) Dark Horse Comics Al Capp Studios, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo: The Comic Books (2008) Dark Horse {{ISBN\|1-59307-901-X}} Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 1 – Vol. x(ongoing) (2010–present) The Library of American Comics Capp, Al, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo Vol. 2: The Newspaper Strips'' (2011) Dark Horse {{ISBN\|1-59582-720-X}} Inge, M. Thomas, "Li'l Abner, Snuffy and Friends" from Comics and the U.S. South, pp.&nbsp;3–27 (2012) Univ. Press of Mississippi {{ISBN\|1-617030-18-X}} Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing {{ISBN\|1-60819-623-2}} {{Refend}} External links {{Commons}} * [http://www.lil-abner.com/ ''Li'l Abner official site] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110225054009/http://lil-abner.com/ \|dateFebruary 25, 2011 }} * {{IBDB name}} * {{IMDb name\|0135439}} * [http://deniskitchen.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?ScreenCTGY&Category_Codebios.capp Denis Kitchen biography: Al Capp] * [http://animationresources.org/?p=558 Animation Resources: Al Capp part I] * [http://animationresources.org/?p=571 Animation Resources: Al Capp part II] * [http://animationresources.org/?p=592 Animation Resources: Al Capp part III] * [http://animationresources.org/?p=616 Animation Resources: Al Capp part IV] * [http://animationresources.org/?p=685 Animation Resources: Al Capp part V] * [http://www.newburyportnews.com/opinion/x546276244/Al-Capp-deserves-a-tribute?keyword=topstory Al Capp Deserves a Tribute (Newburyport News, 28 Sept. 2009)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050703074739/http://users.aristotle.net/~russjohn/attractions/dogpatch.html Dogpatch USA amusement park.] * [http://www.jitterbuzz.com/indtoy.html#abner The Dogpatch Family Band Mechanical Toy] * [https://books.google.com/books?idP1QEAAAAMBAJ&qmagazine_serial:R1cEAAAAMBAJ Dogpatch and Li'l Abner on Broadway in Life'', January 14, 1957, pp. 71–83] *[https://osucartoons.pastperfectonline.com/vocabulary?keywordCapp%2C+Al%2C+1909-1979&letterC&searchtypecreator&showsearchtrue Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Art Database] {{Li'l Abner}} {{Inkpot Award 1970s}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Capp, Al}} Category:1909 births Category:1979 deaths Category:20th-century American Jews Category:20th-century American male artists Category:American amputees Category:American artists with disabilities Category:American comic strip cartoonists Category:American comics artists Category:American comics writers Category:American parodists Category:American people of Latvian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:American satirists Category:American satirical comics writers Category:American satirical comics artists Category:American writers with disabilities Category:Artists from Bridgeport, Connecticut Category:Artists from New Haven, Connecticut Category:Comedians from Connecticut Category:Deaths from emphysema Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:Jewish American comics creators Category:Jewish American comics writers Category:Jewish humorists Category:Obscenity controversies in comics Category:School of the Museum of Fine Arts at Tufts alumni Category:Reuben Award winners Category:Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capp	2025-04-05T18:26:15.414025
3013	Ann Druyan	{{Short description\|American author and producer }} {{Redirect\|Druyan\|the asteroid named after Ann Druyan\|4970 Druyan}} {{Use American English\|date=December 2022}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2022}} {{Infobox person \| name = Ann Druyan \| image = Ann Druyan Accepts Peabody Award for COSMOS A SpaceTime Odyssey.jpg \| caption = Druyan in 2014 \| birth_date = {{Birth date and age\|1949\|6\|13}} \| birth_place = New York City, New York, U.S. \| known_for = Author, activist, producer \| spouse {{marriage\|Carl Sagan\|1981\|1996\|enddied}} \| children = 2, including Sasha }} Ann Druyan ({{IPAc-en\|d\|r\|iː\|'\|æ\|n}} {{respell\|dree\|ANN}};<ref>In the revised edition of Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, Ann Druyan introduces herself in a {{YouTube\|L1-D2X5_9CQ\|prologue to Episode No. 1}}.</ref>) is an American documentary producer and director specializing in the communication of science. She co-wrote the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan, whom she married in 1981. She is the creator, producer, and writer of the 2014 sequel, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey and its sequel series, Cosmos: Possible Worlds, as well as the book of the same name. She directed episodes of both series. In the late 1970s, she became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, which produced the golden discs affixed to both the Voyager&nbsp;1 and Voyager&nbsp;2 spacecraft.<ref name"nasa.gov">{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/apr/HQ_M11-084_Voyager_Update.html#.Vztu1pMrJE4 \| titleNASA Invites Public to Take a Journey Toward Interstellar Space\| dateJune 6, 2013}}</ref> She also published a novel, A Famous Broken Heart, in 1977, and later co-wrote several best selling non-fiction books with Sagan. Early life and education Ann Druyan was born in Queens, New York, the daughter of Pearl A. ({{nee\|Goldsmith}}) and Harry Druyan, who co-owned a knitwear firm.<ref>{{cite news \|titleOn the trail of the meaning of life \|newspaperToronto Star \|pageJ.8 \|dateNovember 28, 1992 \|urlhttps://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/460161891.html?FMTABS\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130411162218/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/460161891.html?FMTABS\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateApril 11, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D00E3D61E31F932A35756C0A9639C8B63 \| titleDeaths Druyan, Pearl A. (nee Goldssmith) \| workThe New York Times \| dateMay 1, 2005 \| access-dateFebruary 27, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \| url https://archive.org/details/carlsaganlife00davi \| url-access registration \| quote Pearl Harry Druyan\| title Carl Sagan: A life \| publisher Wiley \| isbn 978-0471252863 \| last1 Davidson \| first1 Keay \| last2 Sagan \| first2 Carl \| date 1999}}</ref> Her family was Jewish.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.kveller.com/sasha-sagan-on-making-jewish-rituals-meaningful-for-secular-jews/ \| titleSasha Sagan on Making Jewish Rituals Meaningful for Secular Jews \| dateOctober 23, 2019 }}</ref> Druyan's early interest in math and science was, in her word, "derailed" when a junior high-school teacher ridiculed a question she asked about the universality of {{pi}}. "I raised my hand and said, 'You mean this applies to every circle in the universe?', and the teacher told me not to ask stupid questions. And there I was having this religious experience, and she made me feel like such a fool. I was completely flummoxed from then on until after college." Druyan characterized her three years at New York University as "disastrous", and it was only after she left school without graduating that she discovered the pre-Socratic philosophers and began educating herself, thus leading to a renewed interest in science.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1992-11-15-9204130523-story.html \|titleLucky Ann Druyan Enjoys a Life of Curiosity \|lastRichman \|firstRuth \|websitechicagotribune.com \|dateNovember 15, 1992 \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref>CareerIn the late 1970s, Druyan became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project.<ref name"nasa.gov"/> As creative director, Druyan worked with a team to design a complex message, including music and images, for possible alien civilizations. These golden phonograph records affixed to the Voyager&nbsp;1 and Voyager&nbsp;2 spacecraft are now beyond the outermost planets of the Solar System, and Voyager&nbsp;1 has entered interstellar space. Both records have a projected shelf life of one billion years.<ref>{{cite web \|titleVoyager The Interstellar Mission The Golden Record \|urlhttp://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/goldenrec.html \|websiteNASA JPL \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Wall \|first1Mike \|titleVoyager 1 Has Left Solar System \|urlhttp://www.space.com/22729-voyager-1-spacecraft-interstellar-space.html \|websiteSpace.com \|dateSeptember 12, 2013 \|access-date=June 13, 2016}}</ref> Druyan's role on the project was discussed on the July 8, 2018, 60 Minutes segment "The Little Spacecraft That Could".<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-the-little-spacecraft-that-could/ \|titleThe little spacecraft that could \|websiteCbsnews.com \|dateJuly 8, 2018 \|access-date=May 6, 2019}}</ref> In the segment, Druyan explained her insistence that Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" be included on the Golden Record, saying: "...Johnny B. Goode, rock and roll, was the music of motion, of moving, getting to someplace you've never been before, and the odds are against you, but you want to go. That was Voyager." The segment also discussed Sagan's suggestion, in 1990, that Voyager&nbsp;1 turn its cameras back towards Earth to take a series of photographs showing the planets of our solar system. The shots, showing Earth from a distance of 3.7 billion miles as a small point of bluish light, became the basis for Sagan's famous "Pale Blue Dot" passage, first published in Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space (1994). During that time, Druyan also co-wrote (with Carl Sagan and Steven Soter) the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan. The thirteen-part series covered a wide range of scientific subjects, including the origin of life and a perspective of humans place in the universe. It was highly acclaimed, and became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television at that time. The series won two Emmys and a Peabody Award, and has since been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 500 million people.<ref name Starchild>{{cite web \| urlhttp://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/sagan.html \| titleStarChild: Dr. Carl Sagan \| publisherNASA \| access-dateOctober 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/sagan_carl.html \|titleCarl Sagan \|publisherEMuseum@Minnesota State University \|access-dateOctober 8, 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100528213538/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/sagan_carl.html \|archive-dateMay 28, 2010 }}</ref><!-- Retaining two refs here as Wikipedia seems to have incorrectly stated 500 million for years... --> A book was also published to accompany the series. {{As of \|2009}}, it is still the most widely watched PBS series in the world.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cosmolearning.com/documentaries/cosmos/\|titleCosmoLearning Astronomy\|publisherCosmoLearning\|access-dateOctober 8, 2009\|archive-dateMay 29, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120529135421/http://www.cosmolearning.com/documentaries/cosmos/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Several revised versions of the series were later broadcast; one version, telecast after Sagan's death, opens with Druyan paying tribute to her late husband and the impact of Cosmos over the years. and Ann Druyan in Sydney]] Druyan wrote and produced the 1987 PBS NOVA episode "Confessions of a Weaponeer" on the life of President Eisenhower's Science Advisor George Kistiakowsky.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSteven Spielberg Film and Video Archive Peace, Nuclear Arms\|urlhttps://www.ushmm.org/online/film/display/detail.php?file_num1707 \|websiteUS Holocaust Memorial Museum \|access-date=June 13, 2016}}</ref> In 2000, Druyan, together with Steve Soter, co-wrote Passport to the Universe, the inaugural planetarium show for the Rose Center for Earth and Space at the American Natural History Museum's Hayden Planetarium. The attraction is narrated by Tom Hanks.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.amnh.org/content/download/69848/1199020/version/1/file/passport\|titlePassport to the Universe PDF program\|websiteAmnh.org\|access-dateDecember 14, 2021\|archive-dateDecember 1, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221201053825/https://www.amnh.org/content/download/69848/1199020/version/1/file/passport\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Druyan and Soter also co-wrote The Search for Life: Are We Alone, narrated by Harrison Ford, which also debuted at the Hayden's Rose Center.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.astrobio.net/alien-life/interview-with-ann-druyan-and-steven-soter/ \|titleInterview with Ann Druyan and Steven Soter \|dateJune 24, 2002 \|websiteAstrobiology Magazine \|access-dateMay 6, 2019 \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210128055535/https://www.astrobio.net/alien-life/interview-with-ann-druyan-and-steven-soter/ \|archive-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref> In 2000, Druyan co-founded Cosmos Studios, Inc, with Joseph Firmage.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePress Release \|urlhttp://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid2831 \|websiteSpace Ref \|dateSeptember 27, 2000 \|access-dateJune 13, 2016 }}{{Dead link\|dateAugust 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> As CEO of Cosmos Studios, Druyan produces science-based entertainment for all media. In addition to Cosmos: A SpaceTime Odyssey, Cosmos Studios has produced Cosmic Africa,<ref>{{cite web \|last1Rogers \|first1Ann \|titleCosmic Africa explores Africa's astronomy \|urlhttp://www.scienceinafrica.com/astronomy/cosmic-africa-explores-africas-astronomy \|websiteScience in Africa \|access-dateJune 17, 2016 \|archive-dateNovember 14, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171114202129/http://www.scienceinafrica.com/astronomy/cosmic-africa-explores-africas-astronomy \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt,<ref>{{cite web \|last1Boyle \|first1Alan \|titleLost Dinosaurs Rediscovered in Egypt \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/3077283/ns/technology_and_science/t/lost-dinosaurs-rediscovered-egypt/#.V182MuYrJE4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160911101409/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3077283/ns/technology_and_science/t/lost-dinosaurs-rediscovered-egypt/#.V182MuYrJE4 \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateSeptember 11, 2016 \|websiteMSNBC \|dateDecember 5, 2003 \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> and the Emmy-nominated<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe 25th Annual News and Documentary Award Nominees\ \|urlhttp://cdn.emmyonline.org/news_25th_nominations.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cdn.emmyonline.org/news_25th_nominations.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive \|websiteEmmy Online \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> documentary Cosmic Journey: The Voyager Interstellar Mission and Message.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePress Release Documentary chronicles the decades-long travels of Voyagers 1 and 2 \|urlhttp://www.swri.org/9what/releases/2003/voyager2.htm \|websiteSouthwest Research Institute (SwRI) News \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160811062754/http://www.swri.org/9what/releases/2003/voyager2.htm \|archive-date=August 11, 2016}}</ref> In 2009, she distributed a series of podcasts called At Home in the Cosmos with Annie Druyan, in which she described her works, the life of her husband, Carl Sagan, and their marriage. Druyan is credited, with Carl Sagan, as the co-creator and co-producer of the 1997 feature film Contact.<ref>{{Citation \|titleContact (1997) – IMDb \|urlhttp://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118884/fullcredits \|access-date=May 6, 2019}}.</ref> In 2011, it was announced that Druyan would executive produce, co-write, and be one of the episodic directors for a sequel to Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, to be called Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which began airing in March 2014.<ref>{{cite news \|lastVergano \|firstDan \|titleNeil deGrasse Tyson tweets for science literacy \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/vergano/2012/10/20/neil-degrasse-tyson-sagan/1644383/ \|newspaperUSA Today \|access-dateOctober 29, 2012 \|dateOctober 20, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://twitter.com/neiltyson/statuses/214467960528572417 \|titleneiltyson \|publisherTwitter.com \|access-dateJune 22, 2012}}</ref> Episodes premiered on Fox and also aired on National Geographic Channel on the following night.<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastWallenstein \|firstAndrew \|titleTCA: Fox aims for repeat-free sked \|urlhttps://variety.com/2011/tv/news/tca-fox-aims-for-repeat-free-sked-1118040962/ \|magazineVariety \|access-dateOctober 29, 2012}}</ref> At the time of its release, Fox gave the series the largest global rollout of a television series ever, debuting it in 180 countries. The premiere episode was shown across nine of Fox's cable properties in addition to the broadcast network in a "roadblock" style premiere. The series went on to become the most-watched series ever for National Geographic Channel International, with at least some part of the 13-episode series watched by 135 million people, including 45 million in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://variety.com/2014/tv/news/cosmos-draws-biggest-global-audience-ever-for-national-geographic-channel-1201257111/ \|title'Cosmos' Draws Biggest Global Audience Ever for National Geographic Channel \|lastKissell \|firstRick \|dateJuly 7, 2014 \|websiteVariety \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> In March 2020, a third season of Cosmos, named Cosmos: Possible Worlds, for which Druyan was executive producer, writer, and director, premiered on National Geographic. Druyan also said: "I very much have season four in mind, and I know what it's going to be. And I even know some of the stories that I want to tell in it."<ref namePalmer/>WritingDruyan's first novel, A Famous Broken Heart, was published in 1977.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCollins \|firstGlenn \|date1985-09-30 \|titleTHE SAGANS: FICTION AND FACT BACK TO BACK \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/30/style/the-sagans-fiction-and-fact-back-to-back.html \|access-date2024-06-11 \|workThe New York Times \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Druyan co-wrote six New York Times bestsellers with Carl Sagan, including: Comet,<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/02/books/best-sellers.html \|title Best Sellers\|newspaper The New York Times\|date February 2, 1986}}</ref> Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors,<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/11/books/best-sellers-october-11-1992.html \|title Best Sellers: October 11, 1992\|newspaper The New York Times\|date October 11, 1992}}</ref> and The Demon-Haunted World.<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/16/books/best-sellers-june-16-1996.html \|title Best Sellers: June 16, 1996\|newspaper The New York Times\|date June 16, 1996}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/159731/the-demon-haunted-world-by-carl-sagan/9780345409461\|titleThe Demon-Haunted World by Carl Sagan, Ann Druyan: 9780345409461 &#124; PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books\|websitePenguinRandomhouse.com\|access-dateDecember 14, 2021}}</ref> She is co-author, along with Carl Sagan, F. D. Drake, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg and Linda Salzman Sagan, of Murmurs Of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record.<ref>Sagan, Carl. Murmurs Of Earth : The Voyager Interstellar Record / Carl Sagan [... et al.]. n.p.: New York : Random House, 1978. {{ISBN\|0394410475}}.</ref> She also wrote the updated introduction to Sagan's book The Cosmic Connection and the epilogue of Billions and Billions. She wrote the introduction to, and edited The Varieties of Scientific Experience, published from Sagan's 1985 Gifford lectures. In February 2020, Druyan published Cosmos: Possible Worlds,<ref name"Possible Worlds-Amazon">{{cite book \|titleCosmos: Possible Worlds Hardcover – February 25, 2020 \|urlhttps://smile.amazon.com/Cosmos-Possible-Worlds-Ann-Druyan/dp/1426219083/reftmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encodingUTF8&qid1587165744&sr8-1 \|websiteAmazon.com \| dateFebruary 25, 2020 \|publisherAmazon \| isbn978-1-4262-1908-5 \|access-dateApril 17, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200417232408/https://www.amazon.com/Cosmos-Possible-Worlds-Ann-Druyan/dp/1426219083/reftmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encodingUTF8&qid1587165744&sr8-1&pldnSite1 \|archive-dateApril 17, 2020 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> a companion volume to the television series of the same name, which premiered in March 2020.<ref namePalmer>{{cite web \|last1Palmer \|first1Rob \|titleExploring 'Possible Worlds' With Ann Druyan \|urlhttps://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/exploring-possible-worlds-with-ann-druyan/ \|websiteSkepticalinquirer.org \|publisherCFI \|access-dateApril 17, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200401031822/https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/exploring-possible-worlds-with-ann-druyan/ \|archive-dateApril 1, 2020 \|dateMarch 31, 2020 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Work in science Druyan is a fellow of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).<ref>{{cite web \|titleCSI Fellows and Staff \|urlhttp://www.csicop.org/about/csi_fellows_and_staff \|websiteCommittee for Skeptical Inquiry \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> Druyan served as program director of the first solar-sail deep-space mission, Cosmos 1, launched on a Russian ICBM in 2005.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Kaplan \|first1Mat \|titlePress Release Cosmos 1, The World's First Solar Sail Spacecraft, Achieves Critical Milestone \|urlhttp://www.planetary.org/press-room/releases/2004/0811_Cosmos_1_The_Worlds_First_Solar_Sail.html \|websiteThe Planetary Society \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> Druyan is involved in multiple Breakthrough Initiatives. With Frank Drake, Druyan is the co-chair of Breakthrough Message<ref>{{cite web \|titleBreakthrough Initiatives Message Leaders \|urlhttps://breakthroughinitiatives.org/?controllerPage&actionpage&page_id21 \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> and also a member of Breakthrough Starshot.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://breakthroughinitiatives.org/?controllerPage&actionpage&page_id13\|titleBreakthrough Initiatives\|websiteBreakthroughinitiatives.org\|access-date=December 14, 2021}}</ref> She is a member of the advisory board of The Carl Sagan Institute.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Glaser \|first1Linda B. \|titleInstitute for Pale Blue Dots renamed in honor of Carl Sagan \|urlhttp://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2015/05/institute-pale-blue-dots-renamed-honor-carl-sagan \|newspaperCornell Chronicle \|access-dateJune 13, 2016}}</ref> Activism Druyan has for many years been a vocal advocate for nuclear disarmament. She was arrested three times at the Mercury, Nevada nuclear test site during Mikhail Gorbachev's unilateral moratorium on underground nuclear testing, with which President Ronald Reagan did not cooperate. This included an arrest in June 1986, when she crossed a white painted line indicating the test site's boundary. Sagan, who attended the same protest with Druyan, was not arrested.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/06/03/Scores-arrested-at-nuclear-test-site/8569518155200/ \|titleScores arrested at nuclear test site \|agencyUPI \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> In the early 1990s, Druyan worked with Sagan and then-Senator Al Gore Jr. and a host of religious and scientific leaders to bring the scientific and religious worlds together in a unified effort to preserve the environment, resulting in the ''Declaration of the 'Mission to Washington{{'}}''.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.bnl.gov/envsci/schwartz/jointappeal.html \|titleDeclaration of the 'Mission to Washington' \|websiteBnl.gov \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> She was a founding director of the Children's Health Fund until the spring of 2004, a project that provides mobile pediatric care to homeless and disadvantaged children in more than half a dozen cities. She is currently a member of their advisory board.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.childrenshealthfund.org/advisory-council/\|titleChildren's Health Fund Advisory Council\|websiteChildrenshealthfund.org\|access-dateDecember 14, 2021\|archive-dateSeptember 2, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902143517/https://www.childrenshealthfund.org/advisory-council/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> She has been on the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) for over 10 years and was its president from 2006 to 2010.<ref>{{Cite web \| title =About NORML, Ann Druyan \| url http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID4493 \| access-date December 26, 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071213022754/http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID4493\| archive-date December 13, 2007 \| url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| title =About NORML Foundation, Ann Druyan (President) \| url http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID3439 \| access-date = December 26, 2007 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110104002920/http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID3439 \| archive-date= January 4, 2011 }}</ref> Honors An asteroid discovered in 1988 was named in Druyan's honor by its discoverer Eleanor F. Helin. In a 2020 interview with Skeptical Inquirer, Druyan discussed 4970 Druyan and the asteroid named after her late husband, saying that 4970 Druyan is in a "wedding ring orbit" around the Sun with 2709 Sagan. Druyan was presented with a plaque on Sagan's sixtieth birthday, which is inscribed: "Asteroid 2709 Sagan in eternal companion orbit with asteroid 4970 Druyan, symbolic of their love and admiration for each other."<ref name = Palmer/> In November 2006, Druyan was a speaker at "Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival". In January 2007, she was a juror at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival, responsible for selecting the winner of the Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films about science and technology.<ref>{{Cite web \| title =2007 Sundance Film Festival Jurors \| url =http://festival.sundance.org/2007/festival/jurors.aspx \| work =Sundance Film Festival \| access-date October 1, 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070907180052/http://festival.sundance.org/2007/festival/jurors.aspx\| archive-dateSeptember 7, 2007 \| url-status live}}</ref> In November 2007, Druyan was awarded the title of "Humanist Laureate" by the International Academy of Humanism.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.humanisthub.org/release-10-1-18/ \|titleHumanist Hub : Press Release: Humanist Hub Announces Humanist of the Year Recipient \|websiteHumanisthub.org \|access-dateMay 6, 2019 \|archive-dateMay 6, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190506213026/http://www.humanisthub.org/release-10-1-18/ \|url-status=usurped }}</ref> In October 2019, the Center for Inquiry West opened the Carl Sagan–Ann Druyan Theater in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news \|titleGrand Opening of the New CFI West {{!}} CFI West \|urlhttps://cfiwest.org/event/grand-opening-of-the-new-cfi-west/ \|dateJuly 24, 2019}}</ref>Religious and philosophical viewsIn an interview with Joel Achenbach of The Washington Post, Druyan said that her early interest in science stemmed from a fascination with Karl Marx. Achenbach commented that "She had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence", a reference to her belief in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Däniken and the theories of Immanuel Velikovsky pertaining to the solar system.<ref>{{cite book \|authorAchenbach, Joel \|titleCaptured by Aliens: the search for life and truth in a very large universe \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|locationNew York \|year1999 \|isbn0684848562 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/capturedbyaliens00joel/page/95 95–96] \|quoteHer interest in science came primarily from her interest in the philosophy of Karl Marx. ... Druyan herself had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence for her many sundry beliefs (as she later acknowledged). She believed ... that Immanuel Velikovsky in the 1950s had correctly deduced the truth about the solar system. ... She believed in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Daniken. \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/capturedbyaliens00joel/page/95 }}</ref> Concerning the death of her husband she stated:<ref>{{cite journal \|lastDruyan \|firstAnn \| author-linkAnn Druyan \|dateNovember–December 2003 \|titleAnn Druyan Talks About Science, Religion, Wonder, Awe&nbsp;... and Carl Sagan \|journalSkeptical Inquirer \|volume27 \|issue6 \|issn0194-6730 \|access-dateJuly 27, 2010 \|url= http://www.csicop.org/si/show/ann_druyan_talks_about_science_religion/}}</ref> <blockquote> When my husband died, because he was so famous and known for not being a believer, many people would come up to me—it still sometimes happens—and ask me if Carl changed at the end and converted to a belief in an afterlife. They also frequently ask me if I think I will see him again. Carl faced his death with unflagging courage and never sought refuge in illusions. The tragedy was that we knew we would never see each other again. I don't ever expect to be reunited with Carl. </blockquote> Personal life Druyan and Sagan's working and resulting romantic relationship has been the subject of numerous treatments in popular culture, including the Radiolab episode "Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape",<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2010/02/12/123534818/carl-sagan-and-ann-druyans-ultimate-mix-tape \|titleCarl Sagan And Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape \|websiteNPR.org \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> a segment of the Comedy Central program Drunk History{{'}}s episode "Space",<ref>{{Citation \|titleSpace \|urlhttp://www.imdb.com/title/tt4998726/ \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> and the song "Sounds of Earth" by Jim Moray. The asteroid 4970 Druyan, which is in a companion orbit with asteroid 2709 Sagan named after Druyan's late husband, is named after Druyan.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/famous-scientists/10-cool-things-carl-sagan10.htm \|title10 Cool Things About Carl Sagan \|dateMay 5, 2014 \|websiteHowStuffWorks \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref><ref name Palmer/> In 2015, it was announced that Warner Brothers was in development on a drama about Sagan and Druyan's relationship, to be produced by producer Lynda Obst and Druyan.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.thewrap.com/carl-sagan-ann-druyan-cosmos-warner-brothers-movie-drama/ \|titleWarner Bros. Developing Drama About 'Cosmos' Author Carl Sagan and Wife Ann Druyan \|dateAugust 18, 2015 \|websiteTheWrap \|access-dateMay 6, 2019}}</ref> In 2020, Sagan and Druyan's daughter Sasha Sagan released a book For Small Creatures Such As We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World, which discusses life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen years old.<ref name"Ruth Frazier">{{cite journal \|last1Frazier \|first1Ruth \|titleFinding Science and Wonder, Making Meaning \|journalSkeptical Inquirer \|date2019 \|volume43 \|issue6 \|pages=62–63}}</ref> Druyan also gave Sasha a recurring role in Cosmos: Possible Worlds, where she played her own grandmother, including in the episode Man of a Trillion Worlds, which featured the life of Carl Sagan.<ref name Palmer/>Awards * 2004 Richard Dawkins Award * 2014 Outstanding Writing for Nonfiction Programming Primetime Emmy Award * 2015 The Award for Outstanding Producer of Non-Fiction Television from Producers Guild of America<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.producersguild.org/page/2015PGAWinners\|title2015 PGA Awards Winners\|websiteProducers Guild of America\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160222020032/http://www.producersguild.org/page/2015PGAWinners\|archive-dateFebruary 22, 2016\|url-statusdead\|access-date=April 2, 2017}}</ref> * 2015 Writers Guild Award for "Documentary Script – Other than Current Events"<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://variety.com/2015/film/news/wga-awards-winners-2015-screenplay-tv-drama-comedy-1201434302/\|title'Grand Budapest Hotel,' 'True Detective' Top WGA Awards\|lastMcNary\|firstDave\|dateFebruary 15, 2015\|websiteVariety\|access-date=May 6, 2019}}</ref> * 2017 Harvard Humanist of the Year Award<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.humanisthub.org/events/anndruyan/\|titleAnn Druyan: Harvard Humanist of the Year Award\|websiteHumanisthub.org\|access-dateMay 6, 2019\|archive-dateMay 6, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190506214956/http://www.humanisthub.org/events/anndruyan/\|url-status=usurped}}</ref> * 2020 National Geographic Further Award<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://abc7news.com/entertainment/cosmos-creator-recognized-for-pushing-boundaries/6090058/\|titleNational Geographic's 'Cosmos' creator scores award for pushing boundaries of television\|dateApril 9, 2020\|workABC News\|access-dateApril 14, 2020}}</ref>See also * Women in science * List of peace activists References {{reflist\|30em}} External links {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category\|Ann Druyan}} * Ann Druyan: [http://anndruyan.typepad.com/ The Observatory] * {{IMDb name}} {{Carl Sagan}} {{Voyager Golden Record}} {{Interstellar messages}} {{EmmyAward NonfictionProgrammingWriting}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Druyan, Ann}} Category:1949 births Category:20th-century American novelists Category:Activists from New York (state) Category:American agnostics Category:American cannabis activists Category:American science writers Category:American skeptics Category:American women novelists Category:Carl Sagan Category:Hugo Award–winning writers Category:Interstellar messages Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Jewish skeptics Category:Jewish American novelists Category:Living people Category:People associated with the American Museum of Natural History Category:People from Queens, New York Category:Sagan family Category:Scientists from New York (state) Category:20th-century American Jews Category:21st-century American Jews Category:American science communicators	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Druyan	2025-04-05T18:26:15.430962
3014	Analcime	{{Short description\|Zeolite mineral}} {{Infobox mineral \|boxbgcolor#ae602d\| name Analcime \| boxtextcolor = #fff \| category = Tectosilicate minerals, zeolite group \| image = Analcime - Kahwan Mountain, Semnan, Iran.jpg \| imagesize = 280px \| caption = Reddish crystals of analcime up to 1.8 cm in size on matrix \| formula = NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub> · H<sub>2</sub>O \|IMAsymbol=Anl \| strunz = 9.GB.05 \| system = Orthorhombic \| class = Dipyramidal (mmm) <br />H-M symbol: (2/m 2/m 2/m) \| symmetry = Ibca \|molweight220.15\| color White, colorless, gray, pink, greenish, yellowish \| habit = Typically in crystals, usually trapezohedrons, also massive to granular. \| twinning = Polysynthetic on [001], [110] \| cleavage = Indistinct on {001}, {010}, {100} \| fracture = Uneven to subconchoidal \| mohs = 5–5.5 \| luster = Vitreous \| refractive n 1.479–1.493 \| opticalprop = Isotropic; anomalously biaxial (−) \| pleochroism =None \|fluorescenceShort UV Greenish blueish white <br/>Long UV Green, creamy white-yellow\| streak White \| gravity = 2.24–2.29 \| fusibility = 3.5 \|diaphaneityTransparent to subtransparent to translucent\| other Weakly piezoelectric and pyroelectric; weakly electrostatic when rubbed or heated }} Analcime ({{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|n\|æ\|l\|s\|iː\|m\|,_\|-\|s\|aɪ\|m}}; {{etymology\|grc\|{{wikt-lang\|grc\|ἀνάλκιμος}} ({{grc-transl\|ἀνάλκιμος}})\|not strong}}) or analcite is a white, gray, or colorless tectosilicate mineral. Analcime consists of hydrated sodium aluminium silicate in cubic crystalline form. Its chemical formula is NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub> · H<sub>2</sub>O. Minor amounts of potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A silver-bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite). Analcime is usually classified as a zeolite mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the feldspathoids.<ref name":1" /> Analcime is not classified as an isometric crystal, as although the crystal structure appears to be isometric, it is usually off only by a fraction of an angle. However, there are truly isometric samples of the mineral, which makes its classification even more difficult.<ref name":3">{{Cite web \|titleAnalcime (analcite): The zeolite mineral analcime information and pict \|urlhttp://www.minerals.net/MineralDefinition.aspx?nameanalcime \|access-date2022-12-29 \|websitewww.minerals.net \|languageen-US}}</ref> Due to the differences between the samples being too slight, there's no merit from having multiple species names, so as a result analcime is a common example for minerals occurring in multiple crystal systems and space groups. It was first described by French geologist Déodat de Dolomieu, who called it zéolithe dure, meaning hard zeolite. It was found in lava in Cyclops, Italy. The mineral is IMA approved, and had been grandfathered, meaning the name analcime is believed to refer to a valid species til this day.<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleAnalcime \|urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-210.html \|access-date2022-12-29 \|websitewww.mindat.org}}</ref> Properties Analcime crystals always look pseudocubic.<ref name":0" /> Its common crystal forms include trapezohedron, truncated trapezohedron with cubic faces, and more rarely either as a truncated trapezohedron, or the crystals can take the shape of a truncated cube that is typical to bixbyites.<ref name":2" /> The crystals can occur either individually, as interconnected, form groups on plates or even in druzy form. Crystal masses can also form veins sometimes.<ref name":3" /> Individual crystals are euhedral, meaning they have well defined faces. When on a matrix, the mineral takes a granular habit, meaning the crystals become anhedral.<ref name":4">{{Cite web \|titleAnalcime Mineral Data \|urlhttp://www.webmineral.com/data/Analcime.shtml \|access-date2022-12-29 \|websitewww.webmineral.com}}</ref> The color of the mineral varies due to trace impurities. The mineral is weakly piezoelectric and pyroelectric, meaning it produces a weak electric charge when it's rubbed or heated, hence the name analcime.<ref name":0" /> Other characteristics include the fact that the mineral can have a blueish white fluorescence when inspected under short UV light, and a creamy white-yellow one inspected under long UV light. It does not show any pleochroic or radioactive properties.<ref name":4" /> Analyses regarding the mineral's symmetry vary in results, however the most prevalent one being tetragonal.<ref name":3" /> The mineral usually has polysynthetic twins, which are only visible in thin sections when the specimen is inspected under polarized analyzed light.<ref name":2" /> Analcime mainly consists of oxygen (50.87%), silicon (25.51%), aluminum (12.26%), sodium (10.44%) but otherwise has a negligible amount of hydrogen (0.92%) as well.<ref name":4" /> The highest quality specimens take the form of a trapezohedron, and can reach up to 25&nbsp;cm. These specimens are associated with serandite, aegyrine and natrolite, and can be found at Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec. Of the pinkish-white specimens, the mineral takes the shape of well-formed cubes which can exceed 10&nbsp;cm, originating from several sites in Val di Fassa, Trentino, Italy.<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|titleAnalcime - Encyclopedia \|urlhttps://www.le-comptoir-geologique.com/analcime-encyclopedia.html \|access-date2022-12-29 \|websitewww.le-comptoir-geologique.com}}</ref> Formation and associated minerals Analcime occurs as a primary mineral in analcime basalt and other alkaline igneous rocks. It also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with prehnite, calcite, and zeolites. Analcime forms in sedimentary rocks at temperatures below about {{convert\|100\|C\|\|spus}}, and so its presence indicates that the rock has experienced shallow diagenesis.<ref name":1" /> Although it is common in igneous rocks (namely basalts and trachy-basalts), it is more rarely found in phonolites. Associations include zeolites, calcite and prehnite; however, it is also found in nepheline syenites and their pegmatites. It forms a series with pollucite.<ref name":2" /> Locations Well known locations for sourcing analcime include Croft Quarry in Leicestershire, UK; the Cyclopean Islands east off Sicily and near Trentino in northern Italy; Victoria in Australia; Kerguelen Island in the Indian Ocean; in the Lake Superior copper district of Michigan, Bergen Hill, New Jersey, Golden, Colorado, and at Searles Lake, California in the United States; and at Cape Blomidon, Nova Scotia and Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec<ref name":1">{{cite book \|last1Normand \|first1Charles \|last2Tarassoff \|first2Peter \|titleMineralogy and geology of the Poudrette quarry, Mont SaintHilaire, Quebec \|date2006 \|publisherMineralogical Association of Canada \|urlhttps://www.mcgill.ca/redpath/files/redpath/guidebook_4a_final2.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.mcgill.ca/redpath/files/redpath/guidebook_4a_final2.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date12 March 2022}}</ref> in Canada; and in Iceland, and in Namibia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Prothero \|first1Donald R. \|last2Schwab \|first2Fred \|titleSedimentary geology : an introduction to sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy \|date2004 \|publisherW.H. Freeman \|locationNew York \|isbn0716739054 \|page124 \|edition2nd}}</ref> Siberian samples from Nidym and Toura provide us with white crystals of 18&nbsp;cm. Samples of the Cyclopean Islands are known for their beautiful and clear crystals, just like the crystals of Kings Valley and Springfield in Oregon, which can reach up to 6&nbsp;cm. Coleman, Alberta in Canada is known for producing beautiful red crystals.<ref name":2" /> Usage Other than its aesthetic values, analcime currently presents no use. Crystallized specimens are sought after by collectors,<ref name":2" /> and the mineral is hardly ever made into jewelry. The crystals made into jewelries are uncut and handcrafted.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2022}} It has lacking use as a microporous material. This is due to the fact that analcime has a compact structure and thus it has a strong resistance to diffusion of both molecules and cations. Analcime-bearing tuffs are sometimes used as building materials.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnalcime \|urlhttp://www.iza-online.org/natural/Datasheets/Analcime/Analcime.html \|access-date2022-12-29 \|websitewww.iza-online.org}}</ref>See also* {{annotated link\|List of minerals}} References {{Reflist}} * Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., {{ISBN\|0-471-80580-7}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205170949/http://mineral.galleries.com/Minerals/silicate/analcime/analcime.htm Mineral Galleries] * [http://www.mindat.org/min-210.html Mindat.org] * [http://webmineral.com/data/Analcime.shtml Webmineral.com] External links {{Commons category\|Analcime}} *[http://helios.princeton.edu/zeomics/cgi-bin/view_structure.pl?srciza&idANA structure type ANA]{{Dead link\|dateSeptember 2021 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }} {{Authority control}} Category:Zeolites Category:Sodium minerals Category:Aluminium minerals Category:Orthorhombic minerals Category:Minerals in space group 73	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analcime	2025-04-05T18:26:15.437009
3017	Alexey Pajitnov	{{Short description\|Russian-American computer engineer (born 1955)}} {{Use mdy dates\|dateFebruary 2023}}{{family name hatnote\|Leonidovich\|Pajitnov\|langEastern Slavic}} {{BLP sources\|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox person \| name = Alexey Pajitnov \| image = Alexey Pajitnov GDC 2024 (cropped).jpg \| alt = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software --> \| caption = Pajitnov in 2024 \| native_name = {{nobold\|Алексей Пажитнов}} \| native_name_lang = ru \| birth_name = Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov \| birth_date = {{birth date and age\|1955\|4\|16}} \| birth_place = Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet&nbsp;Union \| citizenship = {{ubl\|Soviet Union (until 1991)\|Russia\|United States}} \| alma_mater = Moscow Aviation Institute \| employer = Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre<br />The Tetris Company<br />Microsoft \| occupation = {{hlist\|Computer engineer\|video game designer}} \| known for = Creator of Tetris \| awards {{ubl\|First Penguin Award – Game Developers Choice Awards (2006)\|{{ill\|Der Deutsche Games Award\|ltLARA – Der Deutsche Games Award\|de\|Lara-Award}} (2009)}} }} Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov{{efn\|{{lang-rus\|Алексе́й Леони́дович Па́житнов\|Aleksey Leonidovich Pazhitnov\|pɐlʲɪkˈsʲej lʲɪɐˈnʲidəvʲɪtɕ ˈpaʐɨtnəf}}}} (born April 16, 1955)<ref name"Tetris">{{cite web \| urlhttps://tetris.com/bios#alexey \| titleCorporate Bio \| publisherTetris \| access-dateApril 17, 2021}}</ref> is a Russian and American<!-- See MOS:NATIONALITY--> computer engineer and video game designer.<ref nameSapieha /> He is best known for creating, designing, and developing Tetris in 1985 while working at the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre under the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union (now the Russian Academy of Sciences).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTetris {{!}} video game {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Tetris \|access-date2023-04-19 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> After Tetris was released internationally in 1987, he released a sequel in 1989, entitled Welltris. In 1991, he moved to the United States and later became a U.S. citizen.<ref name"Sapieha">{{Cite news \|lastSapieha \|firstChad \|dateMarch 23, 2006 \|titleTetris' Alexey Pajitnov \|languageen-CA \|workThe Globe and Mail \|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/tetris-alexey-pajitnov/article20408975/ \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2023}}</ref> In 1996, Pajitnov founded The Tetris Company alongside Dutch video game designer Henk Rogers. Despite the game's high popularity, Pajitnov did not receive royalties from Tetris prior to this time; the Soviet Union had disintegrated by 1991.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.atarihq.com/tsr/special/tetrishist.html \|titleTetris: a history \|publisherAtarihq.com \|access-dateMay 6, 2012}}</ref>Early lifePajitnov was born to Russian parents, who were both writers, his father was an art critic, his mother was a journalist who wrote for both newspapers and a film magazine. It was through his parents that Pajitnov gained exposure to the arts, eventually developing a passion for cinema. He accompanied his mother to many film screenings, including the Moscow Film Festival.<ref name":1">{{Cite book\|lastSheff\|firstDavid\|titleGame Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children\|publisherRandom House\|year1993\|isbn9780679404699\|edition1st\|locationNew York}}</ref>{{Rp\|296\|quoteHe had grown up in Moscow, where his father was an art and theater critic, and his mother wrote for newspapers and for a weekly cinema magazine.}}<ref name":2">{{Cite book\|lastGoldberg\|firstHarold\|titleAll Your Base Are Belong to Us: How Fifty Years of Videogames Conquered Pop Culture\|publisherThree Rivers Press\|year2011\|isbn9780307463555\|locationNew York}}</ref>{{Rp\|75\|quoteHis mother, a well-regarded journalist whose focus was movies, took the child to many of the screenings she attended and the yearly Moscow Film Festival, as well.}} Pajitnov was also mathematically inclined, enjoying puzzles and problem solving. In 1967, when he was 11 years old, Pajitnov's parents divorced. For several years, he lived with his mother in a one-bedroom apartment owned by the state. The two were eventually able to move into a private apartment at 49 Gertsen Street, when Pajitnov was 17.<ref name":1" />{{Rp\|296\|quoteHe had grown up in Moscow, where his father was an art and theater critic, and his mother wrote for newspapers and for a weekly cinema magazine.}}<ref name":4">{{Cite book\|lastAckerman\|firstDan\|titleThe Tetris Effect: The Game that Hypnotized the World\|publisherPublicAffairs\|year2016\|isbn9781610396127\|edition1st\|locationNew York\|chapterAlexey Leonidovich Pajitnov}}</ref> He later went on to study applied mathematics at the Moscow Aviation Institute.<ref>{{cite web\|author<!--Not stated-->\|titleAlexey Pajitnov, Creator of Tetris\|urlhttps://tetris.com/bios#alexey\|access-dateAugust 5, 2018\|websitetetris.com\|publishertetris holding\|quote"He received his Master's degree in Applied Mathematics from the Moscow Institute of Aviation"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleHistory of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, Software history, Tetris of Alexey Pajitnov\|urlhttps://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Software/Tetris.html\|access-dateMarch 10, 2019\|websitehistory-computer.com}}</ref> Career In 1977, Pajitnov worked as a summer intern at the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Once he graduated in 1979, he accepted a job there working on speech recognition at the academy's Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastIchbiah\|firstDaniel\|titleLa saga des jeux vidéo\|publisherPocket\|year1997\|isbn9782266087636\|edition1st\|languageFrench\|trans-titleThe saga of video games\|chapterTetris: l'infernal casse-tête qui venait du froid\|trans-chapterTetris: the infernal puzzle that came from the cold}}</ref>{{Rp\|86}} When the Computing Centre received new equipment, its researchers would write a small program for it in order to test its computing capabilities. According to Pajitnov, this "became [his] excuse for making games".<ref>{{Cite web\|lastHoad\|firstPhil\|dateJune 2, 2014\|titleTetris: How We Made the Addictive Computer Game\|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/jun/02/how-we-made-tetris\|url-statuslive\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2021\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140603040236/http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/jun/02/how-we-made-tetris \|archive-dateJune 3, 2014 }}</ref> Computer games were fascinating to him because they offered a way to bridge the gap between logic and emotion, and Pajitnov held interests in both mathematics and puzzles, as well as the psychology of computing.<ref name":2" />{{Rp\|76\|quote=He loved riddles and puzzles in general, including math games like Moonlanding and board games like Dungeons & Dragons (although the Russian translation of the time was terrible). Computers held his interest, but he didn't exactly care for some of the drier, more technical aspects. He liked to muse on the psychology of computing, what made people do certain things and why.}} Searching for inspiration, Pajitnov recalled his childhood memories of playing pentominoes, a game in which the user creates pictures using its shapes. Remembering the difficulty he had in putting the pieces back into their box, Pajitnov felt inspired to create a game based on that concept.<ref name":3">{{Cite web\|lastRomo\|firstVanessa\|dateJune 6, 2019\|titleHappy Birthday, Tetris. 35 Years Later You're As Addictive And Tetromino-y As Ever\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2019/06/06/730408514/happy-birthday-tetris-35-years-later-youre-as-addictive-and-tetromino-y-as-ever\|url-statuslive\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2021\|websiteNPR\|languageen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190607020250/https://www.npr.org/2019/06/06/730408514/happy-birthday-tetris-35-years-later-youre-as-addictive-and-tetromino-y-as-ever \|archive-dateJune 7, 2019 }}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web\|titleMeet the men who built the only perfect video game: Tetris\|urlhttp://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/interview-with-the-tetris-company-creators-alexei-pajitnov-and-henk-rogers/\|access-dateApril 25, 2016\|websiteDigital Trends\|dateFebruary 12, 2015 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Using an Electronika 60 in the Computing Centre, he began working on what would become the first version of Tetris. Building the first prototype in two weeks,<ref name":0" /> Pajitnov spent longer playtesting and adding to the game, completing it on June 6, 1985.<ref>{{Cite news \|date2004-02-12 \|titleTetris: A chip off the old bloc \|languageen-GB \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3479989.stm \|access-date2023-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastshmuplations \|date2022-01-11 \|titleTetris – 1993 Developer Interview - shmuplations.com \|urlhttps://shmuplations.com/tetris/ \|access-date2023-04-19 \|languageen-US}}</ref> This primitive version did not have levels or a scoring system, but Pajitnov knew he had a potentially great game, since he could not stop playing it at work.<ref name":3" /><ref>{{Cite web\|lastJohnson\|firstBobby\|dateJune 1, 2009\|titleHow Tetris Conquered the World, Block by Block\|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2009/jun/02/tetris-25anniversary-alexey-pajitnov\|url-statuslive\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2021\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140122132414/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2009/jun/02/tetris-25anniversary-alexey-pajitnov \|archive-date=January 22, 2014 }}</ref> The game attracted the interest of coworkers like fellow programmer Dmitri Pevlovsky, who helped Pajitnov connect with Vadim Gerasimov, a 16-year-old intern at the Soviet Academy. Pajitnov wanted to make a color version of Tetris for the IBM Personal Computer, and enlisted the intern to help. Gerasimov created the PC version in less than three weeks, and with contributions from Pevlovsky, spent an additional month adding new features like scorekeeping and sound effects.<ref name":1" />{{Rp\|300\|quoteGerasimov worked with Pajitnov for two months to convert "Tetris" to work on an IBM-compatible computer. In the end, the "Tetris" pieces lit up in solid colors. Pevlovsky added a table that tracked high scores.}}<ref name":2" />{{Rp\|78\|quoteThrough Pavlovsky, Pajitnov met with a Vadim Gerasimov, a young computer genius who was interning at the academy. Pajitnov asked the sixteen-year-old to make a PC version of his new creation. [...] But he, too, loved the game, and made the personal computer version in less than three weeks. During the next month, the game was refined with sound, better graphics, and a way to keep score.}} The game, first available in the Soviet Union, received international releases through Mirrorsoft and Spectrum Holobyte in 1988.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKent \|firstSteve L. \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/ultimatehistoryo0000kent \|titleThe ultimate history of video games : from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world \|date2001 \|publisherRoseville, Calif. : Prima Pub. \|othersInternet Archive \|isbn978-0-7615-3643-7}}</ref> Pajitnov created a sequel to Tetris, entitled Welltris, which has the same principle, but in a three-dimensional environment where the player sees the playing area from above.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mds.mdh.se/~frv95pen/game/tetris/welltris/ \|titleScreenshots from Welltris, retrieved 31-10-2007 \|publisherMds.mdh.se \|access-dateNovember 20, 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060422232106/http://www.mds.mdh.se/~frv95pen/game/tetris/welltris/ \|archive-dateApril 22, 2006 }}</ref><ref name"Tribune 1989 h499">{{cite web \| titleWELLTRIS GAME A SEQUEL THAT'S JUST AS ADDICTIVE AS ORIGINAL \| websiteChicago Tribune \| dateNovember 17, 1989 \| urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/1989/11/17/welltris-game-a-sequel-thats-just-as-addictive-as-original/ \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref><ref name"Reid 1991 l843">{{cite news \| lastReid \| firstT.R. \| titlePERESTROIKA, A PROGRAMMER AND A PC CREATE AN ADDICTION TO TETRIS \| newspaperWashington Post \| dateSeptember 9, 1991 \| urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1991/09/09/perestroika-a-programmer-and-a-pc-create-an-addiction-to-tetris/db1da570-227b-46f8-a60721ad316e1116d8/ \| access-date=February 20, 2024}}</ref> Tetris was licensed and managed by Soviet company ELORG, which had a monopoly on the import and export of computer hardware and software in the Soviet Union,<ref name"McCluskey 2023 a792">{{cite magazine \| lastMcCluskey \| firstMegan \| titleThe True Story Behind Apple TV+'s 'Tetris' Movie \| magazineTIME \| dateMarch 31, 2023 \| urlhttps://time.com/6266810/tetris-movie-apple-tv-true-story/ \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref> and advertised with the slogan "From Russia with Love"{{citation needed\|dateApril 2023}} (on NES: "From Russia with Fun!").<ref name"Robarge 2014 p891">{{cite web \| lastRobarge \| firstDrew \| titleTetris: Fun in the Cold War? \| websiteNational Museum of American History \| dateNovember 6, 2014 \| urlhttps://americanhistory.si.edu/explore/stories/tetris-fun-cold-war \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref><ref name"Prisco 2019 s836">{{cite web \| lastPrisco \| firstJacopo \| titleTetris: The Soviet 'mind game' that took over the world \| websiteCNN \| dateNovember 1, 2019 \| urlhttps://www.cnn.com/style/article/tetris-video-game-history/index.html \| access-date=February 20, 2024}}</ref> Because he was employed by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, Pajitnov did not receive royalties. Pajitnov, together with Vladimir Pokhilko, moved to the United States following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and in 1996 founded The Tetris Company with Henk Rogers, which, in combination with the rights reverting to him in 1995<ref name"Sapieha 2006 k463">{{cite web \| lastSapieha \| firstChad \| titleTetris' Alexey Pajitnov \| websiteThe Globe and Mail \| dateMarch 23, 2006 \| urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/tetris-alexey-pajitnov/article20408975/ \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref><ref name"Peckham 2014 j264">{{cite magazine \| lastPeckham \| firstMatt \| titleTetris at 30: An Interview with the Historic Puzzle Game's Creator \| magazineTIME \| dateJune 6, 2014 \| urlhttps://time.com/2837390/tetris-at-30-pajitnov-interview/ \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref> or 1996,<ref name"Frost 2004 e544">{{cite web \| lastFrost \| firstCaroline \| titleTetris: A chip off the old bloc \| websiteBBC NEWS \| dateFebruary 12, 2004 \| urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3479989.stm \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref><ref name"Burton 2023 p923">{{cite web \| lastBurton \| firstJamie \| titleTetris creator Alexey Pajitnov feels Russia is now "hopeless" \| websiteNewsweek \| dateMarch 29, 2023 \| urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/tetris-creator-alexey-pajitnov-interview-feels-russia-now-hopeless-1791156 \| access-dateFebruary 20, 2024}}</ref> finally allowed him to collect royalties from his game. He helped design the puzzles in the Super NES versions of ''Yoshi's Cookie and designed the game Pandora's Box, which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles. Pajitnov and Pokhilko founded the 3D software technology company AnimaTek, which developed the game / screensaver El-Fish.<ref name"MarcSaltzman2002">{{cite book \| editorMarc Saltzman \| titleGame Programming 5.0 Starter Kit \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlmjp-KIiHF4C \| access-dateFebruary 5, 2013 \| dateMay 1, 2002 \| publisherPearson Education \| isbn978-1-57595-555-1 \| page 431 }}</ref> He was employed by Microsoft from October 1996 until 2005. While there, he worked on the Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection'', MSN Mind Aerobics and MSN Games groups. Pajitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, Hexic HD, was included with every new Xbox 360 Premium package.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGravning \|firstJagger \|date29 March 2018 \|titleThe Man Who Made 'Tetris' \|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en/article/the-man-who-made-tetris/ \|access-date2024-09-23 \|websiteVice Media \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastLee \|firstBenjamin \|date2015-11-18 \|titleBrett Ratner slotting together Tetris origins movie \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/nov/18/brett-ratner-plans-biopic-alexey-pajitnov-tetris-inventor \|access-date2024-09-23 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In August 2005, WildSnake Software announced that Pajitnov would be collaborating with them to release a new line of puzzle games.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.wildsnake.com/newsletter/2005-08-18/ \|titleWildSnake newsletter 18 August 2005, retrieved 31-10-2007 \|publisherWildsnake.com \|dateAugust 18, 2005 \|access-dateNovember 20, 2009\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20091112184900/http://www.wildsnake.com/newsletter/2005-08-18/\| archive-dateNovember 12, 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> Personal life Pajitnov moved to the United States in 1991, was naturalized as a U.S. citizen and now lives in Clyde Hill, Washington.<ref name"Sapieha"/><ref>{{cite news \|lastCornwell \|firstPaige \|dateJuly 13, 2023 \|titleTetris founder — and Eastside resident — reflects on iconic game's legacy \|urlhttps://www.seattletimes.com/life/tetris-founder-and-eastside-resident-reflects-on-iconic-games-legacy/ \|workThe Seattle Times \|accessdateJuly 13, 2023}}</ref> He has a wife, Nina, with whom he had two sons named Peter and Dmitri.<ref name":4" /><ref>{{Cite news\|lastMarriott\|firstMichel\|dateSeptember 16, 1999\|titleCreator of Tetris Looks for New Ways to Dazzle and Beguile\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/16/technology/creator-of-tetris-looks-for-new-ways-to-dazzle-and-beguile.html\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> Political views After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Pajitnov issued a statement condemning the war and stating that he was "sure that Putin and his hateful regime will fall down and the normal peaceful way of living will be restored in Ukraine and, hopefully, in Russia".<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 23, 2022 \|titleTetris creator Alexey Pajitnov condemns Russian invasion of Ukraine \|urlhttps://venturebeat.com/games/tetris-creator-alexey-pajitnov-condemns-russian-invasion-of-ukraine/ \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2023 \|websiteVentureBeat \|languageen-US}}</ref> Games {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! Title !! Year !! Platform(s) !! Role(s) \|- \|\| Tetris \|\| 1985 \|\| Electronika 60, IBM-PC \|\| Original concept <br />(with Vadim Gerasimov & Dmitry Pavlovsky)<br /> \|- \|Muddle \|1989 \|Electronika 60, IBM-PC \|Designer (Published by JV Dialogue)<ref>{{Cite episode \|titleHigh Stakes Math \|seriesScientific American Frontiers \|season1 \|number4 \|networkPBS \|date1991-01-09 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v0jP546QqmPo&listPLd3KWTDBXgPjD8dV7SPZVDLC5Ukj4sZi_ \|access-date2023-07-04 \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|\| Welltris \|\| 1989 \|\| Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh & ZX Spectrum \|\| Designer <br />(with Andrei Sgenov)<br/> \|- \|\| Faces \|\| 1990 \|\| Amiga, DOS, Macintosh \|\| Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br/> \|- \|\| Hatris \|\| 1990 \|\| TurboGrafx-16, Arcade, Game Boy & NES \|\| Original concept \|- \|\| Knight Move \|\| 1990 \|\| Famicom Disk System (Japan) \|\| Idealist \|- \|\| Wordtris \|\| 1991 \|\| DOS, Game Boy, Classic Mac OS, SNES \|\| Designer \|- \|\| ''Yoshi's Cookie \|\| 1992 \|\| NES, Game Boy, SNES \|\| Puzzle Designer \|- \|\| El-Fish \|\| 1993 \|\| DOS \|\| Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br /> \|- \|\| Knight Moves \|\| 1995 \|\| Windows \|\| Idealist \|- \|\| Ice & Fire \|\| 1995 \|\| Windows, Macintosh \|\| Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br /> \|- \|\| Tetrisphere \|\| 1997 \|\| Nintendo 64 \|\| Contributor \|- \|\| Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection \|\| 1997 \|\| Windows & Game Boy Color \|\| Designer \|- \|\| Microsoft Pandora's Box \|\| 1999 \|\| Windows\|\| Designer \|- \|\| Microsoft A.I. Puzzler \|\| 2001 \|\| Windows \|\| Designer \|- \|\| Hexic \|\| 2003 \|\| Windows \|\| Original concept and design \|- \|\| Hexic HD \|\| 2005 \|\| Xbox 360 \|\| Original concept and design \|- \|\| Dwice \|\| 2006 \|\| Windows \|\| Designer \|- \|\| Hexic 2 \|\| 2007 \|\| Xbox 360 \|\| Designer \|- \|\| Marbly \|\| 2013 \|\| iOS \|\| Original concept and design \|} Awards and recognition In 1996, GameSpot named him as the fourth most influential computer game developer of all time.<ref>{{cite web\|dateFebruary 21, 2005\|titleThe Most Influential People in Gaming of All Time: Alexey Pajitnov\|urlhttp://www.gamespot.com/features/15most/html/mi_04.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050221115412/http://www.gamespot.com/features/15most/html/mi_04.html\|archive-dateFebruary 21, 2005\|access-dateMay 6, 2012\|websiteGameSpot\|publisherCNET Networks}}</ref> In March 2007, he received the Game Developers Choice Awards First Penguin Award. The award was given for pioneering the casual games market.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story12732 \|title2007 Game Developers Choice Awards To Honor Miyamoto, Pajitnov \|websiteGamasutra \|access-dateFebruary 12, 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070307054731/http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story12732\| archive-dateMarch 7, 2007 \| url-status live}}</ref> In June 2009, he received the honorary award at the LARA - Der Deutsche Games Award in Cologne, Germany.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.heise.de/newsticker/Games-Award-ehrt-Tetris-Erfinder-Paschitnow--/meldung/141061\|titleNews report on Deutsche Games Award 2009 \|dateJune 24, 2009 \|publisherHeise.de\|access-dateJune 25, 2009\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090626082322/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/Games-Award-ehrt-Tetris-Erfinder-Paschitnow--/meldung/141061\| archive-dateJune 26, 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> In 2012, IGN included Pajitnov on their list of 5 Memorable Video Game Industry One-Hit Wonders, calling him "the ultimate video game one-hit wonder."<ref>{{cite web\|firstLuke\|lastReilly\|urlhttp://www.ign.com/articles/2012/04/29/5-memorable-video-game-industry-one-hit-wonders\|title5 Memorable Video Game Industry One-Hit Wonders - Games Feature at IGN \|websiteIGN\|dateApril 29, 2012 \|access-dateMay 6, 2012}}</ref> In 2015, Pajitnov won the Bizkaia Award at the Fun & Serious Game Festival.<ref>{{cite web \|titleF&S 2015 BIZKAIA AWARD \|dateApril 26, 2022 \|urlhttps://en.funandseriousgamefestival.com/alexey-pajitnov/}}</ref><ref name"elmundo.es">{{cite news \|titleEl inventor del Tetris desvela su exito \|newspaperElmundo \|urlhttps://www.elmundo.es/pais-vasco/2015/11/29/565add1a22601dc5228b458e.html \|access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> Pajitnov was portrayed by Russian actor Nikita Yefremov in the 2023 movie Tetris, a dramatised retelling of the licensing bidding war for Tetris in the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite web \|titleApple Original Films unveils trailer for "Tetris" new thriller starring Taron Egerton \|urlhttps://tetris.com/article/289/apple-original-films-unveils-trailer-for-tetris-new-thriller-starring-taron-egerton\|websiteTetris\|dateApril 10, 2023 \|access-dateApril 10, 2023}}</ref>See also BreakThru!, video game endorsed by Pajitnov ClockWerx, video game endorsed by Pajitnov Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Alexey Pajitnov}} [http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,533681/ Alexey L. Pajitnov] profile at MobyGames [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=08/02/26/1859249 Tetris Creator Claims Free and Open Source Software Destroys the Market.] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20040227003319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/tetris.shtml Tetris — From Russia with Love''], BBC documentary {{Tetris}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pajitnov, Alexey}} Category:1955 births Category:Living people Category:Game Developers Conference Pioneer Award recipients Category:Moscow Aviation Institute alumni Category:Microsoft employees Category:Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine Category:Russian computer programmers Category:Russian emigrants to the United States Category:20th-century Russian inventors Category:21st-century Russian inventors Category:Russian video game designers Category:Scientists from Moscow Category:20th-century Russian scientists Category:21st-century Russian scientists Category:Russian computer scientists Category:Soviet computer scientists Category:Tetris Category:Russian scientists Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Microsoft people Category:American anti-war activists Category:American computer programmers Category:American video game programmers Category:20th-century American inventors Category:21st-century American inventors Category:American video game designers Category:20th-century American scientists Category:21st-century American scientists Category:Inventors from Washington (state) Category:American people of Russian descent Category:People from Clyde Hill, Washington	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexey_Pajitnov	2025-04-05T18:26:15.477711
3019	ʻAbdu'l-Bahá	{{Short description\|Head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 to 1921}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2021}} {{Infobox religious biography \| name = ʻAbdu'l-Bahá \|honorific_suffix {{post-nominals\|countryGBR\|KBE}} \| image = Picture of Abdul-Baha.jpg \| caption = Portrait taken in Paris, 1911 \| birth_name = ʻAbbás \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfy\|1844\|05\|23}} \| birth_place = Tehran, Sublime State of Persia \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfy\|1921\|11\|28\|1844\|05\|23}} \| death_place = Haifa, Mandatory Palestine \| resting_place = currently the Shrine of the Báb, to be relocated to the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá \| resting_place_coordinates {{coord\|32\|48\|52.59\|N\|34\|59\|14.17\|E\|region:IL_type:landmark\|displayinline}} \| nationality = Persian \| spouse = {{married\|Munírih Khánum\|1873}} \| children = {{ubl\|Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum \| Túbá K͟hánum \| Rúḥá K͟hánum \| Munavvar K͟hánum}} \| father = Baháʼu'lláh \| mother = Ásíyih Khánum \| relatives = Shoghi Effendi (grandson) \| religion = Baháʼí Faith }} {{Baháʼí sidebar}} '''ʻAbdu'l-Bahá'''<ref>The first apostrophe-like letter in "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" is an ayin, which in Persian is pronounced like the catch in the throat in English "uh-oh!". The second is an actual apostrophe, used to show a contraction of a vowel, and is not pronounced. (I.e., ʻAbd-u-al-Baháʼ > "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" or "ʻAbdul-Bahá".)</ref> {{post-nominals\|countryGBR\|KBE}} ({{IPAc-en\|ə\|b\|ˈ\|d\|ʊ\|l\|_\|b\|ə\|ˈ\|h\|ɑː\|}}; Persian: {{lang\|ar\|عبد البهاء}}, {{IPA\|fa\|ʔæbdolbæhɒːʔ\|IPA}};, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás ({{langx\|fa\|عباس}}, {{IPA\|fa\|ʔæbːɒːs\|IPA}}), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later cited as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight, his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the Bábí Faith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family established their residence in Baghdad in Iraq, where they stayed for ten years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before entering another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained a prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. Following the war, the openly hostile Ottoman authorities were replaced by the British Mandate over Palestine, during which time he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war. In 1892, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. His Tablets of the Divine Plan galvanized Baháʼís in North America to spread the Baháʼí teachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháʼí administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Baháʼís emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's given name was ʻAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either Mírzá ʻAbbás (Persian) or ʻAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ʻAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá'í Faith, he used and preferred the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("servant of Bahá", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháʼí texts as "The Master". Early life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH),<ref name"Qazvini">{{cite web \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/qazvini_abdulbaha_prominent_iranians \|titleʻAbdu'l-Bahá Meeting with Two Prominent Iranians \|access-date5 September 2007 \|authorMuhammad Qazvini \|year1949}}</ref> the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the same night on which the Báb declared his mission.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} Given the name ʻAbbás at birth,{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} he was named after his grandfather Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009">{{Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009\|}}</ref> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's early years were shaped by his father's prominent role within the Bábí community. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the Bábí, Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Blomfield\|1975\|p21}}</ref> His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family's residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned.<ref name"Blomfield 1975 40">{{Harvnb\|Blomfield\|1975\|p40}}</ref> Alongside his younger siblings – a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí – he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá loved playing in the gardens with his younger sister, fostering a strong bond between them.<ref name"Blomfield 1975 40" /> During his formative years, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá observed his parents' commitment to various charitable endeavors, including the conversion of part of their home into a hospital ward for women and children.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Blomfield\|1975\|p39}}</ref> Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received a brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá spent only a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Taherzadeh\|2000\|p105}}</ref> His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father.<ref>Blomfield, p.68</ref>{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p40}} In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, saying that "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...could scarcely be found..."{{sfn\|Browne\|1891\|p=xxxvi}} According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child.<ref>{{cite book \|lastZarandi \|firstNabil \|author-linkNabíl-i-Aʻzam \|date1932 \|orig-year1890 \|titleThe Dawn-Breakers: Nabíl's Narrative \|urlhttp://reference.bahai.org/en/t/nz/DB/ \|editionHardcover \|translatorShoghi Effendi \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationWilmette, Illinois, USA \|isbn0-900125-22-5 }} - complete edition, with illustrations, footnotes in English and French, complete introduction and appendices.</ref> At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death.{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p81}} Though the illness abated,{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p12}} this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p=82}} One event that affected ʻAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing him to hostility from other children in the streets.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/> He described how "I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His [Baháʼu'lláh's]…voice: 'Do not bring him in here', and so they took me back".{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p12}} Baghdad Baháʼu'lláh was eventually released from prison but was ordered into exile, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eight years old, joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter (January to April)<ref name"Winter'sChron">[http://bahai-library.com/winters_chronology_babi_persecutions Chronology of persecutions of Babis and Baha'is] compiled by Jonah Winters</ref> of 1853.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p12}} During the journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties, Baháʼu'lláh absented himself rather than continuing to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854, a month before ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday<ref name"Winter'sChron"/> Due to mutual sorrow, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, his mother and sister becoming constant companions.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Blomfield\|1975\|p54}}</ref> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took an active role in his education and upbringing.<ref name"Blomfield 1975 69">{{Harvnb\|Blomfield\|1975\|p69}}</ref> During the two-year absence of his father ʻAbdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family,<ref>[http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V2/p388-396Ch18.html The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, volume two], page 391</ref> before his age of maturity (14 in Middle-Eastern society)<ref>[http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/8b18431d756b708580256b6400399775/2e975aca2a81aa54c12576580028735c/$FILE/WebIran.pdf Can women act as agents of a democratization of theocracy in Iran?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210401161613/http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/8b18431d756b708580256b6400399775/2e975aca2a81aa54c12576580028735c/$FILE/WebIran.pdf \|date1 April 2021 }} by Homa Hoodfar, Shadi Sadr, page 9</ref> and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p14}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horseback riding, and as he grew, he became a renowned rider.<ref name"lotoae" /> In 1856, news of an ascetic engaging in discourses with local Súfí leaders reached family and friends, raising hopes that it could be Bahá’u’lláh. Immediately, they went to search for Baháʼu'lláh, and in March,<ref name"Winter'sChron"/> brought him back to Baghdad.<ref name"Smith17">{{Harvnb\|Smith\|2008\|p17}}</ref> On seeing his father, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly "Why did you leave us?", and his mother and sister did the same.<ref name"lotoae" />{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p15}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá soon became his father's secretary and shield.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} During the sojourn in the city ʻAbdu'l-Bahá grew from a boy into a young man. He was noted as a "remarkably fine looking youth",<ref name"lotoae" /> and remembered for his charity.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} Having passed the age of maturity, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regularly seen in the mosques of Baghdad discussing religious topics and the scripture as a young man. Whilst in Baghdad, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá composed a commentary at the request of his father on the Muslim tradition of "I was a Hidden Treasure" for a Súfí leader named ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}}<ref name"iwaht">{{cite web \|lastʻAbdu'l-Bahá \|titleʻAbdu'l-Baha's Commentary on The Islamic Tradition: "I Was a Hidden Treasure ..." \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_kuntu_kanzan_makhfiyyan \|publisherBaha'i Studies Bulletin 3:4 (Dec. 1985), 4–35 \|access-date20 December 2009}}</ref> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for someone of his age.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháʼu'lláh announced to a few companions that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is reported that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was the first person to whom Baháʼu'lláh revealed his claim.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.paintdrawer.co.uk/david/folders/Spirituality/001Bahai/Ridvan.pdf\| title Declaration of Baha'u'llah}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/holydays/ridvan.shtml The history and significance of the Baháʼí festival of Ridván] BBC</ref> Istanbul/Adrianople ]] In 1863, Baháʼu'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p17}} The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome voyage,<ref name"lotoae" /> and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá helped feed the exiles.{{sfn\|Kazemzadeh\|2009}} It was here that his position became more prominent amongst the Baháʼís.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} This was further solidified by Baháʼu'lláh's tablet of the Branch in which he constantly exalts his son's virtues and station.<ref name"totb">{{cite web \|titleTablet of the Branch \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/bahaullah_surih_ghusn \|publisherWilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust \|access-date5 July 2008}}</ref> Bahá’u’lláh and his family were soon exiled to Adrianople,{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} and on this journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.<ref name"lotoae">{{Harvnb\|Phelps\|1912\|pp=27–55}}</ref> In Adrianople ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother.<ref name"lotoae" /> At this point ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was known by the Baháʼís as "the Master", and by non-Baháʼís as ʻAbbás Effendi ("Effendi" signifies "Sir"). It was in Adrianople that Baháʼu'lláh referred to his son as "the Mystery of God".<ref name"lotoae" /> The title of "Mystery of God" symbolises, according to Baháʼís, that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but that in the "person of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized".<ref name"tcob">{{cite web \|titleThe Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh \|urlhttp://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/wob-39.html.utf8?querycompletely&actionhighlight#gr8 \|publisherUS Baháʼí Publishing Trust \|access-date5 July 2008}}</ref><ref name"bwo">{{cite web \|titleThe World Order of Baháʼu'lláh \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_kuntu_kanzan_makhfiyyan \|publisherBaha'i Studies Bulletin 3:4 (Dec. 1985), 4–35 \|access-date20 December 2009}}</ref> Baháʼu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"),{{efn\|The elative is a stage of gradation in Arabic that can be used both for a superlative or a comparative. G͟husn-i-Aʻzam could mean "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"}} the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} Upon learning of yet another exile of Bahá’u’llah, this time to Palestine, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the rest of the family were allowed to be exiled together.<ref name"lotoae" /> ʻAkká At the age of 24, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Baháʼí community.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p17}} In 1868 Baháʼu'lláh and his family were exiled to the penal colony of ʻAkká, Palestine where it was expected that the family would perish.<ref>{{harvnb\|Foltz\|2013\|p238}}</ref> Arrival in ʻAkká was distressing for the family and exiles{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp14–20}} when they were met by a hostile local population.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obtained chairs to carry the women to land.<ref name"lotoae" /> His sister and father fell dangerously ill.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to procure some anesthetic and nursed the sick.<ref name"lotoae" /> The Baháʼís were imprisoned under horrendous conditions in a cluster of cells covered in excrement and dirt.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá himself fell dangerously ill with dysentery,{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} and a sympathetic soldier permitted a physician to attend to him.<ref name"lotoae" /> The population shunned them, the soldiers treated them badly, and the behaviour of Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani (an Azali) aggravated matters.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/>{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p22}} Morale declined further with the accidental death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's youngest brother Mírzá Mihdí at the age of 22.<ref name"lotoae" /> The grieving ʻAbdu'l-Bahá kept a night-long vigil beside his brother's body.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/><ref name"lotoae" /> Later in ʻAkká Over time, he gradually assumed responsibility for the relationships between the small Baháʼí exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of ʻAkká (Acre) that, they recognized the innocence of the Baháʼís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp33–43}} Four months after the death of Mihdí the family moved from the prison to the House of ʻAbbúd.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p33}} Gradually the respect of the local population for the Baháʼís increased, and in particular, for ʻAbdu'l-Bahá who soon became very popular in the penal colony. Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how "a crowd of human beings...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others",<ref>{{harvnb\|Phelps\|1912\|p3}}</ref> all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.<ref>{{harvnb\|Smith\|2000\|p=4}}</ref> With the passage of time ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to rent alternative accommodations for the family, and eventually the family moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused its residents to flee. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886,<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/tnfrnt.htm\| title A Traveller's Narrative, (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh)}}</ref> later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University through the agency of Edward Granville Browne. Marriage and family life When ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}}{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p87}} Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ʻAbdu'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father,<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/><ref>{{Harvnb\|Ma'ani\|2008\|p112}}</ref> the twenty-eight-year-old ʻAbdu'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847–1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city.<ref nameSmith2000-p255>{{Harvnb\|Smith\|2000\|p255}}</ref> Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad ʻAlí Nahrí of Isfahan, an eminent Baháʼí with prominent connections.{{efn\|The Nahrí family had earned their fortune from a successful trading business. They won the favor of the leading ecclesiastics and nobility of Isfahan and had business transactions with royalty.}}{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}}{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p87}} Fátimih was brought from Persia to ʻAkká after both Baháʼu'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest that she marries ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}}<ref nameSmith2000-p255/><ref name"ltoae">{{Harvnb\|Phelps\|1912\|pp85–94}}</ref> After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}}<ref name"ltoae"/> The young couple were betrothed for about five months before the marriage itself commenced. In the meantime, Fátimih lived in the home of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's uncle Mírzá Músá. According to her later memoirs, Fátimih fell in love with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá on seeing him. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá himself had showed little inkling to marriage until meeting Fátimih;<ref name"ltoae"/> who was entitled Munírih by Baháʼu'lláh.<ref name"Harvnb\|Kazemzadeh\|2009"/> Munírih is a title meaning "Luminous".<ref name"aittbf">{{harvnb\|Smith\|2008\|p35}}</ref> The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (who dies very young), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Ma'ani\|2008\|p323}}</ref> The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971).{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} Baháʼu'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy.<ref name"ltoae"/><ref name"aittbf"/><ref>{{Harvnb\|Ma'ani\|2008\|p360}}</ref> The marriage of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous,<ref name"ltoae"/> from advice of his father and his own wish,<ref name"ltoae"/><ref name"aittbf"/> legitimised the practice of monogamy<ref name"aittbf"/> to a people who hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.<ref name"ltoae"/><ref name"aittbf"/> Early years of his ministry After Baháʼu'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Book of the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh (his will) named ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baháʼu'lláh's writings.{{efn\|In the Kitáb-i-ʻAhd Baháʼu'lláh refers to his eldest son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch") and his second eldest son Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí as G͟husn-i-Akbar (meaning "Greatest Branch" or "Greater Branch").}}{{sfn\|Taherzadeh\|2000\|p=256}}{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} Baháʼu'lláh designates his successor with the following verses: {{blockquote\|The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the Aghsán, the Afnán and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerful. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch [Muḥammad ʻAlí] to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen 'the Greater' after 'the Most Great', as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Informed.\|{{harvtxt\|Baháʼu'lláh\|1873–1892}} }} In Baháʼu'lláh's will, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad ʻAlí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAlí became jealous of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badi’u'llah and Ḍíyáʼu'llah.<ref name"Qazvini" /> He began correspondence with Baháʼís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p53}} While most Baháʼís followed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad ʻAlí including such prominent Bahá’ís as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim George Kheiralla, an early Baháʼí missionary to America.<ref>{{harvnb\|Browne\|1918\|p=145}}</ref> Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu'l-Bahá of assuming too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháʼu'lláh.<ref>{{harvnb\|Browne\|1918\|p77}}</ref> It was at this time that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, to counter the accusations leveled against him, stated in tablets to the West that he was to be known as "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p60}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/TAB/tab-473.html.utf8?querymy%7Cname%7Cabdul&actionhighlight#gr5 \|titleTablets of Abdul-Baha Abbas \|authorAbdul-Baha}}</ref> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that established the framework of the administration of the Baháʼí Faith, the two highest institutions of which were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} With the exception of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ʻAlí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháʼu'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|pp[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/169 169–170]}} However, in general the Bahá’ís experienced very little effect from the propaganda of Muhammad ʻAlí and his allies; in the ʻAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ʻAlí represented six families at most, had no common religious activities,<ref name"WarburgStudies">{{Cite book \|lastWarburg \|firstMargit \|titleBaháʼí: Studies in Contemporary Religion \|year2003 \|publisherSignature Books \|page64 \|urlhttp://signaturebooks.com/?p1164 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130202111901/http://signaturebooks.com/?p1164 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date2 February 2013 \|isbn1-56085-169-4 \|access-date19 October 2016 }}</ref> and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.<ref name"maceoin3">{{cite encyclopedia \|titleBahai and Babi Schisms \|encyclopediaIranica \|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-iii \|firstDenis \|lastMacEoin \|author-linkDenis MacEoin \|quote=In Palestine, the followers of Moḥammad-ʿAlī continued as a small group of families opposed to the Bahai leadership in Haifa; they have now been almost wholly re-assimilated into Muslim society.}}</ref> Religions in the past faced schism and doctrinal drift after the death of their prophet founders.{{snf\|Smith\|2008\|p46}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá however managed to preserve the unity and doctrinal integrity of the Baháʼí Faith, even in the face of serious threats from his half-brother’s opposition.{{snf\|Smith\|2008\|p46}} His success is especially notable given that even in the midst of these attacks his leadership brought about considerable expansion of the Baháʼí community beyond its initial cultural and geographic roots.{{snf\|Smith\|2008\|p46}} First Western pilgrims , Sigurd Russell, Edward Getsinger and Laura Clifford Barney; Seated left to right: Ethel Jenner Rosenberg, Madam Jackson, Shoghi Effendi, Helen Ellis Cole, Lua Getsinger, Emogene Hoagg]] By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started traveling to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p69}} The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s.{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|px}} The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened.{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p308}} During the next decade ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, encouraging them to teach the religion; the group included Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, Laura Clifford Barney, Herbert Hopper and May Ellis Bolles in Paris (all Americans); Englishman Thomas Breakwell; and Frenchman {{Interlanguage link multi\|Hippolyte Dreyfus\|fr\|3Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney}}.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp72–96}} It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p82}} Ministry, 1901–1912 During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp90–93}} With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí conspired with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}}{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp94–95}} By 1902, however, due to the support of the Governor of ʻAkka, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was still confined to the city.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp94–95}} In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p102}}<ref>{{harvnb\|Afroukhteh\|2003\|p=166}}</ref> From 1902 to 1904, even as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the construction of the Shrine of the Báb, he initiated execution of two additional projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Baháʼí House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p107}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the restoration of the house of the Báb to its state at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844;{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p107}} he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p=109}} In his role as head of the Bahá’í Faith, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá would occasionally communicate with leaders of thought to offer commentary and guidance based on the Bahá’í teachings, and in defense of the Bahá’í community. During this period, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, who sought to reform to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha.<ref>{{cite book \|lastAlkan \|firstNecati \|date2011 \|titleLate Ottoman Palestine: The Period of Young Turk Rule \|chapterThe Young Turks and the Baháʼís in Palestine \|chapter-url http://bahai-library.com/alkan_young_turks_palestine \| editor1-lastBen-Bassat \| editor1-first Yuval \|editor2-lastGinio \|editor2-first Eyal \|publisherI.B.Tauris \|page262 \|isbn978-1848856318}}</ref> He emphasized Baháʼís "seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Baháʼí Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Baháʼís in a periodical he founded.<ref>{{cite book \|lastHanioğlu \|firstM. Şükrü \|author-linkM. Şükrü Hanioğlu \|date1995 \|titleThe Young Turks in Opposition \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfU7azFR3AqcC&pgPA202 \|publisherOxford University Press \|page202 \|isbn978-0195091151}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastPolat \|firstAyşe \|year2015 \|titleA Conflict on Bahaʼism and Islam in 1922: Abdullah Cevdet and State Religious Agencies \|urlhttp://insanvetoplum.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Ays%CC%A7e-Polat.pdf \|journalInsan & Toplum \|volume5 \|issue10 \|access-date27 September 2016 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20161001173158/http://insanvetoplum.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Ays%CC%A7e-Polat.pdf \|archive-date1 October 2016 \|url-status dead }}</ref> ‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who in an earlier period was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháʼí sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He probably came to know ‘Abdu’l-Baha around 1898 when he served in the Ottoman administration in Akká. Persian sources cite him was a Baháʼí and he who translated ‛Abdu'l-Baha's works into French.<ref name":0">{{cite book \|lastAlkan \|firstNecati \|date2011 \|titleLate Ottoman Palestine: The Period of Young Turk Rule \|chapterThe Young Turks and the Baháʼís in Palestine \|chapter-urlhttp://bahai-library.com/alkan_young_turks_palestine \| editor1-last Ben-Bassat \| editor1-firstYuval \|editor2-last Ginio \|editor2-firstEyal \|publisherI.B.Tauris \|page266 \|isbn978-1848856318}}</ref> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá continued to communicate with him for several years when he was governor of Albania.<ref name=":0" /> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also met Muhammad Abduh, one of the key figures of Islamic Modernism and the Salafi movement, in Beirut, at a time when the two men shared similar goals of religious reform.<ref>{{cite book \|lastScharbrodt \|firstOliver \|date2008 \|titleIslam and the Baháʼí Faith: A Comparative Study of Muhammad ʻAbduh and ʻAbdul-Baha ʻAbbas \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn9780203928578}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal \|lastCole \|firstJuan R.I. \|author-linkJuan Cole \|year1983 \|titleRashid Rida on the Bahai Faith: A Utilitarian Theory of the Spread of Religions \|urlhttp://www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/bahai/2000/rida.htm \|journalArab Studies Quarterly \|volume5 \|issue2 \|page278}}</ref> Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastCole \|firstJuan R.I. \|author-linkJuan Cole \|date1981 \|titleMuhammad ʻAbduh and Rashid Rida: A Dialogue on the Baha'i Faith \|urlhttp://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/articles/A-E/cole/abduh/abduh.htm \|journalWorld Order \|volume15 \|issue3 \|page11}}</ref> Regarding the meetings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad ʻAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member."{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|p=[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/gpb-12.html#pg193 193]}} Due to Muhammad ʻAli's accusations against him, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, almost resulting in exile to Fezzan.<ref>{{cite book \|lastAlkan \|firstNecati \|date2011 \|titleLate Ottoman Palestine: The Period of Young Turk Rule \|chapterThe Young Turks and the Baháʼís in Palestine \|chapter-url http://bahai-library.com/alkan_young_turks_palestine \| editor1-lastBen-Bassat \| editor1-first Yuval \|editor2-lastGinio \|editor2-first Eyal \|publisherI.B.Tauris \|page263 \|isbn978-1848856318}}</ref>{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp111–113}}<ref>{{harvnb\|Momen\|1981\|pp320–323}}</ref> In response, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam.<ref>{{cite book \|lastAlkan \|firstNecati \|date2011 \|titleLate Ottoman Palestine: The Period of Young Turk Rule \|chapterThe Young Turks and the Baháʼís in Palestine \|chapter-urlhttp://bahai-library.com/alkan_young_turks_palestine \| editor1-last Ben-Bassat \| editor1-firstYuval \|editor2-last Ginio \|editor2-firstEyal \|publisherI.B.Tauris \|page264 \|isbn978-1848856318}}</ref> The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p109}}Journeys to the West {{main\|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the West}} The 1908 Young Turks revolution liberated all political and religious prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his liberation was to visit the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh in Bahji.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p131}} While ʻAbdu'l-Bahá continued to live in ʻAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p131}} In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháʼí message.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp=159–397}} In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baháʼí believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity."<ref name"Lacroix">{{cite book \|lastLacroix-Hopson \|firstEliane \|author2ʻAbdu'l-Bahá \|titleʻAbdu'l-Bahá in New York- The City of the Covenant \|publisherNewVistaDesign \|year1987 \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/hopson_abdulbaha_new_york \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131216001528/http://bahai-library.com/hopson_abdulbaha_new_york \|archive-date16 December 2013}}</ref> He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p171}} After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying "I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so."<ref name"Lacroix"/> While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C.,Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, Minnesota; San Francisco; Stanford; and Los Angeles, California before returning east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp=159–397}} During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in homes of Baháʼís, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people.<ref name"Gallagher196">{{Harvnb\|Gallagher\|Ashcraft\|2006\|p196}}</ref> During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice.<ref name"Gallagher196"/> He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.<ref name"Gallagher196"/> His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles.<ref name"Gallagher196"/> In Boston newspaper reporters asked ʻAbdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p232}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the Montreal Daily Star met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, Montreal Standard, {{Lang\|fr\|Le Devoir}} and {{Lang\|fr\|La Presse}} among others reported on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's activities.<ref name"vanderHoonaard56">{{Harvnb\|Van den Hoonaard\|1996\|pp56–58}}</ref>{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p256}} The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth."{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p256}} The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him.<ref name"vanderHoonaard56"/> His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich.<ref>Wagner, Ralph D. [http://bahai-library.com/leacock_yahi_bahi_society Yahi-Bahi Society of Mrs. Resselyer-Brown, The]. Retrieved 19 May 2008</ref> In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha,"{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p256}} and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|p=313}} Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp=159–397}} On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine.<ref>{{cite news \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleFebruary 23, 1914 \|urlhttps://bahai.works/Star_of_the_West/Volume_9/Issue_10#pg107 \|newspaperStar of the West \|page107 \|volume9 \|issue10 \|date8 September 1918 \|access-date4 December 2016}}</ref>Final years (1914–1921) During World War I (1914–1918) ʻAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of fourteen letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet. Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka.{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|p=304}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paşa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháʼí properties in Palestine.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|p18}} The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the Baháʼís, and the war was over less than two months later.Post-war periodThe conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties.{{sfn\|Balyuzi\|2001\|pp400–431}} It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The end of the war brought about several political developments on which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá commented. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states.{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980\|pp166–168}}{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|p345}} Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians...If the Zionists will mingle with the other races and live in unity with them, they will succeed. If not, they will meet certain resistance."<ref>{{cite news \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleDeclares Zionists Must Work with Other Races \|urlhttps://bahai.works/Star_of_the_West/Volume_10/Issue_10#pg196 \|newspaperStar of the West \|page196 \|volume10 \|issue10 \|date8 September 1919}}</ref> , April 1920]] The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many Baháʼís from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was widely distributed to allay the famine.{{sfn\|McGlinn\|2011}}{{sfn\|Poostchi\|2010}} For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920.<ref>{{cite book \|lastLuke \|firstHarry Charles \|author-linkHarry Luke \|date23 August 1922 \|titleThe Handbook of Palestine \|urlhttp://www.bahai-library.com/luke_handbook_palestine \|locationLondon \|publisherMacmillan and Company \|page59 }}</ref><ref>[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/69065/3/Yazdani_Mina_20116_PhD_thesis.pdf Religious Contentions in Modern Iran, 1881–1941], by Mina Yazdani, PhD, Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, 2011, pp. 190–191, 199–202.</ref> He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem).{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|p306-307}} Death and funeral , British Mandate-Palestine]] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15&nbsp;a.m. (27th of Rabi' al-awwal, 1340 AH).{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|p=311}} Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|p=312}} On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes: {{blockquote\|text... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues.<ref>{{harvnb\|Esslemont\|1980\|p77}}, quoting 'The Passing of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12.</ref>}} Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes (Governor of the Palestine North District) giving the following tribute: {{blockquote\|textMost of us here have, I think, a clear picture of Sir ʻAbdu'l‑Bahá ʻAbbás, of His dignified figure walking thoughtfully in our streets, of His courteous and gracious manner, of His kindness, of His love for little children and flowers, of His generosity and care for the poor and suffering. So gentle was He, and so simple, that in His presence one almost forgot that He was also a great teacher, and that His writings and His conversations have been a solace and an inspiration to hundreds and thousands of people in the East and in the West.{{sfn\|Effendi\|1944\|pp313–314}} }} He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.<ref>{{cite web \|authorThe Universal House of Justice \|urlhttps://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/messages/20190420_001/1#744198387 \|titleRiḍván 2019 – To the Bahá'ís of the World}}</ref>Legacy <!-- Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá redirects to this section. If you change the section's heading, please update the redirect. --> ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4–11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá directed all Baháʼís to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated.{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|p=356-357}}{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi's leadership. <!-- Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá redirects to this section. If moving this sentence, please update the redirect. -->In volumes of The Baháʼí World published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen Baháʼís as disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, {{Interlanguage link multi\|Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney\|fr}}, John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner.<ref>The Baháʼí World, vol. 3: 1928–30. New York: Baháʼí Publishing Committee, 1930. pp.&nbsp;84–85.</ref><ref>The Baháʼí World, vol. 4. New York: Baháʼí Publishing Committee, 1933. pp.&nbsp;118–19.</ref>{{sfn\|Smith\|2000\|locp. 122, ''Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá''}} No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi's writings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|last Troxel \|firstDuane K. \|encyclopedia Baháʼí Encyclopedia Project \|titleAugur, George Jacob (1853–1927) \|year 2009 \|publisherNational Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States \|location Evanston, IL \|urlhttp://www.bahai-encyclopedia-project.org/index.php?viewarticle&catid37%3Abiography&id170%3Aaugur-george-jacob&optioncom_content&Itemid74}}</ref> During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers erroneously reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the Baháʼí Faith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.{{sfn\|Effendi\|1938}} Appearance and personality ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome,{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|p40}} and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller.{{sfn\|Day\|2017}} He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Gail\|Khan\|1987\|pp225, 281}}</ref> In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote: {{blockquote\|Seldom have I seen one whose appearance impressed me more. A tall strongly built man holding himself straight as an arrow, with white turban and raiment, long black locks reaching almost to the shoulder, broad powerful forehead indicating a strong intellect combined with an unswerving will, eyes keen as a hawk's, and strongly marked but pleasing features – such was my first impression of 'Abbás Efendí, "the master".{{sfn\|Browne\|1891\|loc=See Browne's "Introduction" and "Notes", esp. "Note W"}}}} After the death of Bahá’u’lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Redman \|first1Earl \|titleVisiting 'Abdu'l-Baha – Volume I: The West Discovers the Master, 1897–1911 \|year2019 \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|isbn978-0-85398-617-1}}</ref> As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Day \|first1Michael \|titleJourney To A Mountain: The Story of the Shrine of the Báb: Volume 1 1850-1921 \|date2017 \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|isbn978-0853986034}}</ref> Even later in his life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá’ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá’í community today.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Universal House of Justice \|titleON THE OCCASION OF THE CENTENARY COMMEMORATION OF THE ASCENSION OF 'ABDU'L-BAHÁ \|urlhttps://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/messages/20211127_001/1#422353082 \|websitebahai.org \|access-date=16 April 2022}}</ref> Bahá’ís regard ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion,{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010\|}} philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[‘Abdu’l-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows."{{sfn\|Esslemont\|1980}} Even ardent enemies of the Bahá’í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu'addibu's-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá’í Faith in their papers. They called on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá’í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá’ís was greater still.{{sfn\|Redman\|2019}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying.{{sfn\|Redman\|2019}} His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people’s feelings,{{sfn\|Day\|2017}}{{sfn\|Redman\|2019}} and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá’ís saying “I am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.” According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal.{{sfn\|Hogenson\|2010}} He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner,{{sfn\|Day\|2017}} further enhancing his popularity. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá’í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá’í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá’ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred. Works The total estimated number of tablets that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/uhj_numbers_sacred_writings \|titleNumbers and Classifications of Sacred Writings texts \|author((Universal House of Justice)) \|dateSeptember 2002 \|access-date=20 March 2007}}</ref> His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} The first group includes The Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, ''A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people;{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously. The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ʻAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace'' which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.{{sfn\|Iranica\|1989}} The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks: Foundations of World Unity [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/light-of-the-world Light of the World: Selected Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá]. Memorials of the Faithful Paris Talks Secret of Divine Civilization Some Answered Questions Tablets of the Divine Plan Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel Tablet to The Hague ''Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Promulgation of Universal Peace Selections from the Writings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Divine Philosophy Treatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance<ref>[http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/trans/vol7/govern.htm Translations of Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Texts''] Vol. 7, no. 1 (March 2003)</ref> See also Baháʼu'lláh's family Mírzá Mihdí Ásíyih Khánum Bahíyyih Khánum Munirih Khánum Shoghi Effendi House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Further reading {{cite web \|lastMomen \|firstMoojan \|author-linkMoojan Momen \|titleThe Covenant and Covenant-Breaker \|publisherbahai-library.com \|year2003 \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/momen_encyclopedia_covenant \|access-date13 October 2016}} Explanatory notes {{notelist}} Notes {{reflist\|30em}} References {{citation \|lastAfroukhteh \|firstYouness \|orig-year1952 \|year2003 \|titleMemories of Nine Years in 'Akká \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|locationOxford, UK \|isbn0-85398-477-8}} {{cite book \|lastBaháʼu'lláh \|author-linkBaháʼu'lláh \|year1873–1892 \|publication-date1994 \|titleTablets of Baháʼu'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas \|chapter-urlhttp://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/tb-16.html \|chapterKitáb-i-ʻAhd \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationWilmette, Illinois, USA \|isbn0-87743-174-4 \|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/}} {{citation \|lastBalyuzi \|firstH.M. \|author-link Hasan M. Balyuzi \|year2001 \|titleʻAbdu'l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh \|editionPaperback \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|placeOxford, UK \|isbn0-85398-043-8 \|url-access registration \|url=https://archive.org/details/abdulbahacentreo0000baly}} {{cite encyclopedia \|last1Bausani \|first1Alessandro \|author1-linkAlessandro Bausani \|last2MacEoin \|first2Denis \|author2-linkDenis MacEoin \|titleʿAbd-al-Bahāʾ \|urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/articles/abd-al-baha \|volumeI/1 \|pages102–104 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica \|publisherColumbia University \|locationNew York \|date14 July 2011 \|orig-year15 December 1982 \|doi10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_4280 \|doi-accessfree \|issn2330-4804 \|access-date25 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121116231933/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abd-al-baha \|archive-date16 November 2012 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{sfnref\|Iranica\|1989}} }} {{citation \|lastBlomfield \|firstLady \|author-linkLady Blomfield \|orig-year1956 \|year1975 \|titleThe Chosen Highway \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationLondon, UK \|isbn0-87743-015-2 \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/blomfield_chosen_highway}} {{citation \|editor-lastBrowne\|editor-firstE.G. \|year1891 \|titleA Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationCambridge, UK \|url=http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/hometn.htm}} {{citation \|firstE.G. \|lastBrowne \|author-linkE.G. Browne \|titleMaterials for the Study of the Bábí Religion \|year1918 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|placeCambridge \|urlhttp://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/material/msbrtoc.htm}} {{cite book \|firstShoghi \|lastEffendi \|author-linkShoghi Effendi \|date1938 \|titleThe World Order of Baháʼu'lláh \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationWilmette, Illinois, USA \|isbn0-87743-231-7 \|url=http://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/shoghi-effendi/world-order-bahaullah/}} {{citation \|firstShoghi \|lastEffendi \|author-linkShoghi Effendi \|year1944 \|titleGod Passes By \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationWilmette, Illinois, USA \|isbn0-87743-020-9 \|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/}} {{citation \|last1Esslemont \|first1J.E. \|author-linkJohn Esslemont \|year1980 \|titleBaháʼu'lláh and the New Era \|edition5th \|publisherBaháʼí Publishing Trust \|locationWilmette, Illinois, USA \|isbn0-87743-160-4 \|urlhttp://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/}} {{citation \|last1Foltz \|first1Richard \|author-linkRichard Foltz \|year2013 \|titleReligions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present \|publisherOneworld Publications \|isbn978-1-85168-336-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=sZRGAQAAQBAJ}} {{citation \|titleNew and Alternative Religions in America \|first1Eugene V. \|last1Gallagher \|first2W. Michael \|last2Ashcraft \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|year2006 \|isbn0-275-98712-4 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoZiScvbS6-cC}} {{citation \|last1Hogenson \|first1Kathryn J. \|year2010 \|titleLighting the Western Sky: The Hearst Pilgrimage & Establishment of the Baha'i Faith in the West \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|isbn978-0-85398-543-3}} {{Citation \|lastKazemzadeh \|firstFiruz \|author-linkFiruz Kazemzadeh \|encyclopediaBaháʼí Encyclopedia Project \|titleʻAbdu'l-Bahá ʻAbbás (1844–1921) \|year2009 \|publisherNational Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States \|locationEvanston, IL \|urlhttp://www.bahai-encyclopedia-project.org/index.php?viewarticle&catid36%3Aadministrationinstitutions&id81%3Aabdul-baha-abbas-1844-1921&optioncom_content&Itemid74}} {{citation \|lastMa'ani \|firstBaharieh Rouhani \|year2008 \|titleLeaves of the Twin Divine Trees \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|locationOxford, UK \|isbn=978-0-85398-533-4}} {{cite book \|first1Marzieh \|last1Gail \|first2Ali-Kuli \|last2Khan \|titleSummon up remembrance \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNBINAAAAIAAJ \|date31 December 1987 \|publisherG. Ronald \|isbn978-0-85398-259-3}} {{Cite web \|lastMcGlinn \|firstSen \|titleAbdu'l-Baha's British knighthood \|workSen McGlinn's Blog \|date22 April 2011 \|urlhttp://senmcglinn.wordpress.com/2011/04/22/abdul-baha-british-knighthood/}} {{citation \|editor-last Momen \|editor-first Moojan \|editor-link Moojan Momen \|year1981 \|titleThe Bábí and Baháʼí Religions, 1844–1944 – Some Contemporary Western Accounts \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|locationOxford, UK \|isbn0-85398-102-7}} {{citation \|lastPhelps \|firstMyron Henry \|titleLife and Teachings of ʻAbbas Effendi \|publisherPutnam \|year1912 \|locationNew York \|isbn978-1-890688-15-8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=WVrQ1gfZPfgC}} {{cite journal \|lastPoostchi \|firstIraj \|titleAdasiyyah: A Study in Agriculture and Rural Development \|date1 April 2010 \|journalBaháʼí Studies Review \|volume16 \|number1 \|pages61–105 \|doi10.1386/bsr.16.61/7 \|urlhttps://www.intellectbooks.co.uk/journals/view-Article,id9368/ \|access-date22 January 2018 \|archive-date22 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180122235049/https://www.intellectbooks.co.uk/journals/view-Article,id9368/ \|url-statusdead }} {{Citation \|lastSmith \|firstPeter \|titleA concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith \|author-linkPeter Smith (historian) \|year2000 \|publisherOneworld Publications \|locationOxford \|isbn1-85168-184-1\|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit}} {{citation \|lastSmith \|firstPeter \|author-linkPeter Smith (historian) \|year2008 \|titleAn Introduction to the Baha'i Faith \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-86251-6 \|locationCambridge \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz7zdDFTzNr0C}} {{cite book \|lastTaherzadeh \|firstAdib \|author-linkAdib Taherzadeh \|year2000 \|titleThe Child of the Covenant \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|locationOxford, UK \|isbn0-85398-439-5}} {{citation \|lastVan den Hoonaard \|firstWilly Carl \|titleThe origins of the Baháʼí community of Canada, 1898–1948 \|publisherWilfrid Laurier Univ. Press \|year1996 \|isbn0-88920-272-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idznXIbkNA1nQC}} Further reading * Lincoln, Joshua (2023). ''Abdu'l-Bahā 'Abbās - Head of The Bahā'ī Faith; A Life in Social and Regional Context. Idra Publishing. <!-- This citation isn't used; should it be removed? -->{{citation \|refnone \|lastZarqáni \|firstMírzá Mahmúd-i- \|orig-year1913 \|year1998 \|titleMahmúd's Diary: Chronicling ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Journey to America \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|locationOxford, UK \|isbn0-85398-418-2 \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/zarqani_mahmuds_diary}} External links {{Commons category\|'Abdu'l-Bahá}} {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha Writings and Talks of ‘Abdu’l‑Bahá] at Bahai.org * {{Librivox author \|id=1310}} * [https://www.bahai.org/exemplar Bahai org: Exemplar], documentary film (2021) * [https://theutteranceproject.com/the-extraordinary-life-of-abdul-baha The Extraordinary Life of 'Abdu'l-Bahá], by the Utterance Project {{S-start}} {{s-rel}} {{s-bef\|before Baháʼu'lláh \|as the Prophet}} {{s-ttl\|title Leader of the Bahá'í Faith\|years 1892–1921}} {{s-aft\|after Shoghi Effendi\|as the Guardian}} {{s-end}} {{Baháʼí}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Abdul-Baha}} Category:1844 births Category:1921 deaths Category:Bahá'í central figures Category:Family of Baháʼu'lláh Category:Burials at Monument Gardens, Haifa Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:19th-century Iranian people Category:20th-century Iranian politicians Category:Iranian religious leaders Category:People from Nur, Iran Category:Iranian emigrants to the Ottoman Empire	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ʻAbdu'l-Bahá	2025-04-05T18:26:15.512727
3020	Ambrose of Alexandria	Ambrose of Alexandria (before 212 – c. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen. Life Ambrose was attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. At first a gnostic Valentinian and Marcionist, Ambrose, through Origen's teaching, eventually rejected this theology and became Origen's constant companion, and was ordained deacon. He plied Origen with questions, and urged him to write his Commentaries (treating him as "" in Commentary on John V,1) on the books of the Bible, and, as a wealthy nobleman and courtier, He suffered during the persecution under the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax in 235. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen's Contra Celsum, which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose. Origen often speaks of Ambrose affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen's works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose, including his On Martyrdom, Contra Celsum, Commentary on St. John's Gospel, and On Prayer. Ambrose's letters to Origen (praised by Jerome) are lost, although part of one exists. Veneration Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Catholic Church falls on 17 March. References Category:Saints from Roman Egypt Category:Egyptian theologians Category:3rd-century Egyptian people Category:250 deaths Category:Christian anti-Gnosticism Category:3rd-century Christian saints Category:Year of birth uncertain	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_of_Alexandria	2025-04-05T18:26:15.517548
3022	Autonomous building	{{short description\|Building designed to be independent from public infrastructure}} {{multiple issues\| {{more citations needed\|date=August 2012}} {{update\|date=January 2025}} }} {{Anti-consumerism\|Theories}} {{use dmy dates\|date=January 2025}} {{use American English\|date=January 2025}} An autonomous building is a hypothetical building designed to be operated independently from infrastructural support services such as the electric power grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, sewage treatment systems, storm drains, communication services, and in some cases, public roads. The literature mostly refers to housing, or the autonomous house. Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of green building, not independence per se (see below). Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised. History 1970s , featuring a recycled bottle wall ]] In the 1970s, groups of activists and engineers were inspired by the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. In the United States, a group calling themselves the New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of "bioshelter" projects, the most famous of which was The Ark bioshelter community for Prince Edward Island. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind-based water pumping and electricity and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, fish tanks raising tilapia for protein, a greenhouse watered with fish water, and a closed-loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks.<ref>{{cite web \| lastRose \| firstSteve \| titleThe New Alchemists: could the past hold the key to sustainable living? \| websiteThe Guardian \| date29 September 2019 \| urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/ng-interactive/2019/sep/29/the-new-alchemists-could-the-past-hold-the-key-to-sustainable-living \| access-date=25 January 2025}}</ref> Around 1975–1977, Australian architect and lecturer at University of Sydney School of Architecture, Col James, in collaboration with urban designer, architect, artist, and university tutor Nick Hollo, designed and built an autonomous house on university grounds, in collaboration with students.<ref>{{cite web\|first1Catherine \|last1De Lorenzo\|first2Cheng \|last2XuNote \|date2011 \| titleNick Hollo: biography \| websiteDesign and Art Australia Online \| urlhttps://www.daao.org.au/bio/nick-hollo/biography/ \| access-date25 January 2025\|quote Date written: 2008; Last updated: 2011}}</ref> This taught self-build sustainability to hundreds of students.<ref>{{cite web \|firstTone \|lastWheeler\| titleDempsey Warehouse: A pioneering model for cooperative housing \| websiteArchitectureAu \| date13 March 2024 \| urlhttps://architectureau.com/articles/dempsey-warehouse-by-marra-and-yeh/ \| access-date25 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| lastStickells \| firstLee \| titleJourneys with the Autonomous House \| journalFabrications \| volume27 \| issue3 \| date2 September 2017 \| issn1033-1867 \| doi10.1080/10331867.2017.1368911 \| pages352–375}}</ref>1990s The 1990s saw the development of Earthships, similar in intent to the Ark project, but organised as a for-profit venture, with construction details published in a series of three books by American architect Mike Reynolds. The building material is tires filled with earth. This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see earth sheltering). Berms are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering. The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power. Some 1990s architects such as William McDonough and Ken Yeang applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building (ING Group's Amsterdam headquarters) in the Netherlands was constructed to be autonomous and artistic as well. 2000s In 2002, British architects Brenda and Robert Vale wrote:<ref>{{cite book \|lastVale \|first Brenda and Robert \|author-linkBrenda and Robert Vale \|title The New Autonomous House\|year2000\|publisher Thames & Hudson Ltd\|locationLondon \|isbn0-500-34176-1 }}</ref><blockquote>It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste...These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a "house with no bills" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller.</blockquote> Advantages As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages. Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs. Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation. An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible green building. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of sustainability through the use of renewable energy and other renewable resources, producing no more greenhouse gases than they consume, and other measures. Disadvantages First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is relatively easy. In contrast, running an efficient, reliable food source can be a chore. Living within an autonomous shelter may also require sacrifices in lifestyle or social opportunities. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous homes could require alterations of residents' behavior. Some may not welcome the extra chores. The Vails described some clients' experiences as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy. An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient windowing, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space. Systems Water system]] There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective. Greywater systems reuse drained wash water to flush toilets or to water lawns and gardens. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump, and secondary plumbing. Some builders are installing waterless urinals and even composting toilets that eliminate water usage in sewage disposal. The classic solution with minimal life-style changes is using a well. Once drilled, a well-foot requires substantial power. However, advanced well-foots can reduce power usage by twofold or more from older models. Well water can be contaminated in some areas. The Sono arsenic filter eliminates unhealthy arsenic in well water. However drilling a well is an uncertain activity, with aquifers depleted in some areas. It can also be expensive. In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use rainwater harvesting, with supplementary water deliveries in a drought. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment. If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutconsensus/en/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040912052010/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutconsensus/en/\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateSeptember 12, 2004\|title=WHO &#124; Nutrient minerals in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-water: Consensus of the meeting<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> Most desert and temperate climates get at least {{convert\|250\|mm\|in}} of rain per year. This means that a typical one-story house with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the driest areas, it might require a cistern of {{convert\|30\|m3\|USgal}}. Many areas average {{convert\|13\|mm\|in}} of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as {{convert\|10\|m3\|USgal}}. In many areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough for drinking.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.uaf.edu/ces/publications/freepubs/HCM-01557.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080517155419/http://www.uaf.edu/ces/publications/freepubs/HCM-01557.pdf\|url-statusdead\|titleCistern Design, University of Alaska, referenced 2007-12-27\|archive-date=May 17, 2008}}</ref> To reduce dirt and bad tastes, systems use a metal collecting-roof and a "roof cleaner" tank that diverts the first 40 liters. Cistern water is usually chlorinated, though reverse osmosis systems provide even better quality drinking water. In the classic Roman house ("Domus"), household water was provided from a cistern (the "impluvium"), which was a decorative feature of the atrium, the house's main public space. It was fed by downspout tiles from the inward-facing roof-opening (the "compluvium"). Often water lilies were grown in it to purify the water. Wealthy households often supplemented the rain with a small fountain fed from a city's cistern. The impluvium always had an overflow drain so it could not flood the house.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Becker\|first1Jefferey\|titleThe Roman House (Domus)\|urlhttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/roman-domestic-architecture-domus\|websiteKhan Academy\|access-date13 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|authorVitruvius\|translator-last1Morgan\|translator-first1Morris Hickey\|titleThe Ten Books of Architecture\|date1914\|publisherHarvard University Press\|page6.3\|urlhttp://academics.triton.edu/faculty/fheitzman/Vitruvius__the_Ten_Books_on_Architecture.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://academics.triton.edu/faculty/fheitzman/Vitruvius__the_Ten_Books_on_Architecture.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|access-date13 May 2018}}</ref> Modern cisterns are usually large plastic tanks. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level. Reducing autonomy reduces the size and expense of cisterns. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below {{convert\|10\|USgal\|L}} per person per day, so that in a drought a month of water can be delivered inexpensively via truck. Self-delivery is often possible by installing fabric water tanks that fit the bed of a pick-up truck. It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a heat pump or air conditioning system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years may decrease the efficiency of the HVAC system. Solar stills can efficiently produce drinking water from ditch water or cistern water, especially high-efficiency multiple effect humidification designs, which separate the evaporator(s) and condenser(s). New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Watermakers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water. Sewage {{see also\|Anaerobic digestion}} Resource Composting toilets use bacteria to decompose human feces into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste. Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "humanure" for growing food.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure\|last Jenkins\|firstJ.C. \|year 2005\|publisherJoseph Jenkins, Inc.; 3rd edition\|locationGrove City, PA \|isbn978-0-9644258-3-5\|pages255 \|urlhttp://www.humanurehandbook.com \|access-date24 February 2019}}</ref> The risk is microbial and viral contamination, as well as heavy metal toxicity. In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months. To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.<ref>See composting toilet for references.</ref> Some home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that absorb nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor- and color-free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large aquarium. Electric incinerating toilets turn excrement into a small amount of ash. They are cool to the touch, have no water and no pipes, and require an air vent in a wall. They are used in remote areas where use of septic tanks is limited, usually to reduce nutrient loads in lakes. NASA's bioreactor is an extremely advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the crewed Mars mission. Another method is NASA's urine-to-water distillation system. A big disadvantage of complex biological sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system biota may starve to death. Waste Sewage handling is essential for public health. Many diseases are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems. The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a septic tank. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary sewage treatment. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe. Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing non-digestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended. However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices. Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices. Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste. Traditional methods of sewage handling include pit toilets, latrines, and outhouses. These can be safe, inexpensive and practical. They are still used in many regions. Storm drains Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point. Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with stormwater. In some cities, such as the Victorian era London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water. Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways. If a water-absorbing swale for each yard is combined with permeable concrete streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than $800 per house (1970s) by eliminating storm drains.<ref>Swales replacing drains: Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins and Hunter Lovins, "Natural Capitalism," ch. 5, p. 83. The cited development is Village Homes, Davis, California, built in the 1970s by Michael and Judy Corbett</ref> One way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping. Additionally, a green roof captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof. Electricity , UK]] {{Further\|Zero emissions\|Zero-energy building}} Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards autonomy is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand. LED lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save electricity, although gas-powered refrigerators are not very efficient.<ref>Sunfrost rates {{convert\|15\|cuft\|L\|abbr=on}}. refrigerators at [http://www.sunfrost.com/extreme_efficiency.html 0.27 kWh/day] (2007-12-27), while Dometic brand (formerly Servel brand) gas refrigerators cool only {{convert\|8\|cuft}} for [http://www.sunfrost.com/extreme_efficiency.html 325 W continuous] (i.e. 7.8 kWh/day) ALternatively, they use about {{convert\|8\|USgal}} of LP gas per month, which in most places is more expensive than the equivalent electricity.(2007-12-27)</ref> There are also superefficient electric refrigerators, such as those produced by the Sun Frost company, some of which use only about half as much electricity as a mass-market energy star-rated refrigerator. Using a solar roof, solar cells can provide electric power. Solar roofs can be more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas. At a sufficient angle, solar cells are cleaned by run-off rain water and therefore have almost no life-style impact. Many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself or large battery storage systems are necessary to achieve electric self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Ramirez Camargo\|first1Luis\|last2Nitsch\|first2Felix\|last3Gruber\|first3Katharina\|last4Dorner\|first4Wolfgang\|date2018-10-15\|titleElectricity self-sufficiency of single-family houses in Germany and the Czech Republic\|journalApplied Energy\|languageen\|volume228\|pages902–915\|doi10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.118\|issn0306-2619\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode2018ApEn..228..902R }}</ref> In stormy or windy climates, wind turbines can replace or significantly supplement solar power.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Ramirez Camargo\|first1Luis\|last2Nitsch\|first2Felix\|last3Gruber\|first3Katharina\|last4Valdes\|first4Javier\|last5Wuth\|first5Jane\|last6Dorner\|first6Wolfgang\|dateJanuary 2019\|titlePotential Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Self-Sufficient Residential Use in Germany and the Czech Republic\|journalEnergies\|languageen\|volume12\|issue21\|pages4185\|doi10.3390/en12214185\|doi-access=free}}</ref> The average autonomous house needs only one small wind turbine, 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100-foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service. The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. Turbine location is critical: just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, many areas lack enough wind to make a turbine pay for itself. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33-foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site survey.<ref name="Gipe">Paul Gipe, "Wind Power for Home and Business"</ref> Some sites have access to a stream with a change in elevation. These sites can use small hydropower systems to generate electricity. If the difference in elevation is above 30 metres (100 feet), and the stream runs in all seasons, this can provide continuous power with a small, inexpensive installation. Lower changes of elevation require larger installations or dams, and can be less efficient. Clogging at the turbine intake can be a practical problem. The usual solution is a small pool and waterfall (a penstock) to carry away floating debris. Another solution is to utilize a turbine that resists debris, such as a Gorlov helical turbine or Ossberger turbine. During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expenses can be eliminated by attaching the building to the electric power grid and operating the power system with net metering. Utility permission is required, but such cooperative generation is legally mandated in some areas (for example, California).<ref name="Gipe"/> A grid-based building is less autonomous, but more economical and sustainable with fewer lifestyle sacrifices. In rural areas the grid's cost and impacts can be reduced by using single-wire earth return systems (for example, the MALT-system). In areas that lack access to the grid, battery size can be reduced with a generator to recharge the batteries during energy droughts such as extended fogs. Auxiliary generators are usually run from propane, natural gas, or sometimes diesel. An hour of charging usually provides a day of operation. Modern residential chargers permit the user to set the charging times, so the generator is quiet at night. Some generators automatically test themselves once per week.<ref>[http://www.eaton.com Eaton power]; see the specifications and manuals. Referenced 2007-12-27</ref><ref>[http://www.KohlerSmartPower.com Kohler Generators]; see the specifications and manuals. Referenced 2007-12-27</ref> Recent advances in passively stable magnetic bearings may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Research groups like Canada's Ballard Power Systems are also working to develop a "regenerative fuel cell", a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed. Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called telluric current. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical. Microbial fuel cells and thermoelectric generators<ref>{{cite web\|titleBiolite Portable Stoves\|urlhttps://www.bioliteenergy.com/collections/stoves\|websitebioliteenergy.com\|publisherBiolite\|access-date12 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleFirebee:Charge your USB Device!\|urlhttp://firebeecharger.com/\|websitefirebeecharger.com\|publisherFirebee\|access-date12 May 2018}}</ref> allow electricity to be generated from biomass. The plant can be dried, chopped and converted or burned as a whole, or it can be left alive so that waste saps from the plant can be converted by bacteria. Heating Most autonomous buildings are designed to use insulation, thermal mass and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples of these are trombe walls and other technologies as skylights. Passive solar heating can heat most buildings in even the mild and chilly climates. In colder climates, extra construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact. The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the solar collectors must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the Northern Hemisphere, north in the Southern Hemisphere), and the building must incorporate thermal mass to keep it warm in the night. A recent, somewhat experimental solar heating system "Annualized geo solar heating" is practical even in regions that get little or no sunlight in winter.<ref name"Stephens">Stephens, Don. September 2005. [http://www.greenershelter.com/TokyoPaper.pdf "'Annualized Geo-Solar Heating' as a Sustainable Residential-scale Solution for Temperate Climates with Less than Ideal Daily Heating Season Solar Availability."] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061031115210/http://www.greenershelter.com/TokyoPaper.pdf \|date=2006-10-31 }} ("Requested Paper for the Global Sustainable Building Conference 2005, Tokyo, Japan"). Greenershelter.org website. Retrieved on 2007-09-16.</ref> It uses the ground beneath a building for thermal mass. Precipitation can carry away the heat, so the ground is shielded with {{nowrap\|6 m}} skirts of plastic insulation. The thermal mass of this system is sufficiently inexpensive and large that it can store enough summer heat to warm a building for the whole winter, and enough winter cold to cool the building in summer. In annualized geo solar systems, the solar collector is often separate from (and hotter or colder than) the living space. The building may actually be constructed from insulation, for example, straw-bale construction. Some buildings have been aerodynamically designed so that convection via ducts and interior spaces eliminates any need for electric fans. A more modest "daily solar" design is practical. For example, for about a 15% premium in building costs, the Passivhaus building codes in Europe use high performance insulating windows, R-30 insulation, HRV ventilation, and a small thermal mass. With modest changes in the building's position, modern krypton- or argon-insulated windows permit normal-looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising insulation or structural strength. If a small heater is available for the coldest nights, a slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required thermal mass. Passivhaus building codes, in particular, bring unusually good interior air quality, because the buildings change the air several times per hour, passing it through a heat exchanger to keep heat inside. In all systems, a small supplementary heater increases personal security and reduces lifestyle impacts for a small reduction of autonomy. The two most popular heaters for ultra-high-efficiency houses are a small heat pump, which also provides air conditioning, or a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater. Passivhaus designs usually integrate the heater with the ventilation system. Earth sheltering and windbreaks can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from {{convert\|4\|C\|F\|abbron}} in North Dakota to {{convert\|26\|C\|F\|abbron}},<ref name="Stephens"/> in Southern Florida. Wind breaks reduce the amount of heat carried away from a building. Rounded, aerodynamic buildings also lose less heat. An increasing number of commercial buildings use a combined cycle with cogeneration to provide heating, often water heating, from the output of a natural gas reciprocating engine, gas turbine or stirling electric generator.<ref>[http://www.microturbine.com/_docs/WCEMC04.pdf Capstone Microturbine White-Paper (PDF) Retrieved on 2007-12-28.] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070813123637/http://www.microturbine.com/_docs/WCEMC04.pdf \|dateAugust 13, 2007 }}</ref> Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat and power from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms. Electric heaters and electric stoves may provide pollution-free heat (depending on the power source), but use large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical autonomous design. Water heating {{Further\|Solar hot water}} Hot water heat recycling units recover heat from water drain lines. They increase a building's autonomy by decreasing the heat or fuel used to heat water. They are attractive because they have no lifestyle changes. Current practical, comfortable domestic water-heating systems combine a solar preheating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy. Solar water heaters can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. Pure solar heaters are especially useful for laundries, swimming pools and external baths, because these can be scheduled for use on sunny days. The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are vacuum- insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight. Cogeneration systems produce hot water from waste heat. They usually get the heat from the exhaust of a generator or fuel cell. Heat recycling, cogeneration and solar pre-heating can save 50–75% of the gas otherwise used. Also, some combinations provide redundant reliability by having several sources of heat. Some authorities advocate replacing bottled gas or natural gas with biogas. However, this is usually impractical unless live-stock are on-site. The wastes of a single family are usually insufficient to produce enough methane for anything more than small amounts of cooking. Cooling Annualized geo solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend {{convert\|6\|m\|ft}} from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface. Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs. Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, perhaps with a whole-house fan and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky-facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky-facing radiators can cool below freezing. If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the "dome effect." Many installations have reported that a reflective or light-colored dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some people have reported a temperature differential as high as {{nowrap\|8 °C}} ({{nowrap\|15 °F}}) between the inside of the dome and the outside. Buckminster Fuller discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his Dymaxion house and geodesic domes to use it. Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an "absorptive chiller". The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space. Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or stirling engines powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller. A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator. A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low-temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50&nbsp;°F (28&nbsp;°C), and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, it also partially sterilises to the air. If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a heat pump. Food production Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security.<ref name"publications">[http://nature.my.cape.com/greencenter/pubonline.html Publications list of the New Alchemy Institute] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100217004825/http://nature.my.cape.com/greencenter/pubonline.html \|date=February 17, 2010 }}. Retrieved 2010-02-05.</ref> Skilled, intensive gardening can support an adult from as little as 100 square meters of land per person,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.pathtofreedom.com/urban-homestead#%23Urban%20Homestead%20at%20a%20Glance%23\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100204130925/http://www.pathtofreedom.com/urban-homestead#%23Urban%20Homestead%20at%20a%20Glance%23\|url-statusdead\|titlePath of Freedom\|archive-date=February 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>How to Grow a Complete Diet in Less Than 1000 Square Feet Dave Duhon & Cindy Gebhard, 1984, 200 pp. Ecology Action GROW BIOINTENSIVE(R) Publications</ref> possibly requiring the use of organic farming and aeroponics. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include urban gardening (indoors and outdoors). Indoor cultivation may be set up using hydroponics, while outdoor cultivation may be done using permaculture, forest gardening, no-till farming, and do nothing farming. Greenhouses are also sometimes included.<ref name"publications"/><ref>The PEI Ark was a greenhouse with fishponds and living quarters.</ref> Sometimes they are also outfitted with irrigation systems or heat sink systems which can respectively irrigate the plants or help to store energy from the sun and redistribute it at night (when the greenhouses starts to cool down).<ref name"publications"/><ref>The PEI Ark used its fishponds as both thermal mass and water storage.</ref> See also {{Columns-list\|colwidth=15em\| * {{Annotated link \|Arcology}} * {{Annotated link \|Appropriate technology}} * {{Annotated link \|Architectural engineering}} * {{Annotated link \|Biosphere}} * {{Annotated link \|Biosphere 2}} * {{Annotated link \|BIOS-3}} * {{Annotated link \|Building}} * {{Annotated link \|Brenda and Robert Vale}} * {{Annotated link \|Commercial modular construction}} * {{Annotated link \|Detention basin}} * {{Annotated link \|Earthship}} * {{Annotated link \|Ecovillage}} * {{Annotated link \|Environmental engineering}} * {{Annotated link \|Green building}} * {{Annotated link \|Hydrogen station}} * {{Annotated link \|In-situ resource utilization}} * {{Annotated link \|Microgeneration}} * {{Annotated link \|Passive house}} * {{Annotated link \|Quadruple glazing}} * {{Annotated link \|Renewable heat}} * {{Annotated link \|Street Farm}} * {{Annotated link \|Solar combisystem}} * {{Annotated link \|Vertical farming}} * {{Annotated link \|Zero-energy building}} * {{Annotated link \|Zero heating building}} }} Notes {{Reflist\|32em}} External links * [https://www.bfi.org/ Buckminster Fuller Institute] [https://www.greenspec.co.uk/ GreenSpec], a UK resources site which endorses green building products, systems, and services {{cite book \| lastGipe \| firstP. \| titleWind Power: Renewable Energy for Home, Farm, and Business \| publisherChelsea Green Publishing Company \| year2004 \| isbn978-1-931498-14-2 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRNvHAgAAQBAJ}} * Brenda and Robert Vale. [https://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1906 Sustainable development begins at home]. March 15, 2002. *[https://portreepassivhaus.uk/cropthorne/design/ The Cropthorne House] (December 28, 2009) {{HVAC}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Autonomous Building}} Category:Building engineering Category:Human habitats Category:Low-energy building Category:Sustainable architecture Category:Sustainable building Category:Self-sustainability Category:Building Category:Buildings and structures	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_building	2025-04-05T18:26:15.536734
3027	Anubis	{{short description\|Ancient Egyptian god of funerary rites}} {{About\|the Egyptian god}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2015}} {{Infobox deity \| type = Egyptian \| name = Anubis \| image = Anubis standing.svg \| image_upright = .7 \| caption = The Egyptian god Anubis,<br>(a modern rendition inspired by New Kingdom tomb paintings) \| hiero = <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero> \| cult_center = Lycopolis, Cynopolis \| symbol = Mummy gauze, fetish, jackal, flail \| parents =Nephthys and Osiris {{small\|(Middle and New kingdom)}}, or Ra {{small\|(Old kingdom)}}, or Set {{small\|(disputed)<ref>Doxey, Denise (2001). Anubis. In: In D. Redford, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. I.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.98.</ref>}} \| consort Anput, Nephthys<ref name"Lévai 2007">{{Cite book\|lastLévai\|firstJessica\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idC7vTAQAACAAJ&qlevai+jessica+aspects+of+nephthys\|titleAspects of the Goddess Nephthys, Especially During the Graeco-Roman Period in Egypt\|date2007\|publisherUMI\|languageen\|access-date15 November 2021\|archive-date3 April 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230403005225/https://books.google.com/books?idC7vTAQAACAAJ&qlevai+jessica+aspects+of+nephthys\|url-status=live}}</ref> \| offspring = Kebechet \| siblings = Bata \| Greek_equivalent = Hades or Hermes }} {{Ancient Egyptian religion}} Anubis ({{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|nj\|uː\|b\|ᵻ\|s}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{langx\|grc\|Ἄνουβις}}), also known as Inpu, Inpw, Jnpw, or Anpu in Ancient Egyptian ({{Langx\|cop\|ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ\|translitAnoup}}), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld, in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine head.<ref name":02">{{Cite book \|lastTurner \|firstAlice K. \|titleThe History of Hell \|publisherHarcourt Brace \|year1993 \|isbn978-0-15-140934-1 \|edition1st \|locationUnited States \|pages13 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the First Dynasty ({{Circa\|3100\|2890 BC}}), Anubis was also an embalmer. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by Osiris in his role as lord of the underworld. One of his prominent roles was as a god who ushered souls into the afterlife. He attended the weighing scale during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the Egyptian pantheon; however, few major myths involved him.{{sfn\|Johnston\|2004\|p=579}} Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the Nile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with Wepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.{{sfn\|Gryglewski\|2002\|p145}} Anubis' female counterpart is Anput. His daughter is the serpent goddess Kebechet.Name"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's Egyptian name.{{sfn\|Coulter\|Turner\|2000\|p58}}<ref name"AE.net" /> Before the Greeks arrived in Egypt, around the 7th century BC, the god was known as Anpu or Inpu. The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means "a royal child." Inpu has a root to "inp", which means "to decay." The god was also known as "First of the Westerners," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain," "Ruler of the Nine Bows," "The Dog who Swallows Millions," "Master of Secrets," "He Who is in the Place of Embalming," and "Foremost of the Divine Booth."<ref name":1">{{Cite encyclopedia\|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/\|titleAnubis\|encyclopediaWorld History Encyclopedia\|access-date2018-11-18\|archive-date20 May 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230520045846/https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."<ref name":2">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931\|titleAnubis\|date2018\|websiteEncyclopaedia Britannica\|access-date2018-12-03\|archive-date27 March 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327135951/https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the Old Kingdom ({{Circa\|2686 BC\|2181 BC}}), the standard way of writing his name in hieroglyphs was composed of the sound signs inpw followed by a jackal{{efn\|The canid which Anubis was modeled upon has frequently been stated to have been the golden jackal, though the African variant of this animal present in Egypt was reclassified in 2015 as a separate species now known as the African wolf, which was found to be more closely related to wolves and coyotes than to the jackal.<ref nameKoepfli-2015>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060\|pmid26234211\|titleGenome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species\|journalCurrent Biology\|volume25 \|issue#16 \|pages2158–65 \|year2015 \|last1Koepfli \|first1Klaus-Peter \|last2Pollinger \|first2John \|last3Godinho \|first3Raquel \|last4Robinson \|first4Jacqueline \|last5Lea\|first5Amanda \|last6Hendricks\|first6Sarah\|last7Schweizer\|first7Rena M.\|last8Thalmann\|first8Olaf\|last9Silva\|first9Pedro\|last10Fan\|first10Zhenxin\|last11Yurchenko\|first11Andrey A.\|last12Dobrynin\|first12Pavel\|last13Makunin\|first13Alexey\|last14Cahill\|first14James A.\|last15Shapiro\|first15Beth\|last16Álvares\|first16Francisco\|last17Brito\|first17José C.\|last18Geffen\|first18Eli\|last19Leonard\|first19Jennifer A.\|last20Helgen\|first20Kristofer M.\|last21Johnson\|first21Warren E.\|last22o'Brien\|first22Stephen J.\|last23Van Valkenburgh\|first23Blaire\|last24Wayne\|first24Robert K.\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode2015CBio...25.2158K }}</ref> Some authors have opined that Anubis is more probably modeled after a fox<ref>Osborn, D. & Helmy, I. (1980). "Canis aureus lupaster (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)". The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai). Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. pp. 360–371</ref> or Ethiopian wolf.<ref>Clutton-Brock, J. (1996). "Competitors, Companions, Status Symbols, or Pests: A Review of Human Associations with Other Carnivores". Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 348</ref> Nevertheless, ancient Greek texts about Anubis consistently refer to the deity as having the head of a dog rather than that of any wild canid, and there is still uncertainty as to what species represents Anubis. Therefore the Name and History section uses the names the original sources used but in quotation marks.}} over a ḥtp sign:{{sfn\|Leprohon\|1990\|p164, citing {{harvnb\|Fischer\|1968\|p84}} and {{harvnb\|Lapp\|1986\|pp8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:{{sfn\|Leprohon\|1990\|p164, citing {{harvnb\|Fischer\|1968\|p84}} and {{harvnb\|Lapp\|1986\|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero> Anubis' name jnpw was possibly pronounced {{IPA\|[aˈna.pʰa(w)]}}, based on Coptic Anoup and the Akkadian transcription {{transl\|akk-x-midbabyl\|{{angbr\|a-na-pa}}}} ({{lang\|akk-x-midbabyl\|{{cuneiform\|10\|𒀀𒈾𒉺}}}}) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "Reanapa" that appears in Amarna letter EA 315.{{sfn\|Conder\|1894\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idOzIB5P77q8UC&pgPA85 85]}}<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectIDP270941\|titleCDLI-Archival View\|websitecdli.ucla.edu\|access-date2017-09-20\|archive-date21 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170921002124/http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectIDP270941\|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, this transcription may also be interpreted as rˁ-nfr, a name similar to that of Prince Ranefer of the Fourth Dynasty. History In Egypt's Early Dynastic period ({{Circa\|3100\|2686 BC}}), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "jackal" head and body.{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|1999\|p262}} A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of Hor-Aha, Djer, and other pharaohs of the First Dynasty.{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|1999\|pp280–81}} Since Predynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh.{{sfnm\|Wilkinson\|1999\|1p262 (burials in shallow graves in Predynastic Egypt)\|Freeman\|1997\|2p91 (rest of the information)}} In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation."{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|1999\|p=262 ("fighting like with like" and "by jackals and other wild dogs")}} In the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1700 BC).{{sfn\|Freeman\|1997\|p91}} In the Roman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.{{sfn\|Riggs\|2005\|pp166–67}} The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra.{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p25}} In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet.{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p26}} Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys.{{Sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p25}} More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.<ref>Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.</ref> The Greek Plutarch (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife Isis:{{sfn\|Gryglewski\|2002\|p146}} {{blockquote\|source\|For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys – she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear of Set; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.\|author}} George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon."{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p26}} An Egyptian papyrus from the Roman period (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p26}} In Nubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.<ref name="Lévai 2007"/> in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia.]] In the Ptolemaic period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis.{{sfn\|Peacock\|2000\|pp437–38 (Hellenistic kingdom)}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English \|titleHermanubis {{pipe}} English {{pipe}} Dictionary & Translation by Babylon \|publisherBabylon.com \|access-date15 June 2012 \|archive-date4 March 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304194619/http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The two gods were considered similar because they both guided souls to the afterlife.{{sfn\|Riggs\|2005\|p=166}} The center of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of The Golden Ass by Apuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in Rome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens and Cerberus and Hades in the underworld.{{sfn\|Hoerber\|1963\|p269 (for Cerberus and Hades)}} In his dialogues, Plato often has Socrates utter oaths "by the dog" (Greek: kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.<ref>E.g., Gorgias, 482b ({{harvnb\|Blackwood\|Crossett\|Long\|1962\|p318}}), or The Republic, 399e, 567e, 592a ({{harvnb\|Hoerber\|1963\|p268}}).</ref>RolesEmbalmerof the deceased.\|upright1]] As jmy-wt (Imiut or the Imiut fetish) "He who is in the place of embalming", Anubis was associated with mummification. He was also called ḫnty zḥ-nṯr "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber.{{sfnm\|Hart\|1986\|1pp23–24\|Wilkinson\|2003\|2pp188–90}}<ref name=":0" /> In the Osiris myth, Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris.{{sfn\|Freeman\|1997\|p91}} Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris's organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from the Book of the Dead often show a wolf-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy.Protector of tombs ceremony being performed on a mummy before the tomb. Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased. Extract from the Papyrus of Hunefer, a 19th-Dynasty Book of the Dead (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 BC)]] Anubis was a protector of graves and cemeteries. Several epithets attached to his name in Egyptian texts and inscriptions referred to that role. Khenty-Amentiu, which means "foremost of the westerners" and was also the name of a different canine funerary god, alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p23}} He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as tpy-ḏw.f (Tepy-djuef) "He who is upon his mountain" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) and nb-t3-ḏsr (Neb-ta-djeser) "Lord of the sacred land", which designates him as a god of the desert necropolis.{{sfnm\|Hart\|1986\|1pp23–24\|Wilkinson\|2003\|2pp188–90}}<ref name":0">{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_bqZBAAAQBAJ&qtpy%20Dw%20f&pgPA262\|titleCommunity and Identity in Ancient Egypt: The Old Kingdom Cemetery at Qubbet el-Hawa\|lastVischak\|firstDeborah\|date2014-10-27\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9781107027602\|language=en}}</ref> The Jumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a leopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he branded Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then flayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the tombs of the dead.{{sfn\|Armour\|2001}} Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.{{sfn\|Zandee\|1960\|p=255}} Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Gods of Ancient Egypt – Anubis\|urlhttp://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm\|publishertouregypt.net\|access-date29 June 2014\|archive-date7 September 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180907052820/http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Guide of souls . Anubis is portrayed as guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of the ibis-headed Thoth.\|left]] By the late pharaonic era (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the afterlife.{{sfnm\|Kinsley\|1989\|1p178\|Riggs\|2005\|2p166 ("The motif of Anubis, or less frequently Hathor, leading the deceased to the afterlife was well-established in Egyptian art and thought by the end of the pharaonic era.")}} Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed Hathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function.{{sfn\|Riggs\|2005\|pp127 and 166}} Greek writers from the Roman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "psychopomp", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god Hermes, who also played that role in Greek religion.{{sfn\|Riggs\|2005\|p166}} Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.{{sfn\|Riggs\|2005\|pp127–28 and 166–67}}Weigher of heartsOne of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales."{{sfn\|Faulkner\|Andrews\|Wasserman\|2008\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idLa9K8fp-BcMC&dqanubis+scales&pgPA155 155]}} The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the Book of the Dead, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the underworld, known as Duat). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against ''ma'at'', who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by Ammit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.<ref>{{cite web\|titleMuseum Explorer / Death in Ancient Egypt&nbsp;– Weighing the heart\|publisherBritish Museum\|urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx\|access-date23 June 2014\|archive-date11 October 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151011154408/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/book_of_the_dead_of_ani.aspx\|titleGods of Ancient Egypt: Anubis\|publisherBritishmuseum.org\|access-date15 June 2012\|archive-date31 October 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151031115200/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/book_of_the_dead_of_ani.aspx\|url-statuslive}}<!-- Bot generated title --></ref>Portrayal in artAnubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in ancient Egyptian art.{{sfn\|Johnston\|2004\|p579}} He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the First Dynasty.<ref name":1" /> The god is typically treating a king's corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at the Weighing of the Heart of the Soul in the Hall of Two Truths.<ref name":2" /> One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma'at's white truth feather.<ref name=":1" /> ) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings.]] In the early dynastic period, he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine.{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|1999\|p263}} Anubis's distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings.{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p22}} It represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with natron and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification."{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p22}} Being the color of the fertile silt of the River Nile, to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.{{sfnm\|Hart\|1986\|1p22\|Freeman\|1997\|2p91}} In the Middle Kingdom, Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.<ref name"Egyptianmyths.net">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm \|titleAncient Egypt: the Mythology&nbsp;– Anubis \|publisherEgyptianmyths.net \|access-date15 June 2012 \|archive-date17 December 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181217043136/http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The African jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis.<ref>{{cite book \|authorRemler, P. \|titleEgyptian Mythology, A to Z \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2010 \|isbn978-1438131801 \|location\|page99 \|chapter\|chapter-url}}</ref> An extremely rare depiction of him in fully human form was found in a chapel of Ramesses II in Abydos.{{sfn\|Hart\|1986\|p22}}<ref name"AE.net">{{cite web\|titleGods and Religion in Ancient Egypt&nbsp;– Anubis \|urlhttp://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021227200957/http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date27 December 2002 \|access-date23 June 2012 }}</ref> Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a nḫ3ḫ3 "flail" in the crook of his arm.<ref name"Egyptianmyths.net"/> Another of Anubis's attributes was the jmy-wt or imiut fetish, named for his role in embalming.{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|1999\|p281}} In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person's mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. New Kingdom tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the nine bows that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.{{sfn\|Wilkinson\|2003\|pp=188–90}} <gallery widths"170" heights"170" class="center"> File:Anubis, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 20220618 1030 6992.jpg\|Statue of Anubis File:KV17, the tomb of Pharaoh Seti I of the Nineteenth Dynasty, Valley of the Kings, Egypt (49845804653).jpg\|Wall relief of Anubis in (KV17) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings File:ThebanTomb335.png\|alt=Fresco of a mummy lying on a bier. Women stand at the head and foot of the bier, while a winged woman kneels in the register above\|Isis, left, and Nephthys stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC File:Hermitage hall 100 - Egyptian hall 46.jpg\|Anubis receiving offerings, hieroglyph name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from Saqqara (Egypt) File:Tutankhamun jackal.jpg\|The Anubis Shrine; 1336–1327&nbsp;BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52&nbsp;m; from the Valley of the Kings; Egyptian Museum (Cairo) File:Anubis, Anzio, Villa Pamphili, 1st-2nd century AD, Pario marble - Museo Gregoriano Egizio - Vatican Museums - DSC00818.jpg\|Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from Rome<ref>{{cite book \|last1Campbell \|first1Price \|titleAncient Egypt - Pocket Museum \|date2018 \|publisherThames & Hudson \|isbn978-0-500-51984-4 \|page266 \|languageen}}</ref> File:Casa degli Amorini Dorati. Fresco. 09.JPG\|Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy File:Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis MET 90.6.128 01.jpg\|Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis File:The King with Anubis, Tomb of Haremhab MET DP234736.jpg\|The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Anubis Amulet MET DP109371.jpg\|Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Recumbent Anubis MET DP228716.jpg\|Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1&nbsp;cm, length: 64&nbsp;cm, width: 16.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Statuette of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg\|Statuette of Anubis; 332–30&nbsp;BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art </gallery> Worship Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures.<ref name":1" /> The Greeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as Hermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.<ref name":1" /> Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals.<ref name":1" /><ref name":2" /> His cult center was at Cynopolis in Upper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.<ref name":1" /> See also * Abatur, Mandaean uthra who weighs the souls of the dead to determine their fate * {{section link\|Animal mummy\|Miscellaneous animals}} * Anput * Anubias * Bhairava * Hades References was depicted as Anubis]] Informational notes {{notelist}} Citations {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{Refbegin\|30em}} * {{citation\|last1Armour\|first1Robert A.\|titleGods and Myths of Ancient Egypt\|locationCairo, Egypt\|publisherAmerican University in Cairo Press\|year2001}} * {{citation\|last1Blackwood\|first1Russell\|last2Crossett\|first2John\|last3Long\|first3Herbert\|year1962\|titleGorgias 482b\|journalThe Classical Journal\|volume57\|issue7\|pages318–19\|jstor3295283\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastConder\|firstClaude Reignier (trans.)\|author-linkClaude Reignier Conder\|year1894\|orig-year1893\|titleThe Tell Amarna Tablets\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOzIB5P77q8UC\|locationLondon\|publisherPublished for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund by A.P. Watt\|postscript.\|editionSecond\|isbn=978-1-4147-0156-1}} * {{citation \|last1Coulter\|first1Charles Russell\|last2Turner\|first2Patricia\|titleEncyclopedia of Ancient Deities \|locationJefferson (NC) and London\|publisherMcFarland \|year2000 \|isbn978-0-7864-0317-2 \|postscript.}} * {{citation\|last1Faulkner\|first1Raymond O.\|titleThe Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day\|year2008\|publisherChronicle Books\|isbn978-0-8118-6489-3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLa9K8fp-BcMC\|first2Carol\|last2Andrews \|first3James\|last3Wasserman\|postscript=.}} * {{citation\|lastFischer\|firstHenry George\|year1968\|titleDendera in the Third Millennium B. C., Down to the Theban Domination of Upper Egypt\|locationLondon\|publisherJ.J. Augustin\|postscript.\|title-linkDendera Temple complex}} * {{citation\|lastFreeman\|firstCharles\|year1997\|titleThe Legacy of Ancient Egypt\|locationNew York\|publisherFacts on File\|isbn978-0-816-03656-1\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastGryglewski\|firstRyszard W.\|year2002\|titleMedical and Religious Aspects of Mummification in Ancient Egypt\|urlhttp://yadda.icm.edu.pl/bazhum/element/bwmeta1.element.dl-catalog-fc7b5edc-78d2-450b-a88d-c42557950ea9/c/Organon-r2002-t31-s128-148.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/bazhum/element/bwmeta1.element.dl-catalog-fc7b5edc-78d2-450b-a88d-c42557950ea9/c/Organon-r2002-t31-s128-148.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalOrganon\|volume31\|issue31\|pages128–48\|pmid15017968\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastHart\|firstGeorge\|year1986\|titleA Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul\|isbn978-0-415-34495-1\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastHoerber\|firstRobert G.\|year1963\|titleThe Socratic Oath 'By the Dog'\|journalThe Classical Journal\|volume58\|issue6\|pages268–69\|jstor3293989\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastJohnston\|firstSarah Iles (general ed.)\|year2004\|titleReligions of the Ancient World: A Guide\|locationCambridge, MA\|publisherBelknap Press\|isbn978-0-674-01517-3\|postscript.}} * {{citation\|lastKinsley\|firstDavid\|year1989\|titleThe Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West\|locationAlbany (NY)\|publisherState University of New York Press\|isbn978-0-88706-835-5\|typepaperback}} * {{citation\|lastLapp\|firstGünther\|year1986\|titleDie Opferformel des Alten Reiches: unter Berücksichtigung einiger späterer Formen\|trans-titleThe offering formula of the Old Kingdom: considering a few later forms\|locationMainz am Rhein\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide1crAAAAMAAJ\|publisherZabern\|isbn978-3805308724\|postscript=.}} * {{citation\|lastLeprohon\|firstRonald J.\|year1990\|titleThe Offering Formula in the First Intermediate Period\|journalThe Journal of Egyptian Archaeology\|volume76\|pages163–64\|jstor3822017\|postscript.\|doi10.1177/030751339007600115\|s2cid=192258122}} * {{citation\|lastPeacock\|firstDavid\|year2000\|chapterThe Roman Period\|editor-lastShaw\|editor-firstIan\|editor-linkIan Shaw (Egyptologist)\|titleThe Oxford History of Ancient Egypt\|publisherOxford University Press\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id092jP1lBhtoC&qThe+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt\|isbn978-0-19-815034-3\|postscript.\|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw}} * {{citation\|author-linkChristina Riggs\|lastRiggs\|firstChristina\|year2005\|titleThe Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity, and Funerary Religion\|locationOxford and New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{citation\|lastWilkinson\|firstRichard H.\|titleThe Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt\|publisherThames & Hudson\|locationLondon\|year2003\|isbn978-0-500-05120-7\|postscript.\|url=https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0}} * {{citation\|lastWilkinson\|firstToby A. H.\|year1999\|titleEarly Dynastic Egypt\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge}} * {{citation\|lastZandee\|firstJan\|titleDeath as an Enemy: According to Ancient Egyptian Conceptions\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDLo3AAAAIAAJ&pgPA225\|year1960\|publisherBrill Archive\|id=GGKEY:A7N6PJCAF5Q}} {{Refend}} Further reading * {{cite book\|lastDuquesne \|firstTerence \|titleThe Jackal Divinities of Egypt I \|year2005 \|publisherDarengo Publications \|isbn978-1-871266-24-5 }} * {{cite book \|author1-lastEl-Sadeek \|author1-firstWafaa \|author2-lastAbdel Razek \|author2-firstSabah \|titleAnubis, Upwawet, and Other Deities: Personal Worship and Official Religion in Ancient Egypt \|year2007 \|publisherAmerican University in Cairo Press \|isbn978-977-437-231-5}} * {{cite book \|lastGrenier \|firstJ.-C. \|titleAnubis alexandrin et romain \|languagefr \|year1977 \|publisherE. J. Brill \|isbn978-90-04-04917-8 }}External links {{commons category-inline}} {{wiktionary-inline\|Anubis}} {{Ancient Egyptian religion footer}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Ancient Egypt\|Mythology\|Religion}} Category:Canine deities Category:Animal gods Category:Egyptian death gods Category:Egyptian underworld Category:Mythological human hybrids Category:Psychopomps Category:Underworld gods Category:Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anubis	2025-04-05T18:26:15.559745
3029	Arthur Jensen	{{Short description\|Professor of educational psychology (1923–2012)}} {{for-multi\|the Danish actor\|Arthur Jensen (actor)\|the New Zealand musician and composer\|Arthur Owen Jensen\|other uses}} {{use mdy dates\|date=September 2021}} {{Use American English\|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox scientist \| name = Arthur Jensen \| birth_name = Arthur Robert Jensen \| image = Arthur Jensen Vanderbilt 2002.jpg \| caption = Arthur Jensen, 2002 at ISIR \| birth_date = {{Birth date\|1923\|08\|24}} \| birth_place = San Diego, California, U.S. \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|2012\|10\|22\|1923\|08\|24}} \| death_place = Kelseyville, California, U.S. \| resting_place \| resting_place_coordinates <!-- {{Coord\|LAT\|LONG\|type:landmark\|display=inline,title}} --> \| fields = Educational psychology, intelligence, cognition, behavior genetics \| workplaces = University of California, Berkeley, Editorial boards of Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences \| alma_mater = University of California, Berkeley (BA)<br>San Diego State University (MA)<br />Columbia University (PhD) \| thesis_title = Aggression in Fantasy and Overt Behavior \| thesis_url \| thesis_year 1956 \| doctoral_advisor = Percival Symonds \| academic_advisors \| doctoral_students \| notable_students \| known_for Heritability of IQ, race and intelligence, g factor \| author_abbrev_bot \| author_abbrev_zoo \| awards = Kistler Prize (2003), ISIR Lifetime Achievement Award (2006) \| signature = <!--(filename only)--> \| signature_alt \| website <!-- {{URL\|www.example.com}} --> \| footnotes \| spouse Barbara Jensen }} Arthur Robert Jensen (August 24, 1923&nbsp;– October 22, 2012) was an American psychologist and writer. He was a professor of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley.<ref name"obit"/><ref namebiography>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.edb.utexas.edu/robinson/danr/JEBS%2031(3)%20-06_Jensen%20profile.pdf \|titleArthur Jensen \|journalJournal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics \|access-date2010-06-05 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100401053715/http://www.edb.utexas.edu/robinson/danr/JEBS%2031%283%29%20-06_Jensen%20profile.pdf \|archive-date=2010-04-01 }}</ref> Jensen was known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, the study of how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another. He was a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature and nurture debate, the position that genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality. He was the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals<ref name"JensenCollectedWorks2015">{{cite web \|urlhttp://arthurjensen.net/?page_id9 \|titleCollected works \|newspaperArthurjensen.net \|dateJune 20, 2014 \|access-dateAugust 30, 2015}}</ref> and sat on the editorial boards of the scientific journals Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences.<ref>Intelligence[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaleditorialboard.cws_home/620195/editorialboard] and Personality and Individual Differences[http://authors.elsevier.com/JournalDetail.html?PubID603&PrecisEB] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021028165418/http://authors.elsevier.com/JournalDetail.html?PubID603&PrecisEB\|date=2002-10-28}} publisher's pages.</ref> Jensen was controversial,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Feldman \|first1Marcus W. \|last2Ramachandran \|first2Sohini \|titleMissing compared to what? Revisiting heritability, genes and culture \|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences \|date12 February 2018 \|volume373 \|issue1743 \|pages20170064 \|doi10.1098/rstb.2017.0064\|pmid29440529 \|pmc5812976 }}</ref> largely for his conclusions regarding the causes of race-based differences in IQ.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Panofsky \|first1Aaron \| titleMisbehaving Science. Controversy and the Development of Behavior Genetics \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|locationChicago \|isbn978-0-226-05831-3 \|date2014}}</ref> Early life and education Jensen was born August 24, 1923, in San Diego, California, the son of Linda Mary (née Schachtmayer) and Arthur Alfred Jensen, who operated and owned a lumber and building materials company.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK_kZAAAAYAAJ&qLinda+Mary+Schachtmayer \|titleCurrent biography yearbook \|publisherH.W. Wilson Company \|access-date2012-10-28\|isbn9780824205430 \|year1974 }}</ref> His paternal grandparents were Danish immigrants and his mother was of half-Polish Jewish and half-German descent.<ref>{{cite book \|titleIntelligence, race, and genetics: conversations with Arthur R. Jensen \|last1Jensen \|first1Arthur Robert \|last2Miele \|first2Frank \|editionillustrated \|year2002 \|publisherWestview Press \|isbn978-0-8133-4008-1 \|page[https://archive.org/details/intelligencerace00jens/page/242 242] \|url=https://archive.org/details/intelligencerace00jens/page/242 }}</ref> As a child, Jensen was interested in herpetology and classical music, playing clarinet in the San Diego Symphony orchestra.<ref namealex-forsythe-key-thinkers-in-individual-difference>{{cite book \|last Forsythe\|firstAlex \|date 28 May 2019\|titleKey Thinkers in Individual Difference \|url https://books.google.com/books?id2QWdDwAAQBAJ&q978-1-138-49415-2&pgPA143 \|location Oxon \|publisherRoutledge \|pages 143–150 \|isbn= 978-1-138-49415-2}}</ref> Jensen received a B.A. in psychology from the University of California, Berkeley in 1945 and went on to obtain his M.A. in psychology in 1952 from San Diego State College. He earned his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Columbia University in 1956 under the supervision of Percival Symonds on the thematic apperception test.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://ead.ohiolink.edu/xtf-ead/view?docIdead/OhAkAHA0520.xml;chunk.idbioghist_1;branddefault \|titleBiography of Arthur R. Jensen \|author<!--Not stated--> \|websiteOhioLINK Finding Aid Repository \|publisherOhio EAD Task Force \|access-date=August 12, 2021}}</ref> From 1956 through 1958, he did postdoctoral research at the University of London, Institute of Psychiatry with Hans Eysenck. Upon returning to the United States, he became a researcher and professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he focused on individual differences in learning, especially the influences of culture, development, and genetics on intelligence and learning. He received tenure at Berkeley in 1962. He concentrated on the learning difficulties of culturally disadvantaged students. Jensen had a lifelong interest in classical music and was, early in his life, attracted by the idea of becoming a conductor himself. At 14, he conducted a band that won a nationwide contest held in San Francisco. Later, he conducted orchestras and attended a seminar given by Nikolai Sokoloff. Soon after graduating from Berkeley, he moved to New York, mainly to be near the conductor Arturo Toscanini. He was also deeply interested in the life and example of Gandhi, producing an unpublished book-length manuscript on his life. During Jensen's period in San Diego he spent time working as a social worker with the San Diego Department of Public Welfare. IQ and academic achievement Jensen's interest in learning differences directed him to the extensive testing of school children. The results led him to distinguish between two separate types of learning ability. Level I, or associative learning, may be defined as retention of input and rote memorization of simple facts and skills. Level II, or conceptual learning, is roughly equivalent to the ability to manipulate and transform inputs, that is, the ability to solve problems. Later, Jensen was an important advocate in the mainstream acceptance of the general factor of intelligence, a concept which was essentially synonymous with his Level II conceptual learning. The general factor, or g, is an abstraction that stems from the observation that scores on all forms of cognitive tests correlate positively with one another. Jensen claimed, on the basis of his research, that general cognitive ability is essentially an inherited trait, determined predominantly by genetic factors rather than by environmental conditions. He also contended that while associative learning, or memorizing ability, is equally distributed among the races, conceptual learning, or synthesizing ability, occurs with significantly greater frequency in some races than in others. Jensen's most controversial work, published in February 1969 in the Harvard Educational Review, was titled "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?" It concluded, among other things, that Head Start programs designed to boost African-American IQ scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, 80% of the variance in IQ in the population studied was the result of genetic factors and the remainder was due to environmental influences.<ref name"High">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/v3p652y1977-78.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/v3p652y1977-78.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleHigh Impact Science and the Case of Arthur Jensen \|date9 October 1978 \|access-date27 January 2012}}</ref> The paper immediately prompted weeks of violent protest on the Berkley campus, with additional protests occurring throughout the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Flynn \|first1James \|author-link James Flynn (academic) \|editor1-lastMoore \|editor1-firstJohn H. \|titleEncyclopedia of Race and Racism, vol 2 \|date2019 \|publisherMacMillan \|pages205-206 \|urlhttps://james-flynn.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Encyclopedia-of-Race-and-Racism-vol.-2-MacMillan-Social-Science-Library-by-John-H.-Moore-z-lib.org.pdf \|access-date28 December 2024 \|chapterJensen, Arthur}}</ref> The work became one of the most cited papers in the history of psychological testing and intelligence research, although a large number of citations consisted of rebuttals of Jensen's work, or references to it as an example of a controversial paper.<ref>{{cite book \|lastJohnson \|firstWendy \|titleDevelopmental Psychology: Revisiting the Classic Studies \|editor1-lastSlater \|editor1-firstAlan M. \|editor2-lastQuinn \|editor2-firstPaul C. \|chapterHow Much Can We Boost IQ? An Updated Look at Jensen's (1969) Question and Answer \|locationThousand Oaks (CA) \|publisherSAGE \|isbn978-0-85702-757-3 \|date2012 \|pages118–131, 123 \|quoteThe article itself became one of the most highly cited in the history of psychology, but many of the citations were rebuttals of Jensen's arguments or used the paper as an example of controversy.}}</ref> Jensen was among the most frequent contributors to the German journal Neue Anthropologie, a publication founded by the neo-Nazi Jürgen Rieger, and served alongside Rieger on this journal's editorial board.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastBanghard\|firstKarl\|titleDie DGUF-Gründung 1969 als Reaktion auf den extrem rechten Kulturkampf\|urlhttps://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/arch-inf/article/view/26207\|journalArchäologische Informationen\|year2015\|publisherDeutsche Gesellschaft für Ur- und Frühgeschichte\|publication-date2015\|volumeArchäologische Informationen\|issue38\|pages433–452\|doi10.11588/ai.2015.1.26207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleArthur Jensen\|urlhttps://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/arthur-jensen\|websiteSouthern Poverty Law Center}}</ref><ref name"tucker">{{Cite book\|lastTucker\|firstWilliam H.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOBsHSzmkYHkC&pgPA263\|titleThe Science and Politics of Racial Research\|date1996\|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press\|isbn9780252065606\|pages262–263\|language=en}}</ref> In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence,"<ref name"gottfredson">Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994). Mainstream Science on Intelligence. The Wall Street Journal, p A18.</ref> an essay written by Linda Gottfredson and published in The Wall Street Journal, which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on the meaning and significance of IQ following the publication of the book The Bell Curve. Jensen received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund,<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Adam \| first1 Miller \| year 1994 \| title The Pioneer Fund: Bankrolling the Professors of Hate \| journal The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education \| orig-date Winter 1994–1995 \| issue 6 \| pages 58–61 \| doi 10.2307/2962466 \| jstor 2962466 \| quote A 1969 article by University of California at Berkeley educational psychology professor Arthur Jensen, who has received more than $1 million in Pioneer funds, argued that black students' poor academic performance was due to irreversible genetic deficiencies, so programs like Head Start were useless and should be replaced by vocational education.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.ferris.edu/isar/tanton/abcnews.htm \| title The Bell Curve and the Pioneer Fund \| first1 Bill \| last1 Blakemore \| first2 Peter \| last2 Jennings \| first3 Beth \| last3 Nissen \| date November 22, 1994 \| work ABC World News Tonight \| publisher ABC News \| access-date June 6, 2012 \| quote Psychologist Arthur Jensen received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund. Twenty five years ago, he started writing that blacks may be genetically less intelligent than whites.}} Vanderbilt Television News Archive : [http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID151406 ABC Evening News for Tuesday, Nov 22, 1994. Headline: American Agenda (Intelligence)]</ref> an organization frequently described as racist and white supremacist in nature.<ref>{{cite book \| last Falk \| first Avner \| title Anti-semitism : a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred \| publisher Praeger \| location Westport, Conn \| year 2008 \| isbn 9780313353840 \| pages 18–19 \| quote Since his death in 1972, Draper and the Pioneer Fund have been criticized for funding "race and intelligence research," which is a euphemism for "scientific" racism (Kenny 2002, Tucker 2002). Draper has become even more controversial since the publication of The Bell Curve (Herrnstein & Murray 1994), which purported to prove that white people's intelligence was superior to black people's intelligence, because the Pioneer Fund supported the controversial research in the book (Fraser 1995; Jacoby & Glauberman 1995; Baum 2004).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last Tucker \| first William \| title The funding of scientific racism : Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund \| publisher University of Illinois Press \| location Urbana \| year 2002 \| isbn 9780252027628 \| pages 1–3 \| quote Leon Kamim, professor of psychology at Northeastern University and a well-known critic of hereditarian studies, observed that Herrnstein and Murray, in their discussion of race and IQ, had turned for assistance to Richard Lynn, whom they described as "a leading scholar of racial and ethnic differences," "I will not mince words," wrote Kamin, calling it a "shame and disgrace that two eminent social scientists ... take as their scientific tutor Richard Lynn ... an associate editor of the vulgarly racist journal Mankind Quarterly ... [and] a major recipient of support from the nativist and eugenically oriented Pioneer Fund.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last Wroe \| first Andrew \| title The Republican party and immigration politics : from Proposition 187 to George W. Bush \| publisher Palgrave Macmillan \| location New York \| year 2008 \| isbn 9780230600539 \| pages 80–81 \| quote According to Taxpayers the Pioneer Fund in its first charter had called for the encouragement of the "reproduction of individuals descended predominantly from white persons who settled in the original 13 states or from related stock." Taxpayers also claimed that the fund supported racist research, including that of notorious scientist William B. Shockley. In a press release, "taxpayers described the Pioneer Fund as a "white supremacist" organization. What was the racist link between Prop. 187 and the Pioneer Fund? Taxpayers claimed that the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) had received S600,000 in grants since 1988 from the Pioneer Fund, and that Alan Nelson was FAIR's lobbyist in Sacramento when he coauthored Prop. 187.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/groups/pioneer-fund \| title Pioneer Fund \| work Intelligence Files : Groups \| publisher Southern Poverty Law Center \| access-date June 6, 2012 \| quote = Ideology: White Nationalist. Started in 1937 by textile magnate Wickliffe Draper, the Pioneer Fund's original mandate was to pursue "race betterment" by promoting the genetic stock of those "deemed to be descended predominantly from white persons who settled in the original thirteen states prior to the adoption of the Constitution." Today, it still funds studies of race and intelligence, as well as eugenics, the "science" of breeding superior human beings that was discredited by various Nazi atrocities. The Pioneer Fund has supported many of the leading Anglo-American race scientists of the last several decades as well as anti-immigration groups such as the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR). }}</ref> The fund contributed a total of $3.5 million to researchers cited in The Bell Curve's most controversial chapter "that suggests some races are naturally smarter than others" with Jensen's works being cited twenty-three times in the book's bibliography.<ref>{{cite book \| last Montagu \| first Ashley \| title Race and IQ \| publisher Oxford University Press \| location New York \| year 2002 \| edition 2 \| isbn 9780195102215 \| quote And many of The Bell Curve's most important assertions which establish causal links between IQ and social behavior, and IQ and race, are derived partially or totally from the Mankind Quarterly Pioneer Fund scholarly circle. The University of California's Arthur Jensen, cited twenty-three times in The Bell Curve's bibliography, is the book's principal authority on the intellectual inferiority of blacks. He has received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund. \| url-access registration \| url https://archive.org/details/raceiq00ashl }}</ref>DeathHe died on October 22, 2012, at his home in Kelseyville, California, at age 89.<ref name"obit">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/science/arthur-r-jensen-who-set-off-debate-on-iq-dies.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/science/arthur-r-jensen-who-set-off-debate-on-iq-dies.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleArthur R. Jensen Dies at 89; Set Off Debate About I.Q.\|quoteArthur R. Jensen, an educational psychologist who ignited an international firestorm with a 1969 article suggesting that the gap in intelligence-test scores between black and white students might be rooted in genetic differences between the races, died on Oct. 22 at his home in Kelseyville, Calif. He was 89. ...\|date2012-11-01 \|access-date2012-11-02\|newspaperThe New York Times \|last1Fox \|first1Margalit }}{{cbignore}}</ref>AssessmentAccording to David Lubinski of Vanderbilt University, the "extent to which [Jensen's] work was either admired or reviled by many distinguished scientists is unparalleled."<ref>{{Cite journal \|doi 10.1037/a0032872\|pmid 23895609\|title Arthur R. Jensen (1923–2012)\|journal American Psychologist\|volume 68\|issue 5\|pages 396–397\|year 2013\|last1 Lubinski\|first1 = David}}</ref> After Jensen's death, James Flynn of the University of Otago, a prominent advocate of the environmental position, told The New York Times that Jensen was without racial bias and had not initially foreseen that his research would be used to argue for racial supremacy and that his career was "emblematic of the extent to which American scholarship is inhibited by political orthodoxy", though he noted that Jensen shifted towards genetic explanations later in life.<ref name"obit" />SupportAfter psychologist Paul E. Meehl was honored by the APA in 1998, he wrote in the journal Psychological Reports that Jensen's "contributions, in both quality and quantity, certainly excelled mine" and that he was "embarrassed" that APA had not also honored Jensen, which Meeh claimed was due to political correctness.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Meehl\|first1Paul E.\|titlePsychology of the Scientist: LXXVIII. Relevance of a Scientist's Ideology in communal Recognition of Scientific Merit \|journalPsychological Reports \|year1998 \|volume83 \|issue3 Suppl \|pages1123–44 \|doi10.2466/pr0.1998.83.3f.1123 \|s2cid144880914 \|quoteThere was one name conspicuously missing from the list, someone whose contributions, in both quality and quantity, certainly excelled mine, namely, Arthur Jensen. At least a third, and arguably the majority, of the recipients would have to say that about themselves in relation to Jensen. No informed rational mind can have the slightest doubt as to the explanation of this distressing social phenomenon: Arthur Jensen's facts are unpleasant to face, and his theoretical inferences from the facts are politically incorrect.}}</ref> Psychologist Sandra Scarr wrote in the journal Intelligence in 1998 that Jensen possessed an "uncompromising personal integrity" and set the standard for "honest psychological science". She described his critics as "politically driven liars, who distort scientific facts in a misguided and condescending effort to protect an impossible myth about human equality".<ref name"scarr">{{cite journal \|doi10.1016/S0160-2896(99)80005-1 \|titleOn Arthur Jensen's integrity \|journalIntelligence \|volume26 \|issue3 \|pages227–232 \|year1998 \|last1Scarr \|first1Sandra }}</ref> Steven J. Haggbloom, writing for Review of General Psychology in 2002, rated Jensen as one of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, based on six different metrics chosen by Haggbloom.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1Haggbloom \| first1Steven J. \| last2Warnick \| first2Renee \| last3Warnick \| first3Jason E. \| last4Jones \| first4Vinessa K. \| last5Yarbrough \| first5Gary L. \| last6Russell \| first6Tenea M. \| last7Borecky \| first7Chris M. \| last8McGahhey \| first8Reagan \| last9Powell \| first9John L. \| last10Beavers \| first10Jamie \| last11Monte \| first11Emmanuelle \| titleThe 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century \| journalReview of General Psychology \| publisherSAGE Publications \| volume6 \| issue2 \| year2002 \| issn1089-2680 \| doi10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 \| pages139–152 \| s2cid145668721 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/228079436\| citeseerx10.1.1.586.1913 }}</ref> In 1980 Jensen published a book in defense of the tests used to measure mental abilities, titled Bias in Mental Testing. Reviewing this book, psychologist Kenneth Kaye endorsed Jensen's distinction between bias and discrimination, saying that he found many of Jensen's opponents to be more politically biased than Jensen was.<ref>K. Kaye, The Sciences, January 1981, pp. 26-28.</ref> Criticism Melvin Konner of Emory University, wrote: {{blockquote\| Statements made by Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and other investigators in the late 1960s and early 1970s about race and IQ or social class and IQ rapidly passed into currency in policy discussions. Many of these statements were proved wrong, but they had already influenced some policymakers, and that influence is very difficult to recant. }} Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote that Jensen had largely ignored evidence which failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent genetic racial differences.<ref>The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy L Suzuki, J Aronson&nbsp;– Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2005</ref> Paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould criticized Jensen's work in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of "heritability", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance within a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156–157). According to Gould, Jensen uses heritability to measure differences between populations.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2019}} Gould also disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, g, or "the general factor common to a large number of cognitive abilities" which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with Charles Spearman. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of L. L. Thurstone to ultimately support this claim; Gould, however, argues that Thurstone's factor analysis of intelligence revealed g to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Gould criticizes Jensen's sources including his use of Catharine Cox's 1926 Genetic Studies of Genius, which examines historiometrically the IQs of historic intellectuals after their deaths (Gould 1981: 153–154).Books Bias in Mental Testing Bias in Mental Testing (1980) is a book examining the question of test bias in commonly used standardized tests. The book runs almost 800 pages and has been called "exhaustive" by three researchers who reviewed the field 19 years after the book's publication.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Brown\|first1Robert T.\|last2Reynolds\|first2Cecil R.\|last3Whitaker\|first3Jean S.\|s2cid46561407\|titleBias in mental testing since Bias in Mental Testing.\|journalSchool Psychology Quarterly\|volume14\|issue3\|pages208–238\|doi10.1037/h0089007\|year1999}}</ref> It reviewed in detail the available evidence about test bias across major US racial/ethnic groups. Jensen concluded that "the currently most widely used standardized tests of mental ability -- IQ, scholastic aptitude, and achievement tests -- are, by and large, not biased against any of the native-born English-speaking minority groups on which the amount of research evidence is sufficient for an objective determination of bias, if the tests were in fact biased. For most nonverbal standardized tests, this generalization is not limited to English-speaking minorities." (p. ix). Jensen also published a summary of the book the same year which was a target article in the journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences to which 27 commentaries were printed along with the author's reply.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1017/s0140525x00005161 \|titlePrécis of Bias in Mental Testing \|journalBehavioral and Brain Sciences \|volume3 \|issue3 \|pages325–333 \|year1980 \|last1Jensen \|first1Arthur R. \|s2cid145366637 }}</ref> Straight Talk about Mental Tests Straight Talk about Mental Tests (1981) is a book written about psychometrics for the general public. John B. Carroll reviewed it favorably in 1982, saying it was a useful summary of the issues,<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1037/021298 \|titleCan We Defuse the IQ Controversy? \|journalContemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews \|volume27 \|issue7 \|pages528–529 \|year1982 \|last1Carroll \|first1John B. }}</ref> as did Paul Cline writing for the British Journal of Psychiatry.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1017/S0007125000136682 \|titleStraight Talk about Mental Tests. By Arthur R. Jensen. New York: The Free Press. 1981. Pp 269. $12.95 \|first1Paul \|last1Kline \|journalThe British Journal of Psychiatry \|volume140 \|issue5 \|dateMay 1982 \|pages544–5 \|s2cid150270344 }}</ref> In 2016, Richard J. Haier called it "a clear examination of all issues surrounding mental testing".<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe Neuroscience of Intelligence\|lastHaier\|firstRichard J.\|date2016\|isbn9781316105771\|locationNew York, NY\|oclc951742581}}</ref>The g FactorThe g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998) is a book on the general intelligence factor (g). The book deals with the intellectual history of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power.Clocking the Mind Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences (2006) deals with mental chronometry (MC), and covers the speed with which the brain processes information and different ways this is measured. Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability, which is in contrast to IQ, which merely represents an interval (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true ratio scale properties. Joseph Glicksohn wrote in a 2007 review for Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology that "The book should be perused with care in order to ensure the further profitable use of [reaction time] in both experimental and differential lines of research."<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1037/cep2007_2_154 \|titleReview of Arthur R. Jensen (2006)--Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences \|journalCanadian Journal of Experimental Psychology \|volume61 \|issue2 \|pages154–158 \|year2007 \|last1Glicksohn \|first1=Joseph }}</ref> Douglas Detterman reviewed it in 2008 for Intelligence, writing that "the book would make a good introduction to the field of the measurement of individual differences in cognitive tasks for beginning graduate students."<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1016/j.intell.2007.08.001 \|titleArthur R. Jensen, Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences, Elsevier, Oxford (2007) \|year2008 \|last1Detterman \|first1Douglas K. \|journalIntelligence \|volume36 \|issue5 \|pages491–493 }}</ref> Eric-Jan Wagenmakers and Han van der Mass, also writing for Intelligence in 2018, faulted the book for omitting the work by mathematical psychologists, advocating standardization of chronometric methods (which the authors consider problematic because it can hide method variance), and because it does not discuss topics such as the mutualism model of the g-factor and the Flynn effect. They describe the book's breadth as useful, despite its simplistic approach.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1016/j.intell.2007.09.001 \|titleJensen A.R., Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2006) (pp. xi+ 272) \|isbn978-0-08-044939-5\|year2008 \|last1Wagenmakers \|first1Eric-Jan \|journalIntelligence \|volume36 \|issue5 \|pages493–494 \|last2Van Der Maas \|first2Han }}</ref> Jensen was on the editorial board of Intelligence when these reviews were published.AwardsIn 2003, Jensen was awarded the Kistler Prize for original contributions to the understanding of the connection between the human genome and human society. In 2006, the International Society for Intelligence Research awarded Jensen its Lifetime Achievement Award.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.isironline.org/2006-lifetime-achievement-award/\|title2006 Lifetime Achievement Award\|newspaperisironline.org\|publisherInternational Society for Intelligence Research\|dateDecember 25, 2006\|access-dateOctober 18, 2015}}</ref>See also Heritability of IQ Race and intelligence History of the race and intelligence controversy Jensen box References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading Interviews [https://web.archive.org/web/20100401053715/http://www.edb.utexas.edu/robinson/danr/JEBS%2031%283%29%20-06_Jensen%20profile.pdf "Profiles in Research. Arthur Jensen. Interview by Daniel H. Robinson and Howard Wainer." Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics Fall 2006, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 327–352] [https://books.google.com/books?idISBN081334008X Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen.] (2002) Frank Miele (of Skeptic Magazine). Westview Press. {{ISBN\|0-8133-4008-X}}Selected articles, books, and book chaptersJensen. A. R. (1973). Educational differences. London. Methuen. [https://books.google.com/books?idZE8OAAAAQAAJ google books link] {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 1974 \| title Ethnicity and scholastic achievement \| journal Psychological Reports \| volume 34 \| issue 2\| pages 659–668 \| doi10.2466/pr0.1974.34.2.659\| pmid 4820518 \| s2cid = 39368418 }} {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 1974 \| title Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt \| journal Behavior Genetics \| volume 4 \| issue 1\| pages 1–28 \| doi10.1007/bf01066704\| pmid 4593437 \| s2cid = 5422380 }} {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 1989 \| title The relationship between learning and intelligence \| journal Learning and Individual Differences \| volume 1 \| pages 37–62 \| doi10.1016/1041-6080(89)90009-5}} {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 1993 \| title Why is reaction time correlated with psychometric g? \| journal Current Directions in Psychological Science \| volume 2 \| issue 2\| pages 53–56 \| doi10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770697\| s2cid 144868447 }} Jensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, & J. Yu (Eds.), Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson (pp.&nbsp;103–129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 1995 \| title Psychological research on race differences \| journal American Psychologist \| volume 50 \| pages 41–42 \| doi10.1037/0003-066x.50.1.41}} Jensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, & D. J. Lubinski (Eds), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues (pp.&nbsp;393–411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Jensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg & W. M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice. (pp.&nbsp;111–131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| year 2000 \| title Testing: The dilemma of group differences \| journal Psychology, Public Policy, and Law \| volume 6 \| pages 121–128 \| doi10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.121}} {{cite journal \| last1 Jensen \| first1 A. R. \| s2cid 20153127 \| year 2002 \| title Galton's legacy to research on intelligence \| journal Journal of Biosocial Science \| volume 34 \| issue 2\| pages 145–172 \| doi10.1017/s0021932002001451\| pmid = 11926452 }} Jensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? (pp.&nbsp;39–53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum. {{cite journal \| last1 Kranzler \| first1 J. H. \| last2 Jensen \| first2 A. R. \| year 1989 \| title Inspection time and intelligence: A meta-analysis \| journal Intelligence \| volume 13 \| issue 4\| pages 329–347 \| doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(89)80006-6}} Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, & the Law, 11, 235–294. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20051022010256/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf pdf]) Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the g factor. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 177–183. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041220072845/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Rushton-Jensen2003PAID.pdf pdf]) Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 328–336. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20050429214028/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL2.pdf pdf]) External links {{Wikiquote\|Arthur Jensen}} [http://arthurjensen.net/ Arthur Robert Jensen memorial site] [http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen's Response to Gould's Criticisms] {{Google Scholar id\|d1A-XYIAAAAJ}} [https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/arthur-jensen Jensen biography at Southern Poverty Law Center] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jensen, Arthur}} Category:1923 births Category:2012 deaths Category:21st-century American psychologists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American people of Danish descent Category:American people of German descent Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:20th-century American psychologists Category:American psychology writers Category:American social workers Category:American white supremacists Category:Columbia University alumni Category:Differential psychologists Category:Educational psychologists Category:Intelligence researchers Category:Psychology educators Category:People involved in race and intelligence controversies Category:San Diego State University alumni Category:Proponents of scientific racism Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni Category:University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Education faculty Category:Writers from San Diego	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Jensen	2025-04-05T18:26:15.579940
3032	A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum	{{short description\|Stephen Sondheim Broadway musical}} {{about\|the stage musical\|the film adaptation\|A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (film)}} {{redirect\|Comedy Tonight}} {{Infobox musical \|name=A Funny Thing Happened<br> on the Way to the Forum \|image=AFTHWF original Playbill.jpg \|image_size=225px \|caption=Playbill from the original Broadway production \|music=Stephen Sondheim \|lyrics=Stephen Sondheim \|book={{ubl\|Burt Shevelove\|Larry Gelbart}} \|productions={{ubl\|1962 Broadway\|1963 West End\|1966 Film\|1972 Broadway\|1986 West End\|1996 Broadway\|2004 Royal National Theatre}} \|awards={{ubl\|Tony Award for Best Musical\|Tony Award for Best Author (Musical)}} }} A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart. Inspired by the farces of the ancient Roman playwright Plautus (254&ndash;184 BC), specifically Curculio, Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus, and Mostellaria, the musical tells the bawdy story of a slave named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by helping his young master woo the girl next door. The plot displays many classic elements of farce, including puns, the slamming of doors, cases of mistaken identity (frequently involving characters disguising themselves as one another), and satirical comments on social class. The title derives from a line often used by vaudeville comedians to begin a story: "A funny thing happened on the way to the theater". The musical's original 1962 Broadway run won several Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Author (Musical). A Funny Thing has enjoyed several Broadway and West End revivals and was made into a successful film starring the original lead of the stage musical, Zero Mostel. Productions Original Broadway A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum opened on Broadway on May 8, 1962, at the Alvin Theatre, and then transferred to the Mark Hellinger Theatre and the Majestic Theatre, where the show closed on August 29, 1964, after 964 performances and 8 previews. The show's creators sought Phil Silvers for the lead role of Pseudolus, but he turned them down, allegedly because he would have to perform onstage without his glasses, and his vision was so poor that he feared tripping into the orchestra pit. He is also quoted as turning down the role for being "Sgt. Bilko in a toga". (Silvers eventually played the role – wearing his glasses – in a 1972 revival. In the film, he played Marcus Lycus.) Milton Berle also passed on the role. Eventually, Zero Mostel was cast.<ref namegreen>Green, Stanley and Green, Kay (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?idKDKFHniTy1YC&lpg=PA198 "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way To the Forum"]. Broadway Musicals, Show By Show. Hal Leonard Corporation. {{ISBN\|0-7935-7750-0}}. p. 198</ref> During out-of-town tryouts the show attracted little business and did not play well. Jerome Robbins, to whom the show had originally been offered but who turned it down, was called in to give advice and make changes. In the interim, Joshua Logan was invited to direct, but according to Sondheim was rejected "because he wanted too much male nudity." It was then offered to veteran director George Abbott, who found it to be difficult to handle alone. The biggest change Robbins made was adding a new opening number to replace "Love Is in the Air" and introduce the show as a bawdy, wild comedy. Stephen Sondheim wrote the song "Comedy Tonight" for this new opening.<ref name=green /> From that point on, the show was a success. It was directed by George Abbott and produced by Hal Prince, with choreography by Jack Cole and uncredited staging and choreography by Robbins. The scenic and costume design was by Tony Walton. The wardrobe is on display at the Costume World Broadway Collection in Pompano Beach, Florida. The lighting design was by Jean Rosenthal. Along with Mostel, the musical featured a cast of seasoned performers, including Jack Gilford (Mostel's friend and fellow blacklist member), David Burns, John Carradine, Ruth Kobart, and Raymond Walburn. The young lovers were played by Brian Davies and Preshy Marker. Karen Black, originally cast as the ingenue, was replaced out of town. The show won six Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Actor (Mostel), Best Supporting Actor (Burns), Best Book, and Best Director. The score, Sondheim's first Broadway production for which he wrote both music and lyrics, did not earn a nomination. London The show was presented twice in London's West End. The 1963 production and its 1986 revival were staged at the Strand Theatre and the Piccadilly Theatre respectively,<ref>[http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/london_shows_chronology/1963.htm "Listing, 1963 production"]. Guideto Musical Theatre, retrieved December 9, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.thisistheatre.com/shows/piccadilly111.html "Listing, 1986 production"]. This Is Theatre. Retrieved December 9, 2009</ref> and starred Frankie Howerd as Pseudolus and Leon Greene as Miles Gloriosus in both. In the 1963 production, Kenneth Connor appeared as Hysterium, 'Monsewer' Eddie Gray as Senex and Jon Pertwee as Marcus Lycus. In the 1986 revival, Patrick Cargill was Senex with Ronnie Stevens as Hysterium and Derek Royle as Erronius. In 2004 there was a limited-run revival at the Royal National Theatre, starring Desmond Barrit as Pseudolus, Philip Quast as Miles Gloriosus, Hamish McColl as Hysterium and Isla Blair as Domina (who had previously played Philia in the 1963 production).<ref>Inverne, James. [http://www.playbill.com/article/thoroughly-modern-millie-closes-in-london-as-new-musicals-prepare-to-open-com-120179# "Thoroughly Modern Millie Closes in London as New Musicals Prepare to Open"]. Playbill, June 7, 2004. Accessed December 25, 2016.</ref> This production was nominated for the 2005 Olivier Award, Outstanding Musical Production.<ref>[http://www.olivierawards.com/winners/view/item98372/olivier-winners-2005/ "Olivier Winners, 2005"]. Olivier Awards. Accessed December 27, 2016.</ref> Motion picture adaptation {{main\|A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (film)}} Both Mostel and Gilford re-created their Broadway roles for the 1966 musical film directed by Richard Lester. Leon Greene reprised his West End role (Miles Gloriosus), while Phil Silvers portrayed Lycus, Michael Crawford portrayed Hero, and Michael Hordern played Senex. Buster Keaton made his final film appearance in the role of Erronius. Broadway revivals A revival opened on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on April 4, 1972, and closed on August 12, 1972, after 156 performances. Directed by co-author Burt Shevelove the cast starred Phil Silvers as Pseudolus (later replaced by Tom Poston), Lew Parker as Senex, Carl Ballantine as Lycus and Reginald Owen as Erronius. Larry Blyden, who played Hysterium, the role created by Jack Gilford, also co-produced.<ref namephil>[http://www.sondheimguide.com/forum.html#72BR {{"'}}A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' 1972"]. Sondheim Guide. Accessed December 25, 2016.</ref> "Pretty Little Picture" and "That'll Show Him" were dropped from the show, and were replaced with "Echo Song" (sung by Hero and Philia), and "Farewell" (added for Nancy Walker as Domina, as she and Senex depart for the country). "Echo Song" and "Farewell" had been added to a production staged in Los Angeles the previous year and were composed by Sondheim. They had to close soon after Phil Silvers suffered a stroke. The show won two Tony Awards, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for Silvers, and Best Featured Actor in a Musical for Blyden.<ref namephil/> The musical was revived again with great success in 1996, opening at the St. James Theatre on April 18, 1996, and closing on January 4, 1998, after 715 performances. The cast starred Nathan Lane as Pseudolus (replaced by Whoopi Goldberg and later by David Alan Grier), Mark Linn-Baker as Hysterium, Ernie Sabella as Lycus, Jim Stanek as Hero, Lewis J. Stadlen as Senex, and Cris Groenendaal as Miles Gloriosus. The production was directed by Jerry Zaks, with choreography by Rob Marshall. Lane won the 1996 Tony Award for Best Leading Actor and the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actor in a Musical; the production was nominated for the 1996 Tony Award and Drama Desk Award, Revival of a Musical.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/production/a-funny-thing-happened-on-the-way-to-the-forum-st-james-theatre-vault-0000004175# {{"'}}A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' Broadway 1996"]. Playbill (vault). Accessed December 26, 2016.</ref> Every actor who has opened in the role of Pseudolus on Broadway (Zero Mostel, Phil Silvers, and Nathan Lane) has won a Best Leading Actor Tony Award for his performance. In addition, Jason Alexander, who performed as Pseudolus in one scene in ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'', also won a Tony for Best Actor in a Musical. Other productions The original Australian production with American actor Jack Collins as Pseudolus opened at the Theatre Royal in Sydney in July 1964, and toured other Australian cities through 1965.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ausstage.edu.au/pages/event/13525\|workAusStage \|titleA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\|access-date2017-09-21}}</ref> A production was directed by Stephen R. Buss at Boise State University in 1995, starring James B. Fisk, Randy Davison, Karen Wennstrom and Daniel Taylor.<ref>{{Cite journal \|date1995 \|titleBoise State University Departments of Theatre Arts and Music: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum \|urlhttps://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1166&contexttheatre_programs \|journalBoise State University}}</ref> In 1998, Jon English starred as Pseudolus in Essgee Entertainment's production that opened New Year's Day at the State Theatre, Melbourne and toured Australia and New Zealand, closing September 1999.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://showstoppers.com.au/html/ForumPage.html\|title A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum}}</ref> The Stephen Sondheim Center for the Performing Arts produced a limited-run revival of the musical from January 11 to 27, 2008. The production was directed by Randal K. West, with Justin Hill as musical director and Adam Cates as choreographer. The cast featured Richard Kind as Pseudolus, Joel Blum as Senex, Stephen DeRosa as Marcus Lycus, Sean McCall as Hysterium, and Steve Wilson as Miles Gloriosus. It also featured Diana Upton-Hill, Ryan Gaffney, Stephen Mark Crisp, Jack Kloppenborg, and Margret Clair.<ref>[http://www.gazetteonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20080117/FEATURES/660746609/1006/NEWS "News"]. The Gazette, January 14, 2008. {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150123130615/http://www.gazetteonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID%2F20080117%2FFEATURES%2F660746609%2F1006%2FNEWS \|dateJanuary 23, 2015 }}</ref><ref>Lipton, Brian Scott (January 4, 2008).[http://www.theatermania.com/content/news.cfm/story/12431 "Richard Kind to Star in Fairfield Center's 'Forum{{'"}}]. Theatermania</ref><ref>Gans, Andrew (January 11, 2008). [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/114148.html "Tragedy Tomorrow, Comedy Tonight: 'Forum' Begins Run at Sondheim Center"]. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081211112410/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/114148.html \|dateDecember 11, 2008 }} Playbill.</ref> The Chung Ying Theatre Company in Hong Kong staged a Cantonese version of the musical at Kwai Tsing Theatre, to celebrate the company's 30th anniversary. It was directed by Chung King Fai and Ko Tin Lung and ran from March 14 to 21, 2009.<ref>[http://www.chungying.com/09funnything/about.html "Funny Thing"] chungying.com {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090621154358/http://www.chungying.com/09funnything/about.html \|dateJune 21, 2009 }}</ref> The Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, Canada production ran from June 11 to November 7, 2009, with Des McAnuff directing and Wayne Cilento as choreographer.<ref><!--no author-->[http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/about/history.aspx?id=1178 "Stratford Production History"]. Stratford Festival. Accessed August 16, 2011.</ref> Bruce Dow originally performed the role of Pseudolus, but was forced to withdraw from the entire 2009 season due to an injury, and the role was then performed by Seán Cullen as of September 5, 2009.<ref>Bacalzo, Dan (August 17, 2009). [http://www.theatermania.com/canada/news/08-2009/sean-cullen-to-replace-injured-bruce-dow-in-stratf_20718.html "Sean Cullen to Replace Injured Bruce Dow in Stratford 'Forum{{'"}}]. Theater Mania.</ref> Stephen Ouimette played Hysterium. Mirvish Productions presented the earlier Stratford production at the Canon Theatre, Toronto, in December 2010 through January 2011. Bruce Dow and Sean Cullen were alternates in the lead role.<ref>Nestruck, J. Kelly (December 20, 2010). [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/theatre/a-funny-thing-happened-on-the-way-to-the-forum-still-brings-the-funny-but-not-as-much/article1844917/ "Theatre Review. 'A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' still brings the funny, but not as much"]. The Globe and Mail.</ref> In October 2012 the play opened at Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne, Australia, with Geoffrey Rush as Pseudolus, Magda Szubanski as Domina and Shane Bourne as Senex.<ref>[http://www.funnything.com.au/ "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121028000322/http://www.funnything.com.au/ \|dateOctober 28, 2012 }}, Australian website</ref> A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum was produced at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey from November 14, 2015, to December 13, 2015, with an all-male cast (Paul Castree, Eddie Cooper, Kevin Isola, David Josefsberg, Max Kumangai, Graham Rowat, Manny Stark, Bobby Conte Thornton, David Turner, Michael Urie, Tom Deckman, and Christopher Fitzgerald).<ref>Kennedy, Marina (November 24, 2015). [http://www.broadwayworld.com/new-jersey/article/BWW-Review-A-FUNNY-THING-HAPPENED-ON-THE-WAY-TO-THE-FORUM-at-TRT-Musical-Comedy-at-its-Very-Best-20151124 "BWW Review: 'A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' at TRT-Musical Comedy at its Very Best"]. Broadway World.</ref> In March 2024, the musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum premiered at Teatro Claro Mais in São Paulo, marking the first official Brazilian production of this Broadway classic. Starring Miguel Falabella as Pseudolus, the show features a prominent cast, including Edgar Bustamante, Ivan Parente, Giovanna Zotti, Carlos Capeletti, Mauricio Xavier, Lucas Colombo, and Luci Salutes. <ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.terra.com.br/diversao/gente/uma-coisa-engracada-aconteceu-a-caminho-do-forum-miguel-falabella-estrela-classico-da-broadway,4e8065d91d9633d2276297dd30c78be60n7d1vjl.html \| title'Uma Coisa Engraçada Aconteceu a Caminho do Fórum': Miguel Falabella estrela clássico da Broadway }}</ref> Plot In ancient Rome, some neighbors live in three adjacent houses. In the center is the house of Senex, who lives there with wife Domina, son Hero, and several slaves, including head slave Hysterium and the musical's main character Pseudolus. A slave belonging to Hero, Pseudolus wishes to buy, win, or steal his freedom. One of the neighboring houses is owned by Marcus Lycus, who is a buyer and seller of beautiful women; the other belongs to the ancient Erronius, who is abroad searching for his long-lost children (stolen in infancy by pirates). One day, Senex and Domina go on a trip and leave Pseudolus in charge of Hero. Hero confides in Pseudolus that he is in love with the lovely Philia, one of the courtesans in the House of Lycus who is nevertheless still a virgin. Pseudolus promises to help him win Philia's love in exchange for his own freedom. Unfortunately (as the two find out when they visit Lycus), Philia has been sold to the renowned warrior, Captain Miles Gloriosus, who is expected to claim her very soon. Pseudolus, an excellent liar, uses Philia's cheery disposition to convince Lycus that she has picked up a plague from Crete, which causes its victims to smile endlessly in its terminal stages. By offering to isolate her in Senex's house, he is able to give Philia and Hero some time alone together, and the two fall in love. But Philia insists that, even though she is in love with Hero, she must honor her contract with the captain, for "that is the way of a courtesan." To appease her, he tells her to wait ("that's what virgins do best, isn't it?") inside, and that he will have the captain knock three times when he arrives. Pseudolus comes up with a plan to slip Philia a sleeping potion. He will then tell Lycus that she has died of the Cretan plague and will offer to remove the body. Hero will stow away with Philia on a ship headed for Greece. Pseudolus steals Hysterium's book of potions and has Hero read him the recipe for the sleeping potion; the only ingredient he lacks is a cup of mare's sweat, and Pseudolus goes to search for it. Unexpectedly, Senex returns home early from his trip, and knocks three times on his own door. Philia comes out of the house, and, thinking that Senex is the captain, offers herself up to him. Surprised but game, Senex instructs Philia to wait in the house for him, and she does. Hysterium arrives and nervously tells Senex that Philia is the new maid that he has hired. Pseudolus returns, having procured the mare's sweat; seeing that Senex has returned and grasping the need to keep him out of the way, Pseudolus discreetly sprinkles some of the horse-sweat onto him, then suggests that the road trip has left Senex in dire need of a bath. Taking the bait, Senex instructs Hysterium to draw him a bath in the long-empty house of Erronius. But while this is happening, Erronius returns home, finally having given up the search for his long-lost children. Hysterium, desperate to keep him out of the house where his master is bathing, tells the old man that his house has become haunted – a story seemingly confirmed by the sound of Senex singing in his bath. Erronius immediately determines to have a soothsayer come and banish the spirit from his house, and Pseudolus obligingly poses as one, telling Erronius that, in order to banish the spirit, he must travel seven times around the seven hills of Rome (thus keeping the old man occupied and out of the way for quite a while). When Miles Gloriosus arrives to claim his courtesan-bride, Pseudolus hides Philia on the roof of Senex's house; told that she has "escaped", Lycus is terrified to face the captain's wrath. Pseudolus offers to impersonate Lycus and talk his way out of the mess but, his ingenuity flagging, he ends up merely telling the captain that Philia has disappeared, and that he, "Lycus", will search for her. Displeased and suspicious, Miles insists that his soldiers accompany Pseudolus, but the wily slave loses them in Rome's winding streets. Complicating matters further, Domina returns from her trip early, suspicious that her husband Senex is "up to something low." She disguises herself in virginal white robes and a veil (much like Philia's) to try to catch Senex being unfaithful. Pseudolus convinces Hysterium to help him by dressing in drag and pretending to be Philia, "dead" from the plague. Unfortunately, it turns out that Miles Gloriosus has just returned from Crete, where there is of course no actual plague. With the ruse thus revealed, the main characters run for their lives, resulting in a madcap chase across the stage with both Miles and Senex pursuing all three "Philia"s (Domina, Hysterium, and the actual Philia – all wearing identical white robes and veils). Meanwhile, the courtesans from the house of Marcus Lycus, who had been recruited as mourners at "Philia"'s ersatz funeral, have escaped, and Lycus sends his eunuchs out to bring them all back, adding to the general pandemonium. Finally, the captain's troops are able to round everyone up. His plot thoroughly unraveled, Pseudolus appears to be in deep trouble – but Erronius, completing his third circuit of the Roman hills, shows up fortuitously to discover that Miles Gloriosus and Philia are wearing matching rings which mark them as his long-lost children. Philia's betrothal to the captain is nullified by the unexpected revelation that he is her brother, and, as the daughter of a free-born citizen, she is freed from Marcus Lycus. Philia weds Hero with Erronius' blessing; Pseudolus gets his freedom and the lovely courtesan Gymnasia; Gloriosus receives twin courtesans to replace Philia; and Erronius is reunited with his children. A happy ending prevails for all – except for poor Senex, stuck with his shrewish wife Domina. Characters Pseudolus: A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win freedom by helping Hero win the heart of Philia. The slave name Pseudolus means "Faker". While originally written as a male role, it has been performed by female actors as well. Hero: Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia. Philia: (Greek for "love") A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest. Her name is also a homophone of the Latin word "Filia", which means daughter. This foreshadows her status as the daughter of Erronius. Hysterium: (Latin for "Hysterical", or "Anxious", the suffix "-um" makes the name neuter, and the character's gender is often mistaken throughout the piece) The chief slave in the house of Senex. Senex: (Latin for "old man") A henpecked, sardonic Roman senator living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome. Domina: (Latin for "mistress") The wife of Senex. A manipulative, shrewish woman who is loathed by even her husband. Marcus Lycus: A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex. (Name based on Lycus, the pimp in Plautus's Poenulus.) Miles Gloriosus: (Latin for "boastful soldier", the archetype of the braggart soldier in Roman comedies) A captain in the Roman army to whom Marcus Lycus has promised Philia. Erronius: (Latin for "wandering") Senex's elderly neighbor in the house to the right. He has spent the past twenty years searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates. Gymnasia: (Greek for "Athletic", with the connotation of nakedness) A courtesan from the house of Lycus with whom Pseudolus falls in love. Tintinabula: (Latin for "Bells") A jingling, bell-wearing courtesan in the house of Lycus. Vibrata: (Latin for "Vibrant") A wild, vibrant courtesan in the house of Lycus. Geminae: (Latin for "Twins") Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus. Panacea: (Greek for "Cure All") A courtesan in the house of Lycus. Proteans: Choristers who play multiple roles (slaves, citizens, soldiers, and eunuchs). They accompany Pseudolus in "Comedy Tonight". On Broadway, three people played all of these roles. Cast {\|class"wikitable" style"width:100%;" \|- ! Role !Original Broadway !Original London !1966 film !1972 Broadway revival !1996 Broadway revival !2004 London revival \|- !Prologus/<br/>Pseudolus \| style="text-align:center;" \| Zero Mostel \| style="text-align:center;" \| Frankie Howerd \| style="text-align:center;" \| Zero Mostel \| style="text-align:center;" \| Phil Silvers \| style="text-align:center;" \| Nathan Lane \| style="text-align:center;" \| Desmond Barrit \|- !Hero \| style="text-align:center;" \| Brian Davies \| style="text-align:center;" \| John Rye \| style="text-align:center;" \| Michael Crawford \| style"text-align:center;" \| John Hansen<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.ibdb.com/broadway-production/a-funny-thing-happened-on-the-way-to-the-forum-3525 \|title=A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum – Broadway Musical – 1972 Revival {{!}} IBDB}}</ref> \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jim Stanek \| style="text-align:center;" \| Vince Leigh \|- !Philia \| style="text-align:center;" \| Preshy Marker \| style="text-align:center;" \| Isla Blair \| style="text-align:center;" \| Annette Andre \| style="text-align:center;" \| Pamela Hall \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jessica Boevers \| style="text-align:center;" \| Caroline Sheen \|- !Hysterium \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jack Gilford \| style="text-align:center;" \| Kenneth Connor \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jack Gilford \| style="text-align:center;" \| Larry Blyden \| style="text-align:center;" \| Mark Linn-Baker \| style="text-align:center;" \| Hamish McColl \|- !Senex \| style="text-align:center;" \| David Burns \| style="text-align:center;" \| Eddie Gray \| style="text-align:center;" \| Michael Hordern \| style="text-align:center;" \| Lew Parker \| style="text-align:center;" \| Lewis J. Stadlen \| style="text-align:center;" \| Sam Kelly \|- !Domina \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ruth Kobart \| style="text-align:center;" \| Linda Gray \| style="text-align:center;" \| Patricia Jessel \| style="text-align:center;" \| Lizabeth Pritchett \| style="text-align:center;" \| Mary Testa \| style="text-align:center;" \| Isla Blair \|- !Marcus Lycus \| style="text-align:center;" \| John Carradine \| style="text-align:center;" \| Jon Pertwee \| style="text-align:center;" \| Phil Silvers \| style="text-align:center;" \| Carl Ballantine \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ernie Sabella \| style="text-align:center;" \| David Schneider \|- ! Miles Gloriosus \| style="text-align:center;" \| Ronald Holgate \| colspan2 style"text-align:center;" \| Leon Greene \| style="text-align:center;" \| Carl Lindstrom \| style="text-align:center;" \| Cris Groenendaal \| style="text-align:center;" \| Philip Quast \|- ! Erronius \| style="text-align:center;" \| Raymond Walburn \| style="text-align:center;" \| Robertson Hare \| style="text-align:center;" \| Buster Keaton \| style="text-align:center;" \| Reginald Owen \| style="text-align:center;" \| William Duell \| style="text-align:center;" \| Harry Towb \|- !Panacea \| \| \| \| \| style="text-align:center;"\| Leigh Zimmerman \| style="text-align:center;"\| Lorraine Stewart \|} Songs {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Act I "Comedy Tonight" – Pseudolus and Company * "Love, I Hear" – Hero * "Free" – Pseudolus and Hero * "The House of Marcus Lycus" – Lycus, Pseudolus and Courtesans * "Lovely" – Philia and Hero * "Pretty Little Picture" – Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia * "Everybody Ought to Have a Maid" – Senex, Pseudolus, Hysterium and Lycus * "I'm Calm" – Hysterium * "Impossible" – Senex and Hero * "Bring Me My Bride" – Miles Gloriosus, Pseudolus and Company {{col-2}} Act II * "That Dirty Old Man" – Domina * "That'll Show Him" – Philia * "Lovely" (reprise) – Pseudolus and Hysterium * "Funeral Sequence" – Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company * "Finale" – Company {{col-end}} Cut songs:<ref>{{Cite book\|lastGelbart\|firstLarry\|titleA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum: Introduction\|publisherApplause\|year1990\|isbn1557830649\|pages1–10\|languageEnglish}}</ref> "Love Is in the Air" – Prologus (Played by Senex) and Proteans ''(Originally intended as the opening number, replaced with "Comedy Tonight".<ref>(no author).[http://www.sondheim.com/shows/a_funny_thing_happened/#cut_songs "Cut songs, 'A Funny Thing Happened'"] Sondheim.com, accessed August 16, 2011</ref> The song was later featured in the film The Birdcage (1996) where it was performed by Robin Williams and Christine Baranski.) "Invocation and Instructions to the Audience" (Another version of the opening number. Used in subsequent revues of Sondheim songs and was sung by Nathan Lane in the musical The Frogs''.) "I Do Like You" – Pseudolus and Hysterium "There's Something About a War" – Miles Gloriosus "Echo Song" – Philia and Hero "Your Eyes Are Blue" – Hero "The Gaggle of Geese" – Erronius "What Do You Do With a Woman?" – Hero Notes: "Pretty Little Picture" is frequently dropped from productions, and one verse of "I'm Calm" is also often trimmed. A song for Domina entitled "Farewell" was added for the 1972 revival as she and Senex depart for the country. "Echo Song" was reinstated in the same revival. Awards and honors Original Broadway production {\| class"wikitable" width"95%" \|- ! width="5%"\| Year ! width="25%"\| Award ceremony ! width="40%"\| Category ! width="20%"\| Nominee ! width="10%"\| Result \|- \| 1962 \| Outer Critics Circle Award \| Special Award \| George Abbott \| {{won}} \|- \| rowspan"8" align"center"\| 1963 \| rowspan="8"\| Tony Award \| colspan="2"\| Best Musical \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Producer of a Musical \| Harold Prince \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Author \| Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical \| Zero Mostel \| {{won}} \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical \| David Burns \| {{won}} \|- \| Jack Gilford \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical \| Ruth Kobart \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Direction of a Musical \| George Abbott \| {{won}} \|} 1972 Broadway revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan=3\|1972 \| rowspan=3\|Tony Award \| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical \| Phil Silvers \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical \| Larry Blyden \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Direction of a Musical \| Burt Shevelove \| {{nom}} \|} 1996 Broadway revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan=9\|1996 \| rowspan=4\|Tony Award \| colspan=2\|Best Revival of a Musical \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical \| Nathan Lane \| {{won}} \|- \| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical \| Lewis J. Stadlen \| {{nom}} \|- \| Best Direction of a Musical \| Jerry Zaks \| {{nom}} \|- \| rowspan=2\|Drama Desk Award \| colspan=2\|Outstanding Revival of a Musical \| {{nom}} \|- \| Outstanding Actor in a Musical \| Nathan Lane \| {{won}} \|- \| rowspan=2\|Outer Critics Circle Award \| Outstanding Actor in a Musical \| Nathan Lane \| {{won}} \|- \| Outstanding Director of a Musical \| Jerry Zaks \| {{won}} \|- \| Drama League Award \| colspan=2\|Distinguished Production of a Revival \| {{nom}} \|} . References Notes {{Reflist}} Bibliography [https://web.archive.org/web/20071023093217/http://libretto.musicals.ru/text.php?textid6&language1 "'A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' plot summary & character descriptions"] from [http://www.stageagent.com StageAgent.com] [http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_f/forum.htm "Plot and production information", guidetomusicaltheatre.com] External links {{Commons category}} * {{IBDB show \| 1102}} [http://www.sondheimdatabase.com/shows/a-funny-thing-happened-on-the-way-to-the-forum A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum] at the Sondheim Database [http://www.sondheimguide.com/forum.html ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Sondheim Guide] * {{Cite web \|urlhttp://libretto.musicals.ru/text.php?textid6&language1 \|titleLibretto for the Broadway play \|access-dateApril 20, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071023093217/http://libretto.musicals.ru/text.php?textid6&language1 \|archive-dateOctober 23, 2007 \|url-status dead \|df=mdy-all }} * [http://www.mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000038 A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum] at the Music Theatre International website {{Stephen Sondheim}} {{TonyAwardBestMusical 1947–1975}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A}} Category:1962 musicals Category:Broadway musicals Category:West End musicals Category:Musicals based on plays Category:Musicals set in ancient Rome Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim Category:American plays adapted into films Category:Plays based on works by Plautus Category:Musicals choreographed by Jerome Robbins Category:Tony Award for Best Musical Category:Musicals by Larry Gelbart	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum	2025-04-05T18:26:15.601532
3034	Aleuts	{{Short description\|Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands}} {{For-multi\|the language\|Aleut language\|other uses\|Aleut (disambiguation)}} {{redirect\|Auleutes\|an insect\|Auleutes (beetle)}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Use American English\|date = April 2019}} {{Infobox ethnic group \| group = Aleuts \| native_name = унаӈан (unangan)<br/>унаӈас (unangas) \| image = Greany Attu Woman.jpg \| caption = Attu Aleut mother and child, 1941 \| region1 = United States<br/>Alaska \| pop1 = 6,752 \| ref1 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pidACS_15_AIA_B01003&prodTypetable\|titleAleut alone\|websitefactfinder.census.gov\|publisherUS Census Bureau\|access-dateFebruary 20, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200214061143/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pidACS_15_AIA_B01003&prodTypetable\|archive-dateFebruary 14, 2020\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \| region2 = Russia<br/>Kamchatka Krai \| pop2 = 482 \| ref2 <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120424113952/http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/tab5.xls\|url-statusdead\|titleВПН-2010\|archive-dateApril 24, 2012\|website=gks.ru}}</ref> \| languages English, Russian, Aleut<ref nameethno/> \| religions = Eastern Orthodoxy <br />{{small\|(Russian Orthodox Church)}}, Animism \| related-c = Inuit, Yupik, Sirenik, Sadlermiut, Alaskan Creoles \| related_groups = }} {{Infobox ethnonym\|root\|personUnangax̂\|peopleUnangan (east)<br/>Unangas (west)\|languageUnangam Tunuu\|country=Unangam Tanangin}} Aleuts ({{IPAc-en\|audioAleut pronunciation.mp3\|ˌ\|æ\|.\|l\|iː\|ˈ\|uː\|t}} {{Respell\|AL\|ee\|OOT}};<ref>{{cite EPD\|18}}</ref> {{langx\|ale\|Unangan}} (west) or {{lang\|ale\|Unangas}} (east) {{langx\|ru\|Алеуты\|Aleuty}}) are the Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleuts and the islands are politically divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai. This group is also known as the Unangax̂<ref>{{Citation \|titleWe Are Unangax \| dateOctober 17, 2016 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vc94L3M-IzWI \|access-date2023-05-10 \|languageen \|archive-dateMay 10, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230510153415/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vc94L3M-IzWI \|url-statuslive }}</ref> in Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleUnangax̂ (Aleut) & Alutiiq/Sugpiaq \|urlhttps://www.anchoragelibrary.org/resources/research/alaska-collection/research-guides/unangax-aleut-alutiiqsugpiaq/ \|access-date2023-05-10 \|websiteAnchorage Public Library \|languageen \|archive-dateMay 10, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230510153415/https://www.anchoragelibrary.org/resources/research/alaska-collection/research-guides/unangax-aleut-alutiiqsugpiaq/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> There are 13 federally recognized Aleut tribes in the Aleut Region of Alaska.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://ancsaregional.com/census/aleut-region/ \|titleList of Federally Recognized Tribes in the Aleut Region \|publisherANCSA Regional Association \|accessdate2024-01-11}}</ref> In 2000, Aleuts in Russia were recognized by government decree as a small-numbered Indigenous people.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://raipon.info/narody/aleuty/ \|titleAleuts \|dateJune 20, 2023 \|publisherRussian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North \|accessdate2024-01-11}}</ref> Etymology In the Aleut language, they are known by the endonyms Unangan (eastern dialect) and Unangas (western dialect); both terms mean "people".{{efn\|The singular form is Unangax̂. The Cyrillic spelling of Unangan and Unangas are {{lang\|ale-Cyrl\|Унаӈан}} and {{lang\|ale-Cyrl\|Унаӈас}}, respectively.<ref nameanlc>[https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/al/ "Unangam Tunuu/Aleut,"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180209152950/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/al/ \|dateFebruary 9, 2018 }} Alaska Native Language Center.</ref>}} The Russian term "Aleut" was a general term used for both the native population of the Aleutian Islands and their neighbors to the east in the Kodiak Archipelago, who were also referred to as "Pacific Eskimos" or Sugpiat/Alutiit.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorMarcus Lepola \|titleThe Aleuts and the Pacific Eskimo in the colonial economy of Russian Alaska in the mid 19th century \|journalArctic & Antarctic International Journal of Circumpolar Socio-Cultural \|year2010 \|volume4 \|urlhttps://iacsi.hi.is/issues/2010_volume_4/4_article_vol_4.pdf \|access-dateNovember 14, 2022 \|archive-dateNovember 14, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221114072629/https://iacsi.hi.is/issues/2010_volume_4/4_article_vol_4.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Language Aleut people speak Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language, as well as English and Russian in the United States and Russia respectively. An estimated 150 people in the United States and five people in Russia speak Aleut.<ref nameethno>[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/ale "Aleut."] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170620074153/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ale \|dateJune 20, 2017 }} Ethnologue. Retrieved February 3, 2014.</ref> The language belongs to the Eskaleut language family and includes three dialects: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof Islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect. The Pribilof Islands has the highest number of active speakers of Unangam Tunuu. Most native elders speak Aleut, but it is rare for common people to speak the language fluently. Beginning in 1829, Aleut was written in the Cyrillic script. From 1870, the language has been written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut.<ref nameethno/>TribesAleut (Unangan) dialects and tribes:<ref>[http://www.alaskool.org/language/Aleut/Dialects.html Unangam Language Pre-contact Tribes and Dialects] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303225352/http://www.alaskool.org/language/Aleut/Dialects.html \|date=March 3, 2016 }} by Knut Bergland and Moses L. Dirks</ref> * Attuan dialect and speaking tribes: Sasignan (in Attuan dialect)/Sasxnan (in Eastern dialect)/Sasxinas (in Western dialect) or Near Islanders: in the Near Islands (Attu, Agattu, Semichi). Kasakam Unangangis (in Aleut, lit. 'Russian Aleut') or Copper Island Aleut: in the Commander Islands of Russian Federation (Bering, Medny). ? Qax̂un or Rat Islanders : in the Buldir Island and Rat Islands (Kiska, Amchitka, Semisopochnoi). Atkan dialect or Western Aleut or Aliguutax̂ (in Aleut) and speaking tribes: Naahmiĝus or Delarof Islanders : in the Delarof Islands (Amatignak) and Andreanof Islands (Tanaga). Niiĝuĝis or Andreanof Islanders : in the Andreanof Islands (Kanaga, Adak, Atka, Amlia, Seguam). * Eastern Aleut dialect and speaking tribes: Akuuĝun or Uniiĝun or Islanders of the Four Mountains : in the Islands of Four Mountains (Amukta, Kagamil). Qawalangin or Fox Islanders : in the Fox Islands (Umnak, Samalga, western part of Unalaska). Qigiiĝun or Krenitzen Islanders : in the Krenitzin Islands (eastern part of Unalaska, Akutan, Akun, Tigalda). Qagaan Tayaĝungin or Sanak Islanders : in the Sanak Islands (Unimak, Sanak). Taxtamam Tunuu dialect of Belkofski. Qaĝiiĝun or Shumigan Islanders : in the Shumagin Islands. Population and distribution {{For\|specific tribal village names\|List of Alaska Native tribal entities}} Aleuts historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula, with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact.<ref nameBritannica>{{cite encyclopedia \|year2011 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|titleAleut People \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13914/Aleut \|access-dateJune 2, 2022 \|archive-dateApril 30, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150430025303/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13914/Aleut \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands (within the Aleutsky District of the Kamchatka Krai in Russia)<ref>Lyapunova, R.G. (1987) Aleuts: Noted on their ethnological history (in Russian)</ref> and to the Pribilof Islands (in Alaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities.<ref name"Milton M.R. Freeman">{{cite book \|last1Corbett \|first1H.D. \|first2S. M \|last2Swibold \|year2000 \|titleThe Aleuts of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska \|chapterEndangered people of the Arctic. Struggle to Survive \|publisherMilton M.R. Freeman \|chapter-urlhttp://www.amiq.org/aleuts.html \|access-dateApril 13, 2011 \|archive-dateMay 14, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514122235/http://www.amiq.org/aleuts.html \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Bonner, W. N. (1982) Seals and Man: A Study of Interactions, Seattle: University of Washington Press</ref> According to the 2000 census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago.<ref name"alaskannature.com">{{cite web\|urlhttp://alaskannature.com/aleut.htm\|titleAlaskan People: Aleut Native Tribe\|websitealaskannature.com\|access-dateFebruary 14, 2015\|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150201083113/http://alaskannature.com/aleut.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Encyclopædia Britannica Online states that more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century.<ref nameBritannica/> Aleuts suffered high fatalities in the 19th and early 20th centuries from Eurasian infectious diseases to which they had no immunity. In addition, the population suffered as their customary lifestyles were disrupted. Russian traders, and later Europeans, married Aleut women and had families with them.<ref nameBritannica/> History After contact with Russia , 1818]] After the arrival of Russian Orthodox missionaries in the late 18th century, many Aleuts became Christian. Of the numerous Russian Orthodox congregations in Alaska, most are majority Alaska Native or Native Alaskan in ethnicity. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut. Russian traders "took Aleut women and children hostage" to force Aleut men to hunt foxes and sea otters so the Russians could have their pelts, and often additionally enslaved Aleut men.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastChandonnet \|firstAnn \|titleAlaska's Native Peoples \|publisherArctic Circle Enterprises \|year2013 \|isbn978-1-933837-14-7 \|locationAnchorage \|page23}}</ref> by Gustav-Fyodor Khristianovich Pauli (1862)]] Recorded uprising against the Russians {{unreferenced section\|date=April 2016}} In the 18th century, Russia promyshlenniki traders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleuts provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleuts revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to the Aleuts, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleuts less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleuts felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov ({{Lang\|ja\|ステッパノ}} {{Transliteration\|ja\|Suteppano}}) and Kazhimov ({{Lang\|ja\|カジモフ}} {{Transliteration\|ja\|Kazimofu}}) to kill his mistress Oniishin ({{Lang\|ja\|オニイシン}} {{Transliteration\|ja\|Oniishin}}), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods.{{citation needed\|date=April 2016}} After the four leaders had been killed, the Aleuts began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials.<ref name"kodayu">Yamashita, Tsuneo. Daikokuya Kodayu(Japanese), 2004. Iwanami, Japan {{ISBN\|4-00-430879-8}}</ref> (According to {{nihongo\|Hokusa bunryaku\|北槎聞略\|leadyes}}, written by Katsuragawa Hoshū after interviewing Daikokuya Kōdayū.) Aleut genocide against the Nicoleño Tribe in California According to Russian American Company (RAC) records which were translated and published in the Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, a 200-ton otter hunting ship named Il’mena with a mixed-nationality crew, including a majority Aleut contingent, was involved in conflict resulting in a massacre of the indigenous natives of San Nicolas Island.<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/subjects/islandofthebluedolphins/upload/JCGBA_34-1_Morris-etal_final.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nps.gov/subjects/islandofthebluedolphins/upload/JCGBA_34-1_Morris-etal_final.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleMurder, Massacre, and Mayhem on the California Coast, 1814 –1815: Newly Translated Russian American Company Documents Reveal Company Concern Over Violent Clashes\|year2014\|authorMorris, Susan L.Farris, Glenn J.Schwartz, Steven J.Wender, Irina Vladi L.Dralyuk, Boris\|journalJournal of California and Great Basin Anthropology \| volume 34\|issue 1 \| pages= 81–100}}</ref> In 1814, to obtain more of the commercially valuable otter pelts, a Russian company brought a party of conscripted Aleut hunters to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally resident Nicoleño nation sought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; an Aleut was killed, and in retaliation Aleuts killed a number of Nicoleño (the exact amount is unknown). In 1835, the remaining Nicoleños were removed from the island, except for one woman and possibly her child, who were left behind. In 1853 that woman, later christened Juana Maria, was found and taken to Santa Barbara. She may have been the last living Nicoleñan, as what happened to the others after they were brought to the mainland is unknown (Juana Maria, the Lone Woman of San Nicolas).<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/subjects/islandofthebluedolphins/upload/JCGBA_34-1_Morris-etal_final.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nps.gov/subjects/islandofthebluedolphins/upload/JCGBA_34-1_Morris-etal_final.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleMurder, Massacre, and Mayhem on the California Coast, 1814 –1815: Newly Translated Russian American Company Documents Reveal Company Concern Over Violent Clashes\|year2014\|authorMorris, Susan L.Farris, Glenn J.Schwartz, Steven J.Wender, Irina Vladi L.Dralyuk, Boris\|journalJournal of California and Great Basin Anthropology \| volume 34\|issue 1 \| pages81–100}}</ref><ref>https://www.nps.gov/subjects/islandofthebluedolphins/upload/JCGBA_34-1_Morris-etal_final.pdf /, "Life in the Village": Chapter 7, National Park Service, Island of the Blue Dolphins, date written is unknown but the page noted it was last updated February 25, 2020, accessed July 6, 2024</ref>Internment during World War IIIn June 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Kiska and Attu Islands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaido, where they were held as prisoners of war in harsh conditions. Fearing a Japanese attack on other Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska, the U.S. government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died of measles, influenza and other infectious diseases which spread quickly in the overcrowded dormitories. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 22<ref>[https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/descendant-of-last-native-leader-of-alaska-island-demands-japanese-reparations-for-1942-invasion/ar-AA1vAJjA?ocidmsedgdhp&pcU531&cvid46baf9dd3cd64751f1f3f873fb4dd42b&ei15 Descendant of last native leader of Alaska island demands Japanese reparations for 1942 invasion as a result of Japanese occupation 12-12-2024]</ref>died while prisoners of the Japanese.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorMadden, Ryan \|title'The Government's Industry': Alaska Natives and Pribilof Sealing during World War II.\|journalPacific Northwest Quarterly\|volume91\|issue4 \|year2000\|pages202–209\|jstor40492595}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/aleu/learn/historyculture/unangan-internment.htm\|titleEvacuation and Internment, 1942–1945 – Aleutian World War II National Historic Area (U.S. National Park Service)\|websitenps.gov\|access-dateJune 17, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 6, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006190608/https://www.nps.gov/aleu/learn/historyculture/unangan-internment.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the U.S. Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170617174509/http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article156740129.html US apologizes for WWII internment of Alaska's Unangan people]. The Associated Press via Miami Herald. June 17, 2017</ref> The World War II campaign by the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in the American and Pacific theaters. Population's decline Before their way of life was changed by major influences from the outside world, approximately 25,000 Aleuts were located on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of aboriginal society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2000 Table 5 \|url https://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|publishercensus.gov}}</ref> Culture Housing Aleuts constructed partially underground houses called barabara. According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, {{Lang\|ale\|barabara}}s keep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area".{{citation needed\|dateSeptember 2013}} Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually {{convert\|50\|by\|20\|ft\|m}} or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, and then covered with earth for insulation.<ref>Cook, James (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?idxaD-pCdbtYUC&lpgPA377 The Voyages of Captain James Cook.] Hertfordshire, UK: Wordsworth Editions. p. 377 {{ISBN\|978-1-84022-100-8}}.</ref> Inside trenches were dug along the sides, with mats placed on top to keep them clean. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance. Several families would stay in one house, with their own designated areas. Rather than fireplaces or bonfires in the middle, lanterns were hung in the house.Subsistence Aleuts survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as hunting sea mammals such as seal, walrus, and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted. Caribou, muskoxen, deer, moose, whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed as {{Lang\|ale\|alutiqqutigaq}}, a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus. Today, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also buy processed foods from abroad, which is expensive in Alaska. Ethnobotany A full list of their ethnobotany has been compiled, with 65 documented plant uses.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBRIT – Native American Ethnobotany Database\|urlhttp://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/5/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191224165405/http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/5/\|archive-date2019-12-24\|access-date2021-09-06\|websitenaeb.brit.org}}</ref> Visual arts basket and lid embellished with wool embroidery, early 20th century, Brooklyn Museum ]] Customary arts of the Aleuts include weapon-making, building of baidarkas (special hunting boats), weaving, figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. Nineteenth century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and walrus ivory. Andrew Gronholdt of the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building the chagudax or bentwood hunting visors.<ref name=AAUA/> Aleut women sewed finely stitched, waterproof parkas from seal gut and wove fine baskets from sea-lyme grass (Elymus mollis). Some Aleut women continue to weave ryegrass baskets. Aleut arts are practiced and taught throughout the state of Alaska. As many Aleut have moved out of the islands to other parts of the state, they have taken with them the knowledge of their arts. They have also adopted new materials and methods for their art, including serigraphy, video art, and installation art. Aleut carving, distinct in each region, has attracted traders for centuries, including early Europeans and other Alaska Natives. Historically, carving was a male art and leadership attribute whereas today it is done by both genders. Most commonly the carvings of walrus ivory and driftwood originated as part of making hunting weapons. Sculptural carvings depict local animals, such as seals and whales. Aleut sculptors also have carved human figures.<ref nameAAUA>{{cite book\|lastBlack\|firstLydia\|titleAleut Art Unangam Aguqaadangin\|year2003\|publisherAleutian/Pribilof Islands Association\|location=Anchorage, AK}}</ref> Aleuts also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Each clan would have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads.<ref name="AAUA"/> The main Aleut method of basketry was false embroidery (overlay). Strands of grasses or reeds were overlaid upon the basic weaving surface, to obtain a plastic effect. Basketry was an art reserved for women.<ref name"AAUA"/> Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality, using only their thumbnail, grown long and then sharpened, as a tool. Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven grass pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. Birch bark, puffin feathers, and baleen are also commonly used by the Aleuts in basketry. The Aleut term for grass basket is {{Lang\|ale\|qiigam aygaaxsii}}. One Aleut leader recognized by the State of Alaska for her work in teaching and reviving Aleut basketry was Anfesia Shapsnikoff. Her life and accomplishments are portrayed in the book Moments Rightly Placed (1998).<ref nameTurner/> Masks were created to portray figures of their myths and oral history. The Atka people believed that another people lived in their land before them. They portrayed such ancients in their masks, which show anthropomorphic creatures named in their language. Knut Bergsland says their word means "like those found in caves." Masks were generally carved from wood and were decorated with paints made from berries or other natural products. Feathers were inserted into holes carved out for extra decoration. These masks were used in ceremonies ranging from dances to praises, each with its own meaning and purpose.<ref name"AAUA"/>Tattoos and piercings The tattoos and piercings of the Aleuts demonstrated accomplishments as well as their religious views. They believed their body art would please the spirits of the animals and make any evil go away. The body orifices were believed to be pathways for the entry of evil entities. By piercing their orifices: the nose, the mouth, and ears, they would stop evil entities, {{Lang\|ale\|khoughkh}}, from entering their bodies. Body art also enhanced their beauty, social status, and spiritual authority.<ref>Osborn, Kevin (1990). The Peoples of the Arctic. New York : Chelsea House Publishers. p. 52. {{ISBN\|9780877548768}}</ref> Before the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among Aleuts, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle's feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins. Piercing ears was also common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect. Tattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, after menstruation, at about age 20. Historically, men received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, an important rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a wealthy, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose. Aleut clothing , or sea mammal intestine coat.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://artsandculture.google.com/asset/kamleika/6AFzaJE5vq3JQA\|titleKamleika\|websiteGoogle Arts & Culture\|access-dateJanuary 16, 2019\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120015815/https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/kamleika/6AFzaJE5vq3JQA\|url-status=live}}</ref>]] Aleuts developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps.<ref nameGross/> They called these parkas {{Lang\|ale\|kameikas}}, meaning 'rain gear' in the English language.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://aleutcorp.com/\|titleHome\|websiteAleut Corporation\|accessdateDecember 18, 2022\|archive-dateDecember 18, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221218093214/https://aleutcorp.com/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Sea-lions, harbor seals, and sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing.<ref nameGross/> Preparation of the gut for clothing involved several steps. The prepared intestines were turned inside out. A bone knife was used to remove the muscle tissue and fat from the walls of the intestine. The gut was cut and stretched, and fastened to stakes to dry. It was then cut and sewn to make waterproof parkas, bags, and other receptacles.<ref nameTurner/> On some hunting trips, the men would take several women with them. They would catch birds and prepare the carcasses and feathers for future use. They caught puffins (Lunda cirrhata, Fratercula corniculata), guillemots, and murres.<ref name=Turner/> It took 40 skins of tufted puffin and 60 skins of horned puffin to make one parka. A woman would need a year for all the labor to make one parka. Each lasted two years with proper care. All parkas were decorated with bird feathers, beard bristles of seal and sea-lion, beaks of sea parrots, bird claws, sea otter fur, dyed leather, and caribou hair sewn in the seams.<ref name=Gross/> Women made needles from the wing bones of seabirds. They made thread from the sinews of different animals and fish guts.<ref nameGross/> A thin strip of seal intestine could also be used, twisted to form a thread. The women grew their thumbnail extra long and sharpened it. They could split threads to make them as fine as a hair.<ref nameTurner/> They used vermilion paint, hematite, the ink bag of the octopus, and the root of a kind of grass or vine to color the threads.<ref nameTurner/>GenderRussian travelers making early contact with the Aleuts mention traditional tales of two-spirits or third and fourth gender people, known as {{Lang\|ale\|ayagigux̂}} (male-bodied, <!--saying e.g. "male-assigned", the preferred terminology for similar cases, would raise the question of "assigned by whom? Europeans"--> 'man transformed into a woman') and {{Lang\|ale\|tayagigux̂}} (female-bodied, 'woman transformed into a man'), but it is unclear whether these tales are about historical individuals or spirits.<ref name"MurrayPH">Murray, Stephen O. (2002) Pacific Homosexualities. Writers Club Press. p. 206. {{ISBN\|9780595227853}}</ref> Hunting technologies Boats {{Main\|Aleutian kayak}} , by Louis Choris, 1817]] The interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs.<ref nameAHC>{{cite book\|lastAntonson\|firstJoan\|titleAlaska's Heritage\|year1984\|publisherThe Alaska Historical Commission\|locationAnchorage\|pages85–95}}</ref> To hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft called baidarkas. For regular travel, they used their large {{Lang\|ale\|baidara}}s.<ref name="AHC"/> The {{Lang\|ale\|baidara}} was a large, open, walrus-skin-covered boat. Aleut families used it when traveling among the islands. It was also used to transport goods for trade, and warriors took them to battle.<ref nameCCP>{{cite book\|lastDurham\|firstBill\|titleCanoes and Kayaks of Western America\|year1960\|publisherCopper Canoe Press\|locationSeattle\|pages11–20}}</ref> The {{Lang\|ale\|baidarka}} (small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. Aleut {{Lang\|ale\|baidarka}} resembles that of a Yup'ik kayak, but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made the {{Lang\|ale\|baidarka}} for one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-man {{Lang\|ale\|baidarka}}s were about {{convert\|16\|ft\|m}} long and {{convert\|20\|in\|cm}} wide, whereas a two-man was on average about {{convert\|20\|ft\|m}} long and {{convert\|24\|in\|cm}} wide. It was from the {{Lang\|ale\|baidarka}} that Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea.<ref name"CCP"/>WeaponsThe Aleuts hunted small sea mammals with barbed darts and harpoons slung from throwing boards. These boards gave precision as well as some extra distance to these weapons.<ref nameAIA>{{cite book\|lastJochelson\|firstWaldemar\|titleArchaeological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands\|year1925\|publisherUniversity of Utah Press\|locationSalt Lake City\|page=145}}</ref> Harpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleuts used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals.<ref name="AIA"/> The simple Aleut harpoon consisted of four main parts: the wooden shaft, the bone foreshaft, and the bonehead (tip) with barbs pointed backward. The barbed head was loosely fitted into the socket of the foreshaft so that when the animal was stabbed, it pulled the head away from the rest of the harpoon. The sharp barbs penetrated with ease, but could not be pulled out. The bone tip is fastened to a length of braided twine meanwhile; the hunter held the other end of the twine in his hand.<ref name="AIA"/> The compound harpoon was the most prevalent weapon of the Aleuts. Also known as the toggle-head spear, it was about the same size as the simple harpoon and used to hunt the same animals, however, this harpoon provided a more efficient and lethal weapon. This harpoon separated into four parts. The longest part was the shaft with the thicker stalk closer to the tip of the harpoon. The shaft was fitted into the socket of the fore shaft and a bone ring was then placed over the joint to hold the two pieces together, as well as, protecting the wooden shaft from splitting. Connected to the fore shaft of the harpoon is the toggle head spear tip. This tip was made of two sub shafts that break apart on impact with an animal. The upper sub shaft held the razor stone head and attached to the lower sub shaft with a small braided twine loop. Once the tip penetrates the animal the upper sub head broke off from the rest of the shaft, however, since it was still connected with the braided loop it rotated the head into a horizontal position inside the animal's body so that it could not get away from the hunter.<ref name="AIA"/> The throwing lance may be distinguished from a harpoon because all its pieces are fixed and immovable. A lance was a weapon of war and it was also used to kill large marine animals after it has already been harpooned. The throwing lance usually consisted of three parts: a wooden shaft, a bone ring or belt, and the compound head that was made with a barbed bonehead and a stone tip. The length of the compound head was equivalent to the distance between the planes of a man's chest to his back. The lance would penetrate the chest and pass through the chest cavity and exit from the back. The bone ring was designed to break after impact so that the shaft could be used again for another kill.<ref name"AIA"/>Burial practices They buried their dead ancestors near the village. Archeologists have found many different types of burials, dating from a variety of periods, in the Aleutian Islands. Aleuts developed burial styles that were accommodated to local conditions, and honored the dead. They have had four main types of burials: {{Lang\|ale\|umqan}}, cave, above-ground sarcophagi, and burials connected to communal houses. {{Lang\|ale\|Umqan}} burials are the most widely known type of mortuary practice found in the Aleutian Islands. The people created burial mounds, that tend to be located on the edge of a bluff. They placed stone and earth over the mound to protect and mark it. Such mounds were first excavated by archeologists in 1972 on Southwestern Unmak Island, and dated to the early contact period. Researchers have found a prevalence of these {{Lang\|ale\|umqan}} burials, and concluded it is a regional mortuary practice. It may be considered a pan-Aleutian mortuary practice.<ref name="Veltre 2001"/> Cave burials have been found throughout the eastern Aleutian Islands. The human remains are buried in shallow graves at the rear of the cave. These caves tend to be next to middens and near villages. Some grave goods have been found in the caves associated with such burials. For example, a deconstructed boat was found in a burial cave on Kanaga Island. There were no other major finds of grave goods in the vicinity.<ref name="Nelson and Barnett 1955"/> Throughout the Aleutian Islands, gravesites have been found that are above-ground sarcophagi. These sarcophagi are left exposed, with no attempt to bury the dead in the ground. These burials tend to be isolated and limited to the remains of adult males, which may indicate a specific ritual practice. In the Near Islands, isolated graves have also been found with the remains, and not just the sarcophagus, left exposed on the surface.<ref name="Corbett 2001"/> This way of erecting sarcophagi above ground is not as common as {{Lang\|ale\|umqan}} and cave burials, but it is still widespread. Another type of practice has been to bury remains in areas next to the communal houses of the settlement.<ref name"Corbett 2001"/> Human remains are abundant in such sites. They indicate a pattern of burying the dead within the main activity areas of the settlement. These burials consist of small pits adjacent to the houses and scattered around them.<ref name"Corbett 2001"/> In these instances, mass graves are common for women and children.<ref name="Corbett 2001"/> This type of mortuary practice has been mainly found in the Near Islands. In addition to these four main types, other kinds of burials have been found in the Aleutian Islands. These more isolated examples in include mummification, private burial houses, abandoned houses, etc.<ref name="Corbett 2001"/> To date, such examples are not considered to be part of a larger, unifying cultural practice. The findings discussed represent only the sites that have been excavated. The variety of mortuary practices mostly did not include the ritual of including extensive grave goods, as has been found in other cultures. The remains so far have been mainly found with other human and faunal remains.<ref name"Corbett 2001"/> The addition of objects to "accompany" the dead is rare.<ref name"Nelson and Barnett 1955"/> Archaeologists have been trying to dissect the absence of grave goods, but their findings have been ambiguous and do not really help the academic community to understand these practices more. Not much information is known about the ritual parts of burying the dead. Archeologists and anthropologists have not found much evidence related to burial rituals.<ref name"Veltre 2001"/> This lack of ritual evidence could hint at either no ritualized ceremony, or one that has not yet been revealed in the archaeological record. As a result, archaeologists cannot decipher the context to understand exactly why a certain type of burial was used in particular cases.Notable Aleuts John Hoover (1919–2011), sculptor Carl E. Moses (1929–2014) businessman, state representative, who served from 1965 to 1973 as both a Republican and Democrat, * Jacob Netsvetov (1802–1864), Russian Orthodox saint and priest * Sergie Sovoroff (1901–1989), educator, {{Lang\|ale\|iqya-x}} (model sea kayak) builder * Eve Tuck, academic, indigenous studies Olga (Arrsamquq) of Alaska (1916–1979) Eastern Orthodox Saint and Matushka Peter the Aleut (1800–1815), Eastern Orthodox Saint and martyr In popular culture In Snow Crash, a science fiction novel by American writer Neal Stephenson, a central character named Raven is portrayed as an Aleut with incredible toughness and hunting skill.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.shmoop.com/snow-crash/raven-dmitri-ravinoff.html\|titleRaven a.k.a. Dmitri Ravinoff in Snow Crash\|websiteshmoop.com\|access-dateJanuary 14, 2018\|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180115071717/https://www.shmoop.com/snow-crash/raven-dmitri-ravinoff.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The story is about revenge due in part to perceived mistreatment of the Aleuts.See also{{Div col\|colwidth22em}} Adamagan Aleutian Islands Aleutian tradition Alutiiq Indigenous Amerindian genetics Maritime Fur Trade Sadlermiut Shamanism among Alaska Natives Unangan Aleut List of Native American peoples in the United States {{colend}} Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist\|refs<ref name"Corbett 2001">Corbett, Debra G. (2001) "Prehistoric Village Organization in the Western Aleutians". In Archaeology of the Aleut Zone of Alaska, edited by D. Dumond, pp.&nbsp;251–266. University of Oregon Anthropological Papepers, no. 58. University of Oregon, Eugene.</ref> <ref name=Gross>Gross, J. Joseph and Khera, Sigrid (1980). Ethnohistory of the Aleuts. Fairbanks: Department of Anthropology University of Alaska. pp. 32–34</ref> <ref name"Nelson and Barnett 1955">{{cite journal\|doi10.2307/277079\|jstor277079\|titleA Burial Cave on Kanaga Island, Aleutian Islands\|last1Nelson\|first1Willis H.\|last2Barnett\|first2Frank\|journalAmerican Antiquity\|year1955\|volume20\|issue4\|pages387–392\|s2cid162015286 }}</ref> <ref name=Turner>Turner, M. Lucien. (2008) An Aleutian Ethnography. Ed. L. Raymond Hudson. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. pp. 70–71. {{ISBN\|9781602230286}}</ref> <ref name="Veltre 2001">Veltre, Douglas W. (2001) "Korovinski: Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Investigations of a Pre- and Post-Contact Aleut and Russian Settlement on Atka Island". In Archaeology of the Aleut Zone of Alaska, edited by D. Dumond, pp.&nbsp;251–266. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers, no. 58. University of Oregon, Eugene.</ref> }} Further reading {{refbegin}} <!--B--> Black, Lydia T. Aleut Art: Unangam Aguqaadangin. Anchorage, Alaska: Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, 2005. <!--J--> Jochelson, Waldemar. History, Ethnology, and Anthropology of the Aleut. Washington: Carnegie institution of Washington, 1933. * Jochelson, Waldemar, Bergsland, Knut (Editor) & Dirks, Moses (Editor). Unangam Ungiikangin Kayux Tunusangin Unangam Uniikangis ama Tunuzangis Aleut Tales and Narratives. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1990.{{ISBN\|978-1-55500-036-3}}. <!--K--> * Kohlhoff, Dean. When the Wind Was a River Aleut Evacuation in World War II. Seattle: University of Washington Press in association with Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, Anchorage, 1995. {{ISBN\|0-295-97403-6}} {{cite journal \|firstLars \|lastKrutak \|titleTattooing and Piercing Among the Alaskan Aleut \|journalQuarterly Journal of the Association of Professional Piercers 44 (2008): 22 \|dateApril 24, 2011 \|urlhttp://www.safepiercing.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/thepoint44_web.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110928064644/http://www.safepiercing.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/thepoint44_web.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-date=September 28, 2011 }} <!--L--> Lee, Molly, Angela J. Linn, and Chase Hensel. Not Just a Pretty Face: Dolls and Human Figurines in Alaska Native Cultures. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, 2006. Print. <!--M--> * Madden, Ryan Howard. "An enforced odyssey: The relocation and internment of Aleuts during World War II" (PhD thesis U of New Hampshire, Durham, 1993) [https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article2766&contextdissertation online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180524151148/https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article2766&contextdissertation \|dateMay 24, 2018 }} * Murray, Martha G., and Peter L. Corey. Aleut Weavers. Juneau, AK: Alaska State Museums, Division of Libraries, Archives and Museums, 1997. <!--N--> * National Park Service. "[http://www.nps.gov/aleu/index.htm Aleutian World War II] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150114013446/http://www.nps.gov/aleu/index.htm \|dateJanuary 14, 2015 }}." <!--R--> * Reedy-Maschner, Katherine. "Aleut Identities : Tradition and Modernity in an Indigenous Fishery". Montréal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010. {{ISBN\|978-0773537484}} <!--V--> * Veltre, Douglas W. Aleut Unangax̂ Ethnobotany An Annotated Bibliography. Akureyri, Iceland: CAFF International Secretariat, 2006. {{ISBN\|9979-9778-0-9}} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category\|Aleut}} {{External links\|section\|date=October 2023}} * [http://www.aleutcorp.com/ Aleut Corporation] * [http://www.aleutmgt.com/ Aleut Management Services] * [http://www.apiai.org/ Aleutian Pribilof Island Association] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180806204148/https://www.qawalangintribe.com/ Qawalangin Tribe of Unalaska] * [http://www.aleutians.org/ Museum of the Aleutians] * [http://jukebox.uaf.edu/com_unalaska/index.html Unalaska Communities of Memory Project Jukebox]; {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100624200728/http://jukebox.uaf.edu/com_unalaska/index.html \|dateJune 24, 2010 }} * [https://aleut-international.org/ Aleut International Association] * [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1130 A Grammar of Fox Island Aleutian Manuscript] at Dartmouth College Library * [https://www.apicda.com/ Aleutian Pribilof Island Community Development Association] {{Indigenous peoples of Alaska}} {{Indigenous peoples of Russia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aleut People}} Category:Alaska Native ethnic groups Category:Ethnic groups in Russia Category:Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East Category:Native American history of Alaska Category:People from Kamchatka Krai	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleuts	2025-04-05T18:26:15.647381
3035	Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act	{{Short description\|Statute of the United States}} {{External links\|date=November 2024}} The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971, constituting what is still the largest land claims settlement in United States history.<ref namethomas>{{cite web\|last1Thomas\|first1Monica E.\|titleThe Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Conflict and Controversy\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/articles/mthomas/ancsa_conflict.htm\|websitealaskool.org\|publisherPolar Record, 23(142): 27-36 (1986). Cambridge University Press.\|access-date26 November 2014}}</ref><ref namenavajo>{{cite web\|last1Kroerner\|first1Claudia\|titleU.S. To Pay Navajo Nation $554 Million In Largest Tribal Settlement In History\|urlhttps://www.buzzfeed.com/claudiakoerner/us-to-pay-navajo-nation-554-million-in-largest-tribal-settle\|websitebuzzfeed.com\|date25 September 2014 \|access-date26 November 2014}}</ref> ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska.<ref name=thomas1>"Recognition of aboriginal land rights in Alaska was a sharp departure from American Indian policy in other parts of the US. Observers believe this was more a result of slow economic development within Alaska than rejection of Indian policy," citing Cooley, R.A. 1983. "Evolution of Alaska land policy." in Morehouse, T. A. (editor). Alaskan Resources Development: Issues of the 1980s. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 13-49.</ref> The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations.<ref namethomas/> A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska.<ref namethomas/> The act is codified in chapter 33 of title 43 of the US Code.<ref namechapter33>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/43/chapter-33\|title43 U.S. Code Chapter 33 \|websiteLegal Information Institute\|publisherCornell University Law School\|access-date27 November 2014}}</ref> Background Alaskan statehood and AFN President Emil Notti discussing ANCSA in the Senate TV Studio in 1969.]] When Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the Alaska Statehood Act provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo.<ref namejones>{{cite web\|last1Jones\|first1Richard S.\|titleAlaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-203): History and Analysis Together With Subsequent Amendments Report No. 81-127 GOV\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/reports/rsjones1981/ANCSA_History71_Ftnts.htm#28\|publisheralaskool.org (June 1, 1981)\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref><ref namestatehood>{{cite web\|titleAlaska Statehood Act Public Law 85-508, 72 Stat. 339, July 7, 1958\|urlhttps://ancsa.lbblawyers.com/state6.htm\|websiteancsa.lbblawyers.com\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 allowed for the state government to claim lands deemed vacant.<ref namestatehood/> Section 6 granted the state of Alaska the right to select lands then in the hands of the federal government, with the exception of Native territory. As a result, nearly {{convert\|104.5\|e6acre\|km2}} from the public domain would eventually be transferred to the state.<ref namestatehood/><ref namejones2>{{cite web\|last1Richard S.\|first1Jones\|titleAlaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-203): History and Analysis Together With Subsequent Amendments: Introduction\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/reports/rsjones1981/ancsa_history71.htm\|publisheralaskool.org\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> The state government also attempted to acquire lands under section 6 of the Statehood Act that were subject to Native claims under section 4, and that were currently occupied and used by Alaska Natives.<ref namejones2/> The federal Bureau of Land Management began to process the Alaska government's selections without taking into account the Native claims and without informing the affected Native groups.<ref name=jones2/> It was against this backdrop that the original language for a land claims settlement was developed.<ref nameray>{{cite web\|titleStatement of Ray Christiansen, State Senator for District K\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/testimony/ancsa_hearings/r_christiansen.html\|websitealaskool.org\|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> A 9.2-magnitude earthquake struck the state in 1964.<ref nameearthquake>{{cite web\|titleThe Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964\|urlhttp://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html\|publisherAlaska Earthquake Center\|access-date29 November 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706212449/http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html\|archive-date6 July 2011\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government.<ref nameray/> The Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska decided that Natives should receive $100 million and 10% of revenue{{clarify\|reasonRevenue from what? Revenue is not mentioned in the source.\|dateMarch 2019}} as a royalty.<ref nameray/> Nothing was done with this proposal, however, and a freeze on land transfers remained in effect.<ref nametanana>{{cite web\|last1Grabinska\|first1Kornelia\|titleExcerpts from History of Events Leading to the Passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/tcc2/tananachiefs.html#B.%20Campaigns%20in%20the%20Congress,%201967-1971\|publisherTanana Chiefs Conference, Inc.\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref>Founding of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) In 1966, Emil Notti called for a statewide meeting inviting numerous leaders around Alaska to gather and create the first meeting of a committee. The historic meeting was held October 18, 1966 - on the 99th anniversary of the transfer of Alaska from Russia. Notti presided over the three-day conference as it discussed matters of land recommendations, claims committees, and political challenges the act would have in getting through congress. Many respected politicians and businessmen attended the meeting and delegates were astonished at the attention which they received from well-known political figures of the state. The growing presence and political importance of Natives was evidenced when members were able to gain election to seven of the sixty seats in the legislature. When the group met a second time early in 1967, it emerged with a new name, The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN), and a new full-time President, Emil Notti. AFN went on to profoundly change the human rights and economic stability of the Alaska Native population. Native Land Claims Task Force In 1967, Governor Walter Hickel summoned a group of Indigenous leaders and politicians to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives.<ref name"Miner, 1967">{{cite news \|title37 Named to Land Claims Task Force \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/5848136/fairbanks-daily-news-miner/ \|access-date11 October 2022 \|workFairbanks Daily News-Miner \|date11 November 1967 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|page6 \|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref>{{#tag:ref\|Among the appointees were politicians Raymond C. Christiansen, Willie Hensley, Carl E. Moses, John C. Sackett, and Jules Wright. Indigenous members included George Attla, Cecil Barnes, Laura Bergt, John Borbridge, Alice Brown, Harry Carter, Jerry Crow, Jeff David, Frank Degnan, Andrew Demonski, Mark Ewan, Richard Frank, Charles Franz, Tom Gregoroff, Eben Hopson, Axel Johnson, Flore Lekanoff, Tony Lewis, Byron Mallott, Emil McCord, Elva Naanes, Hugh Nicholls, Emil Notti, George Olson, Howard Rock, Harvey Samuelson, Walter Soboleff, Seraphim Stephan, Richard Stitt, George Trigg, Donald R. Wright and Lula Young.<ref name"Miner, 1967" />\|group"Notes"}} The group met for ten days and asked for $20 million in exchange for requested lands.<ref nameray/> Among the other task force proposals were an outright grant of 1,000 acres per native village resident; a revenue-sharing program for state land claims and national mineral development projects; secured hunting and fishing rights on public lands; and a Native Commission to administrate state and federal compliance with the provisions of the claims settlement.<ref name"Miner, 1968">{{cite news \|titleHickel Sees Satisfactory Settling of Land Claims \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/111118818/fairbanks-daily-news-miner/ \|access-date11 October 2022 \|workFairbanks Daily News-Miner \|date12 January 1968 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|page7 \|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref> They proposed receiving 10% of federal mineral lease revenue for ten years,<ref namefrigid>{{cite book\|last1Haycox\|first1Stephen W.\|author-linkStephen Haycox\|titleFrigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska\|date2002\|publisherOregon University Press\|isbn0870715364\|pages99–112\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZQUYAAAAYAAJ&qten+percent\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> once the freeze which had been placed on land patents to allow oil exploration was lifted.<ref name"Berry, 1975" >{{cite book \|last1Berry \|first1Mary Clay \|titleThe Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alaskapipelinepo00berr/page/49/mode/1up \|date1975 \|publisherIndiana University Press \|locationBloomington, Indiana \|isbn978-0-253-10064-1}}</ref>{{rp\|49}}OilIn 1968, the Atlantic-Richfield Company discovered oil at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast, catapulting the issue of land ownership into headlines.<ref>{{cite news\|lastCoile \|firstZachery \|newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle \|urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file/c/a/2005/08/29/MNGLGEEKSF1.DTL \|titleArctic Oil: Oil is the lifeblood of Alaska, with residents ready to drill \|dateAugust 9, 2005 \|access-date2005-09-12 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051003231635/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F08%2F29%2FMNGLGEEKSF1.DTL \|archive-date3 October 2005 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref namebanet>{{cite journal\|last1Banet (Jr.) \|first1Arthur C. \|titleOil and Gas Development on Alaska's North Slope: Past Results and Future Prospects \|journalOpen File Reports: Bureau of Land Management \|dateMarch 1991 \|pages6, 22 \|urlhttp://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/ak/aktest/ofr.Par.49987.File.dat/OFR_34.pdf \|access-date30 November 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923231432/http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/ak/aktest/ofr.Par.49987.File.dat/OFR_34.pdf \|archive-date23 September 2015 }}</ref> In order to lessen the difficulty of drilling at such a remote location and transporting the oil to the lower 48 states, the oil companies proposed building a pipeline to carry the oil across Alaska to the port of Valdez.<ref namebanet/><ref namenaske2>{{cite book\|last1Naske\|first1Claus-M.\|titleAlaska: A History of the 49th State\|date1994\|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press\|isbn080612573X\|pages241–269\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-xhQl1WDWa0C&qHickel+worked+with+the+AFN,+negotiating+between+Natives+and+Alaska\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> At Valdez, the oil would be loaded onto tankers and shipped to the contiguous states.<ref name=naske2/> The plan had been approved<!-- by whom? EIS dones? -->, but a permit to construct the pipeline, which would cross lands involved in the land claims dispute, could not be granted until the Native claims were settled.<ref namenaske2/> Hearings were held for the first time before the United States House's Subcommittee on Indian Affairs in July 1968. Among those who attended the hearings were officials and legislators, as well as Laura Bergt, Roger Connor, Thoda Forslund, Cliff Groh, Barry Jackson, Flore Lekanof, Notti, and Morris Thompson.<ref>{{cite news \|ref{{harvid\|Fairbanks Daily News-Miner\|1968}}\|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleNative Land Claims Hearing \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-jul-17-1968-3493383/ \|access-dateOctober 4, 2022 \|workFairbanks Daily News-Miner \|dateJuly 17, 1968 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|page20 \|viaNewspaperarchive.com}}</ref>Government negotiations and policy was appointed as President Nixon's Interior Secretary.]] In 1969, President Nixon appointed Hickel as Secretary of the Interior.<ref nameray/><ref namesealaska>{{cite web\|title1 Testimony of Sealaska Corporation Native Regional Corporation for Southeast Alaska's Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian People May 16, 2013\|urlhttp://docs.house.gov/meetings/ii/ii24/20130516/100839/hhrg-113-ii24-wstate-mallottb-20130516.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://docs.house.gov/meetings/ii/ii24/20130516/100839/hhrg-113-ii24-wstate-mallottb-20130516.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|publisherpp.41-66\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) protested against Hickel's nomination, but he was eventually confirmed.<ref nameray/><ref namesealaska/> He worked with the AFN, negotiating with Native leaders and state government over the disputed lands. Offers went back and forth, with each rejecting the other's proposals.<ref namenaske>{{cite book\|last1Naske\|first1Claus-M.\|titleAlaska: A History of the 49th State\|date1994\|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press\|isbn080612573X\|pages202–205\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-xhQl1WDWa0C&qHickel+worked+with+the+AFN%2C+negotiating+between+Natives+and+Alaska&pgPA205\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> The AFN wanted rights to land, while then-Governor Keith Miller believed Natives did not have legitimate claims to state land in light of the provisions of the Alaska Statehood Act.<ref namenaske/> On July 8, 1970, Nixon delivered a speech reversing the Indian termination policy in favor of allowing tribal self-determination.<ref name"Berry, 1975" />{{rp\|153}}<ref name"Peroff, 2006" >{{cite book \|last1Peroff \|first1Nicholas C. \|author-linkNicholas Peroff \|titleMenominee Drums: Tribal Termination and Restoration, 1954-1974 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9iiiCmDGDr4C&pgPA7 \|date2006 \|editionPbk. \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|locationNorman, Oklahoma \|isbn978-0-8061-3777-3}}</ref>{{rp\|7}}<ref>{{cite news \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleNatives Approve Federal Plan to Alter Role of Government \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-oct-03-1970-3491867/ \|access-dateOctober 5, 2022 \|workFairbanks Daily News-Miner \|dateOctober 3, 1970 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|page1 \|viaNewspaperarchive.com}}</ref> The following month, he established the National Council on Indian Opportunity, headed by Vice President Spiro Agnew,<ref name"newspaperarchive.com">{{cite news \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleLaura Bergt on Council \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-aug-25-1970-3491730/ \|access-dateOctober 3, 2022 \|workFairbanks Daily News-Miner \|dateAugust 25, 1970 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|page3 \|viaNewspaperarchive.com}}</ref> which included eight Native leaders: Frank Belvin (Choctaw), Bergt (Iñupiat), Betty Mae Jumper (Seminole), Earl Old Person (Blackfeet), John C. Rainer (Taos Pueblo), Martin Seneca Jr. (Seneca), Harold Shunk (Yankton-Sioux), and Joseph C. "Lone Eagle" Vasquez (Apache-Sioux).<ref>{{cite journal \|titlePresident Appoints New Indian Council Members \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddHnjAAAAMAAJ&pgPP4 \|journalNCIO News \|volume1 \|issue1 \|dateDecember 1970 \|publisherNational Council on Indian Opportunity \|locationWashington, D.C. \|pages2, 5 \|oclc2264644}}</ref><ref name"newspaperarchive.com"/><ref>{{cite report \|last1Taylor \|first1Theodore W. \|titleThe States and Their Indian Citizens \|urlhttps://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED087583.pdf \|publisherBrookings Institution \|access-dateOctober 6, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220320204530/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED087583.pdf \|archive-dateMarch 20, 2022 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|date1972 \|idED-087-583 \|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp\|157}} was key in the bill's passage.]]During the state administration of Governor William A. Egan positions were staked out upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree.<ref namehaycox2>{{cite book\|last1Haycox\|first1Stephen\|titleAlaska: An American Colony\|date2006\|publisherUniversity of Washington Press\|isbn0295986298\|pages271–287\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnatRq6WCu4oC&qland+selection\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref> Native leaders, in addition to Alaska's congressional delegation and the state's newly elected Governor Egan, eventually reached the basis for presenting an agreement to Congress.<ref namenaske/><ref namehaycox2/> Bergt attended a March 1971 conference of the National Congress of American Indians in Kansas City, Missouri and was able to persuade Agnew there to meet with national officials, herself, Christiansen, an Alaska State Senator; Al Ketzler, chair of the Tanana Chiefs Conference; and Don Wright, president of the Alaska Federation of Natives a week later.<ref name"Berry, 1975" />{{rp\|153}}<ref name"Tundra, 1971">{{cite news \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleDrama Tinges Meeting on Claims between Agnew, Native Leaders \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493083/ \|access-dateOctober 5, 2022 \|workTundra Times \|dateMarch 17, 1971 \|locationFairbanks, Alaska \|pages[https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493083/ 1], [https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493095/ 6] \|viaNewspaperarchive.com}}</ref> That meeting held on March 12, marked a turning-point in negotiations with the various parties.<ref name"Tundra, 1971" /> The proposed settlement terms faced challenges in both houses but found a strong ally in Senator Henry M. Jackson from Washington state.<ref namehaycox2/> The most controversial issues that continued to hold up approval were methods for determining land selection by Alaska Natives and financial distribution.<ref namehaycox2/> With major petroleum dollars on the line, pressure mounted to achieve a definitive legislative resolution at the federal level.<ref namemorehouse>{{cite web\|last1Morehouse\|first1Thomas A.\|titleNative Claims and Political Development: A Comparative Analysis\|urlhttp://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/international/tmwrsa1.html\|date1987\|publisheralaskool.org\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Nixon.<ref namethomas/> It abrogated Native claims to aboriginal lands except those that are the subject of the law.<ref namethomas/><ref namefws>{{cite web \| title Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act \| publisher U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service \| url http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/alasnat.html \| access-date2005-09-01\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20050831174048/http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/alasnat.html\| archive-date31 August 2005 \| url-status live}}</ref> In return, Natives retained up to {{convert\|44\|e6acre\|km2}} of land and were paid $963 million.<ref namethomas/><ref namefws/> The land and money were to be divided among regional, urban, and village tribal corporations established under the law, often recognizing existing leadership.<ref namedixie>{{cite journal\|last1Dixie\|first1Dayo\|titleInstitutional innovation in less than ideal conditions: management of commons by an Alaska Native village corporation\|journalInternational Journal of the Commons\|date2010\|volume4\| issue 1\|urlhttp://www.thecommonsjournal.org/index.php/ijc/article/view/146\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref><ref nameurban>{{cite web\|title 43 U.S.C. § 1602(o), "Urban Corporation" \|urlhttps://ancsa.lbblawyers.com/1602.htm \|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> Alaskan officials were originally divided on the bill, though by 1970, with Interior Secretary Walter Hickel, Governor William Egan, Representative Nick Begich & Senators Ted Stevens & Mike Gravel all backing the bill, the opposition died down. Stevens was particularly strongminded, and was key in the bill's passage. Stevens, a freshman Senator for most of the fight, would later remark:<ref name"tsancsa">{{cite web\|urlhttps://tedstevensfoundation.org/ts_and_ancsa/\|authorTed Stevens Foundation\|titleTed Stevens and the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\|date=3 May 2019 }}</ref> {{blockquote\|textANCSA was my baptism of fire as a Senator from Alaska{{nbsp}}.... It didn't occur to me that some Senators had the opportunity to ease into their jobs. Life in the Senate for me was fast-paced from the beginning{{nbsp}}.... With my experience working in the Department of the Interior and with the Statehood Act, and my faith in the determination and unity of purpose of Alaska's Native people, I believed from the beginning that a settlement could be achieved{{nbsp}}.... My memories of the Congressional action as ANCSA took shape aren't of a battle as much as they are of long hours of tough, hard negotiating, often two steps forward and one step back{{nbsp}}....}}Effect of land conveyancesIn 1971, barely one million acres of land in Alaska were in private hands.<ref namenyt/> ANCSA, together with section 6 of Alaska Statehood Act, which the new act allowed to come to fruition, affected ownership to about {{convert\|148.5\|e6acre\|km2}} of land in Alaska once wholly controlled by the federal government.<ref namenyt/> That is larger by {{convert\|6\|e6acre\|km2}} than the combined areas of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia.<ref namenyt>{{cite news\|titleAreas As Vast As Whole States Now Change Hands In Alaska \|workThe New York Times \|dateOctober 8, 1982 \|urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D05E3DA163BF93BA35753C1A964948260&scp15&sqAlaska%20native%20corporations&stcse}}</ref> When the bill passed in 1971, it included provisions that had never before been attempted in previous United States settlements with Native Americans.<ref namehaycox2/> The newly passed Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act created twelve Native regional economic development corporations.<ref namehaycox2/> Each corporation was associated with a specific region of Alaska and the Natives who had traditionally lived there.<ref namehaycox2/> This innovative approach to native settlements engaged the tribes in corporate capitalism.<ref namehaycox2/><ref namelinxwiler4a>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages3–5\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The idea originated with the AFN, who believed that the Natives would have to become a part of the capitalist system in order to survive.<ref namehaycox2/> As stockholders in these corporations, the Natives could earn some income and stay in their traditional villages.<ref namekirk>{{cite book\|last1Dombrowski\|first1Kirk\|titleAgainst Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska\|date2001\|publisherU of Nebraska Press\|isbn0803266324\|pages75\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-Snl8E4H5RUC&qANCSA+remain+in+villages&pgPA75\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> If the corporations were managed properly, they could make profits that would enable individuals to stay, rather than having to leave Native villages to find better work.<ref namehaycox2/><ref namekirk/> This was intended to help preserve Native culture.<ref namehaycox2/><ref namefrigid2>{{cite book\|last1Haycox\|first1Stephen W.\|titleFrigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska\|date2002\|publisherOregon University Press\|isbn0870715364\|pages132–133\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZQUYAAAAYAAJ&qten+percent\|access-date29 November 2014}}</ref>Native and state land selectionAlaska Natives had three years from passage of ANCSA to make land selections of the {{convert\|44\|e6acre\|km2}} granted under the act.<ref namesection1611>{{cite web\|title43 U.S. Code § 1611 - Native land selections\|urlhttps://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/43/1611\|publisherLegal Information Institute\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> In some cases Native corporations received outside aid in surveying the land.<ref namehaynes/> For instance, Doyon, Limited (one of the 13 regional corporations) was helped by the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska.<ref namehaynes/> The Institute determined which land contained resources such as minerals and coal.<ref namehaynes/> NASA similarly provided satellite imagery to aid in Native corporations finding areas most suited for vegetation and their traditional subsistence culture.<ref namehaynes/> The imagery showed locations of caribou and moose, as well as forests with marketable timber.<ref namehaynes/> In total about {{convert\|7\|e6acre\|km2}} were analyzed for Doyon.<ref namehaynes/> Natives were able to choose tens of thousands of acres of land rich with timber while Doyon used mineral analysis to attract businesses.<ref namehaynes>{{cite journal\|last1Haynes\|first1James B.\|titleLand Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\|journalArctic Institute of North America\|dateSeptember 1975\|volume28 \|issue3\|pages201–208\|urlhttp://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic28-3-201.pdf\|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> The state of Alaska to date has been granted approximately 85% or {{convert\|90\|e6acre\|km2}} of the land claims it has made under ANCSA.<ref namednr>{{cite web\|titleFact Sheet Title: Land Ownership In Alaska (March 2000)\|urlhttp://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/factsht/land_own.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/factsht/land_own.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|publisherAlaska Department of Natural Resources\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> The state is entitled to a total of {{convert\|104.5\|e6acre\|km2}} under the terms of the Statehood Act.<ref namesection6/> Originally the state had 25 years after passage of the Alaska Statehood Act to file claims under section 6 of the act with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM).<ref namesection6>{{cite web\|titleAlaska Statehood Act: Selection of public lands, fish and wildlife, public schools, mineral permits, mineral grants, confirmation of grants, internal improvements, submerged lands (Section 6)\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/state6.htm\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> Amendments to ANCSA extended that deadline until 1994, with the expectation that BLM would complete processing of land transfers subject to overlapping Native claims by 2009.<ref namenote>{{cite web\|title118 Stat. 3594 (Public Law 108–452—DEC. 10, 2004) 43 USC 1635 note\|urlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/alaska_specific_legislation.-WidePar-35782-DownloadFile.tmp/PL108-2-452.pdf\|access-date30 November 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150616103958/http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/alaska_specific_legislation.-WidePar-35782-DownloadFile.tmp/PL108-2-452.pdf\|archive-date2015-06-16\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Nonetheless, some Native and state selections under ANCSA remained unresolved as late as December 2014.<ref nameruskin>{{cite web\|last1Ruskin\|first1Liz\|titleSealaska Selections in Tongass Added to Defense Bill\|date4 December 2014 \|urlhttp://www.alaskapublic.org/2014/12/03/sealaska-selections-in-tongass-added-to-defense-bill/\|publisherAlaska Public Media\|access-date4 December 2014}}</ref> Criticism of ANCSA There was largely positive reaction to ANCSA, although not entirely.<ref namebrown>{{cite web\|titleInterview of Margie Brown\|urlhttp://www.litsite.org/index.cfm?sectionHistory-and-Culture&pageANCSA-at-30&catInterviews&viewpost2&ContentId742\|websiteLitSite Alaska\|publisherUniversity of Alaska Anchorage\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref><ref namesaga470>{{cite book\|last1Borneman\|first1Walter R.\|titleAlaska: Saga of a Bold Land\|date2009\|publisherZondervan\|isbn978-0061865275\|pages470–472\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA9QXxo-MeUEC&qANCSA\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> The act was supported by Natives as well as non-Natives, and likewise enjoyed bipartisan support.<ref namebrown/><ref nameaudubon>{{cite web\|last1Myers\|first1Eric F.\|titleLetter to Rep. Don Young dated May 15, 2013\|urlhttp://ak.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/representative_young_-_sealaska_hr_740_5-15-13_final.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ak.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/representative_young_-_sealaska_hr_740_5-15-13_final.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|publisherAudubon Alaska\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> Natives were heavily involved in the legislative process, and the final draft of the act used many AFN ideas.<ref nameAFN>{{cite web\|titleHistory\|urlhttp://www.nativefederation.org/about-afn/history/\|websiteAlaska Federation of Natives\|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Some Natives have argued that ANCSA has hastened cultural genocide of Alaska Natives.<ref namehaycoxprologue>{{cite book\|last1Haycox\|first1Steven\|titleAlaska: An American Colony\|date2006\|publisherUniversity of Washington Press\|isbn0295986298\|pagesxiii\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnatRq6WCu4oC&qgenocide&pgPR13\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref><ref namewilliams>{{cite book\|last1Williams\|first1Maria Sháa Tláa\|titleThe Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics\|date2009\|publisherDuke University Press\|isbn978-0822390831\|pages180–181\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1qe5vzMqJW0C&qANCSA&pgPA388\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> Some Natives critiqued ANCSA as an illegitimate treaty since only tribal leaders were involved and the provisions of the act were not voted on by indigenous populations.<ref namewilliams/> One native described it as a social and political experiment.<ref namewilliams/> Critics have also argued that Natives so feared massacre or incarceration that they offered no resistance to the act.<ref name=williams/> Others have argued that the settlement was arguably the most generous afforded by the United States to a Native group. They note that some of the largest and most profitable corporations in the state are the twelve created by ANCSA.<ref namelinxwiler4/><ref namesaga528>{{cite book\|last1Borneman\|first1Walter R.\|titleAlaska: Saga of a Bold Land\|date2009\|publisherZondervan\|isbn978-0061865275\|pages528–529\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA9QXxo-MeUEC&qANCSA\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> Other critics attacked the act as "Native welfare" and such complaints continue to be expressed.<ref namesaga470/> The corporation system has been critiqued, as in some cases stockholders have sold land to outside corporations that have leveled forests and extracted minerals.<ref namerude>{{cite web\|titleRobert W. Rude\|urlhttp://www.litsite.org/index.cfm?sectionHistory-and-Culture&pageANCSA-at-30&catInterviews&viewpost2&ContentId734\|websiteLitSite Alaska\|publisherUniversity of Alaska Anchorage\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> But supporters of the system argue that it has provided economic benefits for indigenous peoples that outweigh these problems.<ref namerdc>{{cite web\|titleAlaska's Native Corporations\|urlhttp://www.akrdc.org/issues/nativecorporations/overview.html\|publisherResource Development Council for Alaska, Inc.\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref><ref namedo>{{cite book\|last1Roderick (Ed.)\|first1Libby\|titleDo Alaska Native People Get Free Medical Care?\|date2008\|publisherUniversity of Alaska Anchorage and Alaska Pacific University\|isbn978-1-4276-3215-9\|pages24\|urlhttp://www.uaa.alaska.edu/books-of-the-year/year08-09/upload/Book108-09.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/books-of-the-year/year08-09/upload/Book108-09.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref>Selected provisions of ANCSA* Native claims in Alaska were extinguished by means of section 4 of ANCSA.<ref namelinxwiler>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages5\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> * In exchange for abrogating Native claims, approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million were distributed to more than 200 local Alaska Native "village corporations" established under section 8, in addition to 12 land-owning for-profit Alaska Native "regional corporations" and a non-land-owning thirteenth corporation for Alaska Natives who had left the state established under section 6.<ref namelinxwiler2>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages2–6\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> * Of the compensation monies, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing.<ref namelinxwiler4>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages16–17\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name=madden/> * Settlement benefits would accrue to those with at least one-fourth Native ancestry under sections 3(b) and 5(a).<ref namelinxwiler3>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages6 (note 21)\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> * Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately two-thirds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation.<ref namemadden>{{cite book\|last1Madden\|first1Ryan\|titleAlaska: On-the-road histories\|date2005\|publisherInterlink Books\|isbn1566565669\|pages250\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtrCsJ_AhtgYC&pgPA250 \|access-date1 December 2014}}</ref> * The remaining one-third would be "at large" shareholders with 100 shares in a regional corporation with additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources.<ref name=madden/> * The Alaska Native Allotment Act was revoked but with the proviso that pending claims under that act would continue to be processed under section 18.<ref namelinxwiler5>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages33–34\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Successful applicants would be excluded under ANCSA by section 14(h)(5) from land to be used for a primary residence.<ref name=linxwiler5/> * The twelve regional corporations within the state would administer the settlement.<ref name=madden/> * A thirteenth corporation composed of Natives who had left the state would receive compensation but not land.<ref name=madden/> * Surface rights to {{convert\|44\|e6acre\|km2}} were patented to the Native village and regional corporations under sections 12(c), as well as 14(h)(1) and (8).<ref namelinxwiler6>{{cite journal\|last1Linxwiler\|first1James D.\|titleChapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise\|journalANCSA at 35\|date2007\|pages27\|urlhttp://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> * The surface rights to the patented land were granted to the village corporations and the subsurface right to the land were granted to the regional corporation, creating a split estate pursuant to section 14(f).<ref namelinxwiler6/>Alaska Native regional corporations {{main\|Alaska Native Regional Corporations}} The following thirteen regional corporations were created under ANCSA: * Ahtna, Incorporated * The Aleut Corporation * Arctic Slope Regional Corporation * Bering Straits Native Corporation * Bristol Bay Native Corporation * Calista Corporation * Chugach Alaska Corporation * Cook Inlet Region, Inc. * Doyon, Limited * Koniag, Incorporated * NANA Regional Corporation * Sealaska Corporation * The 13th Regional Corporation Additionally, most regions and some villages have created their own nonprofits providing social services and health care through grant funding and federal compacts. The objectives of these nonprofits are varied, but focus generally on cultural and educational activities.<ref name"csq">{{cite journal\|dateFall 2001\|titleReconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska\|urlhttp://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/reconstructing-sovereignty-alaska\|journalCultural Survival Quarterly\|last1Worl\|first1Rosita\|access-date30 November 2014}}</ref> These include scholarships for Native students, sponsorship of cultural and artistic events, preservation efforts for Native languages, and protection of sites with historic or religious importance.<ref namecsq/>Alaska Native village and urban corporationsANCSA created about 224 village and urban corporations.<ref namednr/><ref namednr3>{{cite web\|titleSearch Page for Alaska Native Region - Village - Corporation Index\|urlhttp://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/trails/17b/corpindex.cfm\|publisherAlaska Department of Natural Resources\|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Below is a representative list of village and urban corporations created under ANCSA: * Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation, village corporation for Utqiaġvik * [http://www.bnc-alaska.com Bethel Native Corporation], village corporation for Bethel * [http://www.capefoxcorp.com Cape Fox Corporation], village corporation for Saxman * [http://www.deloycheet.com/ Deloycheet, Inc.], village corporation for Holy Cross * Huna Totem Corporation, village corporation for Hoonah * [http://www.haidacorporation.com Haida Corporation], village corporation for Hydaburg * [http://www.goldbelt.com/ Goldbelt, Inc.], urban corporation for Juneau * [http://www.pvil.com Paug-Vik, Inc. Ltd.], village corporation for Naknek * [http://www.chenega.com Chenega Corporation], village corporation for Chenega * [http://www.afognak.com/ Afognak Native Corporation], village corporation for Afognak and Port Lions * [http://www.kavilco.com/ Kavilco Incorporated], village corporation for Kasaan * [http://www.adn.com/article/20120810/klukwan-files-bankruptcy Klukwan, Inc.], village corporation for Klukwan * [http://www.kuskokwim.com/ The Kuskokwim Corporation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100815111002/http://www.kuskokwim.com/ \|date2010-08-15 }}, village corporation for Aniak, Crooked Creek, Georgetown, Kalskag, Lower Kalskag, Napaimute, Red Devil, Russian Mission, Sleetmute and Stony River * [http://www.nativesofkodiak.com/ Natives of Kodiak, Inc.], urban corporation for Kodiak * Ounalashka Corporation, village corporation for Unalaska * [http://www.ouzinkienativecorporation.com/ Ouzinkie Native Corporation], village corporation for Ouzinkie * [http://www.sheeatika.com/ Shee Atika, Incorporated], urban corporation for Sitka See also Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Alaska Statehood Act Alaska Native Allotment Act Alaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act Emil Notti Notes {{reflist\|groupNotes}}References{{Reflist}}BibliographyBorneman, Walter R. [https://books.google.com/books?idA9QXxo-MeUEC&q=Saga+of+a+Bold+Land Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land]. Harper Perennial. (2004) Dombrowski, Kirk. [https://books.google.com/books?id-Snl8E4H5RUC&dqANCSA+remain+in+villages&pg=PA75 Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska] U of Nebraska Press. (2001) Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?idnatRq6WCu4oC&qland+selection Alaska: An American Colony]. University of Washington Press. (2006) Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?idZQUYAAAAYAAJ&qten+percent Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska] Oregon University Press. (2002) Haynes, James B. [http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic28-3-201.pdf "Land Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," Arctic Institute of North America], Vol. 28–3, pp.&nbsp;201–208 (September 1975) Linxwiler, James D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141204222219/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20Paper%20with%20Table%20of%20Contents%201992.pdf "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: The First Twenty Years," Proceedings from the 38th Annual Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute]. (1992) Roderick, Libby. [https://books.google.com/books?id=l571YST99fIC Alaska Native Cultures and Issues: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions]. University of Alaska Press. (2010) Williams, Maria Sháa Tláa. [https://books.google.com/books?id1qe5vzMqJW0C&pgPA388 The Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics]. Duke University Press. (2009). Worl, Rosita. [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/reconstructing-sovereignty-alaska "Reconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska," Cultural Survival Quarterly]. (Fall 2001) Further reading Arnold, Robert D. Alaska Native Land Claims, (Alaska Native Foundation 1978). Berry, Mary Clay. The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims, (Indiana University Press 1975). Berger, Thomas R. Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission, (Farrar, Straus and Giroux 1985). Case, David S. Alaska Natives and American Laws, (University of Alaska Press 3d ed. 2012) [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06399.pdf GAO Report: Increased Use of Alaska Native Corporations’ Special 8(a) Provisions Calls for Tailored Oversight] (April 2006) Kentch, Gavin. [http://mississippilawjournal.org/2012/04/a-corporate-culture-the-environmental-justice-challenges-of-the-alaska-native-claims-settlement-act/ "A Corporate Culture? The Environmental Justice Challenges of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act"]. 81 Miss. L.J. 813 (2012) Lazarus, Arthur Jr. [http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article3475&contextlcp "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: A Flawed Victory," Law and Contemporary Problems]. (Winter 1976) London, J. Tate. [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handlehein.journals/staev8&div10&id&page "The "1991 Amendments" to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Protection for Native Lands?"], 8 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 200. (1989) Mitchell, Donald Craig. Sold American: The Story of Alaska Natives and Their Land, 1867-1959, (University of Alaska Press 2003). Mitchell, Donald Craig. Take My Land Take My Life: The Story of Congress's Historic Settlement of Alaska Native Land Claims, 1960-1971, (University of Alaska Press 2001). Morgan, Lael. Art and Eskimo Power: The Life and Times of Alaskan Howard Rock, (Epicenter Press 1988). Senungetuk, Joseph E. Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle, (The Indian Historian Press 1971). "Settling the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act", 38 Stan. L. Rev. 227 (1985). External links [http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Resource Center] * [http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/Landclaims Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act of 1971] * [http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/ancsaindx.htm Revisiting the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)] * [http://fairbanks-alaska.com/alaska-native-corporations.htm Alaska Native Corporation Links] {{Alaska history footer}} {{Aboriginal title in the United States}} {{Native American rights}} {{Presidency of Richard Nixon}} {{Authority control}} Category:United States federal legislation articles without infoboxes Category:1971 in Alaska Category:1971 in American law Category:91st United States Congress Category:Ted Stevens	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act	2025-04-05T18:26:15.670286
3036	Adoptionism	{{Short description\|Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine}} {{distinguish\|Adoption (theology)}} 's The Baptism of Christ, when Jesus became one with God according to adoptionism]] Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism,<ref name"Williams 2012">{{cite encyclopedia \|lastWilliams \|firstD. H. \|titleAdoptionism \|year2012 \|orig-date2011 \|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization \|locationChichester, West Sussex \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|doi10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0008 \|isbn978-1-4051-5762-9 \|quoteThe paucity of extant evidence makes an exact knowledge about the views of what modern scholars have dubbed "adoptionist" or 'dynamic' monarchianism uncertain. No documents written by adherents to this strain of Christian theology have survived. As a result, we cannot say what constituted a purely adoptionist viewpoint or how closely associated it was with what is typically called 'modalism'. True to its emphasis on divine monotheism, 'adoptionism' opposed any substantial division within God when it came to the incarnation of Christ as the Logos of God. As a result, the Jesus of the Gospels was a man empowered by the one God.}}</ref> is an early Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine,<ref name"Williams 2012"/> subsequently revived in various forms, which holds that Jesus was adopted as the Son of God at his baptism, his resurrection, or his ascension. How common adoptionist views were among early Christians is debated, but it appears to have been most popular in the first, second, and third centuries. Some scholars see adoptionism as the belief of the earliest followers of Jesus, based on the epistles of Paul and other early literature. However, adoptionist views sharply declined in prominence in the fourth and fifth centuries, as Church leaders condemned it as a heresy.Definition Adoptionism is one of two main forms of monarchianism (the other being modalism, which considers God to be one while working through the different "modes" or "manifestations" of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, without limiting his modes or manifestations). Adoptionism denies the eternal pre-existence of Christ, and although it explicitly affirms his deity subsequent to events in his life, many classical trinitarians claim that the doctrine implicitly denies it by denying the constant hypostatic union of the eternal Logos to the human nature of Jesus.<ref>Justo L. González, Essential Theological Terms, page 139 (Westminster John Knox Press, 2005). {{ISBN\|978-0-664-22810-1}}</ref> Under adoptionism, Jesus is divine and has been since his adoption although he is not equal to the Father per "my Father is greater than I"<ref>{{bibleverse\|John\|14:28}}</ref><ref>Ed Hindson, Ergun Caner (editors), The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity, page 16 (Harvest House Publishers, 2008). {{ISBN\|978-0-7369-2084-1}}</ref> and as such is a kind of subordinationism. (However, the quoted scripture can be orthodoxically interpreted as the fact that in the Trinity the Father is the source without origin, while the Son eternally receives the divinity from the Father.) Adoptionism is sometimes but not always related to a denial of the virgin birth of Jesus. History {{Historical Christian theology}} Early Christianity Adoptionism and high Christology {{Christology}} {{See also\|Christology#Development of "low Christology" and "high Christology"}} Bart Ehrman claims that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology".{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|p125}} The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead",{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|p120; 122}} thereby raising him to "divine status".<ref groupweb nameBE_2013.02.14>{{cite web\|last1Ehrman\|first1Bart D.\|author-link1Bart D. Ehrman\|titleIncarnation Christology, Angels, and Paul \|urlhttps://ehrmanblog.org/incarnation-christology-angels-and-paul-for-members/\|websiteThe Bart Ehrman Blog\|access-dateMay 2, 2018\|dateFebruary 14, 2013}}</ref> The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"<ref groupweb nameBE_2013.02.14/>{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|p122}} and from where he appeared on earth. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.{{sfn\|Loke\|2017}}{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014}}{{sfn\|Talbert\|2011\|p3-6}}<ref groupweb name"Hurtado.2017"/> According to the "evolutionary model"{{sfn\|Netland\|2001\|p175}} or evolutionary theories{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p3}} proposed by Bousset, followed by Brown, the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time, from a low Christology to a high Christology,{{sfn\|Mack\|1995}}{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2003}}<ref name"Ehrman_HJBG_CG">Bart Ehrman, How Jesus became God, Course Guide</ref> as witnessed in the Gospels.{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|pp251-252}}{{Page needed\|dateMay 2024}} According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, and thus adopted as God's Son,{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p3-4}}{{sfn\|Talbert\|2011\|p3}}{{sfn\|Brown\|2008\|punpaginated}} when he was resurrected,<ref name"Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/><ref>Geza Vermez (2008), The Resurrection, p.138-139</ref> signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted.{{sfn\|Fredriksen\|2008\|punpaginated}} Adoptionist concepts can be found in the Gospel of Mark.{{sfn\|Ehrman\|1996\|p48–49}}{{sfn\|Boyarin\|2012\|p56}}{{refn\|groupnote\|Boyarin: "[W]e can still observe within the Gospel (especially in Mark, which has no miraculous birth story, and also even in Paul) the remnants of a version of Christology in which Jesus was born a man but became God at his baptism. This idea, later named the heresy of adoptionism (God adopting Jesus as his Son), was not quite stamped out until the Middle Ages.{{sfn\|Boyarin\|2012\|p56}}}} As Daniel Johansson notes, the majority of scholars hold Mark's Jesus as "an exalted, but merely human figure", especially when read in the apparent context of Jewish beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastJohansson\|firstDaniel\|date2011-06-01\|titleThe Identity of Jesus in the Gospel of Mark: Past and Present Proposals\|urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1476993X10370474\|journalCurrents in Biblical Research\|volume9\|issue3\|pages364–393\|languageen\|doi10.1177/1476993X10370474\|s2cid162387829}}</ref> Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.<ref name"Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/> Mark shifted the moment of when Jesus became the son to the baptism of Jesus, and later still Matthew and Luke shifted it to the moment of the divine conception, and finally John declared that Jesus had been with God from the beginning: "In the beginning was the Word".{{sfn\|Brown\|2008\|punpaginated}}{{sfn\|Ehrman\|1996\|p=74–75}} One notable passage that may have been cited by early adoptionists was what exactly God said at Jesus's baptism; three different versions are recorded. One of them, found in the Codex Bezae version of Luke 3:22, is "You are my son; today I have begotten you."{{sfn\|Ehrman\|1996\|p49; 62&ndash;67; 107}} This seems to be quoted in Acts 13:32–33 as well (in all manuscripts, not just Bezae) and in Hebrews 5:5.<ref>{{bibleverse\|Acts\|13:32-33\|NRSV}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse\|Hebrews\|5:5\|NRSV}}</ref> Quotes from second and third century Christian writers almost always use this variant as well, with many fourth and fifth century writers continuing to use it, if occasionally with embarrassment; Augustine cites the line, for example, but clarifies God meant an eternal "today". Ehrman speculates that Orthodox scribes of the fourth and fifth century changed the passage in Luke to align with the version in Mark as a defense against adoptionists citing the passage in their favor.{{sfn\|Ehrman\|1996\|p49; 62&ndash;67; 107}} Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested,{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p5}} and a majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul.{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|p125}}{{refn\|groupnote\|Richard Bauckham argues that Paul was not so influential that he could have invented the central doctrine of Christianity. Before his active missionary work, there were already groups of Christians across the region. For example, a large group already existed in Rome even before Paul visited the place. The earliest centre of Christianity was the twelve apostles in Jerusalem. Paul himself consulted and sought guidance from the Christian leaders in Jerusalem (Galatians 2:1–2;<ref>{{bibleverse\|Galatians\|2:1–2}}</ref> Acts 9:26–28,<ref>{{bibleverse\|Acts\|9:26–28}}</ref> 15:2).<ref>{{bibleverse\|Acts\|15:2}}</ref> "What was common to the whole Christian movement derived from Jerusalem, not from Paul, and Paul himself derived the central message he preached from the Jerusalem apostles."{{sfn\|Bauckham\|2011\|p110–111}}}} According to the "New {{lang\|de\|Religionsgeschichtliche Schule}}",{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p5}}<ref groupweb>Larry Hurtado (10 July 2015), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2015/07/10/early-high-christology-a-paradigm-shift-new-perspective/ "Early High Christology": A "Paradigm Shift"? "New Perspective"?]</ref> or the Early High Christology Club,<ref groupweb name"Bouma.2014"/> which includes Martin Hengel, Larry Hurtado, N. T. Wright, and Richard Bauckham,{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p5}}<ref groupweb name"Bouma.2014"/> this "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul.{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p5}}<ref groupweb name"Bouma.2014">{{cite web\|lastBouma\|firstJeremy\|titleThe Early High Christology Club and Bart Ehrman – An Excerpt from 'How God Became Jesus'\|urlhttps://zondervanacademic.com/blog/how-god-became-jesus-bart-ehrman-high-christology-excerpt/\|websiteZondervan Academic Blog\|publisherHarperCollins Christian Publishing\|access-date2 May 2018\|date27 March 2014}}</ref><ref groupweb nameBE_2013.02.14/>{{refn\|groupnote\|name"Loke2017"\|Loke (2017): "The last group of theories can be called 'Explosion Theories' (one might also call this 'the Big-Bang theory of Christology'!). This proposes that highest Christology {{em\|was}} the view of the primitive Palestinian Christian community. The recognition of Jesus as truly divine was not a significant development from the views of the primitive Palestine community; rather, it 'exploded' right at the beginning of Christianity. The proponents of the Explosion view would say that the highest Christology of the later New Testament writings (e.g. Gospel of John) and the creedal formulations of the early church fathers, with their explicit affirmations of the pre-existence and ontological divinity of Christ, are not so much a development in essence but a development in understanding and explication of what was already there at the beginning of the Christian movement. As Bauckham (2008a, x) memorably puts it, 'The earliest Christology was already the highest Christology.' Many proponents of this group of theories have been labelled together as 'the New {{lang\|de\|Religionsgeschichtliche Schule}}' (Hurtado 2003, 11), and they include such eminent scholars as Richard Bauckham, Larry Hurtado, N. T. Wright and the late Martin Hengel."{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p5}}}} Some 'Early High Christology' proponents scholars argue that this "high Christology" may go back to Jesus himself.{{sfn\|Loke\|2017\|p6}}<ref groupweb name"Hurtado.2017">Larry Hurtado, [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/the-origin-of-divine-christology/ "The Origin of 'Divine Christology'?"]</ref> According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the "low Christology" an "adoptionist Christology, and "the "high Christology" an "incarnation Christology".{{sfn\|Ehrman\|2014\|p125}} Conversely, Michael Bird has argued that adoptionism did not first emerge until the 2nd century as a result of later theological debates and other socio-religious influences on the reading of certain biblical texts.{{sfn\|Bird\|2017\|p9}} New Testamental epistles Adoptionist theology may also be reflected in canonical epistles, the earliest of which pre-date the writing of the gospels. The letters of Paul the Apostle, for example, do not mention a virgin birth of Christ. Paul describes Jesus as "born of a woman, born under the law" and "as to his human nature was a descendant of David" in the Epistle to the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans. Christian interpreters, however, take his statements in Philippians 2 to imply that Paul believed Jesus to have existed as equal to God before his incarnation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|lastHurtado\|firstL. W.\|editor-lastHawthorne\|editor-firstGerald F.\|titlePre-existence\|encyclopediaDictionary of Paul and His Letters\|pages743–746\|publisherInterVarsity Press\|locationDowners Grove, IL\|date1993}}</ref> Shepherd of Hermas The 2nd-century work Shepherd of Hermas may also have taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son.{{refn\|groupnote\|"The Holy Pre-existent Spirit. Which created the whole creation, God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh, therefore, in which the Holy Spirit dwelt, was subject unto the Spirit, walking honorably in holiness and purity, without in any way defiling the Spirit. When then it had lived honorably in chastity, and had labored with the Spirit, and had cooperated with it in everything, behaving itself boldly and bravely, he chose it as a partner with the Holy Spirit; for the career of this flesh pleased [the Lord], seeing that, as possessing the Holy Spirit, it was not defiled upon the earth. He therefore took the son as adviser and the glorious angels also, that this flesh too, having served the Spirit unblamably, might have some place of sojourn, and might not seem to have lost the reward for its service; for all flesh, which is found undefiled and unspotted, wherein the Holy Spirit dwelt, shall receive a reward."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/shepherd-lightfoot.html\|titleThe Shepherd of Hermas (Lightfoot translation)\|websitewww.earlychristianwritings.com}}</ref>}}<ref>"Hermas never mentions Jesus Christ, or the Word, but only the Son of God, who is the highest angel. As holy spirit the Son dwells in the flesh; this human nature is God's adopted son" in, Patrick W. Carey, Joseph T. Lienhard (editors), Biographical Dictionary of Christian Theologians, page 241 (Greenwood Press, 2008). {{ISBN\|0-313-29649-9}}</ref><ref name"Papandrea2016">{{cite book\|lastPapandrea\|firstJames L.\|titleThe Earliest Christologies: Five Images of Christ in the Postapostolic Age\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idx_akCgAAQBAJ&pgPA29\|date24 April 2016\|publisherInterVarsity Press\|isbn978-0-8308-5127-0\|page29\|quoteThe most prominent example of Angel Adoptionism from the early Church would have to be the document known as The Shepherd of Hermass. In The Shepherd, the savior is an angel called the "angel of justification," who seems to be identified with the archangel Michael. Although the angel is often understood to be Jesus, he is never named as Jesus.}}</ref> While the Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it did not retain canonical status, if it ever had it. Theodotus of Byzantium Theodotus of Byzantium ({{abbr\|fl.\|floruit}} late 2nd century), a Valentinian Gnostic,<ref name"Boukema"/> was the most prominent exponent of adoptionism.<ref>CARM, [https://carm.org/adoptionism Adoptionism]</ref> According to Hippolytus of Rome (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii) Theodotus taught that Jesus was a man born of a virgin, according to the Council of Jerusalem, that he lived like other men, and was most pious. At his baptism in the Jordan the "Christ" came down upon the man Jesus, in the likeness of a dove (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii), but Jesus was not himself God until after his resurrection.<ref name"Boukema">{{cite book\|lastRoukema\|firstRiemer\|titleJesus, Gnosis and Dogma\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAfcRBwAAQBAJ&pgPA53\|date18 February 2010\|publisherBloomsbury Publishing\|isbn978-0-567-61585-5\|page53\|chapterJesus′ Origin and Identity - Theodotus &#91;of Byzantium&#93;\|quoteThe Saviour, jesus Christ, who from the fullness (the pleroma) of the Father descended on earth, is identified with the Logos, but initially not entirely with the Only Begotten Son. In john 1:14 is written, after all, that his glory was as of the Only Begotten, from which is concluded that his glory must be distinguished from this (7, 3b). When the Logos or Saviour descended, Sophia, according to Theodotus, provided a piece of flesh (sarkion), namely a carnal body, also called 'spiritual seed' (1, 1).}}</ref><ref>{{Bulleted list\|{{cite book\|lastDirks\|firstJerald F.\|editorF. Kamal\|titleEasily Understand Islam: Finally I Get It!: a Collection of Articles\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idC48FMQAACAAJ\|year2006\|publisherDesert Well Network LLC\|isbn978-1-59236-011-6\|page219f\|chapterJesus: Man and God?\|quote[Per Jesus and Adoptionism] how does one understand the title "Son of God" when it is applied to Jesus? The answer is to be found in the Adoptionist movement within early Christianity. The Adoptionist trajectory in early Christianity begins with the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist. According to the usual Adoptionist formulations, it was at his moment of baptism that Jesus moved into this special relationship or metaphorical "sonship" with God – not at his conception or virgin birth.{{nbsp}}[...] the oldest Greek manuscripts of and quotations from Luke render the key verse in question as follows. "Now when all the people were baptized, and when Jesus also had been baptized and was praying, the heaven was opened, and the Holy Spirit descended upon him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, "You are my son; today I have begotten you" (Luke 3:21-22)."{{nbsp}}[...] the wording regarding the baptism of Jesus is also to be found in Hebrews 1:5a, Hebrews 5:5, and Acts 13:33. This same wording is also found in Psalms 2:7 in reference to David and in the apocryphal Gospel of the Ebionites in reference to Jesus' baptism.}}\|{{cite book\|lastSteyn\|firstGert Jacobus\|titleA Quest for the Assumed LXX Vorlage of the Explicit Quotations in Hebrews\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQGk5oSoKJDYC&pgPA38\|year2011\|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht\|isbn978-3-525-53099-3\|page38\|quote=Ps 2:7-8 is also quoted in 1 Clem 36:4 and in Just. Dial. 122:6, whilst only verse seven of Ps 2 is found in the Ebionite Gospel (fr. 4) and in Just. Dial. 88:8, 103:6. The quotation from Ps 2:7 that occurs in Heb 1:5 and 5:5 found its way into Hebrews via the early Jewish and early Christian traditions.}}}}</ref> Adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 3rd century and was rejected by the Synods of Antioch and the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and identified the man Jesus with the eternally begotten Son or Word of God in the Nicene Creed.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHarnack\|firstAdolf Von\|titleHistory of Dogma\|year1889\|urlhttp://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.II.III.III.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| url https://books.google.com/books?idiAvGNlIWg9IC&qadoptionism+heresy&pgPA23 \|title The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History: The People, Places, and Events That Shaped Christianity \|author1Edward E. Hindson \|author2Daniel R. Mitchell \| page23\|publisher Harvest House Publishers\|year2013 \|isbn 978-0-7369-4807-4 \|access-date29 April 2014}}</ref> The belief was also declared heretical by Pope Victor I.Ebionites {{Main\|Ebionites}} Adoptionism was also adhered to by the Jewish Christians known as Ebionites, who, according to Epiphanius in the 4th century, believed that Jesus was chosen on account of his sinless devotion to the will of God.<ref>Epiphanius of Salamis (403 CE). pp. 30:3 & 30:13.</ref> The Ebionites were a Jewish Christian movement that existed during the early centuries of the Christian Era.<ref>{{Cite book \| editor1-last Cross \| editor1-first EA \| title The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church \| publisher Oxford University Press \| year 1989 \| contribution Ebionites \| editor2-last Livingston \| editor2-first FL}}</ref> They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a "reaction to the law-free Gentile mission".{{sfn\|Dunn\|2006\|p282}} They regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| url http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177608/Ebionites \| encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica \| title Ebionites}}</ref> and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites.<ref>{{Cite book \| first Kaufmann \| last Kohler \| chapter-url http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid22&letterE \| contribution Ebionites \| editor1-first Isidore \| editor1-last Singer \| editor2-first Cyrus \| editor2-last Alder \| title Jewish Encyclopedia \| date 1901{{ndash}}1906}}</ref> They used the Gospel of the Ebionites, one of the Jewish–Christian gospels; the Hebrew Book of Matthew starting at chapter 3; revered James the brother of Jesus (James the Just); and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law.<ref name"Maccoby 1987">{{Cite book\| author Hyam Maccoby\| author-link Hyam Maccoby\| title The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity\| pages 172–183\| publisher HarperCollins \| year 1987 \| isbn 0-06-250585-8}}, [http://ebionite.tripod.com/mac15.htm an abridgement]</ref> Their name ({{langx\|grc\|Ἐβιωναῖοι\|Ebionaioi}}, derived from {{langx\|hbo\|אביונים\|ebyonim}}, meaning {{gloss\|the poor}} or {{gloss\|poor ones}}) suggests that they placed a special value on voluntary poverty. Distinctive features of the Gospel of the Ebionites include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus; an Adoptionist Christology,{{refn\|groupnote\|{{harvnb\|Kloppenborg\|1994\|pp435–9}}; p.&nbsp;435&nbsp;– "This belief, known as "adoptionism", held that Jesus was not divine by nature or by birth, but that God chose him to become his son, i.e., adopted him."}} in which Jesus is chosen to be God's Son at the time of his Baptism; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus; and an advocacy of vegetarianism.{{refn\|groupnote\|{{harvnb\|Vielhauer\|Strecker\|1991\|pp166–71}}; p.&nbsp;168&nbsp;– "Jesus' task is to do away with the 'sacrifices'. In this saying (16.4–5), the hostility of the Ebionites against the Temple cult is documented."}} Spanish Adoptionism {{main\|Spanish Adoptionism}} Iberian Adoptionism was a theological position which was articulated in Umayyad and Christian-held regions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th and 9th centuries. The issue seems to have begun with the claim of archbishop Elipandus of Toledo that – in respect to his human nature – Christ was adoptive Son of God. Another leading advocate of this Christology was Felix of Urgel. In the Iberian peninsula, adoptionism was opposed by Beatus of Liebana, and in the Carolingian territories, the Adoptionist position was condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Alcuin of York, Agobard, and officially in Carolingian territory by the Council of Frankfurt (794). Despite the shared name of "adoptionism" the Spanish Adoptionist Christology appears to have differed sharply from the adoptionism of early Christianity. Spanish advocates predicated the term {{lang\|la\|adoptivus}} of Christ only in respect to his humanity; once the divine Son "emptied himself" of divinity and "took the form of a servant" (Philippians 2:7),<ref>{{bibleverse\|Philippians\|2:7}}</ref> Christ's human nature was "adopted" as divine.<ref>James Ginther, Westminster Handbook to Medieval Theology, (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2009), 3.</ref> Historically, many scholars have followed the Adoptionists' Carolingian opponents in labeling Spanish Adoptionism as a minor revival of "Nestorian" Christology.<ref>For an example of this characterization, see Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. 5, trans. Neil Buchanan, (New York: Dover, 1961), 280.</ref> John C. Cavadini has challenged this notion by attempting to take the Spanish Christology in its own Spanish/North African context in his study, The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820.<ref>John C. Cavadini, The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 4–5.</ref> Scholastic Neo-adoptionism A third wave was the revived form ("Neo-adoptionism") of Peter Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term {{lang\|la\|filius adoptivus}} in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended adoptionism as essentially orthodox. Modern adoptionist groups A form of adoptionism surfaced in Unitarianism during the 16th and 17th in Polish Brethren and the 18th century as denial of the virgin birth became increasingly common, led by the views of Joseph Priestley and others. A similar form of adoptionism was expressed in the writings of James Strang, a Latter Day Saint leader who founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. In his Book of the Law of the Lord, a purported work of ancient scripture found and translated by Strang, he offers an essay entitled "Note on the Sacrifice of Christ" in which he explains his unique (for Mormonism as a whole) doctrines on the subject. Jesus Christ, said Strang, was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind, but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents (rather than being begotten by the Father or the Holy Spirit) to be able to truly fulfill his Messianic role.<ref>Book of the Law, pp. 157–58, note 9.</ref> Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence "adopted" as God's son at birth, and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration.<ref>Book of the Law, pp. 165-66.</ref> After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life, he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men, prior to his resurrection and ascension.<ref>Book of the law, pp. 155-58.</ref> The Christian Community, an esoteric Christian denomination informed by the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, assumes an adoptionist Christology that treats Jesus and the Christ as separate beings until they are joined at baptism.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Christian Community Movement for Religious Renewal: Our Creed\|urlhttps://www.thechristiancommunity.org/the-creed\|access-dateApril 2, 2023\|dateApril 2, 2023}}</ref> "Steiner's Christology is discussed as a central element of his thought in Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner: A Documentary Biography, trans. Leo Twyman (East Grinstead, Sussex: Henry Goulden, 1975), pp. 96-100. From the perspective of orthodox Christianity, it may be said that Steiner combined a docetic understanding of Christ's nature with the Adoptionist heresy."<ref name"g483">{{cite book \| lastEtter \| firstBrian K. \| titleFrom Classicism to Modernism \| publisherRoutledge \| year2019 \| orig-date2001 \| isbn978-1-315-18576-7 \| chapterChapter Six The New Music and the Influence of Theosophy \| pageunpaginated. fn. 80}}</ref> See also * Adoptivi * Arianism * Binitarianism Notes {{Reflist\|groupnote}}References{{Reflist}} Sources ;Printed sources {{refbegin}} * {{Citation \|lastBauckham \|firstR. \|year2011 \|titleJesus: A Very Short Introduction \|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{citation \|lastBird \|firstMichael F. \|year2017 \|titleJesus the Eternal Son: Answering Adoptionist Christology \|publisherWm. B. Eerdmans Publishing \|isbn978-0-8028-7506-8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduixbDwAAQBAJ}} * {{Citation \| last Boyarin \| firstDaniel \| year 2012 \| author-linkDaniel Boyarin \| title The Jewish Gospels \| publisherNew Press \| isbn 978-1-59558-711-4 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRd48nOco0-wC&pgPT56}} * {{Citation \| last Brown \| first R.E. \| year 1973 \| titleThe Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus \| publisher Paulist Press \| isbn 978-0-8091-1768-0 \| url https://books.google.com/books?ida0Ik5DuD01cC}} * {{Citation \| last Brown \| firstR.E. \| year 2008 \| titleChrist in the Gospels of the Liturgical Year \| editor-last Witherup \| editor-firstRonald D. \| publisher Paulist Press \| isbn978-0-8146-3531-5 }} * {{Citation \| last Dunn \| firstJames D.G. \| year 2006 \| titleUnity and Diversity in the New Testament \| edition 3rd \| publisherscm press}} * {{Citation \| last Ehrman \| firstBart \| year 1996 \| titleThe Orthodox Corruption of the Scripture \| publisher Oxford University Press \| locationNew York}} * {{Citation \| last Ehrman \| firstBart D. \| year 2003\| author-linkBart D. Ehrman \| title Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew \| publisherOxford University Press \| isbn 978-0-19-972712-4\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ}} * {{Citation \| last Ehrman \| firstBart \| year 2014 \| titleHow Jesus Became God. The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilea \| publisher =Harperone}} * {{Citation \| last Fredriksen \| year2008 \| first Paula \| titleFrom Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus \| publisher Yale University Press\| isbn978-0-300-16410-7 }} * {{cite book \|last Kloppenborg \|first John S. \|author-link John Kloppenborg \|editor-last Miller \|editor-first Robert J. \|title The Complete Gospels \|contribution The Gospel of the Ebionites \|pages [https://archive.org/details/completegospels00robe/page/435 435–40] \|year 1994 \|orig-date 1992 \|publisher Polebridge Press \|isbn 0-06-065587-9 }} * {{Citation \| last Loke \| firstAndrew Ter Ern \| year 2017 \| titleThe Origin of Divine Christology \| volume 169 \| publisherCambridge University Press \| isbn 978-1-108-19142-5 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEt0qDwAAQBAJ&pgPA5}} * {{Citation \| last Mack \| firstBurton L. \| year 1995 \| titleWho Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth}} * {{Citation \| last Netland \| firstHarold \| year 2001 \| titleEncountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission \| publisher =InterVarsity Press}} * Philip Schaff History of the Christian Church, Volume IV, 1882. * {{Citation \| last Talbert \| firstCharles H. \| year 2011 \| titleThe Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years: and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140. \| publisher =Brill}} * {{cite book \|last1 Vielhauer \|first1 Philipp \|last2 Strecker \|first2 Georg \|author-link1 Philipp Vielhauer \|author-link2 :de:Georg Strecker \|editor1-last Schneemelcher \|editor1-first Wilhelm \|editor2-last Wilson \|editor2-first Robert McLachlan \|title New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and Related Writings Volume 1 \|contribution Jewish–Christian gospels \|pages 134–78 \|edition 2 \|year 1991 \|publisher John Knox Press \|isbn = 0-664-22721-X }} (6th German edition, translated by George Ogg) * {{Citation \| last Witherington \| firstBen \| year 2006 \| titleWhat Have They Done With Jesus? \| publisher Harper Collins \| locationSan Francisco}} {{refend}} ;Web sources {{Reflist\|groupweb}} External links {{EB1911 poster\|Adoptianism}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01150a.htm Adoptionism] in Catholic Encyclopedia * [http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1a&wordADOPTIONISM Adoptionism] in Christian Cyclopedia * [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/4_ch11.htm Chapter XI. Doctrinal Controversies], from Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church {{History of Christianity\|state=expanded}} {{Heresies condemned by the Catholic Church}} Category:Nontrinitarianism Category:Christian terminology Category:Heresy in ancient Christianity Category:Adoption and religion Category:Nature of Jesus Christ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionism	2025-04-05T18:26:15.689566
3037	Apollinarism	{{Short description\|Christian heretical belief}} {{Christology}} Apollinarism or Apollinarianism is a Christological position proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea that argues that Jesus had a human body and sensitive human soul, but a divine mind and not a human rational mind, the Divine Logos taking the place of the latter.<ref nameCE>{{Catholic Encyclopedia\|wstitleApollinarianism \|volume1 \|firstJoseph Francis \|lastSollier \|inline1}}</ref> It was deemed heretical by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and virtually died out within the following decades.<ref nameSollier>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01615b.htm Sollier, Joseph. "Apollinarianism." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 8 February 2019</ref>History The Trinity had been recognized at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism ("one nature"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Apollinaris's rejection of Christ having a human mind was considered an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was a lesser god.<ref>McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chapter 1.</ref> Theodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead and giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking it up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites. Apollinaris, considering the rational soul and spirit as essentially liable to sin and capable, at its best, of only precarious efforts, saw no way of saving Christ's impeccability and the infinite value of Redemption, except by the elimination of the human spirit from Jesus' humanity, and the substitution of the Divine Logos in its stead.<ref nameCE/> Apollinarism was declared to be a heresy in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople.<ref nameSollier/> Neo-Apollinarianism Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has proposed a neo-Apollinarian Christology in which the divine Logos completes the human nature of Christ. Craig says his proposal is tentative and he welcomes critique and interaction from other scholars.<ref>William Lane Craig and J.P. Moreland. 2003. Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview. InterVarsity Press. 608.</ref> Craig also clarifies "what I called a Neo-Apollinarian Christological model" by stating that {{blockquote\|What I argue in my Neo-Apollinarian proposal is that the Logos brought to the human body just those properties which would make it a complete human nature – things like rationality, self-consciousness, freedom of the will, and so forth. Christ already possessed those in his divine nature, and it is in virtue of those that we are created in the image of God. So when he brought those properties to the animal body – the human body – it completes it and makes it a human nature. Against Apollinarius, I want to say that Christ did have a complete human nature. He was truly God and truly man. Therefore his death on our behalf as our representative before God was efficacious.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.reasonablefaith.org/media/reasonable-faith-podcast/does-dr.-craig-have-an-orthodox-christology/\| title Does Dr. Craig Have an Orthodox Christology? {{!}} Podcast {{!}} Reasonable Faith}}</ref>}} See also {{annotated link\|Dyophysitism}} {{annotated link\|Miaphysitism}} {{Annotated link\|Nestorianism}} References {{Reflist}} Sources {{1728}} Artemi, E., «Mia physis of God Logos sesarkomeni» a)The analysis of this phrase according to Cyril of Alexandria b)The analysis of this phrase according to Apollinaris of Laodicea», Ecclesiastic Faros t. ΟΔ (2003), 293 – 304. Chan, Joyce (2021). [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:Carey_HIST501/Project_1/Apollarianism/Apollinarianism Apollinarianism], Carey Theological College, University of British Columbia. McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chapter 1. {{Cite book\|lastEdwards\|firstMark\|year2009\|titleCatholicity and Heresy in the Early Church\|publisherAshgate\|isbn9780754662914\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz9acTl-jAkAC}} {{Heresies condemned by the Catholic Church\|state=collapsed}} {{Subject bar \|portal1Catholicism \|portal2 Christianity}} Category:4th-century Christianity Category:Christian terminology Category:Heresy in ancient Christianity Category:Nature of Jesus Christ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollinarism	2025-04-05T18:26:15.692568
3038	Acid–base reaction	{{Short description\|Chemical reaction between an acid and a base}} {{Redirect\|Acid–base\|chemicals that can behave as acids or bases\|amphoterism}} {{More citations needed\|date=July 2022}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2020}} and ammonia (base), forming white ammonium chloride]] {{Acids and bases}} In chemistry, an acid–base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH via titration. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. Their importance becomes apparent in analyzing acid–base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. The first of these concepts was provided by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, around 1776.<ref name"lavoisier_1">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|p166}} – Table of discoveries attributes Antoine Lavoisier as the first to posit a scientific theory in relation to oxyacids.</ref> It is important to think of the acid–base reaction models as theories that complement each other.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastPaik\|firstSeoung-Hey\|titleUnderstanding the Relationship Among Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis Theories\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|languageen\|volume92\|issue9\|pages1484–1489\|doi10.1021/ed500891w\|bibcode2015JChEd..92.1484P\|year2015}}</ref> For example, the current Lewis model has the broadest definition of what an acid and base are, with the Brønsted–Lowry theory being a subset of what acids and bases are, and the Arrhenius theory being the most restrictive.Acid–base definitionsHistoric developmentThe concept of an acid–base reaction was first proposed in 1754 by Guillaume-François Rouelle, who introduced the word "base" into chemistry to mean a substance which reacts with an acid to give it solid form (as a salt). Bases are mostly bitter in nature.<ref>{{cite journal \| author Jensen, William B.\|author1-linkWilliam B. Jensen\| title The origin of the term "base"\| journal The Journal of Chemical Education \| year 2006 \| volume 83 \| pages 1130 \| doi 10.1021/ed083p1130 \| issue 8 \| bibcode 2006JChEd..83.1130J }}</ref>Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acidsThe first scientific concept of acids and bases was provided by Lavoisier in around 1776. Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxoacids, such as {{chem2\|HNO3}} (nitric acid) and {{chem2\|H2SO4}} (sulfuric acid), which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids (HF, HCl, HBr, and HI), he defined acids in terms of their containing oxygen, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" ({{ety\|el\|ὀξύς (oxys)\|acid, sharp\|\|γεινομαι (geinomai)\|engender}}). The Lavoisier definition held for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in hydrogen sulfide ({{chem2\|H2S}}), hydrogen telluride ({{chem2\|H2Te}}), and the hydrohalic acids. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that "acidity does not depend upon any particular elementary substance, but upon peculiar arrangement of various substances".<ref namereview1940>{{cite journal \|titleSystems of Acids and Bases\|lastHall\|firstNorris F.\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|dateMarch 1940\|volume17\|issue3\|doi10.1021/ed017p124\|pages124–128\|bibcode 1940JChEd..17..124H}}</ref> One notable modification of oxygen theory was provided by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who stated that acids are oxides of nonmetals while bases are oxides of metals. Liebig's hydrogen theory of acids In 1838, Justus von Liebig proposed that an acid is a hydrogen-containing compound whose hydrogen can be replaced by a metal.<ref name"liebig_1">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991}}</ref><ref namemeyers_156>{{harvnb\|Meyers\|2003\|page156}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|p166}} – table of discoveries attributes Justus von Liebig's publication as 1838</ref> This redefinition was based on his extensive work on the chemical composition of organic acids, finishing the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids started by Davy. Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.<ref name"liebig_2">{{harvnb\|Finston\|Rychtman\|1983\|pp140–146}}</ref> Arrhenius definition {{Anchor\|Arrhenius theory}} ]] The first modern definition of acids and bases in molecular terms was devised by Svante Arrhenius.<ref name="miessler_154">Miessler G.L. and Tarr D.A. Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed., Prentice-Hall 1999) p. 154 {{ISBN\|0-13-841891-8}}</ref><ref>Whitten K.W., Galley K.D. and Davis R.E. General Chemistry (4th ed., Saunders 1992) p. 356 {{ISBN\|0-03-072373-6}}</ref> A hydrogen theory of acids, it followed from his 1884 work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903. As defined by Arrhenius: * An Arrhenius acid is a substance that ionises in water to form hydrogen ions ({{chem2\|H+}});<ref name"miessler_165">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|p165}}</ref> that is, an acid increases the concentration of H<sup>+</sup> ions in an aqueous solution. This causes the protonation of water, or the creation of the hydronium ({{chem2\|H3O+}}) ion.{{refn\|groupnote\|More recent IUPAC recommendations now suggest the newer term "hydronium"<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Murray \|first1Kermit K. \|last2Boyd \|first2Robert K. \|last3Eberlin \|first3Marcos N. \|last4Langley \|first4G. John \|last5Li \|first5Liang \|last6Naito \|first6Yasuhide \|dateJune 2013 \|orig-year2006 \|titleStandard definition of terms relating to mass spectrometry recommendations \|journalPure and Applied Chemistry \|volume85 \|issue7 \|pages1515–1609 \|doi10.1351/PAC-REC-06-04-06\|s2cid98095406 \|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2013.85.issue-7/pac-rec-06-04-06/pac-rec-06-04-06.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2013.85.issue-7/pac-rec-06-04-06/pac-rec-06-04-06.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}} (In this document, there is no reference to deprecation of "oxonium", which is also still accepted, as it remains in the IUPAC Gold book, but rather reveals preference for the term "Hydronium".)</ref> be used in favor of the older accepted term "oxonium"<ref name"iupac_gold">{{cite book \|title IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (interactive version) \|edition2.3.3 \|year 2014 \|publisherInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry \|doi 10.1351/goldbook.O04379 \|access-date9 May 2007 \|url http://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/O04379 \|articleoxonium ylides}}</ref> to illustrate reaction mechanisms such as those defined in the Brønsted–Lowry and solvent system definitions more clearly, with the Arrhenius definition serving as a simple general outline of acid–base character.<ref name"miessler_165"/>}} Thus, in modern times, the symbol {{chem2\|H+}} is interpreted as a shorthand for {{chem2\|H3O+}}, because it is now known that a bare proton does not exist as a free species in aqueous solution.<ref name"Acids, Bases, & Salts">{{cite book \|lastLeMay\|firstEugene\|titleChemistry\|year2002\|publisherPrentice-Hall\|locationUpper Saddle River, New Jersey\|isbn978-0-13-054383-7\|pages=602}}</ref> This is the species which is measured by pH indicators to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution. * An Arrhenius base is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydroxide ({{chem2\|OH-}}) ions; that is, a base increases the concentration of {{chem2\|OH-}} ions in an aqueous solution. The Arrhenius definitions of acidity and alkalinity are restricted to aqueous solutions and are not valid for most non-aqueous solutions, and refer to the concentration of the solvent ions. Under this definition, pure {{chem2\|H2SO4}} and HCl dissolved in toluene are not acidic, and molten NaOH and solutions of calcium amide in liquid ammonia are not alkaline. This led to the development of the Brønsted–Lowry theory and subsequent Lewis theory to account for these non-aqueous exceptions.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/theories.html\|titleTheories of acids and bases\|websitewww.chemguide.co.uk\|access-date18 April 2018}}</ref> The reaction of an acid with a base is called a neutralization reaction. The products of this reaction are a salt and water. <math chem display=block>\text{acid} \ + \ \text{base} \ \longrightarrow \ \text{salt} \ + \ \text{water}</math> In this traditional representation an acid–base neutralization reaction is formulated as a double-replacement reaction. For example, the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions produces a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) and some additional water molecules. <math chem display=block>\ce{HCl_{(aq)} {} + NaOH_{(aq)} -> NaCl_{(aq)} {} + H2O}</math> The modifier (aq) in this equation was implied by Arrhenius, rather than included explicitly. It indicates that the substances are dissolved in water. Though all three substances, HCl, NaOH and NaCl are capable of existing as pure compounds, in aqueous solutions they are fully dissociated into the aquated ions {{chem2\|H+, Cl-, Na+}} and {{chem2\|OH-}}. Example: Baking powder Baking powder is used to cause the dough for breads and cakes to "rise" by creating millions of tiny carbon dioxide bubbles. Baking powder is not to be confused with baking soda, which is sodium bicarbonate ({{chem2\|NaHCO3}}). Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and acidic salts. The bubbles are created because, when the baking powder is combined with water, the sodium bicarbonate and acid salts react to produce gaseous carbon dioxide. Whether commercially or domestically prepared, the principles behind baking powder formulations remain the same. The acid–base reaction can be generically represented as shown:<ref>{{cite book \| editorA.J. Bent \| titleThe Technology of Cake Making \| edition6 \| year1997 \| page102 \| publisherSpringer \| isbn9780751403497 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOTy8aIWxHhQC&pgPA102 \| access-date=2009-08-12}}</ref> <math chem display=block>\ce{NaHCO3 + H+ -> Na+ + CO2 + H2O}</math> The real reactions are more complicated because the acids are complicated. For example, starting with sodium bicarbonate and monocalcium phosphate ({{chem2\|Ca(H2PO4)2}}), the reaction produces carbon dioxide by the following stoichiometry:<ref name="KO">John Brodie, John Godber "Bakery Processes, Chemical Leavening Agents" in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 2001, John Wiley & Sons. {{doi\|10.1002/0471238961.0308051303082114.a01.pub2}}</ref> <math chem display=block>\ce{14 NaHCO3 + 5 Ca(H2PO4)2 -> 14 CO2 + Ca5(PO4)3OH + 7 Na2HPO4 + 13 H2O}</math> ("MCP") is a common acid component in domestic baking powders.]] A typical formulation (by weight) could call for 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5–12% monocalcium phosphate, and 21–26% sodium aluminium sulfate. Alternately, a commercial baking powder might use sodium acid pyrophosphate as one of the two acidic components instead of sodium aluminium sulfate. Another typical acid in such formulations is cream of tartar ({{chem2\|KC4H5O6}}), a derivative of tartaric acid.<ref name"KO"/>Brønsted–Lowry definition {{Main\|Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory}} {{Infobox \|data1\|data2 Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry}} The Brønsted–Lowry definition, formulated in 1923, independently by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted in Denmark and Martin Lowry in England,<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBrönsted \|first J.N. \|date1923 \|title Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff der Säuren und Basen \|trans-titleSome observations about the concept of acids and bases \|journal Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas \|volume42 \|issue 8 \|pages718–728\|doi 10.1002/recl.19230420815 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastLowry \|first T.M. \|date1923 \|url https://archive.org/stream/ost-chemistry-chemistryindustr01soci/chemistryindustr01soci#page/n65/mode/2up \|titleThe uniqueness of hydrogen \|journal Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry \|volume42 \|issue 3 \|pages43–47\|doi 10.1002/jctb.5000420302 }}</ref> is based upon the idea of protonation of bases through the deprotonation of acids – that is, the ability of acids to "donate" hydrogen ions ({{chem2\|H+}}){{snd}} otherwise known as protons{{snd}} to bases, which "accept" them.<ref name"miessler_167">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|pp167–169}} – According to this page, the original definition was that "acids have a tendency to lose a proton"</ref><ref group=note>"Removal and addition of a proton from the nucleus of an atom does not occur{{snd}} it would require very much more energy than is involved in the dissociation of acids."</ref> An acid–base reaction is, thus, the removal of a hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base.<ref name"Clayden_1">{{harvnb\|Clayden\|Greeves\|Warren\|Wothers\|2015\|pp182–184}}</ref> The removal of a hydrogen ion from an acid produces its conjugate base, which is the acid with a hydrogen ion removed. The reception of a proton by a base produces its conjugate acid, which is the base with a hydrogen ion added. Unlike the previous definitions, the Brønsted–Lowry definition does not refer to the formation of salt and solvent, but instead to the formation of conjugate acids and conjugate bases, produced by the transfer of a proton from the acid to the base.<ref name"miessler_165"/><ref name"miessler_167"/> In this approach, acids and bases are fundamentally different in behavior from salts, which are seen as electrolytes, subject to the theories of Debye, Onsager, and others. An acid and a base react not to produce a salt and a solvent, but to form a new acid and a new base. The concept of neutralization is thus absent.<ref name=review1940/> Brønsted–Lowry acid–base behavior is formally independent of any solvent, making it more all-encompassing than the Arrhenius model. The calculation of pH under the Arrhenius model depended on alkalis (bases) dissolving in water (aqueous solution). The Brønsted–Lowry model expanded what could be pH tested using insoluble and soluble solutions (gas, liquid, solid). The general formula for acid–base reactions according to the Brønsted–Lowry definition is: <math chem display=block>\ce{HA + B -> BH+ + A-}</math> where HA represents the acid, B represents the base, {{chem2\|BH+}} represents the conjugate acid of B, and {{chem2\|A-}} represents the conjugate base of HA. For example, a Brønsted–Lowry model for the dissociation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in aqueous solution would be the following: <math chem displayblock>\underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{HCl_{\,}}} \ + \ \underset{\text{base}}{\ce{H2O}} \quad \ce{<>} \quad \underset{\text{conjugate } \atop \text{acid }}{\ce{H3O+}} \ + \underset{\text{conjugate} \atop \text{base}}{\ce{Cl_{\,}-}}</math> The removal of {{chem2\|H+}} from the {{chem2\|HCl}} produces the chloride ion, {{chem2\|Cl-}}, the conjugate base of the acid. The addition of {{chem2\|H+}} to the {{chem2\|H2O}} (acting as a base) forms the hydronium ion, {{chem2\|H3O+}}, the conjugate acid of the base. Water is amphoteric{{snd}} that is, it can act as both an acid and a base. The Brønsted–Lowry model explains this, showing the dissociation of water into low concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide ions: <math chem displayblock>\ce{H2O + H2O <> H3O+ + OH-}</math> This equation is demonstrated in the image below: Here, one molecule of water acts as an acid, donating an {{chem2\|H+}} and forming the conjugate base, {{chem2\|OH-}}, and a second molecule of water acts as a base, accepting the {{chem2\|H+}} ion and forming the conjugate acid, {{chem2\|H3O+}}. As an example of water acting as an acid, consider an aqueous solution of pyridine, {{chem2\|C5H5N}}. <math chem displayblock>\ce{C5H5N + H2O <> [C5H5NH]+ + OH-}</math> In this example, a water molecule is split into a hydrogen ion, which is donated to a pyridine molecule, and a hydroxide ion. In the Brønsted–Lowry model, the solvent does not necessarily have to be water, as is required by the Arrhenius Acid–Base model. For example, consider what happens when acetic acid, {{chem2\|CH3COOH}}, dissolves in liquid ammonia. <math chem displayblock>\ce{CH3COOH + NH3 <> NH4+ + CH3COO-}</math> An {{chem2\|H+}} ion is removed from acetic acid, forming its conjugate base, the acetate ion, {{chem2\|CH3COO-}}. The addition of an {{chem2\|H+}} ion to an ammonia molecule of the solvent creates its conjugate acid, the ammonium ion, {{chem2\|NH4+}}. The Brønsted–Lowry model calls hydrogen-containing substances (like {{chem2\|HCl}}) acids. Thus, some substances, which many chemists considered to be acids, such as {{chem2\|SO3}} or {{chem2\|BCl3}}, are excluded from this classification due to lack of hydrogen. Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in 1938, "To restrict the group of acids to those substances that contain hydrogen interferes as seriously with the systematic understanding of chemistry as would the restriction of the term oxidizing agent to substances containing oxygen."<ref namereview1940/> Furthermore, {{chem2\|KOH}} and {{chem2\|KNH2}} are not considered Brønsted bases, but rather salts containing the bases {{chem2\|OH2}} and {{chem\|NH\|2\|−}}.Lewis definition {{Further\|Lewis acids and bases}} The hydrogen requirement of Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry was removed by the Lewis definition of acid–base reactions, devised by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1923,<ref name"lewis_1">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|p166}} – Table of discoveries attributes the date of publication/release for the Lewis theory as 1924.</ref> in the same year as Brønsted–Lowry, but it was not elaborated by him until 1938.<ref namereview1940/> Instead of defining acid–base reactions in terms of protons or other bonded substances, the Lewis definition defines a base (referred to as a Lewis base) to be a compound that can donate an electron pair, and an acid (a Lewis acid) to be a compound that can receive this electron pair.<ref name"lewis_2">{{harvnb\|Miessler\|Tarr\|1991\|pp=170–172}}</ref> For example, boron trifluoride, {{chem2\|BF3}} is a typical Lewis acid. It can accept a pair of electrons as it has a vacancy in its octet. The fluoride ion has a full octet and can donate a pair of electrons. Thus <math chem display=block>\ce{BF3 + F- -> BF4-}</math> is a typical Lewis acid, Lewis base reaction. All compounds of group 13 elements with a formula {{chem2\|AX3}} can behave as Lewis acids. Similarly, compounds of group 15 elements with a formula {{chem2\|DY3}}, such as amines, {{chem2\|NR3}}, and phosphines, {{chem2\|PR3}}, can behave as Lewis bases. Adducts between them have the formula {{chem2\|X3A←DY3}} with a dative covalent bond, shown symbolically as ←, between the atoms A (acceptor) and D (donor). Compounds of group 16 with a formula {{chem2\|DX2}} may also act as Lewis bases; in this way, a compound like an ether, {{chem2\|R2O}}, or a thioether, {{chem2\|R2S}}, can act as a Lewis base. The Lewis definition is not limited to these examples. For instance, carbon monoxide acts as a Lewis base when it forms an adduct with boron trifluoride, of formula {{chem2\|F3B←CO}}. Adducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds; each ligand donates a pair of electrons to the metal ion.<ref name="lewis_2"/> The reaction <math chem display=block>\ce{[Ag(H2O)4]+ + 2 NH3 -> [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 4 H2O}</math> can be seen as an acid–base reaction in which a stronger base (ammonia) replaces a weaker one (water). The Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are consistent with each other since the reaction <math chem displayblock>\ce{H+ + OH- <> H2O}</math> is an acid–base reaction in both theories. Solvent system definition One of the limitations of the Arrhenius definition is its reliance on water solutions. Edward Curtis Franklin studied the acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia in 1905 and pointed out the similarities to the water-based Arrhenius theory. Albert F.O. Germann, working with liquid phosgene, {{chem\|COCl\|2}}, formulated the solvent-based theory in 1925, thereby generalizing the Arrhenius definition to cover aprotic solvents.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastGermann \|firstAlbert F.O. \|date6 October 1925 \|titleA General Theory of Solvent Systems \|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society \|volume47 \|issue10 \|pages2461–2468 \|doi=10.1021/ja01687a006}}</ref> Germann pointed out that in many solutions, there are ions in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules: * solvonium ions: a generic name for positive ions. These are also sometimes called solvo-acids;<ref nameSASB>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw1st\|page487}}</ref> when protonated solvent, they are lyonium ions. * solvate ions: a generic name for negative ions. These are also sometimes called solve-bases;<ref name=SASB/> when deprotonated solvent, they are lyate ions. For example, water and ammonia undergo such dissociation into hydronium and hydroxide, and ammonium and amide, respectively: <math chem display=block>\begin{align} \ce{2 H2O} & \ce{\, <=> H3O+ + OH-} \\[4pt] \ce{2 NH3} & \ce{\, <=> NH4+ + NH2-} \end{align}</math> Some aprotic systems also undergo such dissociation, such as dinitrogen tetroxide into nitrosonium and nitrate,{{#tag:ref\|Pure N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> does not undergo such dissolution. However, it becomes electrically conductive when mixed with a polarized compound, which is believed to correspond with the establishment of such an equilibrium.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw1st\|page525}}</ref>\|groupnote}} antimony trichloride into dichloroantimonium and tetrachloroantimonate, and phosgene into chlorocarboxonium and chloride: <math chem display=block>\begin{align} \ce{N2O4} & \ce{\, <=> NO+ + NO3-} \\[4pt] \ce{2 SbCl3} & \ce{\, <=> SbCl2+ + SbCl4-} \\[4pt] \ce{COCl2} & \ce{\, <=> COCl+ + Cl-} \end{align}</math> A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the concentration of solvate ions is defined as an acid. A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvate ions and a decrease in the concentration of the solvonium ions is defined as a base. Thus, in liquid ammonia, {{chem2\|KNH2}} (supplying {{chem2\|NH2-}}) is a strong base, and {{chem2\|NH4NO3}} (supplying {{chem2\|NH4+}}) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide ({{chem2\|SO2}}), thionyl compounds (supplying {{chem2\|SO(2+)}}) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying {{chem2\|SO3(2-)}}) behave as bases. The non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water: <math chem display=block>\begin{align} \underset{\text{base}}{\ce{2 NaNH2}} + \underset{\text{amphiphilic} \atop \text{amide}}{\ce{Zn(NH2)2}} &\longrightarrow \ce{Na2[Zn(NH2)4]} \\[4pt] \underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{2 NH4I}} \ + \ \ce{Zn(NH2)2} &\longrightarrow \ce{[Zn(NH3)4]I2} \end{align}</math> Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid: <math chem display=block>\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{HNO3}} + \ce{2 H2SO4 -> NO2+ + H3O+ + 2 HSO4-}</math> The unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid {{chem2\|N2O4}}: <math chem display=block>\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{AgNO3}} + \underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{NOCl_{\ }}} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{solvent}}{\ce{N2O4}} + \underset{\text{salt}}{\ce{AgCl_{\ }}}</math> Because the solvent system definition depends on the solute as well as on the solvent itself, a particular solute can be either an acid or a base depending on the choice of the solvent: {{chem2\|HClO4}} is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid; this characteristic of the theory has been seen as both a strength and a weakness, because some substances (such as {{chem2\|SO3}} and {{chem2\|NH3}}) have been seen to be acidic or basic on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts.<ref namereview1940/>Lux–Flood definitionThis acid–base theory was a revival of the oxygen theory of acids and bases proposed by German chemist Hermann Lux<ref>{{cite journal \|lastFranz \|firstH. \|year1966 \|titleSolubility of Water Vapor in Alkali Borate Melts \|journalJournal of the American Ceramic Society \|volume49 \|issue9 \|pages473–477 \|doi10.1111/j.1151-2916.1966.tb13302.x}}</ref><ref name"lux">{{cite journal \|lastLux \|firstHermann \|author-linkHermann Lux \|year1939 \|title"Säuren" und "Basen" im Schmelzfluss: die Bestimmung. der Sauerstoffionen-Konzentration \|journalZ. Elektrochem \|volume45 \|issue4 \|pages303–309 \|languagede}}</ref> in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood {{circa\|1947}}<ref name"flood">{{cite journal \|last1Flood \|first1H. \|author-linkHåkon Flood \|last2Forland, T. \|year1947 \|titleThe Acidic and Basic Properties of Oxides \|journalActa Chemica Scandinavica \|volume1 \|issue6 \|pages592–604 \|doi10.3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0592 \|pmid18907702\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> and is still used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts. This definition describes an acid as an oxide ion ({{chem2\|O(2-)}}) acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:<ref name"drago">{{cite journal \|last1Drago \|first1Russel S. \|last2Whitten \|first2Kenneth W. \|year1966 \|titleThe Synthesis of Oxyhalides Utilizing Fused-Salt Media \|journalInorganic Chemistry \|volume5 \|issue4 \|pages677–682 \|doi=10.1021/ic50038a038}}</ref> <math chem display=block>\begin{array}{ccccl} _\text{(base)} & & _\text{(acid)} \\[4pt] \ce{MgO} &+& \ce{CO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{MgCO3} \\[4pt] \ce{CaO} &+& \ce{SiO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{CaSiO3} \\[4pt] \ce{NO3-} &+& \ce{S2O7^2-} \!\! &\longrightarrow& \ce{NO2+ + 2 SO4^2-} \end{array}</math> This theory is also useful in the systematisation of the reactions of noble gas compounds, especially the xenon oxides, fluorides, and oxofluorides.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw1st\|page1056}}</ref>Usanovich definitionMikhail Usanovich developed a general theory that does not restrict acidity to hydrogen-containing compounds, but his approach, published in 1938, was even more general than Lewis theory.<ref namereview1940/> Usanovich's theory can be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This defined the concept of redox (oxidation-reduction) as a special case of acid–base reactions. Some examples of Usanovich acid–base reactions include: <math chem display=block>\begin{array}{ccccll} _\text{(base)} & & _\text{(acid)} \\[4pt] \ce{Na2O} &+& \ce{SO3} &\longrightarrow& \ce{2Na+ {} + \ SO4^2-} & \text{(species exchanged: } \ce{O^2-} \text{anion)} \\[4pt] \ce{3(NH4)2S} &+& \ce{Sb2S5} &\longrightarrow& \ce{6 NH4+ {} + \ 2 SbS4^3-} & \text{(species exchanged: } \ce{3 S^2-} \text{ anions)} \\[4pt] \ce{2Na} &+& \ce{Cl2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{2 Na+ {} + \ 2 Cl-} & \text{(species exchanged: 2 electrons)} \end{array}</math> Rationalizing the strength of Lewis acid–base interactions HSAB theory {{Main\|HSAB theory}} In 1963, Ralph Pearson proposed a qualitative concept known as the Hard and Soft Acids and Bases principle.<ref namepearson>{{cite journal \|titleHard and Soft Acids and Bases.\|lastPearson\|firstRalph G.\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society \|year1963 \|volume85 \|issue22\|pages3533–3539\|doi10.1021/ja00905a001}}</ref> later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984.<ref name"abshardess">{{cite journal \|last1Parr \|first1Robert G. \|last2Pearson \|first2Ralph G. \|year1983 \|titleAbsolute hardness: companion parameter to absolute electronegativity \|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society \|volume105 \|issue26 \|pages7512–7516 \|doi10.1021/ja00364a005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastPearson \|firstRalph G. \|year2005 \|titleChemical hardness and density functional theory \|urlhttp://www.ias.ac.in/chemsci/Pdf-sep2005/369.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ias.ac.in/chemsci/Pdf-sep2005/369.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|journalJournal of Chemical Sciences \|volume117 \|issue5 \|pages369–377 \|doi10.1007/BF02708340\|citeseerx10.1.1.693.7436\|s2cid96042488 }}</ref> 'Hard' applies to species that are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species that are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact, and the most stable interactions are hard–hard and soft–soft. This theory has found use in organic and inorganic chemistry.ECW model {{Main\|ECW model}} The ECW model created by Russell S. Drago is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, {{math\|−ΔH}}. The model assigned {{mvar\|E}} and {{mvar\|C}} parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an {{math\|E<sub>A</sub>}} and a {{math\|C<sub>A</sub>}}. Each base is likewise characterized by its own {{math\|E<sub>B</sub>}} and {{math\|C<sub>B</sub>}}. The {{mvar\|E}} and {{mvar\|C}} parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is <math displayblock>-\Delta H E_{\rm A}E_{\rm B} + C_{\rm A}C_{\rm B} + W</math> The {{mvar\|W}} term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1Vogel G. C. \|author2Drago, R. S.\|year1996\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|volume73\|issue8\|pages701–707\|titleThe ECW Model\|bibcode1996JChEd..73..701V\|doi10.1021/ed073p701}}</ref> Acid–base equilibrium {{Main\|Acid dissociation constant}} The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example, <math chem display=block>\ce{HCl_{(aq)} {} + Na(OH)_{(aq)} -> H2O + NaCl_{(aq)} }</math> In this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction, <math chem display=block>\ce{H + OH- -> H2O}</math> does not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a buffer solution. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution. When a weak acid reacts with a weak base an equilibrium mixture is produced. For example, adenine, written as AH, can react with a hydrogen phosphate ion, {{chem2\|HPO4(2-)}}. <math chem displayblock>\ce{AH + HPO4^2- <> A- + H2PO4-}</math> The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be derived from the acid dissociation constants of adenine and of the dihydrogen phosphate ion. <math chem display=block>\begin{align} \left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a1}\bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \\[4pt] \left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a2}\left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right] \end{align}</math> The notation [X] signifies "concentration of X". When these two equations are combined by eliminating the hydrogen ion concentration, an expression for the equilibrium constant, {{mvar\|K}} is obtained. <math chem displayblock>\left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right] K \bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \! \left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right]; \quad K \frac{K_{a1}}{K_{a2}}</math>Acid–alkali reaction {{Main\|Neutralization (chemistry)}} An acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an alkali. When an acid reacts with an alkali salt (a metal hydroxide), the product is a metal salt and water. Acid–alkali reactions are also neutralization reactions. In general, acid–alkali reactions can be simplified to :<math chem>\ce{OH_{(aq)}- + H+_{(aq)} -> H2O} </math> by omitting spectator ions. Acids are in general pure substances that contain hydrogen cations ({{chem2\|H+}}) or cause them to be produced in solutions. Hydrochloric acid ({{chem2\|HCl}}) and sulfuric acid ({{chem2\|H2SO4}}) are common examples. In water, these break apart into ions: :<math chem>\begin{align} \ce{HCl} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + Cl_{(aq)}- } \\[4pt] \ce{H2SO4} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + HSO4_{\,(aq)}- } \end{align}</math> The alkali breaks apart in water, yielding dissolved hydroxide ions: :<math chem>\ce{NaOH -> Na^+_{(aq)} {} + OH_{(aq)}- }</math>. See also * Acid–base titration * Deprotonation * Donor number * Electron configuration * Gutmann–Beckett method * Lewis structure * Nucleophilic substitution * Neutralization (chemistry) * Protonation * Redox reactions * Resonance (chemistry) Notes {{Reflist\|groupnote}}References{{Reflist}}Sources{{cite book \|last1Clayden \|first1Jonathan \|first2Nick \|last2Greeves \|last3Warren \|first3Stuart \|first4Peter \|last4Wothers \|editionFirst \|date2015 \|titleOrganic Chemistry \|publisher=Oxford University Press}} {{cite book \|first1H.L. \|last1 Finston \|first2A.C. \|last2 Rychtman \|titleA New View of Current Acid–Base Theories \|publisher John Wiley & Sons \|locationNew York \|date 1983}} {{cite book \|lastMeyers \|first R. \|year2003 \|title The Basics of Chemistry \|publisher= Greenwood Press}} {{cite book \|last1Miessler \|first1 G.L. \|last2Tarr \|first2 D.A. \|titleInorganic Chemistry \|date 1991}} External links [http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/AcidBaseBook/ABindex.php Acid–base Physiology] – an on-line text [https://web.archive.org/web/20070207082349/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Acids_Bases.html John W. Kimball's online biology book section of acid and bases.] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Acid-Base Reaction}} Category:Acids Category:Bases (chemistry) Category:Chemical reactions Category:Equilibrium chemistry Category:Inorganic reactions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid–base_reaction	2025-04-05T18:26:15.711218
3040	Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani	{{Short description\|Arab historian, writer, poet and musicologist (897–967)}} {{other people\|Al-Isfahani}} {{Other people\|Abu al-Faraj}} {{cleanup lang\|date=January 2024}} {{Infobox scientist \| name = Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani \| native_name = أَبُو الْفَرَج الْأصْفَهَانِيّ \| native_name_lang = ar \| image = Kitab_al-Aghani_01_(cropped).jpg \| alt \| caption Illustration from Kitab al-aghani (Book of Songs), 1216–20, by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, a collection of songs by famous musicians and Arab poets. \| birth_date = {{start date\|897}} \| birth_place = Isfahan, Abbasid Caliphate \| death_date = {{death year and age\|967\|897}}{{efn\|See the section on Dates}} \| death_place = Baghdad \| death_cause \| resting_place \| resting_place_coordinates <!--{{coord\|LAT\|LONG\|type:landmark\|displayinline,title}}--> \| other_names = Ali ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥaytham \| residence \| era Islamic golden age (Abbasid era) \| fields = History \| workplaces \| patrons Sayf ad-Dawlah \| education \| alma_mater \| thesis_title <!--(or \| thesis1_title and \| thesis2_title = )--> \| thesis_url <!--(or \| thesis1_url and \| thesis2_url = )--> \| thesis_year <!--(or \| thesis1_year and \| thesis2_year = )--> \| doctoral_advisor <!--(or \| doctoral_advisors )--> \| academic_advisors \| doctoral_students \| notable_students \| known_for Book of Songs \| influences \| influenced \| awards \| author_abbrev_bot \| author_abbrev_zoo \| spouse <!--(or \| spouses = )--> \| partner <!--(or \| partners )--> \| children \| signature <!--(filename only)--> \| signature_alt \| website <!--{{URL\|www.example.com}}--> \| footnotes = }} Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Iṣfahānī ({{langx\|ar\|أبو الفرج الأصفهاني}}), also known as Abul-Faraj, (full form: Abū al-Faraj ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥaytham al-Umawī al-Iṣfahānī) (897–967CE / 284–356AH) was a writer, historian, genealogist, poet, musicologist and scribe. He was of Arab-Quraysh origin<ref>{{EI2\|titleAbu 'l-Faradj al-Isbahani\|authorM. Nallino\|volume1\|page118}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|last1Bagley\|first1F. R. C.\|titleABU'L-FARAJ EṢFAHĀNĪ\|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-faraj-esfahani-ali-b\|publisherEncyclopaedia Iranica\|access-date2 April 2017\|languageen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111116232841/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-faraj-esfahani-ali-b\|archive-date16 November 2011\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and mainly based in Baghdad. He is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), which includes information about the earliest attested periods of Arabic music (from the seventh to the ninth centuries) and the lives of poets and musicians from the pre-Islamic period to al-Isfahani's time.<ref>{{Citation \| last = Sawa \| first = S.G. \| title = The Status and Roles of the Secular Musicians in the Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs) of Abu al-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī \| journal = Asian Music \| volume = 17 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 68–82 \| year = 1985 \| doi = 10.2307/833741 \| jstor = 833741 \| publisher Asian Music, Vol. 17, No. 1}}</ref> Given his contribution to the documentation of the history of Arabic music, al-Isfahani is characterised by George Sawa as "a true prophet of modern ethnomusicology".{{sfn\|Sawa\|1989\|p29}} Dates The commonly accepted dates of al-Isfahani's birth and death are 897–898 and 967, based on the dates given by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi which itself based its information on the testimony of al-Isfahani's student, Muhammad ibn Abi al-Fawaris.{{sfn\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 338; vol. 2, p. 213 (On Ibn Abī al-Fawāris)}}{{Efn\|Other dates of death are in the 360s/970s and 357/967–68, suggested respectively by Ibn al-Nadim (d. 385/995 or 388/998) and Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani (336–430/948–1038){{sfn\|refAkhbār\|Abū Nuʿaym, Akhbār\|loc vol. 2, p. 22}}{{sfn\|refal-Fihrist\|Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist\|p128}}}} However, the credibility of these dates is to be treated with caution. No source places his death earlier than 967, but several place it later. These dates are at odds with a reference in the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba ("The Book of the Etiquettes of Strangers"), attributed to al-Isfahani, to his being in the prime of youth (fi ayyam al-shabiba wa-l-siba) in 967.{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 95–97}}{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Adab al-ghurabāʾ\|refal-ghurabā\|p83–86}}{{Efn\|The attribution of Adab al-ghuraba to al-Isfahani is much disputed in current scholarship. The scholars who affirm al-Isfahani as the author of Adab al-ghuraba include:{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p733}}{{sfn\|Günther\|2007\|p}}{{sfn\|al-Munajjid\|1972\|p10–16}}{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2004\|p230–242}}{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|1978\|p127–135}} On the opposite side are:{{sfn\|Hoyland\|2006\|p36–39}}{{sfn\|Crone\|Moreh\|2000\|p128–143}}}} Calculation of the approximate dates of his birth and death through the life spans of his students and his direct informants suggests that he was born before 902 and died after 960.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSu\|firstI-Wen\|date2020\|titleAbū al-Faraj ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn al-Iṣfahānī, the Author of the Kitāb al-Aghānī\|urlhttps://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Ab%C5%AB_al-Faraj_%CA%BFAl%C4%AB_b._al-%E1%B8%A4usayn_al-I%E1%B9%A3fah%C4%81n%C4%AB,_the_Author_of_the_Kit%C4%81b_al-Agh%C4%81n%C4%AB\|journalWikiJournal of Humanities\|volume3\|issue1\|pages1\|doi10.15347/wjh/2020.001\|doi-accessfree}} Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported] license.</ref> Biography Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani was born in Isfahan, Persia (present-day Iran) but spent his youth and undertook his early studies in Baghdad (present-day Iraq). He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II,{{efn\|Al-Isfahani traced his descent to Marwan II as follows: Abu al-Faraj Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn al-Haytham ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan ibn Abd Allah ibn Marwan II ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan I.<ref>{{cite book \|lastDe Slane \|firstMac Guckin \|author-linkWilliam McGuckin de Slane \|titleIbn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, Volume 3 \|date1842 \|publisherOriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland \|locationParis \|page300 \|url{{Google Books\|XccfAAAAMAAJ\|plainurly}}}}</ref>}} and was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in al-Andalus, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.<ref name"eb">{{EB1911\|inline1\|wstitleAbulfaraj\|volume1\|page=79}}</ref> His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, including in Aleppo with its Hamdanid governor Sayf ad-Dawlah (to whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), and in Ray with the Buwayhid vizier Ibn 'Abbad. Family The epithet, al-Isfahani,{{Efn\|Another spelling, al-Isbahani, is also used in secondary literature. Although al-Isbahani is found in the oldest biographical sources and manuscripts, al-Isfahani will be used in this article.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|pvii}}}} refers to the city, Isfahan, on the Iranian plateau. Instead of indicating al-Isfahani's birthplace,{{sfn\|al-Ziriklī\|2002\|locvol. 4, p. 278}}{{sfn\|Rotter\|1977\|p7}}{{sfn\|Amīn\|2009\|p248–249}}{{sfn\|Sallūm\|1969\|p9}}{{efn\|This misconception, according to Azarnoosh,{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p719}} was first disseminated by Ṭāshkubrīzādah (d. 968/1560) and was thereafter followed by modern scholars.}} this epithet seems to be common to al-Isfahani's family. Every reference al-Isfahani makes to his paternal relatives includes the attributive, al-Isfahani.{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p23–25}}{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p720}} According to Ibn Hazm (994–1064), some descendants of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan b. Muhammad (691–750), al-Isfahani's ancestor,{{Efn\|While most of the sources agree that al-Isfahani was amongst the offspring of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan b. Muhammad, Ibn al-Nadīm alone claimed that he was a descendant of Hishām b. ʿAbd al-Malik (72–125/691–743).{{sfn\|refal-Fihrist\|Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist\|p127}} The majority opinion:{{sfn\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 337}}{{sfn\|refSiyar\|al-Dhahabī, Siyar\|p2774}}{{sfn\|refInbāh\|al-Qifṭī, Inbāh\|locvol. 2, p. 251}}}} settled in Isfahan.{{sfn\|Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿarab\|refJamharat\|p107}} However, it has to be borne in mind that the earliest information available regarding al-Isfahani's family history only dates to the generation of his great-grandfather, Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, who settled in Samarra sometime between 835–6 and 847.{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p=421–422}} Based on al-Isfahani's references in the Kitab al-Aghani (hereafter, the Aghani), Ahmad b. al-Haytham seems to have led a privileged life in Sāmarrāʾ, while his sons were well-connected with the elite of the Abbasid capital at that time.{{Efn\|A report in the Aghani mentions Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham's possession of slaves, which may indicate his being wealthy.{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p422–423}}}} His son, Abd al-Aziz b. Ahmad, was "one of the high ranking scribes in the days of al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) (min kibār al-kuttāb fī ayyām al-Mutawakkil)".{{sfn\|Ibn Ḥazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿarab\|refJamharat\|p107}} Another son, Muhammad b. Ahmad (viz. al-Isfahani's grandfather), was associated with Abbasid officials, the vizier Ibn al-Zayyāt (d. 847), the scribe Ibrahim b. al-Abbas al-Ṣūlī (792–857), and the vizier Ubaydallah b. Sulayman (d. 901), along with the Ṭālibid notables,{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p424–426}} including al-Husayn b. al-Husayn b. Zayd, who was the leader of the Banu Hashim.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Maqātil\|refMaqātil\|p547}} The close ties with the Abbasid court continued with Muhammad's sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn (al-Isfahani's father).{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p=426–430}} In various places in the Aghani, al-Isfahani refers to Yahya b. Muhammad b. Thawaba (from the Al Thawaba) as his grandfather on his mother's side.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 12, p. 29; vol. 14, p. 113, 157; vol. 16, p. 317–318; vol. 19, p. 35, 49; vol. 20, p. 116}}{{Efn\|For the identity of Yahya b. Muhammad b. Thawaba and other members of the Al Thawaba, see: {{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p52–58}}{{sfn\|refal-Fihrist\|Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist\|p143–144}}}} It is often suggested that the family of Thawaba, being Shi'i,{{Efn\|The term, Shi'i, is used in its broadest sense in this article and comprises various still evolving groups, including Imami Shi'is, Zaydīs, Ghulāt, and mild or soft Shi'is (as per van Ess and Crone), as well as those who straddle several sectarian alignments. Such inclusiveness is necessitated by the lack of clear-cut sectarian delineation (as in the case of the Al Thawaba, discussed here) in the early period.{{sfn\|van Ess\|2017\|locvol. 1, p. 236}}{{sfn\|Crone\|2005\|p72, 99}}}} bequeathed their sectarian inclination to al-Isfahani.{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p58}}{{Efn\|Both Kilpatrick and Azarnoosh follow Khalafallāh's argument as to the Al Thawaba's impact upon al-Isfahani's Shi'i conviction.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p15}}{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p728}}}} However, the identification of the Thawaba family as Shi'is is only found in a late source, Yaqut's (1178–1225) work.{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 4, p. 147–149}} While many elite families working under the Abbasid caliphate were Shi'i-inclined, indeed allied with Alids or their partisans,{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p433–441}} there is no evidence that members of the Thawaba family embraced an extreme form of Shi'ism.{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p431–432}} In summary, al-Isfahani came from a family well-entrenched in the networks of the Abbasid elite, which included the officials and the Alids. Despite the epithet, al-Isfahani, it does not seem that the Isfahani family had a strong connection with the city of Isfahan. Rather, the family was mainly based in Sāmarrāʾ, from the generation of Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, and then Baghdad.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 23, p. 21}} In the seats of the caliphate, a few members of the al-Isfahani family worked as scribes, while maintaining friendship or alliance with other scribes, viziers and notables.{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p421–432}} Like many of the court elite, al-Isfahani's family maintained an amicable relationship with the offspring of Ali and allied with families, such as the Thawaba family,{{Efn\|Besides the Al Thawaba, one may count among the pro-Alid or Shi'i families the Banū Furāt and Banū Nawbakht.{{sfn\|Su\|2018a\|p429–430}}}} sharing their veneration of Ali and Alids. However, it is hard to pinpoint such a reverential attitude towards Alids in terms of sectarian alignment, given the scanty information about al-Isfahani's family and the fluidity of sectarian identities at the time. Education and career The Isfahani family's extensive network of contacts is reflected in al-Isfahani's sources. Among the direct informants whom al-Isfahani cites in his works, are members of his own family, who were further connected to other notable families,{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p41–51}} the Al Thawaba,{{Efn\|Al-Isfahani's sources are al-Abbas b. Ahmad b. Thawaba and Yahya b. Muhammad b. Thawaba, al-Isfahani's grandfather from the maternal side, who is cited indirectly.{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p29, 133}}\|namefn19}} the Banū Munajjim,{{Efn\|Al-Isfahani has three informants from the Banū Munajjim, whose members were associated with the Abbasid court as boon companions, scholars, or astrologists: Ahmad b. Yahya b. Ali (262–327/876–940); Ali b. Harun b. Ali (277–352/890–963); and Yahya b. Ali b. Yahya (241–300/855–912).{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p38, 40, 68–69}} About the Banu Munajjim; see:{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2012\|p}}\|namefn20}} the Yazīdīs,{{Efn\|The Yazīdīs were famed for its members’ mastery of poetry, the Qurʾānic readings, the ḥadīth, and philology. Muhammad b. al-Abbas al-Yazīdī (d. c. 228–310/842–922) was the tutor of the children of the caliph, al-Muqtadir (r. 295–320/908–932), and transmitted Abu Ubayda's ''Naqa'id'', Thaalab's Majalis, and the works of his family; many of his narrations are preserved in the Aghani.{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p54–56}}{{sfn\|Sellheim\|2012\|p}}\|namefn21}} the Ṣūlīs,{{Efn\|The association with the Ṣūlīs likely began in the generation of al-Isfahani's grandfather, Muhammad b. Ahmad, who was close to Ibrahim b. al-Abbas al-Ṣūlī; see the section on Family. Al-Isfahani's direct sources from this family are the famous al-Ṣūlī, Muhammad b. Yahya (d. 335/946 or 336/947), who was the boon companion of a number of the caliphs and a phenomenal chess player; his son, Yahya b. Muhammad al-Ṣūlī; and al-Abbas b. Ali, known as Ibn Burd al-Khiyār. See:{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p32, 64–65}}{{sfn\|refal-Aghānī\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|locvol. 9, p. 229}} See also:{{sfn\|refal-Fihrist\|Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist\|p167}}{{sfn\|Leder\|2012\|p}}\|namefn22}} the Banū Ḥamdūn,{{Efn\|The Banu Hamdun were known for their boon companionship at the Abbasid court in the ninth century; al-Isfahani's informant is Abdallāh b. Ahmad b. Ḥamdūn;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p30}} about the Banū Ḥamdūn; see:{{sfn\|refal-Fihrist\|Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist\|p161}}{{sfn\|Vadet\|2012\|p}}\|namefn23}} the Ṭāhirids,{{Efn\|Yahya b. Muhammad b. ʿAbdallāh b. Ṭāhir, identified by al-Isfahani as the nephew of ʿUbaydallāh b. ʿAbdallāh b. Ṭāhir (d. 300/913), is the son of Muhammad b. ʿAbdallāh b. Ṭāhir (d. 296/908–9), the governor of Khurāsān.{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p69}}{{sfn\|refal-Aghānī\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|locvol. 21, p. 48}} See also:{{sfn\|Zetterstéen\|2012\|p}}{{sfn\|Bosworth\|Marín\|Smith\|2012\|p}}\|namefn24}} the Banū al-Marzubān{{Efn\|Al-Isfahani mentions a conversation between his father and Muhammad b. Khalaf b. al-Marzubānī and notes the long-term friendship and marital tie between the two families; see:{{sfn\|refal-Aghānī\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|locvol. 24, p. 37}} I owe this reference to: {{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p17}} Muhammad b. Khalaf b. al-Marzubān is a ubiquitous informant in the Aghānī; see:{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p58–59}}\|namefn25}} and the Ṭālibids.{{Efn\|The Ṭālibid informants of al-Isfahani comprise: Ali b. al-Husayn b. Ali b. Hamza; Ali b. Ibrahim b. Muhammad; Ali b. Muhammad b. Ja'far; Ja'far b. Muhammad b. Ja'far; Muhammad b. Ali b. Hamza; see: {{sfn\|Günther\|1991\|p140–141; 141–144; 150; 161–162; 190–191}}\|namefn26}} Given that al-Isfahani and his family very likely settled in Baghdad around the beginning of the tenth century,{{Efn\|al-Isfahani's uncle, al-Hasan b. Muhammad, mentioned in the Tarikh Madinat al-Salam, either settled in Baghdad with him or at least active for some time there; see:{{sfn\|refal-Aghānī\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|locvol. 23, p. 21}}{{sfn\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 8, p. 440}}}} he interacted with a considerable number of the inhabitants of or visitors to that city, including: Jaḥẓa (d. 936),{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p34–35}} al-Khaffāf,{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p46–47}} Ali b. Sulaymān al-Akhfash (d. 927/8),{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p41–42}} and Muhammad b. Jarir al-Ṭabari (d. 922).{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p58}} Like other scholars of his time, al-Isfahani travelled in pursuit of knowledge. Although the details are insufficient to establish the dates of his journeys, based on the chains of transmission (asānīd, sing. isnād) al-Isfahani cites consistently and meticulously in every report, it is certain that he transmitted from ʿAbd al-Malik b. Maslama and ʿĀṣim b. Muhammad in Antakya;{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 13, p. 25; vol. 14, p. 46–50}} ʿAbdallāh b. Muhammad b. Ishaq in Ahwaz;{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 17, p. 157}} and Yahya b. Aḥmad b. al-Jawn in Raqqa.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 24, p. 67}} If we accept the attribution of the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba to al-Isfahani, he once visited Baṣra as well as Ḥiṣn Mahdī, Mattūth, and Bājistrā.{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p721}}{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p18}} Yet, none of these cities seems to have left as much of an impact on al-Isfahani as Kūfa and Baghdad did. While al-Isfahani's Baghdadi informants were wide-ranging in their expertise as well as sectarian and theological tendencies, his Kūfan sources can be characterised as either Shi'i or keen on preserving and disseminating memories that favoured Ali and his family. For example, Ibn ʿUqda (d. 944), mentioned in both the Aghānī and the Maqātil, was invariably cited for the reports about the Alids and their merits.{{sfn\|Günther\|1991\|p127–131}}{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p36–37}}{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p204–209}}{{efn\|About Ibn ʿUqd, see also:{{sfn\|Brown\|2008\|p55–58}}}} The journey in search for knowledge taken by al-Isfahani may not be particularly outstanding by the standard of his time,{{Efn\|Compare, for instance, his teacher, al-Ṭabarī.{{sfn\|Bosworth\|2012\|p}}}} but the diversity of his sources' occupations and expertise is impressive. His informants can be assigned into one or more of the following categories:{{Efn\|It has to be kept in mind that the categorisation is based on the attributives given by al-Isfahani. Just as al-Isfahani was not a local Isfahani, the subjects discussed here do not necessarily engage with the professions their nisbas indicate.}} philologists and grammarians;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p41–42 (al-Akhfash); 60–61 (Ibn Durayd); 32 (Ibn Rustam); 30 (ʿAbd al-Malik al-Ḍarīr)}} singers and musicians;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p42 (Dhukāʾ Wajh al-Ruzza); 34 (Jaḥẓa)}} booksellers and copyists (sahhafun or warraqun, sing. sahhaf or Warraq);{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p52–53 (ʿĪsā b. al-Ḥusayn al-Warrāq); 40 (ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn al-Warrāq); 37 (Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ṣaḥḥāf); 31 (ʿAbd al-Wahhāb b. ʿUbayd al-Ṣaḥḥāf); 65 (Muḥammad b. Zakariyyā al-Ṣaḥḥāf)}} friends;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p32 (Abū al-Qāsim al-Shīrbābakī)}}{{Efn\|See also the footnotes above: {{Efn\|namefn20}}{{Efn\|namefn22}}{{Efn\|namefn23}}}} tutors (muʾaddibūn, sing. muʾaddib);{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p32 (Aḥmad b. al-ʿAbbās al-Muʾaddib); 35 (Aḥmad b. ʿImrān al-Muʾaddib); 61–62 (Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Muʾaddib); 62 (Muḥammad b. ʿImrān al-Muʾaddib)}} scribes (kuttāb, sing. kātib);{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p43–44 (Jaʿfar b. Qudāma al-Kātib); 50–51 (al-Ḥusayn b. al-Qāsim al-Kawkabī al-Kātib); 53 (Isḥāq b. al-Ḍaḥḥāk al-Kātib); 41 (ʿAlī b. Ṣāliḥ al-Kātib); 39 (ʿAlī b. al-ʿAbbās al-Ṭalḥī al-Kātib); 39–40 (ʿAlī b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Kātib); 49 (al-Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Kātib); 57 (Muḥammad b. Baḥr al-Iṣfahānī al-Kātib)}} imams or preachers (khuṭabāʾ, sing. khaṭīb); {{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p61 (Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn al-Kindī was al-Iṣfahānī’s tutor and the preacher at the congregational mosque in Qādisiyya); 40–41 (ʿAlī b. Muḥammad, an imam of a Kūfan mosque)}}{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 15, p. 255; vol. 19, p. 38; vol. 20, p. 163; vol. 21, p. 158}} religious scholars (of the ḥadīth, the Qurʾānic recitations and exegeses, or jurisprudence) and judges;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p30 (ʿAbdallāh b. Abī Dāwūd al-Sijistānī); 36–37 (Ibn ʿUqda); 58 (Muḥammad b. Jarīr al-Ṭabarī); 59–60 (Muḥammad b. Khalaf Wakīʿ)}} poets;{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p42 (ʿĀṣim b. Muḥammad al-Shāʿir); 49 (al-Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Shāʿir)}} and akhbārīs (transmitters of reports of all sorts, including genealogical, historical, and anecdotal reports).{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p37 (Aḥmad b. Sulaymān al-Ṭūsī); 37–38 (Ibn ʿAmmār); 42–43 (Abū Khalīfa al-Jumaḥī); 45–46 (al-Ḥaramī b. Abī al-ʿAlāʾ)}} The variety of the narrators and their narrations enriched al-Iṣfahānī's literary output, which covers a wide range of topics from amusing tales to the accounts of the Alids' martyrdom.{{Efn\|See Legacy, below}} His erudition is best illustrated by Abu Ali al-Muhassin al-Tanukhi's (941–994) comment: "With his encyclopaedic knowledge of music, musicians, poetry, poets, genealogy, history, and other subjects, al-Iṣfahānī established himself as a learned scholar and teacher."{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 129–130}}{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p168–169}}{{sfn\|al-Aṣmaʿī\|1951\|p73–85}}{{sfn\|ʿĀṣī\|1993\|p=24–30}} He was also a scribe and this is not surprising, given his families’ scribal connections, but the details of his kātib activities are rather opaque.{{Efn\|For the few references by al-Isfahani to his administrative tasks, see:{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p18}}}} Although both al-Tanūkhī and al-Baghdādī refer to al-Isfahani with the attribute, kātib, they mention nothing of where he worked or for whom.{{sfn\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 337}}{{sfn\|al-Tanūkhī, al-Faraj\|refal-Faraj\|locvol. 2, p. 334}}{{sfn\|al-Tanūkhī, Nishwār\|refNishwār\|locvol. 1, p. 18}} The details of his occupation as a scribe only came later, with Yaqut, many of whose reports about al-Isfahani prove problematic. For instance, a report from Yaqut claims that al-Isfahani was the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla (d. 976) and mentions his resentment towards Abū al-Faḍl b. al-ʿAmīd (d. 970).{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 110–111}} However, the very same report was mentioned by Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (active tenth century{{sfn\|Stern\|2012\|p}}) in his Akhlāq al-wazīrayn, where the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla is identified as Abū al-Faraj Ḥamd b. Muhammad, not Abū al-Faraj al-Isfahani.{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p726–727}}{{sfn\|al-Tawḥīdī, Akhlāq al‑wazīrayn\|refAkhlāq al‑wazīrayn\|p421–422}}{{Blockquote\|Amongst the Shīʿī narrators whom we have seen, none has memorised poems, melodies, reports, traditions (al-āthār), al-aḥādīth al-musnada (narrations with chains of transmission, including the Prophetic ḥadīth), and genealogy by heart like Abū al-Faraj al-Isfahani. Very proficient in these matters, he is also knowledgeable in the military campaigns and the biography of the Prophet (al-maghāzī and al-sīra), lexicography, grammar, legendary tales (al-khurāfāt), and the accomplishments required of courtiers (ālat al-munādama), like falconry (al-jawāriḥ), veterinary science (al-bayṭara), some notions of medicine (nutafan min al-ṭibb), astrology, drinks (al-ashriba), and other things.\|authorAl-Khaṭīb{{sfn\|refWafayāt\|Ibn Khallikān, Wafayāt\|locvol. 3, p. 307}}{{sfn\|refSiyar\|al-Dhahabī, Siyar\|p2774}}{{sfn\|refInbāh\|al-Qifṭī, Inbāh\|locvol. 2, p. 251}}{{efn\|It is noteworthy that the first sentence of this quote is written differently from the works given here in al-Khaṭīb's Tārīkh.{{sfn\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 339}}}}}} Thus, it is hard to know with certainty how and where al-Isfahani was engaged in his capacity as a kātib. Nevertheless, al-Isfahani's association with the vizier, Abū Muḥammad al-Muhallabī (903–963), is well-documented. The friendship between the two began before al-Muhallabī's became vizier in 950.{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 105}}{{Efn\|Among the frequently cited sources in the Aghānī is Ḥabīb b. Naṣr al-Muhallabī (d. 307/919), presumably from the Muhallabid family, but it is not clear how this informant relates to Abū Muhammad al-Muhallabī; see:{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p44}}}} The firm relationship between them is supported by al-Isfahani's poetry collected by al-Thaʿālibī (961–1038): half of the fourteen poems are panegyrics dedicated to al-Muhallabī.{{sfn\|al-Thaʿālibī, Yatīmat\|refYatīmat\|locvol. 3, p. 127–131}} In addition, al-Isfahani's own work, al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir (“Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry”), is dedicated to the vizier, presumably, al-Muhallabī.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, al-Imāʿ al-shawāʿir\|refal-shawāʿir\|p23}} His no longer surviving Manājīb al-khiṣyān (“The Noble Eunuchs”), which addresses two castrated male singers owned by al-Muhallabī, was composed for him.{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 100}} His magnum opus, the Aghānī, was very likely intended for al-Muhallabī, as well.{{Efn\|See section on Legacy}} In return for his literary efforts, according to al-Tanūkhī, al-Isfahani frequently received rewards from the vizier.{{sfn\|al-Tanūkhī, Nishwār\|refNishwār\|locvol. 1, p. 74}} Furthermore, for the sake of their long-term friendship and out of his respect for al-Isfahani's genius, al-Muhallabī exceptionally tolerated al-Isfahani's uncouth manners and poor personal hygiene.{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 101–103}} The sources say nothing about al-Isfahani's fate after al-Muhallabī's death. In his last years, according to his student, Muhammad b. Abī al-Fawāris, he suffered from senility (khallaṭa).{{sfn\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 340}}{{efn\|See also: {{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p19}}}} Personality, preferences, and beliefs As a friend, al-Isfahani was unconventional in the sense that he did not seem to have been bothered to observe the social decorum of his time, as noted by a late biographical source: with his uncleanliness and gluttony, he presented a counterexample to elegance (ẓarf), as defined by one of his teachers, Abu al-Ṭayyib al-Washshāʾ (d. 937).{{Efn\|Al-Washshāʾ says: “It is not permissible for the people of elegance and etiquette to wear dirty clothes with clean ones, or clean ones with new ones,” and they should eat with small morsels, while avoiding gluttony. Al-Isfahani never washed his clothes and shoes and only replaced them when they became too shabby to put on.{{sfn\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 101–102, 107–108}} <ref>al-Washshāʾ, al-Muwashshā, p. 161 (quotation), 167.</ref>}} His unconformity to the social norms did not hinder him from being part of al-Muhallabī's entourage or participation in the literary assemblies, but, inevitably, it resulted in frictions with other scholars and detraction by his enemies.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p17–18}}{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p730–731}} Although al-Isfahani appeared eccentric to his human associates, he was a caring owner of his cat, named Yaqaq (white): he treated Yaqaq's colic (qulanj) with an enema (al-ḥuqna).{{sfn\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 104–105}}{{Efn\|For the discussion of colic and its treatment by enema; see:{{sfn\|Nezhad et al\|2015\|pp=29–40}}}} In contrast to his personal habits, al-Isfahani's prose style is lucid, “in clear and simple language, with unusual sincerity and frankness”.{{sfn\|Azarnoosh\|1992\|p731}}{{efn\|See also:{{sfn\|Jabrī\|1965\|p27–29}}{{sfn\|Sallūm\|1969\|p56–69}}}} Al-Isfahani's capacity as a writer is well illustrated by Abu Deeb, who depicts al-Isfahani as "one of the finest writers of Arabic prose in his time, with a remarkable ability to relate widely different types of aḵbār in a rich, lucid, rhythmic, and precise style, only occasionally exploiting such formal effects as saǰʿ (rhyming prose). He was also a fine poet with an opulent imagination. His poetry displays preoccupations similar to those of other urban poets of his time".{{sfn\|Abū Deeb}} His pinpoint documentation of asānīd{{efn\|Al-Isfahani specifies not only his sources (the identities of his informants, or the titles of the written material used by him) but also the methods by which he acquired the reports. Now and then, he mentions the occasions on which he received the given information; see:{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p94–104}}}} and meticulous verification of information,{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p40–46, 60–63, 115–119}}{{sfn\|Sallūm\|1969\|p38–55, 101–118}} provided in all his works, embody a truly scholarly character. Usually, in his treatment of a subject or an event, al-Isfahani lets his sources speak, but, occasionally, he voices his evaluation of poems and songs, as well as their creators.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p46–47,66–69}} When dealing with conflicting reports, al-Isfahani either leaves his readers to decide or issues his judgement as to the most credible account.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p111–119}} Yet, he frankly condemns sources whom he holds to be unreliable, for instance, Ibn Khurdādhbih on musicological information and Ibn al-Kalbī on genealogy.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p112–113}}{{sfn\|Sallūm\|1969\|p85–89}} Indeed, al-Isfahani assesses his source material with a critical eye, while striving to present a more balanced view on his biographies, by focusing on their merits instead of elaborating on their flaws.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p46–47, 68–69, 114–115}}{{sfn\|Jabrī\|1965\|p19–20, 25–26}} That said, al-Isfahani's personal preferences and sectarian partisanship are not absent from his works. In terms of music and songs, al-Isfahani favours Ishaq b. Ibrahim al-Mawsili (772–850). In al-Isfahani's view, Ishaq b. Ibrahim was a multi-talented man, who excelled in a number of subjects, but, most importantly, music.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 5, p. 190}} Ishaq b. Ibrahim, as a collector of the reports about poets and singers, is an important source in his Aghānī.{{sfn\|Fleischhammer\|2004\|p89–91}} Besides being a mine of information, Ishaq b. Ibrahim's terminology for the description of the melodic modes is preferred over that of his opponent, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (779–839), and adopted by al-Isfahani in his Aghani.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 1, p. 15–16}}{{efn\|See also:{{sfn\|Sawa\|2002\|p384–385}}}} Furthermore, al-Isfahani embarked on the compilation of the Aghānī because he was commissioned by his patron to reconstruct the list of the exquisite songs selected by Ishaq.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 1, p. 16}}{{efn\|See the section on al-Iṣfahānī’s works.}} In other words, the raison d’etre of the Aghānī is partly related to al-Isfahani's idol, Ishaq b. Ibrahim, and its information about singers, songs and performance owes a tremendous amount to him.{{sfn\|Su\|2018b\|p275–289}} Al-Isfahani's admiration for scholars or men of letters can be detected from time to time, usually in the passing comments in the chains of transmission.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p111–112}}{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p66–84}} Yet al-Isfahani outspokenly expresses his admiration, in some cases, such as that of Ibn al-Muʿtazz (862–909).{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p175–179}}{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Kitāb al-Aghānī\|refal-Aghānī\|locvol. 10, p. 228–229}}{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p=83–84}} As an Umayyad by ancestry, al-Isfahani's later biographers mention his Shi'i affiliation with surprise.{{efn\|The earliest mention of the Umayyad-Shi'i combination in the biographical sources is perhaps:{{sfn\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p. 340}}{{sfn\|refInbāh\|al-Qifṭī, Inbāh\|locvol. 2, p. 253}} This is then repeated in later sources; see {{sfn\|refSiyar\|al-Dhahabī, Siyar\|p2774}}{{sfn\|refMīzān\|al-Dhahabī, Mīzān\|locvol. 5, p. 151}} {{sfn\|refLisān al-mīzān\|Ibn Ḥajar, Lisān al-mīzān\|locvol. 5, p. 526}}{{sfn\|Ibn al-ʿImād\|1986\|locvol. 4, p. 292}}{{sfn\|refal‑Kāmil\|Ibn Al‑Athīr, al‑Kāmil\|1987\|locvol. 7, p. 302}}}} Yet, in the light of the history of the family's connections with the Abbasid elite of Shi'i inclination and the Ṭālibids, and of his learning experience in Kūfa, his Shi'i conviction is understandable. Al-Tusi (995–1067) is the only early source specifying the exact sect to which al-Isfahani belonged in the fluid Shi'i world: he was a Zaydī.{{sfn\|al-Ṭūsī\|1991\|p192}} Although al-Ṭūsī's view is widely accepted, its veracity is not beyond doubt.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p14–16}}{{sfn\|Günther\|2007\|p}}{{sfn\|Haider\|2011\|p197}}{{sfn\|Haider\|2008\|locp. 459–475}}{{sfn\|Crone\|2005\|p100\|locfootnote 4}} Al-Isfahani does not seem to have been informed of the latest Zaydī movements in Yemen and Ṭabaristān during his life, while his association with the Kūfan Zaydī community, which to some degree became less distinguishable from the Sunnīs, is yet to be studied in depth.{{sfn\|Madelung\|1965\|p223–228}}{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p72–90}} It is clear, based on examination of how al-Isfahani amended the reports at his disposal, that he honoured Ali, who played a far more prominent role in his works than the first three caliphs, and some of his descendants, including Zaydi Shi'ism's eponym, Zayd ibn Ali (694–740), by presenting them positively, while, in some cases, leaving their enemies’ rectitude in question.{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p183–265}} In spite of that, al-Isfahani is neither keen to identify the imams in the past, nor discuss the qualities of an imam.{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p253–260}}{{efn\|The Zaydī writings in the late ninth and early tenth centuries more or less devote discussion to the role and qualities of imam; see, for example: {{sfn\|refMajmūʿ kutub\|al-Qāsim, Majmūʿ kutub\|locvol. 2, p. 169–193}}{{sfn\|refMajmūʿ Rasāʾil\|Yaḥyā, Majmūʿ Rasāʾil\|p431–432}} al-Ḥādī ilā al-Ḥaqq also singled out a line of the Zaydi imams up till his time in his Kitab al-Ahkam''; see:{{sfn\|Strothmann\|1990\|p360}}}} As a matter of fact, he hardly uses the word, not even applying it to Zayd b. Ali.{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p253}} Furthermore, he does not unconditionally approve any Alid revolt and seems lukewarm towards the group he refers to as Zaydis.{{sfn\|Su\|2016\|p87–89}} Taken together, al-Isfahani's Shi'i conviction is better characterised as moderate love for Ali without impugning the dignity of the caliphs before him. Legacy Al-Isfahani authored a number of works, but only a few survive. Three of them are preserved through quotations: al-Qiyan ("The Singing Girls Enslaved by Men"), al-Diyarat ("The Monasteries"), and Mujarrad al-aghani (“The Abridgement of the Book of Songs”).{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p24–25}} A fragment of the Mujarrad al-aghani is found in Ibn Abi Uṣaybi'a's ʿ''Uyun al-anba' fi tabaqat al-atibbaʾ, which quotes a poem by the caliph, al-Maʾmūn (r. 813–833), which was arranged as a song by Mutayyam.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p25}} The first two have been reconstructed and published by al-ʿAtiyya, who collected and collateed the passages from later works that quote from al-Isfahani.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, al-Qiyān\|refal-Qiyān}}{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, al-Diyārāt\|refal-Diyārāt}} The former, al-Qiyān, is a collection of the biographies of the enslaved singing girls. In it, al-Isfahani provided the basic information about the biographical subjects, the men who enslaved them, and their interaction with poets, notables such as caliphs, and their admirers, with illustration of their poetic and/or musical talents. The latter, al-Diyārāt, provides information related to monasteries, with the indication of their geographical locations and, sometimes, history and topographical characteristics. However, it is questionable to what extent the reconstructed editions can represent the original texts, since the passages, which quote al-Isfahani as a source for the given subject and are thus included by the editor, seldom identify the titles of the works.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p25}} Four works survive in manuscripts and have been edited and published: Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn ("The Ṭālibid Martyrs"), Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of the Songs"), Adab al-ghuraba ("The Etiquettes of the Strangers"), and al-Ima al-shawair'' ("The Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry").{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p25}} As noted above, al-Isfahani's authorship of the Adab al-ghurabaʾ is disputed.{{efn\|See the section on Dates}} The author, whoever he may have been, mentions in the preface his sufferings from the hardship of time and vicissitude of fate, and the solace which he seeks through the stories of bygone people.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Adab al-ghurabāʾ\|refal-ghurabā\|p20–21}} Hence, he collects in the Adab al-ghuraba the reports about the experiences of strangers; those away from their homes or their beloved ones. Some of the stories centre on the hardship which strangers, anonymous or not, encountered in their journey or exile, usually shown in the epigrams written on monuments, rocks, or walls. {{efn\|For an example, see: {{sfn\|refal-ghurabā\|al-Iṣfahānī, Adab al-ghurabāʾ\|p25–26, 29–31}}}} Others relate excursions to the monasteries for drinking.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Adab al-ghurabāʾ\|refal-ghurabā\|p=34–36}} The al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir was composed at the order of the vizier al-Muhallabī, al-Isfahani's patron, who demanded the collection of the reports about the enslaved women who composed poetry from the Umayyad to the Abbasid periods.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, al-Imāʿ al-shawāʿir\|refal-shawāʿir\|p23}} Al-Isfahani confesses that he could not find any noteworthy poetess in the Umayyad period, because the people at that time were not impressed with verses featuring tenderness and softness. Thus, he only records the Abbasid poetesses, with mention of the relevant fine verses or the pleasant tales, and arranges them in chronological order.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, al-Imāʿ al-shawāʿir\|refal-shawāʿir\|p23}} There are 31 sections, addressing 32 poetesses, most of which are short and usually begin with al-Isfahani's summary of the subject.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p=26}} The Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn is a historical-biographical compilation concerning the descendants of Abu Talib, who died by being killed, poisoned to death in a treacherous way, on the run from the rulers’ persecution, or confined until death.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Maqātil\|refMaqātil\|p24}}{{sfn\|Bahramian\|1992\|p734–735}} The Maqātil literature was rather common, particularly amongst Shi'is, before al-Isfahani and he used many works of this genre as sources for the Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn.{{sfn\|Günther\|1994\|p200–205}} Al-Isfahani does not explain the motivation behind this compilation nor mention to whom they were dedicated, but according to the preface of this work, he sets out as a condition to recount the reports about the Ṭālibids who were “praiseworthy in their conduct and rightly guided in their belief (maḥmūd al-ṭarīqa wa-sadīd al-madhhab)”.{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Maqātil\|refMaqātil\|p24–25}} Like the al-Imāʾ, the work is structured in chronological order, beginning with the first Ṭālibī martyr, Jaʿfar b. Abī Ṭālib, and ends in the year of its compilation, August 925 (Jumādā I 313).{{sfn\|al-Iṣfahānī, Maqātil\|refMaqātil\|p24–25, 565}} For each biographical entry, al-Isfahani gives the full name, the lineage (sometimes adding the maternal side). Less often, he additionally gives the virtues and personal traits of the subject and other material he thinks noteworthy, for example the prophetic ḥadīth about, or transmitted by, the subject of the biography in question. Then, al-Isfahani gives the account of the death which, more often than not, constitutes the end of the entry. Sometimes poetry for or by the subject is attached.{{sfn\|Günther\|1994\|p205–206}}{{sfn\|Bahramian\|1992\|p734–735}} The Maqātil was used as a reliable source of information by many Shi'i and non-Shi'i compilers of the following centuries.{{sfn\|Bahramian\|1992\|p734–735}}{{sfn\|Günther\|2007\|p}} The Kitab al-Aghani, al-Isfahanis best known work, is an immense compilation, including songs provided with musical indications (melodic modes and meters of songs), the biographies of poets and musicians of different periods in addition to historical material. As noted above, al-Isfahani embarks on compiling the Aghani first under the command of a patron, whom he calls ''ra'is'' (chief), to reconstruct the list of one hundred fine songs, selected by Ishaq b. Ibrahim.{{efn\|See the section on Personalities, preferences and beliefs.}} Due to an obscure report in Yaqut's ''Mu'jam, this raʾīs is often assumed to be Sayf al-Dawla al-Ḥamdānī (r. 945–967),{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p101, 105–110}}{{efn\|The misconception that al-Isfahani gave his Aghani to Sayf al-Dawla came from a misreading of the text in Muʿjam al-udabāʾ; the original initially mentioned that Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn b. Ali al-Maghribi made an abridgement of the Aghani and gave it to Sayf al-Dawla Abu al-Hasan Sadaqa Fakhr al-Din b. Baha al-Dawla, whom Yaqut mistook for the Hamdanid, Sayf al-Dawla. This account is then followed by a comment from al-Ṣāḥib b. ʿAbbād and a dialogue between al-Muhallabī and al-Isfahani and then returns to the words of Abu al-Qasim, who states that he only made one copy of this work in his life and that that is the one given to Sayf al-Dawla. See also:{{sfn\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|al-Hamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ\|locvol. 13, p. 97–98}} Although Khalafallah admits that his reading is conjectural, he rightly points out the obscurities in this text.}} but recent studies suggest that a more plausible candidate for the dedication of the Aghani is the vizier al-Muhallabī.{{sfn\|Khalafallāh\|1962\|p101–110}}{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p=19–20}} The Aghani is divided into three parts: first, The Hundred Songs (al-mi'a al-ṣawt al-mukhtara) and other song collections; second, the songs of the caliphs and of their children and grandchildren (aghani al-khulafa wa-awladihim wa-awlad awladihim); and third, al-Isfahanis selection of songs. The articles in each part are arranged based on different patterns, but it is mostly the song which introduces the articles on biographies or events.{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p259–267}} The Kitab al-Aghani'' is not the first book or collection of songs in Arabic, but it can be asserted that it is the most important one, for it "is a unique mine of information not only on hundreds of song texts with their modes and meters, but also on the lives of their poets and composers, and on the social context of music making in early Islam and at the courts of the caliphs in Damascus and Baghdad".{{sfn\|Sawa\|2002\|p399}} Because of al-Isfahani's pedantic documentation of his sources, the Kitab al-Aghani can also be used to reconstruct earlier books of songs or biographical dictionaries on musicians that are otherwise lost.{{sfn\|Sawa\|2002\|p=399}} As for the works that did not survive, based on their contents, as implied by their titles, they can be divided into the following categories:{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p=23–24}} The genealogical works: Nasab Bani Abd Shams ("The Genealogy of the Banu Abd Shams"), Jamharat al-nasab ("The Compendium of Genealogies"), Nasab Bani Shayban ("The Genealogy of the Banu Shayban"), and Nasab al-Mahaliba ("The Genealogy of the Muhallabids"), this last probably dedicated to his patron, the vizier al-Muhallabi. The reports about specified or unspecified topics, such as Kitab al-Khammarin wa-l-khammarat ("The Book of Tavern-Keepers, Male and Female"), Akhbar al-tufayliyin ("Reports about Party Crashers"), al-Akhbar wa-l-nawadir ("The Reports and Rare Tales"), and Ayyam al-arab ("The Battle-Days of the Arabs"), which mentions 1700 days of the pre-Islamic tribal battles and was in circulation only in Andalusia.{{efn\|This and the Nasab Abd Shams seem to have been only available in the Iberian Peninsula; see:{{sfn\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|locvol. 13, p.338}}}} The reports about music, musicians and singers: the aforementioned Manajib al-khisyan ("The Noble Eunuchs"), Akhbzr Jahza al-Barmaki ("The Reports concerning Jahza al-Barmaki"), ''al-Mamalik al-shu'ara ("The Slave Poets"), Adab al-samz ("The Etiquettes of Listening to Music"), and Risala fi 'ilal al-nagham ("The Treatise on the Rules of Tones"). There are two works, only mentioned by al-Tusi: Kitab ma nazala min al-Qur'an fi amir al-mu'minīn wa-ahl baytih 'alayhim al-salam'' ("The Book about the Qur'anic Verses Revealed regarding the Commander of the Faithful and the People of His Family, Peace upon Them") and Kitab fihi kalam Fatima alayha al-salam fi Fadak ("The Book concerning the Statements of Fāṭima, Peace upon Her, regarding Fadak").{{sfn\|Kilpatrick\|2003\|p23}} Should the attribution of these two works to al-Isfahani be correct, together with the Maqatil al-Talibiyin, they reveal al-Isfahani's Shi'i partisanship.WorksAl-Isfahani is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), an encyclopaedia of over 20 volumes and editions. However, he additionally wrote poetry, an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work.<ref name"eb" /> Kitāb al-Aġānī ({{lang\|ar\|كتاب الأغاني}}) 'Book of Songs', a collection of Arabic chants rich in information on Arab and Persian poets, singers and other musicians from the 7th to the 10th centuries of major cities such as Mecca, Damascus, Isfahan, Rey, Baghdād and Baṣrah. The Book of Songs contains details of the ancient Arab tribes and courtly life of the Umayyads and provides a complete overview of the Arab civilization from the pre-Islamic Jahiliyya era, up to his own time.<!--{{sfn\|Al-A'zami\|p192}}--><ref>Chambers Biographical Dictionary, {{ISBN\|0-550-18022-2}}, page 5</ref> Abu ‘l-Faraj employs the classical Arabic genealogical device, or isnad, (chain of transmission), to relate the biographical accounts of the authors and composers.<!--{{sfn\|Al-A'zami\|p192}}-->{{citation needed\|date=August 2021}} Although originally the poems were put to music, the musical signs are no longer legible. Abu ‘l-Faraj spent in total 50 years creating this work, which remains an important historical source. The first printed edition, published in 1868, contained 20 volumes. In 1888 Rudolf Ernst Brünnow published a 21st volume being a collection of biographies not contained in the Bulāq edition, edited from manuscripts in the Royal Library of Munich.{{sfn\|al-Isfahani\|1888}} Maqātil aṭ-Ṭālibīyīn ({{lang\|ar\|مقاتل الطالبيين}}), Tālibid Fights, a collection of more than 200 biographies of the descendants of Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, from the time of Muhammad to the writing of the book in 925/6, who died in an unnatural way.{{sfn\|Günther\|2007\|p13}} As Abul-Faraj said in the foreword to his work, he included only those Tālibids who rebelled against the government and were killed, slaughtered, executed or poisoned, lived underground, fled or died in captivity. {{sfn\|Günther\|2007\|p14}} The work is a major source for the Umayyad and Abbāsid Alid uprisings and the main source for the Hashimite meeting that took place after the assassination of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walīd II in the village of al-Abwā' between Mecca and Medina. At this meeting, al-'Abdallah made the Hashimites pledge an oath of allegiance to his son Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya as the new Mahdi. {{sfn\|Nagel\|1970\|pp=258–262}} ''Kitāb al-Imā'āš-šawā'ir'' ({{lang\|ar\|كتاب الإماء الشواعر}}) 'The Book of the Poet-slaves', a collection of accounts of poetic slaves of the Abbasid period. See also List of Arab scientists and scholars List of Iranian scientists and scholars Notes <references group"lower-alpha" responsive"1"></references> {{notelist}} References {{Academic peer reviewed\|QQ99527624\|doi-accessfree}} {{reflist}} Works cited {{Cite book\|languagear\|firstAḥmad\|lastAmīn\|titleẒuhr al-Islām\|locationCairo\|publisherSharikat Nawābigh al-Fikr\|date=2009}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|firstḤusayn\|lastʿĀṣī\|titleAbū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya\|date=1993}} {{cite book\|languagear\|lastal-Aṣmaʿī\|firstMuḥammad ʿA.\|titleAbū al-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī wa-kitābuhu al-Aghānī: dirāsa wa-taḥlīl li-azhā al-ʿuṣūr al-islāmiyya\|locationCairo\|publisherDār al-Maʿārif\|date=1951}} {{Cite book\|refal‑Kāmil\|languagear\|lastIbn al‑Athīr\|titleal‑Kāmil fī al-tārīkh\|editor-firstMuḥammad Y.\|editor-lastal-Daqqāq\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya\|date=1987}} {{Cite book\|lastAzarnoosh\|firstAzartash\|editor1-firstWilferd\|editor1-lastMadelung\|editor2-firstFarhad\|editor2-lastDaftary\|date1992\|titleEncyclopaedia Islamica\|edition1\|issn1875-9823\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=225873940 \|chapter'Abū al-Faraj\|doi10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0059\|chapter-url=http://doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0059}} {{Cite book\|lastBahramian\|firstAli\|editor1-firstWilferd\|editor1-lastMadelung\|editor2-firstFarhad\|editor2-lastDaftary\|date1992\|titleEncyclopaedia Islamica\|edition1\|issn1875-9823\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=225873940 \|chapter=Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastBosworth\|firstClifford E.\|chapteral-Ṭabarī\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1133\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1133\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|last1Bosworth\|first1Clifford E.\|last2Marín\|first2Manuela\|last3Smith\|first3G.R.\|chapterṬāhirids\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1152\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1152\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite journal\|lastBrown\|firstJonathan\|date2008\|titleCrossing Sectarian Boundaries in the 4th/10th Century: Ibn 'Uqda, a Man for All Seasons,'\|urlhttp://opac.regesta-imperii.de/id/2414790\|journalAl-Usur Al-Wusta\|volume20\|issue2\|pages=55–58}} {{citation\|firstAbu’l Faraj\|lastal-Isfahani\|editor-linkRudolf Ernst Brünnow\|editor-lastBrünnow\|editor-firstRudolf-Ernst\|titleThe Twenty-First Volume of Kitāb al-Aġānī; a Collection of Biographies not contained in the edition of Bulāq, Edited from Manuscripts in the Royal Library of Munich \| publisherLidin Matba' Bril\| placeToronto\| year1888\| urlhttps://archive.org/details/aljuzalhadiwaali00abuauoft}} {{Cite book\|firstPatricia\|lastCrone\|titleMedieval Islamic Political Thought\|locationEdinburgh\|publisherEdinburgh University Press\|date2005}} {{Cite book\|first1Patricia\|last1Crone\|first2Shmuel\|last2Moreh\|title"The Authorship of the Ghurabāʾ" in The Book of Stranger: Medieval Arabic Graffiti on the Theme of Nostalgia, by al-Iṣfahānī\|locationPrinceton\|publisherMarkus Wiener Publishers\|date2000}} {{Cite book\|lastAbū Deeb\|firstK\|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-faraj-esfahani-ali-b\|chapterAbū’l-Faraj Eṣfahānī\|titleEncyclopaedia Iranica\|editiononline\|access-date=2019-07-23}} {{cite book\|refMīzān\|languagear\|lastal-Dhahabī\|firstMuḥammad b. Aḥmad\|date1995\|titleMīzān al-iʿtidāl fī naqd al-rijāl\|editor-lastMuʿawwaḍ\|editor-firstʿAlī M.\|editor2-lastʿAbd al-Mawjūd\|editor2-firstʿĀdil A.\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya}} {{cite book\|refSiyar\|languagear\|lastal-Dhahabī\|firstMuḥammad b. Aḥmad\|date2004\|titleSiyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ\|editor-lastʿAbd al-Mannān\|editor-firstḤassān\|locationBeirut\|publisherBayt al-Afkār al-Dawliyya\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962974446\|oclc962974446}} {{Cite book\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/962853051\|titleTheology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra : a History of Religious Thought in Early Islam\|lastvan Ess\|firstJosef \|publisherBrill\|translator-lastO’Kane\|translator-firstJohn\|year2017\|isbn978-90-04-32317-9\|locationLeiden\|doi10.1163/9789004323384\|oclc962853051}} {{Cite book\|languagede\|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/57010704\|titleDie Quellen des "Kitāb al-Aġānī"\|lastFleischhammer\|firstManfred\|date2004\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|isbn9783447050791\|oclc=57010704}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastFleischhammer\|firstManfred\|chapterMunad̲j̲d̲j̲im\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5501\|chapter-urlhttps://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5501\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite book\|languagede\|firstSebastian\|lastGünther\|titleQuellenuntersuchungen zu den "Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn" des Abū-l-Farağ al-Iṣfahānī (gest. 356/967): Ein Beitrag zur Problematik der mündlichen und schriftlichen Überlieferung in der mittelalterlichen arabischen Literatur\|locationHildesheim\|publisherGeorg Olms Verlag\|date1991\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27707486\|oclc27707486\|isbn9783487094298}} {{Cite journal\|lastGünther\|firstSebastian\|date1994\|titleMaqâtil Literature in Medieval Islam\|urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/157006494x00103\|journalJournal of Arabic Literature\|volume25\|issue3\|pages192–212\|doi10.1163/157006494x00103\|issn=0085-2376}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstGudrun\|editor1-lastKrämer\|editor2-firstDenis\|editor2-lastMatringe\|editor3-firstJohn\|editor3-lastNawas\|editor4-firstEverett\|editor4-lastRowson\|date2007\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition3\|issn1873-9830\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc145927975 \|lastGünther\|firstSebastian\|chapterAbū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī\|journalThe Encyclopaedia of Islam Three\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0105\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0105\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite journal\|lastHaider\|firstNajam\|date2008\|titleThe Community Divided: A Textual Analysis of the Murders of Idrīs b. ʿAbd Allāh (d. 175/791)\|urlhttps://philpapers.org/rec/HAITCD\|journalJournal of the American Oriental Society\|volume128\|issue3\|pages=459–475}} {{Cite book\|date2011\|urlhttp://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511862618.002\|titleThe Origin of the Shīʿa: Identity, Ritual, and Sacred Space in Eighth-Century Kūfa\|lastHaider\|firstNajam\|isbn9780511862618\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511862618.002}} {{cite book\|refMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|languagear\|firstYāqūt\|lastal-Ḥamawī\|titleMuʿjam al-udabāʾ\|editor-firstAḥmad F.\|editor-lastRifāʿī \|locationCairo\|publisherMaṭbūʿāt al-Maʾmūn\|date1922\|oclc15154883\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/waq45344}} {{Cite book\|refLisān al-mīzān\|languagear\|lastIbn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī\|titleLisān al-mīzān\|editor-firstʿAbd al-Fattāḥ \|editor-lastAbū Ghadda\|editor2-firstSulaymān ʿA.\|editor2-lastAbū Ghadda\|locationBeirut\|publisherMaktabat al-Muṭbūʿāt al-Islāmiyya\|date=2002}} {{cite book\|refJamharat\|languagear\|lastIbn Hazm\|firstʿAlī b. Aḥmad\|date1962\|titleJamharat ansāb al-ʿarab\|editor-lastHārūn\|editor-firstʿAbd al-Salām M. ʿA.\|edition5\|locationCairo\|publisherDār al-Maʿārif\|oclc652121877}} {{Cite book\|firstRobert G\|lastHoyland\|chapterHistory, Fiction and Authorship in the First Centuries of Islam\|titleWriting and Representation in Medieval Islam: Muslim Horizons\|editor-firstJulia\|editor-lastBray\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge\|date=2006}} {{Cite book\|refMajmūʿ Rasāʾil\|languagear\|lastb. al-Ḥusayn al-Ḥādī ilā al-Ḥaqq\|firstYaḥyā\|titleMajmūʿ Rasāʾil al-Imām al-Hādī ilā al-Ḥaqq al-Qawīm Yaḥyā b. al-Ḥusayn b. al-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm\|editor-firstʿAbdallāh M.\|editor-lastal-Shādhilī\|locationṢaʿda\|publisherMuʾassasat al-Imām Zayd b. ʿAlī al-Thaqāfiyya\|date2001}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|lastIbn al-ʿImād\|titleShadharāt al-dhahab fī akhbār man dhahaba\|editor-firstʿAbd al-Qādir \|editor-lastal-Arnāʾūṭ \|editor2-firstMaḥmūd \|editor2-lastal-Arnāʾūṭ\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār Ibn Kathīr\|date1986}} {{cite book\|refal-ghurabā\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleAdab al-ghurabāʾ\|editor-lastal-Munajjid\|editor-firstṢalāḥ al-Dīn\|edition2\|publisherDār al-Kitāb al-Jadīd\|locationBeirut\|year1972\|oclc976619435}} {{cite book\|refal-shawāʿir\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleal-Imāʿ al-shawāʿir\|editor-lastal-ʿAṭiyya\|editor-firstJalīl\|edition2\|publisherDār al-Niḍāl\|locationBeirut\|year1984\|oclc957353410}} {{cite book\|refal-Qiyān\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleal-Qiyān\|editor-lastal-ʿAṭiyya\|editor-firstJalīl\|publisherRiad El-Rayyes\|locationLondon\|year1989}} {{cite book\|refMaqātil\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleMaqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn\|editor-lastṢaqr\|editor-firstAḥmad\|edition2\|publisherManshūrāt al-Sharīf al-Raḍī\|locationQom\|year1991\|oclc54095298}} {{cite book\|refal-Diyārāt\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleal-Diyārāt\|editor-lastal-ʿAṭiyya\|editor-firstJalīl\|publisherRiad El-Rayyes\|locationLondon\|year1991}} {{cite book\|refal-Aghānī\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū al-Faraj\|titleKitāb al-Aghānī\|editor-lastal-Baqāʿī\|editor-firstYūsuf\|editor2-lastal-Shaykh\|editor2-firstGharīd \|edition2\|publisherMuʾassasat al-Aʿlamī\|locationBeirut\|year=2000}} {{cite book\|refAkhbār\|languagear\|lastal-Iṣfahānī\|firstAbū Nuʿaym\|titleAkhbār Aṣbahān\|editor-firstSayyid Kasrawī\|editor-lastḤasan\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kitāb al-Islāmī\|date1990\|oclc=903519445}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|date1965\|titleAbū al-Faraj al-Aṣbahānī\|firstShafīq\|lastJabrī\|locationCairo\|publisherDār al-Maʿārif\|oclc976576024}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|date1962\|titleṢāḥib al-Aghānī: Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī al-Rāwiya\|lastKhalafallāh\|firstMuḥammad A.\|edition2\|locationCairo\|publisherMaktabat al-Anjalū al-Miṣriyya\|oclc=22143620}} {{cite book\|refWafayāt\|languagear\|lastIbn Khallikān\|firstAḥmad b. Muḥammad\|titleWafayāt al-aʿyān wa-anbāʾ abnāʾ al-zamān\|editor-firstIḥsān \|editor-lastʿAbbās \|locationBeirut\|publisherDār Ṣādir\|date1972}} {{cite book\|refTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|languagear\|date2001\|lastal-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī\|titleTārīkh Madīnat al-Salām\|editor-lastMaʿrūf\|editor-firstBashshār ʿA.\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Gharb al-Islāmī\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/tabazm\|oclc=15747200}} {{Cite book\|firstHilary\|lastKilpatrick\|chapterOn the Difficulty of Knowing Mediaeval Arabic Authors: The Case of Abū l-Faraj and Pseudo-Iṣfahānī\|titleIslamic Reflections, Arabic Musings. Studies in Honour of Professor Alan Jones from His Students\|editor-firstRobert G.\|editor-lastHoyland\|locationOxford\|publisherGibb Memorial Trust\|date=2004}} {{Cite book\|languagefr\|firstHilary\|lastKilpatrick\|chapterThe Kitāb adab al-ghurabāʾ of Abū l-Farağ al-Iṣbahānī\|titleLa signification du bas Moyen Age dans l'histoire et la culture du monde musulman. Actes du 8me Congrès de l'Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants Aix-en-Provence 1976\|date1978\|locationAix-en-Provence\|publisherÉdisud}} {{Cite book\|lastKilpatrick \|firstHilary \|date2003 \|titleMaking the Great Book of Songs: Compilation and the Author's Craft in Abū l-Faraj al-Iṣbahānī's Kitāb al-Aghānī\|publisherRoutledge \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50810677\|isbn9780700717019\|oclc=50810677}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastLeder\|firstStefan\|chapteral-Ṣūlī\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7177\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7177\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{cite book\|languagede\|firstWilferd\|lastMadelung\|titleDer Imam al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm und die Glaubenslehre der Zaiditen\|locationBerlin\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|date=1965}} {{Cite book\|titleMuqaddima of Kitāb adab al-ghurabāʾ, by Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī\|languagear\|firstSalāḥ al-Dīn\|lastal-Munajjid\|editor-lastal-Munajjid\|editor-firstṢalāḥ al-Dīn\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kitāb al-Jadīd\|date=1972}} {{Cite book\|refal-Fihrist\|languagear\|date1988\|titleal-Fihrist\|lastIbn al-Nadīm\|editor-firstRiḍā\|editor-lastTajaddud\|locationTehran\|publisherDār al-Masīra\|oclc37734135}} {{cite journal\|author-linkTilman Nagel\|lastNagel\|firstTilman\|titleEin früher Bericht über den Aufstand von Muḥammad b. ʿAbdallāh im Jahr 145 h\| seriesDer Islam\|edition46\|year1970\|languagede}} {{Cite journal\|last1Nezhad\|first1Golnoush S. M.\|last2Dalfardi\|first2Behnam\|last3Ghanizadeh\|first3Ahmad\|last4Golzari\|first4Samad E. J.\|date2015\|titleInsights into Avicenna's Knowledge of Gastrointestinal Medicine and His Account of An Enema Device\|urlhttps://hrcak.srce.hr/152936\|journalActa medico-historica Adriatica\|volume13\|issue2\|pages29–40\|issn1334-4366 \|ref={{sfnRef\|Nezhad et al\|2015}} }} {{Cite book\|refMajmūʿ kutub\|languagear\|lastal-Rassī\|firstal-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm\|titleMajmūʿ kutub wa-rasāʾil li-l-Imām al-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm al-Rassī\|editor-firstʿAbd al-Karīm A. \|editor-lastJadabān\|locationSana’a\|publisherDār al-Ḥikma al-Yamāniyya\|date2001}} {{cite book\|refInbāh\|languagear\|lastal-Qifṭī\|firstʿAlī b. Yūsuf\|titleInbāh al-ruwāt ʿalā anbāh al-nuḥāt\|editor-last Ibrāhīm \|editor-firstMuḥammad A.\|locationCairo\|publisherDār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī\|date1986}} {{Cite book\|languagede\|firstGernot\|lastRotter\|titleUnd der Kalif beschenkte ihn reichlich: Auszüge aus dem Buch der Lieder\|publisherHorst Erdmann Verlag\|locationTübingen\|date= 1977}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|lastSallūm\|firstDāwūd\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20657313\|titleDirāsat Kitāb al-Aghānī wa-minhaj muʾallifihi\|date1969\|publisherʿĀlam al-Kutub\|locationBaghdad\|oclc=20657313}} {{Cite book\|lastSawa\|firstGeorge D.\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18637666\|date1989\|titleMusic Performance Practice in the Early Abbasid era 132–320 AH/750–932 AD\|publisherPontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies\|isbn0-88844-092-8\|locationToronto\|oclc=18637666}} {{Cite book\|lastSawa\|firstGeorge D.\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36407898\|titleThe Garland Encyclopedia of World Music \|editor1-firstVirginia \|editor1-lastDanielson\|editor2-firstScott \|editor2-lastMarcus\|editor3-firstDwight \|editor3-lastReynolds\|isbn0824060350\|locationNew York\|oclc36407898\|date2002\|chapter=The Kitāb al-aghānī}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastSellheim\|firstRudolf\|chapteral-Yazīdī\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_1365\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_1365\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastStern\|firstS.M.\|chapterAbū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_sim_0202\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_sim_0202\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite journal\|languagede\|lastStrothmann\|firstRudolf\|date1990\|titleDie Literatur der Zaiditen.\|pages354–368\|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/view/j/islm.1910.1.issue-3-4/islm.1910.1.3-4.354/islm.1910.1.3-4.354.xml\|journalDer Islam\|volume1\|issue3–4\|doi10.1515/islm.1910.1.3-4.354\|s2cid202160694\|issn=0021-1818}} {{Cite thesis\|urlhttps://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/25958\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191016001059/https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/25958\|archive-date2019-10-16\|title''The Shīʿī Past in Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī's Kitāb al-Aghānī: A Literary and Historical Analysis''\|lastSu\|firstI-Wen\|date2016\|publisherUniversity of Edinburgh\|hdl1842/25958\|access-date2020-09-26\|url-status=bot: unknown}} {{Cite journal\|lastSu\|firstI-Wen\|date2018a\|titleThe Family History of Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī: the Ninth-Century ʿAbbasid Political Elite and the Ṭālibids in Samarra\|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/jis/article/29/3/417/4837133\|journalJournal of Islamic Studies\|volume29\|issue3\|pages417–448\|doi10.1093/jis/ety001\|issn=0955-2340}} {{Cite journal\|firstI-Wen\|lastSu\|date2018b\|titleal-Iṣfahānī's Fandom in the Kitāb al-Aġānī (The Book of Songs): An Analysis of the Biography of Ibn Surayǧ\|urlhttp://ejournals.ukm.my/jhadhari/article/view/28742\|journalJurnal Hadhari\|volume10\|issue2\|pages275–289\|issn1985-6830}} {{cite book\|refal-Faraj\|languagear\|lastal-Tanūkhī\|firstAbū ʿAlī al-Muḥassin\|titleal-Faraj baʿda al-shidda\|editor-firstʿAbbūd\|editor-lastal-Shālijī\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār Ṣādir\|date1978\|oclc=12104833}} {{cite book\|refNishwār\|languagear\|lastal-Tanūkhī\|firstAbū ʿAlī al-Muḥassin\|titleNishwār al-muḥāḍara wa-akhbār al-mudhākara\|editor-firstʿAbbūd\|editor-lastal-Shālijī\|edition2\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār Ṣādir\|date1995\|oclc22693866}} {{Cite book\|refAkhlāq al‑wazīrayn\|languagear\|firstAbū Ḥayyān\|lastal-Tawḥīdī\|titleAkhlāq al‑wazīrayn\|editor1-firstMuḥammad T. \|editor1-lastal-Ṭanjī\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār Ṣādir\|date 1992}} {{Cite book\|refYatīmat\|languagear\|lastal-Thaʿālibī\|titleYatīmat al-dahr fī maḥāsin ahl al-ʿaṣr\|editor1-firstMufīd M. \|editor1-lastQamīḥa\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya\|date=1983}} {{cite book\|languagear\|lastal-Ṭūsī\|titleal-Fihrist\|year1991\|editor-lastṢādiq \|editor-firstMuḥammad\|publisherManshūrāt al-Sharīf al-Raḍī\|locationQom}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastVadet\|firstJean-Claude\|chapterIbn Ḥamdūn\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3187\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3187\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite book\|editor1-firstPeri\|editor1-lastBearman\|editor2-firstThierry\|editor2-lastBianquis\|editor3-firstClifford\|editor3-lastBosworth\|editor4-firstWolfhart\|editor4-lastvan Donzel\|editor5-lastHeinrichs\|date2012\|titleEncyclopaedia of Islam\|edition2\|issn2214-9945\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2\|publisherBrill\|locationLeiden\|oclc=846873166 \|lastZetterstéen\|first Karl V.\|chapterMuḥammad b. Ṭāhir\|journalEncyclopedia of Islam New Edition Online\|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5367\|chapter-urlhttp://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5367\|access-date=2018-07-24}} {{Cite book\|languagear\|firstKhayr al-Dīn\|lastal-Ziriklī\|titleal-Aʿlām\|locationBeirut\|publisherDār al-ʿIlm li-l-Malāyīn\|date= 2002}} {{Arabic literature}} {{Medieval Perso-Arab music}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Faraj Al-Isfahani, Abu Al-}} Category:897 births Category:967 deaths Category:10th-century Arabic-language writers Category:10th-century biographers Category:10th-century historians from the Abbasid Caliphate Category:Arab historians Category:10th-century Arabic-language poets Category:Encyclopedists of the medieval Islamic world Category:Iraqi genealogists Category:Writers from Isfahan Category:Poets from the Abbasid Caliphate Category:People from the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo Category:Sayf al-Dawla Category:Zaydis Category:Umayyad dynasty Category:Musicians from the Abbasid Caliphate Category:Buyid-period poets Category:Historians under the Buyid dynasty Category:10th-century Shia Muslims Category:Iranian Arabic-language poets Category:Poets of the medieval Islamic world	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani	2025-04-05T18:26:15.779333
3043	Alcobaça, Portugal	{{Infobox Portuguese subdivision \| official_name = Alcobaça \| type = municipality \| image_skyline = Alcobaça BW 2018-10-05 12-13-54.jpg \| image_caption \| image_flag Pt-acb3.png \| image_shield = ACB1.png \| image_map = LocalAlcobaca.svg \|coordinates {{coord\|39\|33\|10\|N\|8\|58\|40\|W\|type:adm1st_region:PT_dim:100000\|displayinline,title}} \|region = Oeste e Vale do Tejo \|CIM = Oeste \|district = Leiria \| leader_party = PSD \| leader_name = Hermínio Rodrigues \| area_total_km2 = 408.14 \| elevation_m = 42 \|population_total = 53649 \|population_as_of = 2011 \| postal_code = 2460, 2461, 2475 \| area_code \| parishes 13 \| patron = Saint Bernard \| holiday = 20 August \| website = {{URL\|http://www.cm-alcobaca.pt/}} }} Alcobaça ({{IPA\|pt\|alkuˈβasɐ\|-\|Pt-pt Alcobaça FF.ogg}}) is a Portuguese city and municipality in the intermunicipal community Oeste and the region Oeste e Vale do Tejo,<ref>[https://omirante.pt/sociedade/2023-02-06-Uniao-Europeia-aprova-nova-regiao-do-Oeste-e-Vale-do-Tejo-1922470e União Europeia aprova nova região do Oeste e Vale do Tejo], O Mirante, 6 February 2023.</ref> in the historical province of Estremadura, and in the Leiria District. The city grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça, from which it derives its name. The municipality population in 2011 was 56,693,<ref nameine>[http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xlangen&xpidINE&xpgidine_indicadores&indOcorrCod0005889&contextopi&selTabtab0 Instituto Nacional de Estatística]</ref> in an area of {{convert\|408.14\|km2\|mi2}}.<ref namedgt>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.dgterritorio.pt/cartografia_e_geodesia/cartografia/carta_administrativa_oficial_de_portugal_caop_/caop__download_/carta_administrativa_oficial_de_portugal___versao_2017__em_vigor_/ \|titleÁreas das freguesias, concelhos, distritos e país \|access-date2018-11-05 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181105172426/http://www.dgterritorio.pt/cartografia_e_geodesia/cartografia/carta_administrativa_oficial_de_portugal_caop_/caop__download_/carta_administrativa_oficial_de_portugal___versao_2017__em_vigor_/ \|archive-date2018-11-05 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The city proper has a population of 15,800 inhabitants.<ref>[http://codigopostal.ciberforma.pt/cidades/cidade.asp?cid=6 Mail post reference of Portugal]</ref> The city of Alcobaça became notable after the first king of Portugal, Afonso Henriques, decided to build a church to commemorate the Conquest of Santarém from the Moors in 1147. The church later evolved into the Monastery of Alcobaça, one of the most magnificent Gothic monuments in the country. In the church are the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Over the centuries this monastery played an important role in shaping Portuguese culture. A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is the Monastery of Batalha, another Gothic building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota. To the west of Alcobaça is the fishing village of Nazaré, now a popular resort town. To the south is the city of Caldas da Rainha and the medieval town of Óbidos. To the northeast is the town of Porto de Mós with its rebuilt castle. History Alcobaça became notable in the 12th century, when it was chosen as the future site of Portugal's largest church. In March 1147, the young King Dom Afonso Henriques defeated the Moors by capturing the city of Santarém. As a tribute to his victory, he vowed to build a magnificent home for the Order of Cistercians. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The monarchy continued to carry out further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister. The monastery was consecrated in 1262. The church contains the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Pedro had married Constanza, the Infanta (princess) of Castile, but escaped with his mistress Inês and later lived in the city of Coimbra. His father, King Afonso IV, believing that the family of Inês was a threat to his kingdom, had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father, Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, and took a gruesome revenge on the killers and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at the court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on Judgment Day his first sight would be of Inês. During the following centuries, the monks from this monastery had a major influence on the development of Portuguese culture. Notably, in 1269 they were the first to give public lessons to their congregation, and later they produced the first authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In 1810, the invading French pillaged the abbey, taking with them most of its most important treasures, including the noteworthy library. The items that remained were later stolen in 1834 during an anti-clerical riot and the banning of religious orders in Portugal. Climate Alcobaça has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen:Csb) with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. {{Weather box \|location = Alcobaça, Portugal, 1981–2010 \|metric first = yes \|single line = yes \|width = auto \|Jan record high C = 23.7 \|Feb record high C = 25.0 \|Mar record high C = 29.8 \|Apr record high C = 33.0 \|May record high C = 35.3 \|Jun record high C = 40.8 \|Jul record high C = 40.0 \|Aug record high C = 41.0 \|Sep record high C = 39.4 \|Oct record high C = 33.0 \|Nov record high C = 27.9 \|Dec record high C = 24.0 \|year record high C \|Jan high C 15.2 \|Feb high C = 16.1 \|Mar high C = 18.6 \|Apr high C = 19.2 \|May high C = 21.3 \|Jun high C = 24.4 \|Jul high C = 26.0 \|Aug high C = 26.6 \|Sep high C = 25.6 \|Oct high C = 22.3 \|Nov high C = 18.3 \|Dec high C = 15.8 \|year high C \|Jan mean C 8.4 \|Feb mean C = 9.5 \|Mar mean C = 11.6 \|Apr mean C = 12.7 \|May mean C = 14.8 \|Jun mean C = 17.9 \|Jul mean C = 19.6 \|Aug mean C = 19.8 \|Sep mean C = 18.5 \|Oct mean C = 15.4 \|Nov mean C = 11.7 \|Dec mean C = 9.7 \|year mean C \|Jan low C 4.0 \|Feb low C = 4.9 \|Mar low C = 6.7 \|Apr low C = 8.1 \|May low C = 10.2 \|Jun low C = 13.1 \|Jul low C = 14.7 \|Aug low C = 14.6 \|Sep low C = 13.0 \|Oct low C = 10.4 \|Nov low C = 7.2 \|Dec low C = 5.6 \|year low C \|Jan record low C -5.9 \|Feb record low C = -5.7 \|Mar record low C = -5.2 \|Apr record low C = -0.5 \|May record low C = 1.0 \|Jun record low C = 4.7 \|Jul record low C = 6.1 \|Aug record low C = 5.5 \|Sep record low C = 3.5 \|Oct record low C = 0.2 \|Nov record low C = -5.6 \|Dec record low C = -5.8 \|year record low C \|precipitation colour green \|Jan precipitation mm = 107.1 \|Feb precipitation mm = 82.9 \|Mar precipitation mm = 59.9 \|Apr precipitation mm = 80.7 \|May precipitation mm = 59.6 \|Jun precipitation mm = 22.7 \|Jul precipitation mm = 8.9 \|Aug precipitation mm = 12.4 \|Sep precipitation mm = 40.3 \|Oct precipitation mm = 104.3 \|Nov precipitation mm = 122.0 \|Dec precipitation mm = 118.5 \|year precipitation mm \|unit precipitation days 1 mm \|Jan precipitation days = 11.0 \|Feb precipitation days = 9.4 \|Mar precipitation days = 7.8 \|Apr precipitation days = 10.3 \|May precipitation days = 8.1 \|Jun precipitation days = 3.8 \|Jul precipitation days = 1.6 \|Aug precipitation days = 2.0 \|Sep precipitation days = 5.1 \|Oct precipitation days = 10.2 \|Nov precipitation days = 11.1 \|Dec precipitation days = 12.2 \|year precipitation days \|Jan humidity 78 \|Feb humidity = 76 \|Mar humidity = 71 \|Apr humidity = 69 \|May humidity = 68 \|Jun humidity = 69 \|Jul humidity = 68 \|Aug humidity = 67 \|Sep humidity = 69 \|Oct humidity = 73 \|Nov humidity = 77 \|Dec humidity = 78 \|year humidity \|source 1 Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera<ref>{{cite web \|titleNormal Climatológica – Alcobaça / Estação Fruticultura Vieira Natividade 1981-2010 \|urlhttps://www.ipma.pt/bin/file.data/climate-normal/cn_81-10_ALCOBACA_E_FRUTICULTURA.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ipma.pt/bin/file.data/climate-normal/cn_81-10_ALCOBACA_E_FRUTICULTURA.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|publisherIPMA \|access-date27 April 2022}}</ref>\|source 2 Porto de Mós Municipality (IPMA: Humidity)<ref>{{cite web \|titlePlano Municipal de Defesa da Floresta Contra Incêndios \|urlhttps://www.municipio-portodemos.pt/cmportomos/uploads/document/file/1773/1016_pmdfci_caderno_i.pdf \|publisherPorto de Mós Municipality \|access-date16 December 2020}}</ref> }} {{Weather box \|location = Alcobaça, Portugal (1971–2000) \|metric first = yes \|single line = yes \|width = auto \|collapsed = yes \|Jan record high C = 23.1 \|Feb record high C = 25.0 \|Mar record high C = 30.0 \|Apr record high C = 30.0 \|May record high C = 34.0 \|Jun record high C = 40.8 \|Jul record high C = 40.0 \|Aug record high C = 38.0 \|Sep record high C = 39.4 \|Oct record high C = 33.2 \|Nov record high C = 26.6 \|Dec record high C = 24.0 \|year record high C = 40.8 \|Jan high C = 15.1 \|Feb high C = 15.8 \|Mar high C = 18.2 \|Apr high C = 19.0 \|May high C = 20.8 \|Jun high C = 23.7 \|Jul high C = 25.9 \|Aug high C = 26.2 \|Sep high C = 25.6 \|Oct high C = 22.0 \|Nov high C = 18.4 \|Dec high C = 15.9 \|year high C = 20.6 \|Jan mean C = 9.6 \|Feb mean C = 10.6 \|Mar mean C = 12.4 \|Apr mean C = 13.6 \|May mean C = 15.5 \|Jun mean C = 18.4 \|Jul mean C = 20.3 \|Aug mean C = 20.3 \|Sep mean C = 19.3 \|Oct mean C = 16.2 \|Nov mean C = 13.1 \|Dec mean C = 11.1 \|year mean C = 15.0 \|Jan low C = 4.2 \|Feb low C = 5.4 \|Mar low C = 6.7 \|Apr low C = 8.1 \|May low C = 10.2 \|Jun low C = 13.0 \|Jul low C = 14.7 \|Aug low C = 14.4 \|Sep low C = 13.0 \|Oct low C = 10.4 \|Nov low C = 7.9 \|Dec low C = 6.4 \|year low C = 9.5 \|Jan record low C = -5.5 \|Feb record low C = -5.0 \|Mar record low C = -3.0 \|Apr record low C = -0.5 \|May record low C = 1.0 \|Jun record low C = 5.5 \|Jul record low C = 6.0 \|Aug record low C = 5.5 \|Sep record low C = 3.5 \|Oct record low C = 0.5 \|Nov record low C = -2.5 \|Dec record low C = -4.0 \|year record low C = -5.5 \|precipitation colour = green \|Jan precipitation mm = 106.0 \|Feb precipitation mm = 101.7 \|Mar precipitation mm = 59.2 \|Apr precipitation mm = 76.1 \|May precipitation mm = 64.8 \|Jun precipitation mm = 23.8 \|Jul precipitation mm = 7.8 \|Aug precipitation mm = 11.8 \|Sep precipitation mm = 36.2 \|Oct precipitation mm = 95.2 \|Nov precipitation mm = 124.9 \|Dec precipitation mm = 132.1 \|year precipitation mm = 839.6 \|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm \|Jan precipitation days = 13.6 \|Feb precipitation days = 13.1 \|Mar precipitation days = 10.4 \|Apr precipitation days = 12.4 \|May precipitation days = 11.1 \|Jun precipitation days = 6.8 \|Jul precipitation days = 3.1 \|Aug precipitation days = 3.4 \|Sep precipitation days = 6.4 \|Oct precipitation days = 11.4 \|Nov precipitation days = 13.8 \|Dec precipitation days = 15.5 \|year precipitation days = 121.0 \|source 1 Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera<ref nameIPMA> {{cite web \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200409213447/http://www.ipma.pt/bin/file.data/climate-normal/cn_71-00_ALCOBACA_E_FRUTICULTURA.pdf \| archive-date = 9 April 2020 \| url = http://www.ipma.pt/bin/file.data/climate-normal/cn_71-00_ALCOBACA_E_FRUTICULTURA.pdf \| title = ALCOBAÇA/ E. FRUTICULTURA (126) \| work = Fichas Climatológicas 1971-2000 \| publisher = Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera \| language = pt \| access-date = 9 April 2020}}</ref> }} in the background]] Parishes Administratively, the municipality is divided into 13 civil parishes (freguesias):<ref>{{cite web\|titleLaw nr. 11-A/2013, page 552 7\|urlhttp://dre.pt/pdf1sdip/2013/01/01901/0000200147.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dre.pt/pdf1sdip/2013/01/01901/0000200147.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date16 July 2014\|authorDiário da República\|author-linkDiário da República\|language=pt}}</ref> {{div col \|colwidth=20em}} * Alcobaça e Vestiaria * Alfeizerão * Aljubarrota * Bárrio * Benedita * Cela * Coz, Alpedriz e Montes * Évora de Alcobaça * Maiorga * Pataias e Martingança * São Martinho do Porto * Turquel * Vimeiro {{div col end}} City information The main feature of the city is essentially the monastery that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th-century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of "Cloister of Silence". In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In 1794, Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks "living in a very splendid manner"! <gallery> Alcobaça - panoramio (1).jpg\|Alcobaça, panoramio Alcobaça Praça da República.jpg\|Square in Alcobaça </gallery> Nearby locations A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in 1385, when King John I of Portugal defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Castilian invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in 1388 and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world-famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in 1917 by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its caverns. The best known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale. Major events * Market days – Every Monday * Carnaval de Alcobaça – February/March * Cistermúsica – classical music festival – June / July<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.cistermusica.com/\| title Cistermúsica - Festival de Música de Alcobaça}}</ref> * Saint Bernard's fair – August 20 * Municipal holiday – August 20 * Marionetas na Cidade – puppetry festival – mid-October<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.samarionetas.com/#!marionetas-na-cidade/c1l7k\| title S.A.Marionetas - Teatro e Bonecos}}</ref> * Saint Simon's fair – 4th week of October * International display of Sweets and Conventual Liqueurs – November Notable people from Alcobaça * Joaquim Ferreira Bogalho (1889–1977) the 20th president of S.L. Benfica * Virgínia Vitorino (1895–1967) a teacher, poet and playwright. * Joaquim Vieira de Natividade, (Wiki PT) (1899–1968) an agricultural engineer * Valdemar José Correia Barbosa Rodrigues, (Wiki PT) (b. 1965) an environmental engineer, ensaist and poet * José Aurélio, (Wiki PT) (born 1938) a sculptor, works in stone, wood and bronze * João Lourenço (born 1942) a former footballer with 207 club caps * Alberto Costa (born 1947) politician, Minister of Justice, 2005–2009. * Nuno Gonçalves, a Portuguese musician, founder of The Gift. * João Traquina (born 1988) a Portuguese footballer with over 350 club caps * João Pedro Silva (born 1989) a Portuguese professional triathlete, competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics * The Gift (formed 1994) a Portuguese alternative rock band * Loto (formed 2002) an electro-pop-rock-dance music band * Spartak! (2006–2008) a musical collective from Alcobaça * JÜRA Popular pop artist based in Lisbon International relations {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Portugal}} Alcobaça is twinned with: {{flagicon\|FRA}} Aubergenville, France {{flagicon\|POL}} Bełchatów, Poland<ref name"Bełchatów twinnings">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.belchatow.pl/portal.php?aid1158607934450ef43e80428\|titlePortal Bełchatów\|workMiasto Bełchatów [Bełchatów town council] belchatow.pl\|year2010\|access-date22 June 2011\|languagepl\|trans-titleBełchatów - Partnership Cities\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110613131345/http://www.belchatow.pl/portal.php?aid1158607934450ef43e80428 \|archive-date13 June 2011}}</ref> {{flagicon\|ANG}} Cacuaco, Angola {{flagicon\|USA}} Chicopee, United States See also {{portal\|Portugal}} Alcobaça IPR Monastery of Alcobaça Monastery of Batalha Nazaré References {{Reflist}} External links {{Wikivoyage\|Alcobaça}} {{Commons category\|Alcobaça (Portugal)}} *[http://www.cm-alcobaca.pt/ Municipality official website] {{Comunidade Intermunicipal do Oeste}} {{Municipalities of Leiria}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alcobaca}} Category:Populated places in Leiria District Category:Cities in Portugal Category:Populated places in Oeste e Vale do Tejo Category:Municipalities of Leiria District Category:World Heritage Sites in Portugal Category:UNESCO Category:Iberian locality names of Arabic origin	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcobaça,_Portugal	2025-04-05T18:26:15.795589
3044	Amphisbaena	{{Short description\|Mythological serpent}} {{about\|the mythological creature\|the suborder\|Amphisbaenia\|the genus\|Amphisbaena (lizard)}} {{multiple issues\| {{more citations needed\|date=January 2015}} {{more footnotes\|date=January 2013}} }} (c. 1200)]] The amphisbaena ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|m\|f\|ɪ\|s\|ˈ\|b\|ɛ\|ɪ\|n\|ə}}, {{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|m\|f\|ɪ\|s\|ˈ\|b\|aɪ\|n\|ə}}, or {{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|m\|f\|ɪ\|s\|ˈ\|b\|iː\|n\|ə}}, plural: amphisbaenae; {{langx\|grc\|ἀμφίσβαινα}}) is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The name of the creature is alternatively written amphisbaina, amphisbene, amphisboena, amphisbona, amphista, amfivena, amphivena, or anphivena (the last two being feminine), and is also known as the "Mother of Ants".{{citation needed lead\|dateJanuary 2014}} Its name comes from the Greek words {{Transliteration\|el\|amphis}}, meaning "both ways", and {{Transliteration\|el\|bainein}}, meaning "to go".{{citation needed lead\|dateJanuary 2014}} Mythology According to Lucan, the amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the Gorgon Medusa's head as Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with her head in his hand: in "Pharsalia" (IX, 719), the Roman poet names it along with other serpents that Cato's army encountered in Libya.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://cuwomensresourcecenter.wordpress.com/2013/07/08/monstrous-mondays-the-amphisbaena-serpent/ \|titleWhen Cato the Younger's army marched through Libya \|access-date2014-11-30 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141222105828/https://cuwomensresourcecenter.wordpress.com/2013/07/08/monstrous-mondays-the-amphisbaena-serpent/ \|archive-date2014-12-22 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Amphisbaena fed on the corpses left behind. Although it is a legendary creature, it has been referred to by various Greek and Latin authors, scientists as well as poets: Nicander, Lucan, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville, and later Thomas Browne, the last of whom debunked its existence ({{cite web\| urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39961\| titlePseudodoxia Epidemica}} book three chapter XV). Modern poets are John Milton, Alexander Pope, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Alfred Tennyson, Aimé Césaire, A. E. Housman and Allen Mandelbaum. Appearance in Buckinghamshire]] {{blockquote\|The amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail end as well, as though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth.\|Pliny the Elder\|Naturalis Historia, VIII, 85}} {{blockquote\|The Amphisbaena however is a snake with two heads, one at the top and one in the direction of the tail. When it advances, as need for a forward movement impels it, it leaves one end behind to serve as tail, while the other it uses as a head. Then again if it wants to move backwards, it uses the two heads in exactly the opposite manner from what it did before.\|Claudius Aelianus\|Characteristics of Animals<ref>{{cite web\| url https://topostext.org/work/560#9.23\| title Aelian, Characteristics of Animals, 9.23}}</ref>}} {{blockquote\|The amphisbaena grows twin heads, one in the proper place, and the other where the tail should be. For this reason the snake glides in a circular shape, as the heads, contrary to what is right, strain from both ends.\|Solinus\|Polyhistor<ref>{{cite web\| url https://topostext.org/work/747#27.29\| title Solinus, Polyhistor, 27.29}}</ref>}} These early descriptions of the amphisbaena depict a venomous, dual-headed snakelike creature. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet, and feathered wings.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2015}} Some{{Who\|dateJanuary 2015}} even depict it as a horned, dragon-like creature with a serpent-headed tail and small, round ears, while others have both "necks" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2015}} Many descriptions{{by whom\|dateOctober 2016}} of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet Nicander, the first to speak about it, described it as "always dull of eye". He also wrote: "From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other." Nicander's account seems to be referring to a group of real lizards what is today called the Amphisbaenia, after the legendary creature, because their tail truncates in a manner that vaguely resembles the head.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2015}} Habitat of Gmina Zapolice in Poland]] The amphisbaena is said to make its home in the desert.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2015}} Folk medicine In ancient times, the supposedly dangerous amphisbaena had many uses in the art of folk medicine and other magical remedies. Pliny notes that expecting women wearing a live amphisbaena around their necks would have safe pregnancies (Naturalis historia XXX, 128); however, if one's goal was to cure ailments such as arthritis or the common cold, one should wear only its skin (Naturalis historia XXX, 85): lumberjacks suffering from cold weather on the job could nail its carcass or skin to a tree to keep warm, while in the process allowing the tree to be felled more easily.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleRitual significance of personal ornament in Roman Britain\|lastPuttock\|firstSonia\|publisherArchaeopress\|year2002\|locationOxford\|pages93}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://allaboutdragons.com/dragons/Amphisbaena\|titleAmphisbaena - All About Dragons\|websiteallaboutdragons.com\|access-date2019-02-19}}</ref> By eating the meat of the amphisbaena, one could supposedly attract many lovers of the opposite sex, and slaying one during the full moon could give power to one who is pure of heart and mind. <sup>[primary reference needed]</sup><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.mythical-creatures-and-beasts.com/amphisbaena.html\|titleAmphisbaena\|websiteMythical-Creatures-and-Beasts.com\|access-date2019-02-19}}</ref> Origins In The Book of Beasts, T.H. White suggests that the creature derives from sightings of the worm lizards of the same name.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/HistSciTech/subcollections/BestiaryAbout.html\| title The Book of Beasts}}</ref> But it is the other way around. These creatures are found in the Mediterranean countries where many of these legends originated. The Códice Casanatense ({{Circa\|1540}}), a Portuguese book describing the areas the Portuguese had visited, includes an illustration of the flora and fauna of India. One of the animals shown is a two-headed snake (conjoined twin snakes), with one head on each end, much like an amphisbaena. The image is captioned, "two headed snakes of India are harmless".<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMason \|firstPeter \|date2012-01-01 \|title&quot;Cobras da Índia de duas cabeças não fazem mal&quot;. Codex Casanatense 1889, fl. 91 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/49136354 \|journalAnais de História de Além-Mar}}</ref> It is possible a sighting of an animal like this was the origin of the amphisbaena, or that the Greek mythological creature is used, as well as others, to literarily embellish the description of an exotic country. In literature and other media In Dante's Inferno, the amphisbaena is listed as one of the types of reptiles that torment thieves in the seventh bolgia. In John Milton's Paradise Lost, after the Fall and the return of Satan to Hell, some of the fallen angelic host are transformed into the amphisbaena, to represent the animal by which the Fall was caused, i.e. a snake.<ref>Paradise Lost, 10.524</ref> Amphisbaena appears in some editions of the tabletop roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons. Amphisbaena has appeared in several video games as an enemy or boss monster, including La-Mulana and Bravely Second: End Layer. A creature called Amphisbaena appears in the games Castlevania: Symphony of the Night and Portrait of Ruin but bears little resemblance to other renditions of the creature, appearing as an eyeless 4-legged reptile with the upper body of a human woman sprouting from its long tail instead of a double-headed serpent. In the 1984 animated film Gallavants, an amphisbaena (called a 'Vanterviper' in the film) appears as a minor antagonist. The two heads, a red one named Edil and a blue one called Fice, frequently disagree and argue, and sing a song about their miserable plight. The amphisbaena is mentioned in The Last Wish, from The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski, while protagonist Geralt of Rivia recalls past events. The amphisbaena was endangering the region of Kovir until the beast was slain by Geralt's hand. Amphisbaena is referenced in RWBY, an animated web series created by Monty Oum, in the form of an evil creature called Grimm. Of the different Grimm, the amphisbaena appears to be the King Taijitu, a two-headed snake or serpent. The king's name references the taijitu, a symbol or diagram in Chinese philosophy representing Taiji in both its monist and dualist aspects. The Grimm's coloration visually symbolizes the taijitu, with one head and body section black and the opposite side white. The amphisbaena appears in the Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles episode "Battle Nexus: New York." This version is one of the known champions of the Battle Nexus. Big Mama had Michelangelo and Meat Sweats compete to feed each of its heads in order to satisfy the amphisbaena. They managed to work together to pull it off. Brandon Sanderson's novel Skyward has a character whose name is Arturo Mendez. His call sign is amphisbaena. In Beyblade has a character named Enrique whose bit beast (ancient spirits contained within spinning tops) named Amphilyon. It takes the form of a medieval amphisbaena with bat wings. The primary antagonist of Elden Ring: Shadow of the Erdtree, Messmer the Impaler, is conjoined with a winged amphisbaena. Use as a Proverb The amphisbaena appears also in the saying "to the amphisbaena, Perseus is good"{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2024}} which can have various meanings depending in the connotation in which it is used. However, one main meaning lies in the connection between Perseus and the creation of the amphisbaena. Though created out of the violent murder of Medusa by Perseus, it shows that the creation will always see the creator in a positive light. See also * Amphisbaenia * Polycephaly * Ouroboros * Double-headed serpent * Pushmi-Pullyu References {{reflist}} Bibliography * Hunt, Jonathan (1998). Bestiary: An Illuminated Alphabet of Medieval Beasts (1st ed.). Hong Kong: Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN\|0-689-81246-9}}. * Levy, Sidney J. (1996). "Stalking the Amphisbaena", Journal of Consumer Research, 23 (3), Dec. 1996, pp.&nbsp;163–176. External links {{Commons category\|Amphisbaena in art}} * {{cite EB9 \|wstitle Amphisbæna \|volume I \| page774 \|short1}} * [http://www.theoi.com/Thaumasios/Amphisbainai.html Theoi Greek Mythology : Amphisbaena] Category:Monsters in Greek mythology Category:Legendary serpents Category:Mythical many-headed creatures Category:Medusa	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphisbaena	2025-04-05T18:26:15.801970
3045	Amyl alcohol	Amyl alcohols are alcohols with the formula C5H11OH. Eight are known. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterification, by which is produced amyl acetate and other products. The name amyl alcohol without further specification applies to the normal (straight-chain) form, 1-pentanol. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Amyl alcohol isomers \|- ! Common name !! Structure !! Type !! IUPAC name !! Boiling point (°C) \|- \| 1-pentanolor normal amyl alcohol \| 150px \| primary \| Pentan-1-ol \| 138.5 \|- \| 2-methyl-1-butanolor active amyl alcohol \| 120px \| primary \| 2-Methylbutan-1-ol \| 128.7 \|- \| 3-methyl-1-butanolor isoamyl alcoholor isopentyl alcohol \| 120px \| primary \| 3-Methylbutan-1-ol \| 131.2 \|- \| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanolor neopentyl alcohol \| 100px \| primary \| 2,2-Dimethylpropan-1-ol \| 113.1 \|- \| 2-pentanolor sec-amyl alcoholor methyl (n) propyl carbinol \| 100px \| secondary \| Pentan-2-ol \| 118.8 \|- \| 3-methyl-2-butanolor sec-isoamyl alcoholor methyl isopropyl carbinol \| 80px \| secondary \| 3-Methylbutan-2-ol \| 113.6 \|- \| 3-Pentanol \| 100px \| secondary \| Pentan-3-ol \| 115.3 \|- \| 2-methyl-2-butanolor tert-amyl alcohol \| 100px \| tertiary \| 2-Methylbutan-2-ol \| 102 \|} Three of these alcohols, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 2-pentanol, and 3-methyl-2-butanol (methyl isopropyl carbinol), contain stereocenters, and are therefore chiral and optically active. The most important amyl alcohol is isoamyl alcohol, the chief one generated by fermentation in the production of alcoholic beverages and a constituent of fusel oil. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. References Category:Alkanols Category:GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_alcohol	2025-04-05T18:26:15.804511
3046	Amyl nitrite	{{Short description\|Chemical compound}} {{Distinguish\|Amyl nitrate}} {{cs1 config\|name-list-style=vanc}} {{infobox drug \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 451716663 \| type \| drug_name \| image = Amyl nitrite Formula V.1.svg \| image_class = skin-invert-image \| width = 260px \| alt = Chemical structure of amyl nitrite \| image2 = Amyl-nitrite-3D-balls.png \| alt2 = Ball-and-stick model of amyl nitrite \| IUPAC_name = (3-methylbutyl) nitrite \| synonyms = Isoamyl nitrite,<br/>Isopentyl nitrite,<br/>Nitramyl,<br/>3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane,<br/>Pentyl alcohol nitrite&nbsp;(ambiguous),<br/>poppers (ambiguous, colloquial, slang) \| legal_AU = S3 (Pharmacist only) / S4 (Prescription only) \| legal_AU_comment = <ref>[https://www.legislation.gov.au/F2024L01228 Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—October 2024) Instrument 2024] (Cth). Schedule 3 "when in preparations for human therapeutic use and packaged in containers with child‑resistant closures"; schedule 4 otherwise.</ref> \| legal_UK = Controlled Drug (Medicines Act 1968) \| legal_US = Unscheduled (illegal under Crime Control Act of 1990) \| legal_DE = Unscheduled (unauthorized sale and purchase illegal) \| legal_BR = C1 \| legal_BR_comment <ref>{{Cite web \|authorAnvisa \|author-linkBrazilian Health Regulatory Agency \|date2024-05-28 \|titleRDC Nº 877 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial \|trans-titleCollegiate Board Resolution No. 877 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control\|urlhttps://www.in.gov.br/en/web/dou/-/resolucao-da-diretoria-colegiada-anvisa-n-877-de-28-de-maio-de-2024-562758149 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240925040323/https://www.in.gov.br/en/web/dou/-/resolucao-da-diretoria-colegiada-anvisa-n-877-de-28-de-maio-de-2024-562758149 \|archive-date2024-09-25 \|access-date2024-09-25 \|publisherDiário Oficial da União \|languagept-BR \|publication-date2024-05-28}}</ref> \| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite\|correct\|drugbank}} \| DrugBank = DB01612 \| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite\|correct\|EBI}} \| ChEBI = 2691 \| SMILES CC(C)CCONO \| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite\|correct\|FDA}} \| UNII = 5N0U5TUC9Z \| PubChem = 8053 \| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| StdInChI = 1S/C5H11NO2/c1-5(2)3-4-8-6-7/h5H,3-4H2,1-2H3 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| StdInChIKey = OWFXIOWLTKNBAP-UHFFFAOYSA-N \| CAS_number = 110-46-3 \| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite\|correct\|CAS}} \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite\|correct\|chemspider}} \| ChemSpiderID = 7762 \| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite\|correct\|kegg}} \| KEGG = D00517 \| C = 5 \| H = 11 \| N = 1 \| O = 2 \| density = 0.872 \| solubility = Slightly soluble \| melting_point \| boiling_point 99 \| ATC_prefix = V03 \| ATC_suffix = AB22 <!-- \| OtherCompounds = Nitroglycerine<br/>Isopentanol<br/>Butyl nitrite<br/>Isobutyl nitrite<br/> Ethyl nitrite<br/> Methyl nitrite<br/> Isopropyl nitrite<br/> Cyclohexyl nitrite -->}} Amyl nitrite is a chemical compound with the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group (the amyl in this case) is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAmyl Nitrite (Inhalation Route) Description and Brand Names - Mayo Clinic \|urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/amyl-nitrite-inhalation-route/description/drg-20061803 \|access-date2023-12-05 \|websitewww.mayoclinic.org}}</ref> As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.urban75.com/Drugs/drugamyl.html\|titleDrugs - Amyl, Butyl or Isobutyl Nitrite, Nitrates, Poppers\|work=urban75.com}}</ref> <!-- Society and culture --> It was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Fischer J, Ganellin CR \|titleAnalogue-based Drug Discovery \|date2006 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn9783527607495 \|pageXXX \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFjKfqkaKkAAC&pgPAXXX \|languageen}}</ref> Uses * Amyl nitrite was historically employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina. * Amyl nitrite was sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning.<ref name"detoxification48"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mason DT, Braunwald E \| title The effects of nitroglycerin and amyl nitrite on arteriolar and venous tone in the human forearm \| journal Circulation \| volume 32 \| issue 5 \| pages 755–766 \| date November 1965 \| pmid 4954412 \| doi 10.1161/01.cir.32.5.755 \| doi-access free }}</ref> It was thought to act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin.<ref>{{cite journal\| title Cyanide Antidotes: from Amyl Nitrite to Hydroxocobalamin – Which Antidote is Best?\| vauthors Vale JA \| journal Toxicology\| year 2001\| volume 168\| issue 1\| pages 37–38}}</ref> However, it has been replaced by hydroxocobalamin which had better efficacy,<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Hall AH, Saiers J, Baud F \| title Which cyanide antidote? \| journal Crit Rev Toxicol \| date 2009 \| volume 39 \| issue 7 \| pages 541–552 \| pmid 19650716\| doi 10.1080/10408440802304944 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and the use of amyl nitrite has been found to be ineffective and unscientific.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Lavon O, Bentur Y \| title Does amyl nitrite have a role in the management of pre-hospital mass casualty cyanide poisoning? \| journal Clin Toxicol (Phila) \| volume 48 \| issue 6 \| pages 477–484 \| date July 2010 \| pmid 20653465\| doi 10.3109/15563650.2010.505573 \| doi-access free }}</ref> * Trace amounts are added to some perfumes.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Amyl-nitrite#sectionUse-and-Manufacturing \|titleAmyl Nitrite Use and Manufacturing\|workPubChem \| publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine }}</ref> * It is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a "come down"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug {{xref\|(see: Poppers)}}.<ref name"detoxification48">{{cite book \| vauthors Giannini AJ, Slaby AE, Giannini MC \| title The Handbook of Overdose and Detoxification Emergencies \| location New Hyde Park, NY. \| publisher Medical Examination Publishing Co. \| date 1982 \| pages 48–50 }}</ref>Nomenclature The term "amyl nitrite" encompasses several isomers. In older literature, the common non-systematic name amyl was often used for the pentyl group, where the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, and the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONO, also referred to as n-amyl nitrite. A common form of amyl nitrite is the isomer with the formula (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONO, which may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite. The similarly named amyl nitrate has very different properties. At the same time, isopropyl nitrite has a similar structure and similar uses (also called 'poppers') but with worse side-effects.<ref>{{cite book \| lastCantrell \| firstF.L. \| titleEncyclopedia of Toxicology \| chapterNitrite Inhalants \| publisherElsevier \| year2014 \| pages530–531 \| doi10.1016/b978-0-12-386454-3.00042-7\| isbn=9780123864550 }}</ref> Amyl nitrite is sometimes referred to colloquially as banapple gas.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Nordegren T \|titleThe A-Z Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drug Abuse\|date2002\|publisherBrown Walker Press\|isbn158112404X\|page94\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4yaGePenGKgC&q%22A-Z+Encyclopedia+of+Alcohol+and+Drug+Abuse%22&pgPA5\|access-date5 February 2017}}</ref>Synthesis and reactionsAlkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:<ref>{{OrgSynth \| vauthors Noyes WA \|author-linkWilliam A. Noyes \|year1943 \|titlen-Butyl Nitrite \|volume \|pages\|collvol2 \|collvolpages108 \|prepCV2P0108}}</ref> :ROH + HONO → RONO + H<sub>2</sub>O, where R = alkyl group The reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture. Isoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol: :C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>ONO + NaOH → C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>OH + NaNO<sub>2</sub> Amyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.<ref>{{OrgSynth \| vauthors Chen YK, Jeon SJ, Walsh PJ, Nugent WA \| title (2S)-(−)-3-exo-(Morpholino)isoborneol ((−)-MIB) \| volume 82 \| pages 87 \| year 2005 \| prep v82p0087}}</ref> Amyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Smith WB, Ho OC \| title Application of the isoamyl nitrite-diiodomethane route to aryl iodides \| journal The Journal of Organic Chemistry \| volume 55 \| pages 2543–2545 \| year 1990 \| doi 10.1021/jo00295a056 \| issue 8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cornforth J, Kumar A, Stuart AS \| title Synthesis of substituted dibenzophospholes. Part 6. Preparation of symmetrical and non-symmetrical quaterphenyl intermediates \| journal Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1 \| page 859 \| year 1987 \| doi 10.1039/P19870000859}}</ref> whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cadogan JI, Roy DA, Smith DM \| title An alternative to the Sandmeyer reaction \| journal Journal of the Chemical Society C: Organic \| page 1249 \| year 1966 \| doi 10.1039/J39660001249}}</ref> Physiological effects Amyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites,<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Nickerson M, Parker JO, Lowry TP, Swenson EW \| title Isobutyl Nitrite and Related Compounds. \| location San Francisco California \| publisher PHARMEX \| date 1979 \| url http://www.virusmythpoppersmyth.org/isobutyl_nitrite_and_rela/files/IBNtextnpttypepad.pdf \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070927023207/http://www.virusmythpoppersmyth.org/isobutyl_nitrite_and_rela/files/IBNtextnpttypepad.pdf \| archive-date2007-09-27 \| edition 1st }}</ref> is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite may be used during cardiovascular stress testing in patients with suspected hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to cause vasodilation and thereby reduce afterload and provoke obstruction of blood flow towards the aorta from the ventricle by increasing the pressure gradient, thereby causing left ventricular outflow obstruction. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Cytowic R \| author-link1 Richard Cytowic \| title The Man Who Tasted Shapes \| date 2003 \| publisher MIT Press \| isbn 978-0-262-53255-6 }}</ref> Amyl nitrite, when given as a medication for patients with angina, can also be administered as an ampule. The ampule is put in a gauze pad and then inhaled by the patient during an angina attack and repeated every fifteen minutes. However, oral dosing of amyl nitrite is ineffective due to poor absorption and extensive hepatic metabolism. Amyl nitrite has been widely replaced by nitroglycerin for the treatment of acute angina.{{Citation needed\|dateMarch 2025}} Toxicity Although there are case reports of life-threatening toxicity involving unusually large amounts,<ref name"Modarai_2002">{{cite journal \| vauthors Modarai B, Kapadia YK, Kerins M, Terris J \| title Methylene blue: a treatment for severe methaemoglobinaemia secondary to misuse of amyl nitrite \| journal Emergency Medicine Journal \| volume 19 \| issue 3 \| pages 270–271 \| date May 2002 \| pmid 11971852 \| pmc 1725875 \| doi 10.1136/emj.19.3.270 }}</ref> typical inhaled doses of amyl nitrite are considered relatively safe.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C \| title Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse \| journal Lancet \| volume 369 \| issue 9566 \| pages 1047–1053 \| date March 2007 \| pmid 17382831 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4 \| s2cid 5903121 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| vauthors O'Malley MF, O'Malley R \|dateMay 2020\|titleVolatile Nitrites\|urlhttps://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/volatile-nitrites \| work MSD Manual \| publisher 2023 Merck & Co., Inc. }}</ref> However, liquid amyl nitrite is highly toxic when ingested because of the unsafely high concentration it causes in blood.<ref name"Toxbase">{{cite web \|dateDecember 2018 \|titleAmyl Nitrite \|urlhttps://www.toxbase.org \|access-date September 29, 2020 \|websiteToxbase \|publisherUK National Poisons Information Service}}</ref> Regardless of the form or route of administration, acute toxicity principally results when the nitrite oxidizes a significant proportion of hemoglobin in the blood without oxygen, forming methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen. Severe poisoning cases will progress to methemoglobinemia, characterized by a blue-brown discoloration under the skin which could be mistaken for cyanosis.<ref name"Modarai_2002" /><ref name"Toxbase" /> Treatment with oxygen and intravenous methylene blue frustrates visual confirmation further as methylene blue itself is, as its name suggests, a blue dye; the patient's changes in different shades of blue notwithstanding, it is an effective antidote by way of catalyzing the production of the enzyme responsible for reducing the methemoglobin in the blood back to hemoglobin. The discoloration does mean that regular near-infrared–based pulse oximetry becomes useless. More fundamentally, blood gas analysis on the whole has limited effectiveness, as the increased methemoglobin level increases the oxygen binding affinity of regular hemoglobin.<ref name"Modarai_2002" /> Therefore, the measurement of actual ratios and levels of methemoglobin and hemoglobin must accompany any blood gas partial pressure sample in these cases. In popular culture The Columbo episode titled "Troubled Waters" (1974–1975) features amyl nitrite inhaled by the antagonist Hayden Danziger – played by Robert Vaughn – to help him feign a heart attack for his alibi. However, the episode consistently refers to the substance incorrectly as amyl nitrate.<ref name"20.">{{cite web \|titleEpisode review: Columbo Troubled Waters \|urlhttps://columbophile.com/2018/09/29/episode-review-columbo-troubled-waters/ \|websiteColumbophile blog \|date29 September 2018 \|access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref> The 1978 Derek Jarman film Jubilee features a character named Amyl Nitrate (a misspelled reference to amyl nitrite). The title of the 1993 song Animal Nitrate by English band Suede is a pun on amyl nitrite, referencing its recreational use, although singer Brett Anderson has said the song has more to do with other drugs like ecstasy and cocaine.<ref name"NME">{{cite journal \|lastMulvey \|firstJohn \|titleLatter-Day Nitrate Fever \|journalNME \|date20 February 1993 \|pages=24}}</ref> In the 1999 film Fight Club, the character Chloe, a terminally ill woman mentions having a collection of amyl nitrite while openly discussing her unfulfilled desires at a cancer support group. The punk band Amyl and the Sniffers reference recreational use of amyl nitrite in their name.<ref>{{cite news \|date2019-05-14 \|titleAmyl and The Sniffers: 'It's just charmingly violent powerful fun' \|languageen-GB \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-48177077 \|access-date=2023-12-02}}</ref> The Hunter S. Thompson book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas sees amyl nitrite as one of the many drugs Raoul Duke packs for the trip to Las Vegas, taking about two dozen ampules of it with him and usually justifying its usage by him and Dr. Gonzo to other people around them by claiming it is for angina. In Season 1, Episode 9 of Bob's Burgers, "Spaghetti Western and Meatballs", Gene guesses amyl nitrite for the A in the ABS program near the end of the episode. References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Kjonaas RA \| title Amyl: A Misunderstood Word \| journal Journal of Chemical Education \| volume 73 \| page 1127 \| year 1996 \| doi 10.1021/ed073p1127 \| issue 12\| bibcode = 1996JChEd..73.1127K }} Editorial on the use of the word "amyl". {{refend}} {{Antidotes}} {{Nitric oxide signaling}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Amyl Nitrite}} Category:Antianginals Category:Antidotes Category:Alkyl nitrites Category:Muscle relaxants Category:Vasodilators Category:Isoamyl esters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrite	2025-04-05T18:26:15.814307
3049	Autumn	{{short description\|One of Earth's four temperate seasons}} {{about\|the temperate season}} {{redirect\|Fall}} {{pp-move}} {{Globalise\|dateMay 2021\|2US}} {{EngvarB\|date=November 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2020}} {{Infobox temperate season \|title=Autumn (fall) \|image=Roadway_in_David_Crockett_State_Park_(Autumn_2008_-_Vertical_Image).jpg \|caption=Leaves often turn orange and fall from trees in autumn. \|ndate1=22 September – 21&nbsp;December \|ndate2=1 September – 30&nbsp;November \|ndate3=1 August – 31&nbsp;October \|sdate1=20 March – 21&nbsp;June \|sdate2=1 March – 31&nbsp;May \|sdate3=1 February – 30&nbsp;April }} {{multiple image \| perrow = 2 \| total_width = 272 \| image1 = New_hampshire_in_autumn.jpg \| image4 = Cincinnati – Spring Grove Cemetery & Arboretum "Autumn Reflection" (15630100199).jpg \| image3 = Paris raining autumn cityscape (8252181936).jpg \| image2 = Autumn,_Belgrade,_Serbia.jpg \| image5 = Tuolumne_Meadows_with_Meandering_River_in_Autumn.jpg \| image6 = Victoria Avenue - Canterbury.jpg \| footer = The variety of colours between the trees and the forest floor is like a giant mural in autumn, particularly out of cityscapes. }} {{Weather}} Autumn, also known as fall (especially in US & Canada),<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/fall \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230306044904/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/fall \|url-statuslive \|archive-date6 March 2023 \|titleFall Definition & Meaning \|websitedictionary.com }}</ref> is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern Hemisphere). Autumn is the season when the duration of daylight becomes noticeably shorter and the temperature cools considerably. Day length decreases and night length increases as the season progresses until the winter solstice in December (Northern Hemisphere) and June (Southern Hemisphere). One of its main features in temperate climates is the striking change in colour of the leaves of deciduous trees as they prepare to shed. Date definitions Some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn", while others with a longer temperature lag treat the equinox as the start of autumn.<ref>{{cite web\|titleNOAA's National Weather Service – Glossary\|urlhttp://www.crh.noaa.gov/glossary.php?wordautumn\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120111152359/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/glossary.php?wordautumn\|archive-date2012-01-11\|access-date2010-08-06\|publisherCrh.noaa.gov}}</ref> In the English-speaking world of high latitude countries, autumn traditionally began with Lammas Day and ended around Hallowe'en, the approximate mid-points between midsummer, the autumnal equinox, and midwinter. Meteorologists (and Australia<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bom.gov.au/climate/glossary/seasons.shtml\|titleClimate Glossary – Seasons\|websitewww.bom.gov.au \|publisherBureau of Meteorology, Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://media.bom.gov.au/social/blog/1762/solstices-and-equinoxes-the-reasons-for-the-seasons/ \|titleSolstices and equinoxes: the reasons for the seasons \|workBureau of Meteorology \|date21 June 2018 \|access-date16 January 2020}}</ref> and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere)<ref>{{cite news \|last1Deguara \|first1Brittney \|titleWhen does winter officially start in New Zealand? \|urlhttps://www.stuff.co.nz/national/113038178/when-does-winter-officially-start-in-new-zealand \|workStuff \|date27 May 2019 \|access-date4 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/about-new-zealand/weather-and-climate.html \|titleNew Zealand Weather and Climate, New Zealand Weather, Temperatures and Climate in New Zealand \|publisherTourism.net.nz \|access-date2010-08-06}}</ref> use a definition based on Gregorian calendar months, with autumn being September, October, and November in the northern hemisphere,<ref>{{cite web\|titleUnderstanding Weather – Autumn Forecasting\|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/autumn_forecasting.shtml\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100904052411/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/autumn_forecasting.shtml\|archive-date4 September 2010\|access-date2010-08-06\|publisherBBC Weather Centre}}</ref> and March, April, and May in the southern hemisphere. In the higher latitude countries in the Northern Hemisphere, autumn traditionally starts with the September equinox (21 to 24&nbsp;September)<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/09/22/first-day-of-fall-2010-au_n_734692.html \|titleFirst Day Of Fall 2010: Autumn Equinox Photos \|workHuffPost\|date 22 September 2010\|access-date2010-09-22 \|firstCraig \|lastKanalley\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100924195451/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/09/22/first-day-of-fall-2010-au_n_734692.html\| archive-date24 September 2010 \|url-status live}}</ref> and ends with the winter solstice (21 or 22 December).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.almanac.com/content/first-day-winter-winter-solstice\|titleThe First Day of Winter: Winter Solstice 2018\|websiteOld Farmer's Almanac}}</ref> Popular culture in the United States associates Labor Day, the first Monday in September, as the end of summer and the start of autumn. Certain summer traditions, such as wearing white, are discouraged after that date.<ref>{{cite magazine \| urlhttps://time.com/5658699/white-after-labor-day/ \|titleWhy We Can't Wear White After Labor Day \|authorLaura FitzPatrick \|date8 September 2009 \|magazineTime \|access-date25 February 2011}}</ref> As daytime and nighttime temperatures decrease, trees change colour and then shed their leaves.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/8050370/Fall-in-North-America-autumn-colour-in-New-England-and-beyond.html\|title Travel\|date 11 October 2010\|access-date 15 October 2015\|website Fall in North America: autumn colour in New England and beyond\|last Arnold\|first Kathy}}</ref> Persians celebrate the beginning of the autumn on Mehregan. Under the traditional East Asian solar term system, autumn starts on or around 8 August and ends on or about 7 November. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are September, October, and November.<ref name"met.ie">{{cite web\|date3 December 2007\|titleThe Weather of Autumn 2007 (September, October & November summary)\|urlhttp://www.met.ie/climate/monthly_summarys/autumn07.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101230150034/http://www.met.ie/climate/monthly_summarys/autumn07.pdf\|archive-date30 December 2010\|access-date10 October 2012\|workMet Éireann – The Irish Meteorological Service Online}}</ref> However, according to the Irish Calendar, which is based on ancient Gaelic traditions, autumn lasts throughout the months of August, September, and October, or possibly a few days later, depending on tradition. In the Irish language, September is known as {{lang\|ga\|Meán Fómhair}} ("middle of autumn") and October as {{lang\|ga\|Deireadh Fómhair}} ("end of autumn").<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.dailyedge.ie/summer-its-literally-not-what-it-used-to-be-164328-Jun2011/\|titleSummer, it's literally not what it used to be\|firstHugh\|lastO'Connell\|websiteThe Daily Edge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://everestlanguageschool.com/autumn-in-ireland/\|titleAutumn in Ireland – Everest Language School\|date10 October 2016}}</ref> Late Roman Republic scholar Marcus Terentius Varro defined autumn as lasting from the third day before the Ides of Sextilis (August 11) to the fifth day before the Ides of November (November 9).<ref name"Varro37BC">{{cite wikisource \|authorVarro \|author-linkVarro \|titleRes Rusticae (Country Matters) \|volumeBook 1 \|orig-datec. 37 BCE \|plainchapter4 Concerning the Agricultural Seasons}}</ref>Etymology {{Listen image \| main_image = Quebec city, Quebec, Canada202205.jpg \| main_image_caption = Autumnal scene with yellow, orange, and red leaves \| main_image_alt = Autumnal scene with yellow, orange, and red leaves \| filename = Leaves falling from the trees during autumn in the forest.wav \| title = Leaves falling from the trees during autumn in the forest \| description = Sound of leaves on trees and fallen on the ground }} The word autumn ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɔː\|t\|ə\|m}}) is derived from Latin autumnus, archaic auctumnus, possibly from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBreyer\|firstGertraud\|titleEtruskisches Sprachgut im Lateinischen unter Ausschluss des spezifisch onomastischen Bereiches\|year1993\|publisherPeeters Publishers\|isbn90-6831-335-5\|pages412–413\|languagede}}</ref> Alternative etymologies include {{langx\|ine-x-proto\|h₃ewǵ-\|\|cold}}) or {{lang\|ine-x-proto\|h₂sows-}} ('dry').<ref>Tucker, T.G., Etymological Dictionary of Latin, Ares Publishers, 1976 (reprint of 1931 edition).</ref> After the Greek era, the word continued to be used as the Old French word {{lang\|fro\|autompne}} ({{lang\|fr\|automne}} in modern French) or {{lang\|enm\|autumpne}} in Middle English,<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, entry at automn.</ref> and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period, there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century, it was in common use. Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch {{lang\|nl\|herfst}}, German {{lang\|de\|Herbst}}, and Scots {{lang\|sco\|hairst}}). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.<ref>{{OEtymD\|harvest}}</ref><ref>{{OEtymD\|autumn}}</ref>{{better source needed\|date=August 2020}} The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English {{lang\|ang\|fiæll}} or {{lang\|ang\|feallan}} and the Old Norse {{lang\|non\|fall}} all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning "to fall from a height" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th-century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year". Compare the origin of spring from "spring of the leaf" and "spring of the year".<ref>Little, William et al.: The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1959 edition reprinted with corrections. The phrase "fall of the leaf" was first found in print in 1545 (volume I, page 670), and the usage of "fall" in this sense is noted as "Now rare in [British] English literary use." The phrase "spring of the year" first appeared in print in 1530 (volume II, p. 1983).</ref> During the 17th century, English settlers began emigrating to the new North American colonies, and took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became nearly obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.<ref>{{cite web \|titleIs It 'Autumn' or 'Fall'? \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/autumn-vs-fall \|websiteMerriam Webster \|access-date23 September 2019}}</ref> The name backend, a once common name for the season in Northern England, has today been largely replaced by the name autumn.<ref>{{cite news\|titleRevealed: How London accents have killed off local dialects across England\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/05/26/revealed-how-london-accents-have-killed-off-local-dialects-acros/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/05/26/revealed-how-london-accents-have-killed-off-local-dialects-acros/ \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|access-date27 May 2016\|workThe Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Associations Harvest Association with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Many cultures feature autumnal harvest festivals, often the most important on their calendars. Still-extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States and Canada, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full-moon harvest festival of "tabernacles" (living in outdoor huts around the time of harvest). There are also the many festivals celebrated by indigenous peoples of the Americas tied to the harvest of ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather. This view is presented in English poet John Keats' poem To Autumn, where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of "mellow fruitfulness". In North America, while most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods usually associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider. Melancholia picture of 1875 presenting a typical view of autumn in the Polish 19th-century countryside]] Autumn, especially in poetry, has often been associated with melancholia. The possibilities and opportunities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, the amount of usable daylight drops rapidly, and many people turn inward, both physically and mentally.<ref>[http://www.symbolism.org/writing/books/sp/4/page2.html Cyclical Regenerative Time – (c) Autumn] (from 'Symbolism of Place', symbolism.org website)</ref> It has been referred to as an unhealthy season.<ref>{{Cite journal\|url http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?cdid;ccdid;rgnmain;viewtext;idnodid2222.0002.576\|title Autumn\|year 2013\|access-date 31 March 2015\|journal The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project\|publisher Michigan Publishing\|last D'Alembert\|first Jean Le Rond\|editor-last Holtrop\|editor-first Ellen\|orig-date 1751}}</ref> Similar examples may be found in Irish poet W.B. Yeats' poem The Wild Swans at Coole where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own ageing self. Like the natural world that he observes, he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. French poet Paul Verlaine's "''Chanson d'automne''" ("Autumn Song") is likewise characterised by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' To Autumn, written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season. The song "Autumn Leaves", based on the French song "Les Feuilles mortes", uses the melancholic atmosphere of the season and the end of summer as a metaphor for the mood of being separated from a loved one.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://blogs.kcrw.com/music/2017/09/the-original-autumn-leaves/\|access-date8 September 2018\|titleThe Original "Autumn Leaves"\|date19 September 2017}}</ref> Halloween in Lower Manhattan is the world's largest Halloween parade, with millions of spectators annually, and has its roots in New York City's queer community.]] Autumn is associated with Halloween (influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival),<ref name"ENC">{{cite web \|urlhttp://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572079/Halloween.html \|titleHalloween \|workEncarta \|publisherMicrosoft \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091028170821/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572079/Halloween.html \|archive-date28 October 2009 \|access-date20 June 2007 }}</ref> and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The Celtic people also used this time to celebrate the harvest with a time of feasting. At the same time though, it was a celebration of death as well. Crops were harvested, livestock were butchered, and Winter was coming.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleHalloween and the Autumn season {{!}} Arlington Heights Museum – News\|urlhttps://www.ahmuseum.org/halloween-and-the-autumn-season/\|access-date2021-09-13\|websitewww.ahmuseum.org}}</ref> Halloween, 31 October, is in autumn in the northern hemisphere. Television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery businesses use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such a holiday, with promotions going from late August or early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas. In the southern hemisphere Halloween takes place in Spring. Other associations , Finland.]] In some parts of the northern hemisphere, autumn has a strong association with the end of summer holiday and the start of a new school year, particularly for children in primary and secondary education. "Back to School" advertising and preparations usually occurs in the weeks leading to the beginning of autumn. Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada, on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States (where it is commonly regarded as the start of the Christmas and holiday season), and around the same part of the year in other places. Similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan. Television stations and networks, particularly in North America, traditionally begin their regular seasons in their autumn, with new series and new episodes of existing series debuting mostly during late September or early October (series that debut outside the autumn season are usually known as mid-season replacements). A sweeps period takes place in November to measure Nielsen Ratings. American football is played almost exclusively in the autumn months; at the high school level, seasons run from late August through early November, with some playoff games and holiday rivalry contests being played as late as Thanksgiving. In many American states, the championship games take place in early December. College football's regular season runs from September through November, while the main professional circuit, the National Football League, plays from September through to early January. Summer sports, such as association football (in Northern America, East Asia and South Africa), Canadian football, stock car racing, tennis, golf, cricket, and professional baseball, wrap up their seasons in early to late autumn; Major League Baseball's championship World Series is popularly known as the "Fall Classic".<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fallclassicdefin0000ende\|url-accessregistration\|titleThe Fall Classic: The Definitive History of the World Series\|firstEric\|lastEnders\|publisherSterling Publishing Company\|year2007\|isbn978-1-4027-4770-0}}</ref> (Amateur baseball is usually finished by August.) Likewise, professional winter sports, such as ice hockey and basketball, and most leagues of association football in Europe, are in the early stages of their seasons during autumn; American college basketball and college ice hockey play teams outside their athletic conferences during the late autumn before their in-conference schedules begin in winter. The Christian religious holidays of All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day are observed in autumn in the Northern hemisphere. Easter falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere. The secular celebration of International Workers' Day also falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere. Since 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States.<ref>[http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/ Popular Baby Names], Social Security Online.</ref> In Indian mythology, autumn is considered to be the preferred season for the goddess of learning Saraswati, who is also known by the name of "goddess of autumn" (Sharada). In Asian mysticism, Autumn is associated with the element of metal, and subsequently with the colour white, the White Tiger of the West, and death and mourning. Tourism , Vermont, U.S.]] {{See also\|Leaf peeping}}Although colour change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, coloured autumn foliage is noted in various regions of the world: most of North America, Eastern Asia (including China, Korea, and Japan), Europe, southeast, south, and part of the midwest of Brazil,<ref>{{Cite web\|date2018-04-21\|titleLugares para curtir o outono no Brasil que você precisa conhecer\|urlhttps://blog.guichevirtual.com.br/lugares-para-curtir-o-outono-no-brasil/\|access-date2020-11-05\|websiteGuiche Virtual\|languagept-BR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastTurismo\|firstiG\|date2020-03-18\|title8 destinos nacionais para você visitar durante o outono – Destinos Nacionais – iG\|urlhttps://turismo.ig.com.br/destinos-nacionais/2020-03-18/8-destinos-nacionais-para-visitar-durante-o-outono.html\|access-date2020-11-05\|websiteTurismo\|languagept-BR}}</ref> the forest of Patagonia, eastern Australia and New Zealand's South Island. Eastern Canada and New England are famous for their autumnal foliage,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gov.ns.ca/news/details.asp?id19990921001 \|titleNova Scotia Capitalizes on Fall Tourism &#124; Government of Nova Scotia \|publisherGov.ns.ca \|date21 September 1999 \|access-date2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/the-complete-guide-to-leafpeeping-612904.html \|titleThe Complete Guide to Leaf-Peeping & Advice, Travel \|workThe Independent \|date14 September 2002 \|access-date2010-03-06 \| locationLondon \| firstBen \| lastRoss}}</ref> and this attracts major tourism (worth billions of US dollars) for the regions.<ref>{{cite web \|authorShir Haberman \|urlhttp://www.seacoastonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20071009/NEWS/710090335 \|titleLeaf peepers storm N.H., Maine \|publisherSeacoastOnline.com \|access-date2010-03-06 \|archive-date14 September 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100914165754/http://www.seacoastonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID%2F20071009%2FNEWS%2F710090335 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid10000103&sida3vkUrgIabaA&referus \|titleRecord New England Rains Make Foliage 'a Dud,' Hurt Tourism \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|date4 November 2005 \|access-date2010-03-06}}</ref>Views of autumn <gallery> File:Acer saccharum Equinox Mountain Vermont.jpg\|Autumn foliage in Vermont, US File:Maple Trees by Creek.jpg\|Maple leaves changing colour by a creek. File:Pumpkin-Pie-Whole-Slice.jpg\|Pumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America File:01259 All Saints Day Sanok, 2011.jpg\|All Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok, Poland—flowers and lit candles are placed to honour the memory of deceased relatives. File:Autumnleavesfalling-kanagawa-2022Dec5.webm\|Falling autumn leaves in Kanagawa, Japan File:Harvest Straw Bales in Schleswig-Holstein.jpg\|Harvest straw bales in a field of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany File:Pumpkins-2009.jpg\|Halloween pumpkins File:Чарівна мить жовтневого світанку.jpg\|Autumn in Sedniv, Ukraine File:Autumn in Arrowtown, New Zealand.jpg\|Autumn colours in Arrowtown, New Zealand File:Autumn in Spanish park.jpg\|Autumn seen in a park in Madrid, Spain </gallery> Allegories of autumn in art <gallery> File:Allegory_of_Autumn_-_sala_di_Prometeo.jpg\|Autumn, by Giuseppe Collignon File:Autumn_Legros_Louvre_MR1981.jpg\|Autumn, by Pierre Le Gros the Elder File:Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Autumn, 1573.jpg\|Autumn (1573), by Giuseppe Arcimboldo File:Alfons_Mucha_-_1896_-_Autumn.jpg\|Autumn (1896), by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha File:Autumn_LCCN90708855.jpg\|Autumn (1871), by Currier & Ives File:Maxfield_Parrish_-_Autumn_(1905).jpg\|This 1905 print by Maxfield Frederick Parrish illustrated John Keats' poem To Autumn </gallery> See also * Autumn in New England * Diwali References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{sister project links\|dQ1314\|qAutumn\|wiktautumn\|cCategory:Autumn\|nno\|bno\|vno\|voyno\|mno\|mwno\|sno\|speciesno}} {{Seasons}} {{Authority control}} Category:Etymologies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumn	2025-04-05T18:26:15.830664
3052	Alameda, California	{{Short description\|City in California, United States}} {{About\|the city\|other uses\|Alameda (disambiguation){{!}}Alameda}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=May 2024}} {{Infobox settlement <!-- See the table at Template:Infobox settlement for all fields and descriptions of their usage. -->\| name = Alameda \| settlement_type = City <!-- Images and maps ------>\| image_skyline = {{multiple image \| total_width = 280 \| border = infobox \| perrow = 2/2 \| caption_align = center \| image1 = Alameda_City_Hall_(Alameda,_CA)_2.JPG \| alt1 = Alameda City Hall \| caption1 = Alameda City Hall \| image2 = Alameda High School (cropped).JPG \| alt2 = Alameda High School \| caption2 = Alameda High School \| image3 = Alameda_Theater_(50842809421).jpg \| alt3 = Alameda Theater \| caption3 = Alameda Theater }} \| image_flag = Flag of Alameda, California.svg \| flag_border = no \| image_seal = Seal of Alameda, California.svg \| nickname The Island City<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cityofalamedaca.gov/City-Hall/Administration\|titleThe Island City\|access-dateJuly 13, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110726174125/http://www.cityofalamedaca.gov/City-Hall/Administration\|archive-dateJuly 26, 2011\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \| motto Prosperita terra mari que<br>("Prosperity from the land and the sea")<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://alamedacommunityfund.org/brief-history-of-alameda/\|titleA Brief History of Alameda\|publisherAlameda Community Fund\|access-date=February 17, 2025}}</ref> \| image_map {{maplink\|frameyes\|plainyes\|frame-aligncenter\|frame-width280\|frame-height280\|frame-coordSWITCH:{{coord\|qidQ490744}}###{{coord\|qidQ107146}}###{{coord\|qidQ99}}###{{coord\|qidQ30}}\|zoomSWITCH:11;8;5;3\|typeSWITCH:shape-inverse;shape;point;point\|markercity\|stroke-width2\|stroke-color#5f5f5f\|id2SWITCH:Q490744;Q107146;Q99;Q30\|type2shape\|fill2#ffffff\|fill-opacity2SWITCH:0;0.1;0.1;0.1\|stroke-width22\|stroke-color2#5f5f5f\|stroke-opacity2SWITCH:0;1;1;1\|switchAlameda;Alameda County;California;the United States}} <!-- Location ------------->\| coordinates {{coord\|37\|45\|22\|N\|122\|16\|28\|W\|region:US-CA_type:city(74000)\|displayinline,title}} \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = United States \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_name1 = California \| subdivision_name2 = Alameda <!-- History -------------->\| established_title = Founded<br />Incorporated \| established_date = June 6, 1853<br />April 19, 1854 <!-- Government ----------->\| government_type = Council–manager \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Marilyn Ezzy Ashcraft<ref>{{Cite web \|url = https://www.alamedaca.gov/GOVERNMENT/Elected-Officials/Mayor-Ezzy-Ashcraft \|title = Mayor Marilyn Ezzy Ashcraft \|publisher = City of Alameda \|access-date = February 12, 2019}}</ref> \| leader_title1 = State senator \| leader_name1 {{Representative\|casd\|9\|fmtsleader}}<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://senate.ca.gov/senators \|title=Senators \|access-date=March 18, 2013 \|publisher=State of California}}</ref> \| unit_pref = Imperial \| area_footnotes <ref name"CenPopGazetteer2020">{{cite web\|title2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\|urlhttps://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_06.txt\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau\|access-dateOctober 30, 2021}}</ref> \| area_total_sq_mi = 22.98 \| area_land_sq_mi = 10.45 \| area_water_sq_mi = 12.53 \| area_water_percent = 53.79 \| area_total_km2 = 59.52 \| area_land_km2 = 27.06 \| area_water_km2 = 32.45 <!-- Elevation ------------>\| elevation_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite GNIS\|277468\|Alameda}}</ref> \| elevation_ft = 33 <!-- Population ----------->\| population_total 78280<ref name"Census 2020">{{cite web \|titleAlameda city, California \|urlhttps://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/alamedacitycalifornia/POP010220#POP010220 \|access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref> \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_density_sq_mi = 7491.63 \| population_density_km2 = 2892.62 \| population_footnotes \| pop_est_as_of \| pop_est_footnotes \| population_est \| population_demonym = Alamedan <!-- Time zones ----------->\| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes<ref>{{Cite web \| url = https://tools.usps.com/go/ZipLookupAction!input.action \| title = ZIP Code(tm) Lookup \| publisher = United States Postal Service \| access-date = November 24, 2014}}</ref> \| postal_code = 94501–94502 \| area_code = 510, 341 \| area_code_type = Area code \| website = {{URL\|alamedaca.gov}} \| leader_title2 = Assemblymember \| leader_name2 {{Representative\|caad\|18\|fmtsleader}}<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://assembly.ca.gov/assemblymembers \|title=Members Assembly \|access-date=March 18, 2013 \|publisher=State of California}}</ref> \| leader_title3 = U. S. rep. \| leader_name3 {{Representative\|cacd\|12\|fmtusleader}}<ref>{{Cite GovTrack\|CA\|12\|access-date=March 12, 2013}}</ref> <!-- Area ----------------->\| timezone = Pacific \| utc_offset = −8 \| timezone_DST = PDT \| utc_offset_DST = −7 <!-- Codes ---------------->\| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = {{FIPS\|06\|00562}} \| blank1_name = GNIS feature IDs \| blank1_info = {{GNIS 4\|277468}}, {{GNIS 4\|2409669}} }} Alameda ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|l\|ə\|'\|m\|i:\|d\|ə}} {{respell\|AL\|ə\|MEE\|də}}; {{IPA\|es\|alaˈmeða\|lang}}; Spanish for "tree-lined path") is a city in Alameda County, California, United States, located in the East Bay region of the Bay Area. The city is built on an informal archipelago in San Francisco Bay, consisting of Alameda Island, Bay Farm Island and Coast Guard Island, along with other smaller islands. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 78,280.<ref name"Census 2020" />History Ohlone era Alameda originally occupied a peninsula connected to Oakland.<ref>{{cite web \|dateDecember 18, 2013 \|titleDays Gone By: In 1902, 'island city' Alameda celebrates its new tidal canal \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2013/12/18/days-gone-by-in-1902-island-city-alameda-celebrates-its-new-tidal-canal}}</ref> The area was low-lying and marshy, while higher ground was part of one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. A local band of the Ohlone tribe inhabited the region for more than 3,000 years. They were present at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century. The Ohlone created numerous oyster shell mounds across the peninsula, some as large as 14 feet tall.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastalamedapost \|date2022-02-01 \|titleAlameda’s First Inhabitants \|urlhttps://alamedapost.com/history/alamedas-first-inhabitants/ \|access-date2025-03-24 \|websiteAlameda Post \|languageen-US}}</ref>Spanish and Mexican eras was part of Rancho San Antonio, granted to the Peralta family in 1820.\|left]] Spanish colonists called the area Encinal, meaning "forest of evergreen oak".<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9V1IAAAAMAAJ\| titleThe Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States \| publisherGovt. Print. Off. \| authorGannett, Henry \| year1905 \| pages[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9V1IAAAAMAAJ/page/n118 119]}}</ref> What is now Alameda, and much of the East Bay was included in the vast Rancho San Antonio granted to Don Luis María Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the Republic of Mexico after its independence in 1821 from Spain. Over time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio.<ref name"CGN">{{California's Geographic Names\|592}}</ref>Early California era The city of Alameda was founded on June 6, 1853, following the Mexican–American War of 1848 and the subsequent acquisition of California by the U.S. The name Alameda is Spanish for "grove of poplar trees" or "tree-lined avenue"<ref>{{cite web \|titlealameda – Spanish-English Translation and Pronunciation \|urlhttp://education.yahoo.com/reference/dict_en_es/spanish/alameda;_yltAmS17PW60RO5ki1NGlCOvxP2s8sF \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080821203928/https://education.yahoo.com/reference/dict_en_es/spanish/alameda \|archive-dateAugust 21, 2008 \|access-dateFebruary 15, 2010 \|workYahoo! Education \|publisherYahoo!}}</ref> and was chosen in 1853 as city's official name by popular vote.<ref>{{cite web \|titleA Brief History of Alameda \|urlhttp://www.ci.alameda.ca.us/community/history_01.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100202202341/http://www.ci.alameda.ca.us/community/history_01.html \|archive-dateFebruary 2, 2010 \|access-dateFebruary 15, 2010 \|publisherCity of Alameda, California}}</ref> At the time, Alameda comprised three small settlements: * Alameda — a village at Encinal and High streets * Hibbardsville — ocated at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and * Woodstock — on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast and the Central Pacific Railroads. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole. The borders of Alameda were expanded to include the entire island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda.<ref name="CGN" /> In his autobiography, writer Mark Twain described Alameda as "The Garden of California."<ref>{{cite book\|last1Twain\|first1Mark\|titleAutobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 1: The Complete and Authoritative Edition\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0tQjH8yzrdcC&pgPA254\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-94699-6\|page254\|dateNovember 15, 2010}}</ref> The first post office opened in 1854.<ref nameCGN /> The first school, Schermerhorn School, was opened a year later in 1855 (eventually renamed as Lincoln School). The San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864.<ref nameCGN /> The early formation of the Park Street Historic Commercial District (or downtown) was centered near the train lines.<ref name"nrhpdoc">{{cite web \|author \|date\|titleNational Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Park Street Historic Commercial District \|url{{NRHP url\|id82002154}} \|accessdateSeptember 17, 2023 \|publisherNational Park Service}} With {{NRHP url\|id82002154\|photosy\|titleaccompanying pictures}}</ref> Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891.<ref nameCGN /> On September 6, 1869, the Alameda Terminal made history; it was the site of the arrival of the first train via the First transcontinental railroad to reach the shores of San Francisco Bay,<ref name"daily Alta ca">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?ad&dDAC18690907.2.6&srpos66&e01-06-1869-31-12-1869--en--20--61--txt-txIN-western+pacific-------1\|titleThe first through train on the Western Pacific Road\|publisherDaily Alta California September 7, 1869 – California Digital Newspaper Collection\|websitecdnc.ucr.edu\|access-dateJune 20, 2018}}</ref> marking the first coast to coast transcontinental railroad in North America. The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, used as training quarters for some of the most popular fighters in boxing from 1883 to 1914.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCROLL BUILDING \|urlhttp://ohp.parks.ca.gov/ListedResources/Detail/954 \|websiteCalifornia State Park Office of Historic Preservation \|publisherState of California \|access-dateJune 3, 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> Jack Johnson and several other champions all stayed and trained here.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Rego \|first1Nilda \|titleDays Gone By: John Croll made Alameda a playground for fun lovers \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2011/10/21/days-gone-by-john-croll-made-alameda-a-playground-for-fun-lovers/ \|access-dateJune 3, 2020 \|workThe Mercury News \|publisherBay Area News Group \|dateOctober 21, 2011}}</ref> The need for expanded shipping facilities and increased flow of current through the estuary led to the dredging of a tidal canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda. Construction started in 1874, but it was not completed until 1902, resulting in Alameda becoming an island.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2013/12/18/days-gone-by-in-1902-island-city-alameda-celebrates-its-new-tidal-canal/\|titleDays Gone By: In 1902, 'island city' Alameda celebrates its new tidal canal\|workSan Jose Mercury News\|dateDecember 18, 2013\|lastRego\|firstNilda}}</ref> Modern era , established in 1917]] In 1917, a private entertainment park called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove, which became a major recreation destination in the 1920s and 1930s. Both the American snow cone<ref>{{cite news\| titleAround Town – Alameda, CA\| urlhttp://www.alamedamagazine.com/media/Alameda-Magazine/January-February-2005/Around-Town/\| access-dateDecember 6, 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081205022242/http://www.alamedamagazine.com/media/Alameda-Magazine/January-February-2005/Around-Town/\| archive-dateDecember 5, 2008\| url-statusdead\| dfmdy-all}}</ref> and the popsicle<ref>{{cite news\|titleAlameda Museum Quarterly Newsletter \|urlhttp://www.alamedamuseum.org/Quarterly/alamedamuseumQ405.pdf \|page8 \|access-dateDecember 4, 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080229174221/https://www.alamedamuseum.org/Quarterly/alamedamuseumQ405.pdf \|archive-dateFebruary 29, 2008 }}</ref> were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll became the original prize for winning games of chance at the beach, another Neptune Beach innovation.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://48hills.org/sfbgarchive/2011/06/08/alameda-all-once/\|titleAlameda all at once – 48 hills\|lastpaula\|work48 hills\|access-dateJune 12, 2017\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.alamedamagazine.com/Alameda-Magazine/December-2011/11-Goners/\|title11 Goners\|workAlameda Magazine\|languageen\|dateDecember 2011\|access-dateJune 12, 2017\|archive-dateAugust 19, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180819132911/http://www.alamedamagazine.com/Alameda-Magazine/December-2011/11-Goners/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The park closed down in 1939. The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best-equipped shipyards in the country. Together with other industrial facilities, it became part of the defense industry buildup before and during World War II, which attracted many migrants from other parts of the United States for the high-paying jobs. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and shipbuilding industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary. In the early 21st century, the Port of Oakland, across the estuary, has become one of the largest ports on the West Coast. Its operators use shipping technologies originally experimented within Alameda. As of April 2006,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCOAST GUARD CITIES \|urlhttps://www.uscg.mil/Community/cities/}}</ref> Alameda is a "Coast Guard City", one of six then designated in the country (as of 2025, it is one of 34).<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20060322/ai_n16140812\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100202181523/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20060322/ai_n16140812/\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateFebruary 2, 2010\|titleAfter 80 years, Alameda named 'Coast Guard City'\|lastBender\|firstKristin\|dateMarch 22, 2006\|workOakland Tribune\|publisherBNET\|access-date=February 15, 2010}}</ref> In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific). Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops, where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired. These were later adapted as the East Bay Electric Lines. The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole. In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along with the fill that led to the Alameda Mole, the original home base for the China Clipper flying boat. In 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.airfieldsfreeman.com/CA/Airfields_CA_Oakland.htm#sanfranbay\|titleAbandoned & Little-Known Airfields: Oakland Area\|lastFreeman\|firstPaul\|dateDecember 27, 2009\|workAbandoned & Little-Known Airfields: California\|publisherPaul Freeman\|access-dateFebruary 15, 2010}}</ref> In the late 1950s, the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the Old Sea Wall and created South Shore. On February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station suddenly caught fire {{convert\|28,000\|ft\|m}} above the San Francisco Bay, crashing into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people including the pilot died in the crash and fire.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Crash of Navy A-7E Corsair II – Alameda, Calif. – February 7, 1973\|urlhttp://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Navy_A-7_CorsairII_crash_site.htm\|websiteCheck-Six.com\|access-dateSeptember 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>Kulczyk, David. (2009). Death In California – The Bizarre, Freakish, and Just Curious Ways People Die in the Golden State. Craven Street Books. P117 {{ISBN\|978-1-884995-57-6}}</ref> Geography Alameda's nickname is "The Island". Today, the city consists of three major sections: * Alameda Island – The main original section created by dredging a channel between Oakland to the north, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, South Shore along the southern side of Alameda Island, * Bay Farm Island – Part of the mainland proper, and attached to Oakland. * Coast Guard Island – A small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, home of Integrated Support Command Alameda.<ref>{{cite web \|titleISC Alameda Home \|urlhttp://www.uscg.mil/mlcpac/iscalameda/ \|url-statusbot: unknown \|archive-urlhttp://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011109232748/http://www.uscg.mil/mlcpac/iscalameda/ \|archive-dateNovember 9, 2001 \|access-dateJuly 13, 2017 \|website=Webarchive.loc.gov}}</ref> , spanning the Oakland Estuary, connects Alameda in the south to Oakland in the north.]] The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point." The South Shore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point, Bay Farm Island, and South Shore are largely built on bay fill. ]] ]] Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda; a small portion of a dump site west of the former runway at Alameda Naval Air Station extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and therefore part of the City and County of San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.militarymuseum.org/NASAlameda.html\|titleHistoric California Posts: Naval Air Station, Alameda\|websiteMilitarymuseum.org\|access-dateJuly 13, 2017}}</ref> Ballena Isle, an even smaller island, is also part of Alameda. <!-- Notice the small grey sliver on Alameda Point; it is part of San Francisco.--> Climate This region experiences warm (but not hot), dry summers, and cool (but not cold), wet winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s60547&citynameAlameda,+California,+United+States+of+America&units\|titleAlameda, California Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase)\|websiteWeatherbase.com\|access-date=July 13, 2017}}</ref> Annual precipitation is about {{cvt\|22.\|in}}, all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay Area). {{Weather box \|location = Alameda NAS, California \|single line = Y \|Jan record high F \|Feb record high F \|Mar record high F \|Apr record high F \|May record high F \|Jun record high F \|Jul record high F \|Aug record high F \|Sep record high F \|Oct record high F \|Nov record high F \|Dec record high F \|year record high F \|Jan high F 58.3 \|Feb high F = 61.8 \|Mar high F = 64.6 \|Apr high F = 67.5 \|May high F = 69.4 \|Jun high F = 71.6 \|Jul high F = 72.0 \|Aug high F = 73.0 \|Sep high F = 74.3 \|Oct high F = 72.3 \|Nov high F = 65.4 \|Dec high F = 58.5 \|year high F \|Jan mean F 52.3 \|Feb mean F = 55.3 \|Mar mean F = 57.7 \|Apr mean F = 59.7 \|May mean F = 61.8 \|Jun mean F = 63.9 \|Jul mean F = 64.7 \|Aug mean F = 65.7 \|Sep mean F = 66.6 \|Oct mean F = 64.5 \|Nov mean F = 58.7 \|Dec mean F = 52.9 \|year mean F \|Jan low F 46.4 \|Feb low F = 48.9 \|Mar low F = 50.8 \|Apr low F = 51.9 \|May low F = 54.2 \|Jun low F = 56.2 \|Jul low F = 57.5 \|Aug low F = 58.4 \|Sep low F = 58.9 \|Oct low F = 56.6 \|Nov low F = 52.0 \|Dec low F = 47.3 \|year low F \|Jan record low F \|Feb record low F \|Mar record low F \|Apr record low F \|May record low F \|Jun record low F \|Jul record low F \|Aug record low F \|Sep record low F \|Oct record low F \|Nov record low F \|Dec record low F \|year record low F \|rain colour = green \|Jan rain inch = 4.21 \|Feb rain inch = 4.10 \|Mar rain inch = 2.74 \|Apr rain inch = 1.18 \|May rain inch = 0.72 \|Jun rain inch = 0.15 \|Jul rain inch = 0.01 \|Aug rain inch = 0.04 \|Sep rain inch = 0.19 \|Oct rain inch = 1.94 \|Nov rain inch = 2.50 \|Dec rain inch = 4.00 \|year rain inch \|unit rain days 0.01 in \|Jan rain days = 10.3 \|Feb rain days = 9.5 \|Mar rain days = 11.4 \|Apr rain days = 5.5 \|May rain days = 3.1 \|Jun rain days = 1.4 \|Jul rain days = 0.4 \|Aug rain days = 0.6 \|Sep rain days = 1.6 \|Oct rain days = 3.6 \|Nov rain days = 8.4 \|Dec rain days = 10.6 \|year rain days \|source 1 NCEI (Data Tools: 1981-2010 Normals)<ref name = NOAA > {{cite web \|url = https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/datatools/normals \|title = ALAMEDA NAS, CA US \|publisher= NCEI \|access-date = June 28, 2019 }}</ref> }} Hazards The low-lying island has seen sea-level and groundwater level rise threaten its infrastructure and people not just through flooding events, but through the increased liquefaction risk from more saturated soils. The locations of increasing groundwater-induced risks and flooding risks may be most precise in private insurance company maps.<ref>City of Alameda. "THE RESPONSE OF THE SHALLOW GROUNDWATER LAYER AND CONTAMINANTS TO SEA LEVEL RISE" Silvestrum Climate Associates. September 2020.https://www.alamedaca.gov/files/assets/public/alameda-pio/slr2020.pdf</ref> Demographics {{Historical populations \|type= USA \|1860\| 460 \|1870\| 1557 \|1880\| 5708 \|1890\| 11165 \|1900\| 16464 \|1910\| 23383 \|1920\| 28806 \|1930\| 35033 \|1940\| 36256 \|1950\| 64430 \|1960\| 63855 \|1970\| 70968 \|1980\| 63852 \|1990\| 76459 \|2000\| 72259 \|2010\| 73812 \|2020\| 78280 \|2023\| 75353 \|align-fn=center \|footnoteU.S. Decennial Census<ref name"DecennialCensus">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html\|titleCensus of Population and Housing\|publisherCensus.gov\|access-dateJune 4, 2015 }}</ref> }} 2020 {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|+Alameda, California – Racial and ethnic composition<br><small>{{nobold\|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.}}</small> !Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small> !Pop 2000<ref name2000CensusP004>{{Cite web\|titleP004: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – Alameda city, California\|urlhttps://data.census.gov/table?g160XX00US0600562&tidDECENNIALSF12000.P004\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-date=January 26, 2024}}</ref> !Pop 2010<ref name2010CensusP2>{{Cite web\|titleP2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Alameda city, California \|urlhttps://data.census.gov/table?qp2&g160XX00US0600562&tidDECENNIALPL2010.P2\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2024}}</ref> !{{partial\|Pop 2020}}<ref name2020CensusP2>{{Cite web\|titleP2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Alameda city, California \|urlhttps://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?qp2&g160XX00US0600562&tidDECENNIALPL2020.P2\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2024}}</ref> !% 2000 !% 2010 !{{partial\|% 2020}} \|- \|White alone (NH) \|37,921 \|33,468 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|32,152 \|52.48% \|45.34% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|41.07% \|- \|Black or African American alone (NH) \|4,350 \|4,516 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|4,399 \|6.02% \|6.12% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5.62% \|- \|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) \|365 \|247 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|173 \|0.51% \|0.33% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.22% \|- \|Asian alone (NH) \|18,757 \|22,822 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|25,107 \|25.96% \|30.92% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|32.07% \|- \|Pacific Islander alone (NH) \|407 \|342 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|356 \|0.56% \|0.46% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.45% \|- \|Other race alone (NH) \|235 \|278 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|556 \|0.33% \|0.38% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.71% \|- \|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) \|3,499 \|4,047 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|6,102 \|4.84% \|5.48% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|7.80% \|- \|Hispanic or Latino (any race) \|6,725 \|8,092 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|9,435 \|9.31% \|10.96% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|12.05% \|- \|Total \|72,259 \|73,812 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|78,280 \|100.00% \|100.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|100.00% \|} 2010 The 2010 United States census<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl06:0600562\|title2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA – Alameda city\|publisherU.S. Census Bureau\|access-dateJuly 12, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140924040354/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl06:0600562\|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630) The population density was {{convert\|3,214.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|spus\|adjoff}}. The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8%) White, 23,058 (31.2%) Asian, 4,759 (6.4%) African American, 426 (0.6%) Native American, 381 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3%) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0%). The Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9%) were institutionalized. There were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or same-sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,874 (9.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.06. The age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7%) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4%) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5%) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males. Per capita annual income (in 2013 dollars) in 2009–2013 was $41,340 per the US Census. Median household income in 2009–2013 was $74,606 per the US Census. There were 32,351 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,409.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|spus\|adjoff}}, of which 30,123 were occupied, of which 14,488 (48.1%) were owner-occupied, and 15,635 (51.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 37,042 people (50.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units. 2000 As of the census<ref name"GR2">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov \|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-dateJanuary 31, 2008 \|title=U.S. Census website }}</ref> of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3/km{{sup\|2}} (6,693.4/mi<sup>2</sup>). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km{{sup\|2}} (2,931.2/mi<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 30,226 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. Of all households, 32.2% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over. There is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street before World War II, when the city's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda's pre-war Japanese American community.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.californiajapantowns.org/survey/index.php/component/mtree/sf-bay-area/alameda\|titleAlameda\|websiteCaliforniajapantowns.org\|access-dateJuly 13, 2017}}</ref> Economy , built 1879]] ]] ;Top employers According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/files/assets/public/finance/alameda-acfr-fy20-city-fs-reduced-size.pdff \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.alamedaca.gov/files/assets/public/finance/alameda-acfr-fy20-city-fs-reduced-size.pdff \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleCity of Alameda CAFR\|access-dateJuly 13, 2021}}</ref> the top employers in the city are: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! # ! Employer ! # of Employees \|- \|1 \|Penumbra Inc. \|1,839 \|- \|2 \|Alameda Unified School District \|1,068 \|- \|3 \|Alameda Hospital \|750 \|- \|4 \|Abbott Diabetes Care Inc. \|565 \|- \|5 \|City of Alameda \|543 \|- \|6 \|Kaiser Foundation Health Plan \|450 \|- \|7 \|U.S. Department of Transportation \|370 \|- \|8 \|Alameda Alliance For Health \|366 \|- \|9 \|Bay Ship & Yacht Co. \|316 \|- \|10 \|College of Alameda \|266 \|} Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS), decommissioned in 1997, was turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development, today known as Alameda Point. A cluster of artisan distilleries, wineries, breweries and tasting rooms along Monarch Street at Alameda Point is now referred to by the City of Alameda as "Spirits Alley".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSpirits Alley \|urlhttps://alamedaca.gov/visitors/spirits-alley \|websiteAlamedaca.gov}}</ref> Admiral Maltings also sits in this area, supplying craft brewers and whisky producers, and is the first craft malting house in California.<ref name"sfchronicle.com">{{Cite web \|dateJuly 7, 2017 \|titleAdmiral Maltings germinates California alt malt in Alameda \|urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/restaurants/article/Admiral-Maltings-germinates-California-alt-malt-11273732.php \|websiteSfchronicle.com}}</ref> Arts and culture ]] Arts Photo-realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including Alameda Gran Torino, which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle's most famous works.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sfmoma.org/artwork/3509\|titleRobert Bechtle, Alameda Gran Torino, 1974\|websiteSFMOMA\|access-dateJuly 13, 2017\|archive-dateMay 3, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110503005634/http://www.sfmoma.org/artwork/3509\|url-statusdead}}</ref>TheatersThe landmark Alameda Theatre is an Art Deco movie theatre designed by architect Timothy L. Pflueger and opened up in 1932. The city restored and expand it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2018-02-22 \|titleHistoric Theatre - Alameda Theatre & Cineplex \|urlhttps://www.alamedatheatres.com/historic-theatre/ \|access-date2025-03-17 \|languageen-US}}</ref> The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas, and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAltarena Playhouse \|urlhttps://www.sfstation.com/altarena-playhouse-b1424 \|websiteSF Station \|access-dateJune 22, 2021}}</ref> Radium is a planned performing arts complex at the former naval air station and has seasonal shows in an outdoor theater.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNelson \|firstAndrew \|date2024-04-08 \|titleEntitlement Permits Filed for Radium Theater, Alameda \|urlhttps://sfyimby.com/2024/04/entitlement-permits-filed-for-radium-theater-alameda.html \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websiteSan Francisco YIMBY \|languageen-US}}</ref> Festivals The Fourth of July parade is advertised as the longest in the United States.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCity of Alameda – Official 4th of July Parade page \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/RESIDENTS/Alameda-4th-of-July-Parade \|access-dateMarch 13, 2025 \|websitealamedaparade.com}}</ref> It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire-breathing dragons, and marching bands. There are multiple major events when streets in Alameda's historic downtown district are closed to vehicular traffic. Park Street Art and Wine Faire is the biggest and takes place the last weekend of every July with more than 200 artists and vendors. Seasonal events like the spring and winter markets, as well as themed rum, whiskey and hot cocoa strolls are spread out through the year.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 13, 2025 \|titleEvents – Downtown Alameda \|urlhttps://downtownalameda.com/events/ \|access-dateDecember 5, 2021 \|website=Downtownalameda.com}}</ref> The annual Sand Castle and Sculpture Contest takes place in June<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSand Castle & Sculpture Contest \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/Departments/Recreation-Parks/Sand-Castle-Sculpture-Contest \|access-date2025-03-13 \|websitewww.alamedaca.gov \|languageen-US}}</ref> at the Robert Crown Memorial State Beach, attracting hundreds of participants.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastalamedapost \|date2024-06-05 \|titleSand Castle and Sculpture Contest \|urlhttps://alamedapost.com/features/alameda-life/sand-castle-sculpture-contest/ \|access-date2025-03-13 \|websiteAlameda Post \|languageen-US}}</ref> The first contest was held in 1967.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 15, 2016 \|titleAlameda: Sand Castle and Sculpture Contest marks 50th year \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2016/06/15/alameda-sand-castle-and-sculpture-contest-marks-50th-year/ \|websiteMercurynews.com}}</ref> Alameda Point Antiques Faire is held on the first Sunday of every month at the former Naval Air Station runways. It is the largest antiques and collectibles show in Northern California, attracting upwards of 10,000 visitors and featuring 800 dealer booths. The faire specializes in items 20 years or older, including furniture, decorations, clothing, jewelry, art, pottery, books, and collectibles.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAntiques, Collectibles, Shows, Clothing, Food, By the Bay, Alameda Point Antiques Faire and Michaans Auctions \|urlhttps://www.alamedapointantiquesfaire.com/test3-visitor-center-1.php \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websitewww.alamedapointantiquesfaire.com}}</ref> Museums * Alameda Museum – includes exhibits about the history and culture the city with old dioramas, model ships, toys, Native American culture, and Neptune Beach.<ref name"AAA">{{cite book \|titleNorthern California \|publisherAAA Publishing \|year2012 \|locationHeathrow, Florida \|page43}}</ref> * Alameda Naval Air Museum – is focused on the history of Naval Air Station Alameda and aviation. * California Historical Radio Society Museum – set in a 125 year old telephone building, the museum covers electronic communication with artifacts from the late 1800’s on display.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAbout California Historical Radio Society – California Historical Radio Society \|urlhttps://californiahistoricalradio.com/about/ \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websitecaliforniahistoricalradio.com}}</ref> * Pacific Pinball Museum – an interactive museum/arcade with a chronological and historical selection of rare and early pinball games including a rotating set of more than 100 playable pinball machines ranging in era from the 1940s to present day located on Webster Street.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAbout {{!}} Pacific Pinball Museum \|urlhttps://www.pacificpinball.org/aboutus \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websiteppmuseum \|language=en}}</ref> * USS Hornet Museum – a museum ship of the aircraft carrier {{USS\|Hornet\|CV-12\|6}}. It has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as since 1998. Government Alameda is a charter city governed by a five-member City Council, including the Mayor, who are all elected at large. The City operates under a council-manager system defined by the City Charter,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKey Documents \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/GOVERNMENT/Key-City-Documents#section-3 \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websitewww.alamedaca.gov \|language=en-US}}</ref> with a professional City Manager overseeing daily administration. The City Manager is responsible for city operations, budget administration, and implementing council policies, distinguishing Alameda from strong-mayor systems often in bigger cities. The City Attorney and City Clerk report directly to the Council. The budget for the city is greater than $310 million a year as of the 2023-25 biannual budgets planning cycle.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastalamedapost \|date2023-06-23 \|titleCouncil Approves Strong Budget \|urlhttps://alamedapost.com/news/council-approves-strong-budget/ \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websiteAlameda Post \|languageen-US}}</ref> The City Treasurer and City Auditor are independently elected.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKey Documents \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/GOVERNMENT/Key-City-Documents#section-3 \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websitewww.alamedaca.gov \|languageen-US}}</ref> Residents appointed by the Mayor and City Council serve on a range of boards and commissions overseeing major components of the city (for example recreation and parks, library, transportation and planning).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBoards & Commissions \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/GOVERNMENT/Boards-Commissions \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websitewww.alamedaca.gov \|language=en-US}}</ref> Alameda's government is responsible for a range of municipal services, including public safety, transportation, parks, and land use planning. Rare to a city of its size, it operates its own city-wide electricity utility, Alameda Municipal Power, which has 100% clean electricity<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePower Content Label {{!}} Alameda Municipal Power, CA \|urlhttps://alamedamp.com/336/Power-Content-Label \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websitealamedamp.com}}</ref> and as much as a 48% savings over comparable PG&E rates.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastalamedapost \|date2024-06-05 \|titleAlameda Electric Rates Will Increase 3% on July 1 \|urlhttps://alamedapost.com/news/alameda-electric-rates-will-increase-3-on-july-1/ \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websiteAlameda Post \|languageen-US}}</ref>Alameda Free LibraryThere are three library locations: the Main Library in downtown Alameda, the Bay Farm Island Library and the West End Library. Beyond books, services at the library include events and author talks, computer labs, home delivery of books,<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePatron Services \|urlhttps://www.alamedafree.org/SERVICES/Patron-Services \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websitewww.alamedafree.org \|languageen-US}}</ref> as well as e-book, streaming digital media, and audio book catalogs.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBOOKS & MORE \|urlhttps://www.alamedafree.org/BOOKS-MORE \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websitewww.alamedafree.org \|languageen-US}}</ref> Historical resources of Alameda's past include local newspaper and magazine archives, high school yearbooks, books by local authors and maps.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLocal History Resources Available at the Alameda Free Library \|urlhttps://www.alamedafree.org/Local-History-Resources-Available-at-the-Alameda-Free-Library \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websitewww.alamedafree.org \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 2000 voters authorized a bond measure to construct a new main library to replace the city's Carnegie Library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new main library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006. Education ]] Public primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District (AUSD), which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). More than 9,000 students are enrolled in the AUSD system across nine elementary, four middle, four high schools.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAbout AUSD - Alameda Unified School District \|urlhttps://www.alamedaunified.org/about/about-ausd \|access-date2025-03-14 \|websitewww.alamedaunified.org \|languageen-US}}</ref> The California Department of Education School Dashboard reports student performance is "green" and above state standards for English, math and college/career preparation.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCalifornia School Dashboard (CA Dept of Education) \|urlhttps://www.caschooldashboard.org/reports/01611190000000/2024 \|access-date2025-03-14 \|website=www.caschooldashboard.org}}</ref> The College of Alameda, a two-year community college is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school. Media The community is currently served by a non-profit online news outlet called the [http://www.alamedapost.com Alameda Post].<ref>{{cite news \|titleAbout \|urlhttps://alamedapost.com/about/ \|access-date23 February 2025 \|workAlameda Post}}</ref> Additionally, a weekly newspaper section of the East Bay Times, the Alameda Journal, is published by the Bay Area News Group, based in Walnut Creek, CA. Alameda's first newspaper, the Encinal, appeared in the 1860s.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlameda Encinal — Browse by title — California Digital Newspaper Collection \|urlhttps://cdnc.ucr.edu/?acl&clCL1&spAE&e-------en--20--1--txt-txIN-------- \|access-date2025-03-24 \|websitecdnc.ucr.edu}}</ref> Following the Encinal, several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the Daily Argus eventually rose to prominence.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHumanities \|firstNational Endowment for the \|titleAlameda daily Argus. \|urlhttps://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn92068890/ \|access-date2025-03-24}}</ref> Around 1900, the Daily Argus began to fade in importance and east and west papers The Times and The Star combined to take the leading role as the Alameda Times-Star in the 1930s. The Times-Star was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s. In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder. Between 2001 and 2023, the Alameda Sun ran a local weekly print newspaper.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-11-25 \|titleAlameda Sun to Cease Publication Nov. 30 {{!}} Alameda Sun \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231125080005/https://alamedasun.com/news/alameda-sun-cease-publication-nov-30 \|access-date2025-03-24 \|websiteweb.archive.org}}</ref> Transportation ]] {{OSM Location map \|coord = {{coord\|37.772836\|N\|122.274612\|W}} \|float=right \|zoom=12 \|scalemark=20 \|mark-coord1={{coord\|37.787535\|N\|122.276628\|W}}<!--Posey/Webster--> \|mark-coord2={{coord\|37.7717\|N\|122.237\|W}}<!--Park--> \|mark-coord3={{coord\|37.768889\|N\|122.230278\|W}}<!--Fruitvale--> \|mark-coord4={{coord\|37.7645\|N\|122.225\|W}}<!--High--> \|mark-coord5={{coord\|37.748924\|N\|122.236383\|W}}<!--Bay Farm--> \|shape1=n-square \|shape-color1#080\|shape-outline1#fff\|mark-size1=18 \|fullscreen-option=1 \|caption=Alameda Island and connections: # Posey and Webster Street tubes # Park Street Bridge # Fruitvale Bridge # High Street Bridge # Bay Farm Island Bridge }} Alameda is well connected to the region via road, ferries and nearby rail and air connections. Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one-way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Alameda and Bay Farm Islands are connected via the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge in the United States<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.acgov.org/pwa/dept_maintenance_operation_bay_farm_island_bicycle_bridge.shtml\|titleMaintenance and Operations Department\|publisherAlameda County Public Works Agency\|access-dateFebruary 15, 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100209022257/http://www.acgov.org/pwa/dept_maintenance_operation_bay_farm_island_bicycle_bridge.shtml\| archive-date February 9, 2010 \| url-status= live}}</ref>).<ref>[http://www.acgov.org/pwa/dept_maintenance_operation_bay_farm_island_bicycle_bridge.shtml Maintenance and Operations Department] Alameda County Government website</ref> California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport. The island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland. The speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road. Transportation options include: * Bus – AC Transit connects the island to Oakland and Berkeley, and express service to downtown San Francisco's Salesforce Transit Center. * Ferry – San Francisco Bay Ferry connects Alameda with San Francisco across four routes; three on the main island's west end Alameda Main St./Oakland Ferry, Alameda Seaplane Lagoon Ferry, Alameda/South San Francisco and from Bay Farm Island via the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry routes. * Water Shuttle – The Oakland Alameda Water Shuttle is pedestrian/bike boat that connects Alameda Landing and Oakland's Jack London Square runs five days a week for free. * BART and Rail – The closest BART stations are Lake Merritt and 12th Street, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge. BART's long-term plans for a second tunnel include Alameda as a candidate for the first stop on a new East Bay line.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/BART-gets-serious-about-a-2nd-East-Bay-S-F-12628607.php\|titleBART gets serious about a 2nd East Bay-S.F. Transbay Tube\|workSan Francisco Chronicle\|access-dateMarch 6, 2018}}</ref> The closest Amtrak rail station is Oakland-Jack London Square. * Air – Oakland International Airport abuts the eastern border of Alameda's Bay Farm Island, and includes passenger, freight and private aircraft flights. Notable buildings * Alameda City Hall; NRHP-listed<ref name"nrhpdoc2">{{cite web \|author \|date\|titleNational Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Alameda City Hall \|url{{NRHP url\|id80000791}} \|accessdateSeptember 19, 2023 \|publisherNational Park Service}} With {{NRHP url\|id80000791\|photosy\|title=accompanying pictures}}</ref> * Alameda High School; NRHP-listed<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlameda High School \|urlhttps://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/AssetDetail/86bed180-d28e-4a6d-a8c4-fd563ad58a8e \|website=National Register of Historic Places, Digital Archive on NPGallery}}</ref> * Croll Building; NRHP-listed and a California Historical Landmark<ref name"chl">{{cite ohp\|id954\|nameCroll Building\|accessdate}}</ref> * Masonic Temple and Lodge; NRHP-listed, and part of the Park Street Historic Commercial District<ref name="nrhpdoc" /> * Park Street Historic Commercial District; NRHP-listed and a California Historical Landmark<ref name"nrhpdoc" /> Notable people * Norman Allinger, an American organic and computational chemist and Distinguished Research Professor Emeritus was born in Alameda. * Albert Arents, a mining engineer who helped develop mineral resources of the Rocky Mountains.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/miningscien108unse \|titleMining and Scientific Press (Jan.-June 1914) \|othersCalifornia State Library\|dateDecember 31, 2023 }}</ref> * John Baker, MLB catcher for San Diego Padres and Chicago Cubs, was born in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJohn Baker Stats, Age, Position, Height, Weight, Fantasy & News \|urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/john-baker-434633 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteMLB.com \|language=en}}</ref> * Clinton Ballou (1923–2021), biochemist, died in Alameda.<ref>[https://mcb.berkeley.edu/news-and-events/department-news/memoriam-clinton-edward-ballou-1923–2021 In Memoriam: Clinton Edward Ballou (1923–2021)]</ref> * Hester A. Benedict (1838–1921), president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlameda Daily Argus 20 May 1897, page 4 \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/image/607012185/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteNewspapers.com \|language=en}}</ref> * Mike Brisiel, an offensive guard for Oakland Raiders.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRaiders release G Mike Brisiel \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nfl/2014/04/01/raiders-release-g-mike-brisiel/7176767/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteUSA TODAY \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Virginia Lee Burton, Caldecott-winning children's author and illustrator.<ref name"houghtonmifflinbooks.com">{{Cite web \|dateJune 5, 2011 \|titleBiography of Virginia Lee Burton - Early Years \|urlhttp://www.houghtonmifflinbooks.com/features/mike_mulligan/earlyyears.shtml \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|archive-dateJune 5, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110605063737/http://www.houghtonmifflinbooks.com/features/mike_mulligan/earlyyears.shtml \|url-statusbot: unknown }}</ref> * Harold Camping, television and radio personality, president and general manager of Family Stations, Inc.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 17, 2013 \|titleEast Bay 'Doomsday Minister' Harold Camping Dies \|urlhttps://www.kqed.org/news/120983/east-bay-doomsday-minister-harold-camping-dies \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteKQED \|languageen-us}}</ref> * Phyllis Diller, television comedian, attended Sunday school at First Presbyterian, married and lived in Alameda at the start of her comedy career in San Francisco in the 1950s.<ref name="houghtonmifflinbooks.com"/> * General James Doolittle, who received the Medal of Honor for his bombing of Japan during World War II; Doolittle was born in Alameda in 1896.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 18, 2014 \|titleAlameda: City recognizes World War II aviator Jimmy Doolittle \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2014/12/18/alameda-city-recognizes-world-war-ii-aviator-jimmy-doolittle-2/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteThe Mercury News \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Garrett Eckbo, landscape architect who lived in Alameda as a child, later forming the Bay Area firm of Eckbo, Royston, Williams with Robert Royston and Edward Williams.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGarrett Eckbo {{!}} TCLF \|urlhttps://www.tclf.org/pioneer/garrett-eckbo \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websitewww.tclf.org}}</ref> * Leif Erickson, actor, born in Alameda in 1911.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastUpi \|dateJanuary 31, 1986 \|titleLeif Erickson Is Dead; A Movie and TV Actor \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/31/obituaries/leif-erickson-is-dead-a-movie-and-tv-actor.html \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> * Larry Eustachy, college basketball coach, born in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLarry Eustachy - Men's Basketball Coach \|urlhttps://csurams.com/sports/mens-basketball/roster/coaches/larry-eustachy/1 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteColorado State Athletics \|language=en}}</ref> * Debbi Fields, founder of Mrs. Fields Cookies, attended Alameda High School, where she was a cheerleader.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMay 26, 2021 \|titleDebbi Fields \|urlhttps://paulcollege.unh.edu/rosenberg/franchise-pioneers-world/debbi-fields \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websitePeter T. Paul College of Business and Economics \|languageen}}</ref> * Albert Ghiorso, nuclear scientist, co-discoverer of 12 chemical elements on the periodic table; in Guinness Book of World Records for Most Elements Discovered.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastpaulpreuss \|dateJanuary 3, 2011 \|titleIn Memorian, Albert Ghiorso, 1915-2010 - Berkeley Lab \|urlhttps://newscenter.lbl.gov/2011/01/03/ghiorso-obit/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteBerkeley Lab News Center \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Brad Gillis, guitarist with Night Ranger, a San Francisco rock band formed in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDerrough \|firstLeslie Michele \|dateOctober 29, 2012 \|titleBrad Gillis \|urlhttps://glidemagazine.com/21984/brad-gillis/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websiteGlide Magazine \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Katharine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post, lived in Alameda as a child, according to Personal History, her autobiography.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOld Town Alameda \|urlhttps://www.theharrisonteam.com/neighborhood/1949 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|websitewww.theharrisonteam.com}}</ref> * Tim Hardaway Jr., a professional basketball player, was born in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTim Hardaway Jr. {{!}} Dallas Mavericks \|urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/203501/tim-hardaway-jr/ \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websitewww.nba.com \|language=en}}</ref> * Horace Heidt, bandleader and radio personality, born in Alameda on May 21, 1901.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFolkart \|firstBurt a \|dateDecember 3, 1986 \|titleHorace Heidt, 85, Dies; Led Big Band of Musical Knights \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-12-03-mn-482-story.html \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Emily Heller, comedian<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMay 10, 2021 \|titleAnnie & Emily Heller {{!}} Rhythmix Cultural Works ® \|urlhttps://www.rhythmix.org/mother-tree/annie-and-emily-heller/ \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|language=en-us}}</ref> * Marielle Heller, actress and director<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 1, 2018 \|titleAlameda's Marielle Heller Is One Hot Hollywood Director \|urlhttps://www.oaklandmagazine.com/October-2018/Alamedas-Marielle-Heller-Is-One-Hot-Hollywood-Director/ \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|archive-dateNovember 1, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181101013144/https://www.oaklandmagazine.com/October-2018/Alamedas-Marielle-Heller-Is-One-Hot-Hollywood-Director/ \|url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> * Bruce Henderson, author, grew up in Alameda, according to his book Hero Found: The Greatest POW Escape of the Vietnam War.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHero Found {{!}} Bruce Henderson \|urlhttps://brucehendersonbooks.com/books/hero-found/ \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websiteBruce Henderson Books \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Benjamin Jealous, former President of the NAACP, lived in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWoodall\|firstAngela \|dateMay 19, 2008 \|titleAfter tense vote, Alameda man named to lead NAACP \|urlhttps://www.eastbaytimes.com/2008/05/19/after-tense-vote-alameda-man-named-to-lead-naacp-2/ \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websiteEast Bay Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Joseph R. Knowland, congressman and Alameda native, was editor and publisher of the Oakland Tribune.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBaker \|firstJoseph Eugene \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsxgVAAAAYAAJ&pgPA13 \|titlePast and Present of Alameda County, California \|date1914 \|publisherS.J. Clarke \|language=en}}</ref> * William Fife Knowland, U.S. Senator, was student body president at Alameda High School.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleU.S. Senate: Senate Leaders \|urlhttps://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/parties-leadership/knowland-william.htm \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websitewww.senate.gov}}</ref> * Robert L. Lippert, theater chain owner and film producer, was an Alameda native.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleObituary of Robert L Lippert {{!}} Mission Mortuary \|urlhttps://missionmortuary.com/tribute/details/100653/Robert-Lippert/obituary.html \|access-dateDecember 26, 2023 \|websitemissionmortuary.com \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Paul Mantz, air racer and Hollywood stunt pilot, was born in Alameda in 1903.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMantz, Paul, 1903-1965 {{!}} Archives and Special Collections \|urlhttps://archives.lib.purdue.edu/agents/people/1213 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|websitearchives.lib.purdue.edu}}</ref> * Louis A. McCall Sr., drummer and musician known as the co-founder of Con Funk Shun.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWBSS Media-Michael Cooper \|urlhttps://wbssmedia.com/artists/detail/2856 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|websitewbssmedia.com}}</ref> * Margaret McNamara, founder of Reading is Fundamental, and wife of Robert McNamara, grew up in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHailey \|firstJean R. \|dateFebruary 4, 1981 \|titleMargaret McNamara Dies \|languageen-US \|newspaperWashington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1981/02/04/margaret-mcnamara-dies/1f68a9fb-c6ef-421e-9451-25da6a35fb06/ \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> * George P. Miller, a congressman from 1945 to 1973.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFor Immediate Release \|urlhttps://archives.calstate.edu/downloads/02870x218 \|access-date=December 26, 2023}}</ref> * Jack Mingo, author<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.salon.com/writer/jack_mingo\|titleJack Mingo's Articles at Salon.com\|websiteSalon.com\|access-dateDecember 5, 2021}}</ref> * Hugo Wilhelm Arthur Nahl, designer of the Seal of California.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHugo Nahl - Biography \|urlhttps://www.askart.com/artist/Hugo_Wilhelm_Arthur_Nahl/83735/Hugo_Wilhelm_Arthur_Nahl.aspx#:~:textfrom%201855-60.-,After%20his%20marriage%20in%201865%20to%20Annie%20Sweeney,%20Arthur%20moved,home%20on%20April%201,%201889. \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|website=www.askart.com}}</ref> * Don Perata, former President Pro Tempore of California State Senate, lives in Alameda; once taught at Saint Joseph Notre Dame High, Encinal High, and Alameda High, among other Alameda schools.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJoinCalifornia - Don Perata \|urlhttp://www.joincalifornia.com/candidate/5388 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|websitewww.joincalifornia.com}}</ref> * Emily Browne Powell (1847-1938), writer; president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association<ref name"AlamedaTimes1938">{{cite news \|titleObituary for Emily Browne Powell \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/alameda-times-star-obituary-for-emily-br/164791744/ \|access-date6 February 2025 \|workAlameda Times Star \|viaNewspapers.com \|date26 September 1938 \|page2}}</ref> * Carl Ravazza, bandleader, born in Alameda, 1910.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCarl Ravazza Songs, Albums, Reviews, Bio & More \|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/carl-ravazza-mn0001553338 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2023 \|websiteAllMusic \|language=en}}</ref> * Bill Rigney, Major League Baseball player and manager, was born in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|titleBill Rigney – Society for American Baseball Research \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/bill-rigney/ \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023 \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Dutch Ruether, pitcher for 1927 New York Yankees, was born in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|titleDutch Ruether – Society for American Baseball Research \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/dutch-ruether/ \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023 \|language=en-US}}</ref> Jane Sibbett, actress and comedian, grew up in Alameda.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 3, 2023 \|titleJane Sibbett parents: Meet Gaines Sibbett, William Ryan Sibbett IV \|urlhttps://ghanafuo.com/jane-sibbett-parents-meet-gaines-sibbett-william-ryan-sibbett-iv/ \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023 \|language=en-GB}}</ref> Operatic mezzo-soprano Frederica Von Stade has lived in Alameda since 1992.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCelebrating Flicka, Bright Star, on Her 75th Revolution Around the Sun \|urlhttps://www.sfcv.org/articles/music-news/celebrating-flicka-bright-star-her-75th-revolution-around-sun \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023 \|websitewww.sfcv.org \|language=en}}</ref> * Sharon Tate, actress, resident in early to late-1960s.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001790/ \| titleSharon Tate\| website=IMDb}}</ref> * Charles Lee Tilden, for whom Tilden Regional Park is named, was a longtime resident of Alameda; Tilden Way at the southeast end of the city is named for him.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastColumnist \|firstSteven Finacom {{!}} \|dateJuly 14, 2011 \|titleParkit: Tilden Park got its name in 1936 \|urlhttps://www.eastbaytimes.com/2011/07/14/parkit-tilden-park-got-its-name-in-1936/ \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023 \|websiteEast Bay Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Baseball Hall of Famer Willie Stargell,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMcGreehan \|firstMike \|dateJuly 29, 2015 \|titleMonument dedicated to Alameda legend Willie Stargell \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2015/07/29/monument-dedicated-to-alameda-legend-willie-stargell/ \|access-dateDecember 29, 2023 \|websiteThe Mercury News \|languageen-US}}</ref> MLB player Tommy Harper,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|titleTommy Harper – Society for American Baseball Research \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/tommy-harper/ \|access-dateDecember 29, 2023 \|languageen-US}}</ref> MLB player Curtell Howard Motton,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 26, 2010 \|titleHeaded For Home: Curt Motton 1940-2010 \|urlhttps://playball94501.wordpress.com/2010/01/26/safe-at-home-curt-motton/ \|access-dateDecember 29, 2023 \|websitePlayball! - Alameda's Sandlot Blog \|languageen}}</ref> 2003 National League Rookie of the Year Dontrelle Willis,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDontrelle Willis \|urlhttps://www.baberuthleague.org/media/223113/Dontrelle%20Willis.pdf \|access-dateDecember 28, 2023}}</ref> 2007 National League Most Valuable Player Jimmy Rollins,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHartlaub \|firstPeter \|dateAugust 3, 2001 \|titlePROFILE / JIMMY ROLLINS / Mom taught NL all-star from Alameda \|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/PROFILE-JIMMY-ROLLINS-Mom-taught-NL-all-star-2893819.php \|access-dateDecember 29, 2023 \|workSFGATE \|languageen}}</ref> NBA player J.R. Rider,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWallack \|firstTodd \|dateJanuary 27, 2006 \|titleMARIN COUNTY / Ex-NBA player Rider accused of kidnapping \|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/MARIN-COUNTY-Ex-NBA-player-Rider-accused-of-2542823.php \|access-dateDecember 29, 2023 \|workSFGATE \|languageen}}</ref> and NFL players Melvin Carver<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/C/CarvMe00.htm\|titleMel Carver Stats {{!}} Pro-Football-Reference.com\|websitePro-Football-Reference.com\|languageen\|access-dateOctober 5, 2017}}</ref> and Junior Tautalatasi<ref>{{cite web\|titleHall of Famers\|urlhttp://www.alamedasportsproject.com/halloffamers.htm\|websiteAlameda Sports Project\|access-dateAugust 9, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|lastMcGreehan\|firstMike\|titleSpotlight on Encinal's Hall of Fame athletes\|urlhttp://www.eastbaytimes.com/timesstar/localnews/ci_13772775\|access-dateAugust 9, 2016\|publisherEast Buy Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last1McGreehan \|first1Mike \|last2Love\|first2William\|dateNovember 12, 2009 \|titleSpotlight on Encinal's Hall of Fame athletes \|urlhttps://www.eastbaytimes.com/2009/11/12/spotlight-on-encinals-hall-of-fame-athletes/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|workEast Bay Times \|language=en-US}}</ref> all attended Encinal High School. * Jason Kidd (NBA player and coach)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKroner \|firstSteve \|dateMay 21, 2011 \|titlePast teammates recall Jason Kidd's greatness \|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/warriors/article/past-teammates-recall-jason-kidd-s-greatness-2370901.php \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|workSFGATE \|languageen}}</ref> and Joe Nelson (MLB pitcher)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|titleJoe Nelson – Society for American Baseball Research \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/joe-nelson/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|language=en-US}}</ref> attended St. Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda. * MLB players Ray French,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRay-French - Pinstripes Nation \|urlhttps://pinstripesnation.com/player/ray-french/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|languagees-ES}}</ref> Johnny Vergez,<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|dateJuly 14, 2008 \|titleJohnny Vergez, former Alameda High star, went on to long pro career \|urlhttps://www.eastbaytimes.com/2008/07/14/johnny-vergez-former-alameda-high-star-went-on-to-long-pro-career/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websiteEast Bay Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> Andy Carey,<ref>{{Cite news \|dateDecember 15, 2023 \|titleAndy Carey, Third Baseman for 1950s Yankees, Dies at 80 \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/08/sports/baseball/andy-carey-third-baseman-for-1950s-yankees-dies-at-80.html \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231215114848/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/08/sports/baseball/andy-carey-third-baseman-for-1950s-yankees-dies-at-80.html \|archive-dateDecember 15, 2023 \|last1Weber \|first1Bruce }}</ref> Bill Serena,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBill Serena Minor Leagues Statistics \|urlhttps://www.baseball-reference.com/register/player.fcgi?idserena001wil \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websiteBaseball-Reference.com \|languageen}}</ref> Erik Schullstrom,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSteward \|firstCarl Steward \|dateJanuary 27, 2012 \|title'In Our Backyard': Scouting a 'dream gig' for former pitcher Erik Schullstrom \|urlhttps://www.mercurynews.com/2012/01/27/in-our-backyard-scouting-a-dream-gig-for-former-pitcher-erik-schullstrom/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|workThe Mercury News \|languageen-US}}</ref> Dick Bartell,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|titleDick Bartell – Society for American Baseball Research \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/dick-bartell/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleDick Bartell – AHS Athletic Boosters \|urlhttps://ahsathleticboosters.com/team-member/dick-bartell/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Duffy Lewis,<ref>{{Cite news \|dateNovember 27, 1915 \|titleDuffy Lewis Got His First Real Baseball Job At Age Of Seven \|pages5 \|workThe Boston Globe \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-boston-globe-duffy-lewis-got-his-fir/80699222/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023}}</ref> Chris Speier,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShea \|firstJohn \|dateOctober 11, 2012 \|titleReds' Speier bonds with Giants' Crawford \|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/giants/shea/article/Reds-Speier-bonds-with-Giants-Crawford-3937721.php \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|workSFGATE \|languageen}}</ref> and Bryan Woo<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKroner \|firstSteve \|dateSeptember 20, 2023 \|titleMariners' Bryan Woo, an Alameda alum, shows promise with 'unique fastball' \|urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/sports/athletics/article/mariners-bryan-woo-alameda-alum-shows-18369797.php \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websiteSan Francisco Chronicle \|languageen}}</ref> all attended Alameda High School. * Many people from naval families, including celebrities such as Ann Curry,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnn Curry \|urlhttps://prezi.com/m4thgokp7ogk/ann-curry/ \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websiteprezi.com \|languageen}}</ref> Brigette Lundy-Paine,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBrigette Lundy-Paine \|urlhttps://www.flaunt.com/blog/brigette-lundy-paine \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websitewww.flaunt.com}}</ref> Tom Hanks,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTom Hanks explains how his love of movies began as a boy in Alameda \|urlhttps://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/tom-hanks-alameda-bay-area-movies-tcm-18111193 \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websiteDatebook {{!}} San Francisco Arts & Entertainment Guide \|languageen-US}}</ref> and Jim Morrison<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThings You Don't Understand About Alameda - Thrillist \|urlhttps://www.thrillist.com/entertainment/san-francisco/things-you-don-t-understand-about-alameda \|access-dateDecember 31, 2023 \|websitewww.thrillist.com}}</ref> of The Doors,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.gawker.com/the-lizard-king-next-door-1328787329\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130923001155/http://gawker.com/the-lizard-king-next-door-1328787329\|url-statusdead\|titleThe Lizard King Next Door\|firstKen\|lastLayne\|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2013\|access-dateDecember 5, 2021}}</ref> have lived in Alameda. Sister cities The city has four active and formal sister city relations<ref>{{cite web \|titleSister Cities \|urlhttps://www.alamedaca.gov/GOVERNMENT/Sister-Cities \|access-dateNovember 12, 2023 \|websitewww.alamedaca.gov}}</ref> as well as inactive ones.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInactive \|urlhttps://alamedasistercity.weebly.com/inactive.html \|access-date2025-03-17 \|websiteASCA - Inactive Cities \|language=en}}</ref> * {{Flagicon\|Philippines}} Dumaguete, Philippines (2015) * {{Flagicon\|China}} Jiangyin, China (2008) * {{Flagicon\|Italy}} Varazze, Italy (2019) * {{Flagicon\|South Korea}} Yeongdong-gun, South Korea (2017) Friendship city * {{Flagicon\|China}} Wuxi, China ** A Friendship city since 2004, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.<ref name"Alameda Sun">{{cite web \|titleAlameda Forges Ties With Jiangyin, China \|urlhttp://www.alamedasun.com/local-and-hometown/4020 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130929163126/http://www.alamedasun.com/local-and-hometown/4020 \|archive-dateSeptember 29, 2013 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2013 \|publisherAlameda Sun}}</ref> Inactive cities * {{Flagicon\|Japan}} Arita, Japan * {{Flagicon\|Sweden}} Lidingö, Sweden ** Initiated in 1959 as part of President Eisenhower's people-to-people-movement, whose purpose was to develop better understanding among people from different countries after World War II. Both Alameda and Lidingö are islands with a bridge connecting them to a big city. See also * Alameda Island * Bay Farm Island * Coast Guard Island * List of islands of California * List of ships built in Alameda, California References {{reflist\|25em}} Further reading * Merlin, Imelda. [https://alamedamuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Imelda_smallpics_4printing.pdf Alameda: a Geographical History]. Illus. with photos. Alameda: Friends of the Alameda Free Library, (1977). External links * {{Commonscatinline}} * {{wikivoyage-inline}} * {{Official website}} * {{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAlameda\|volume1\|pages468–469\|shortx}} * {{GNIS\|277468}} {{Alameda, California}} {{Alameda County, California}} {{San Francisco Bay watershed}} {{SF Bay Area}} {{California}} {{authority control}} Category:1854 establishments in California Category:Cities in Alameda County, California Category:Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California Category:Populated places established in 1854 Category:Populated coastal places in California	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda,_California	2025-04-05T18:26:15.878321
3054	Alpha helix	{{short description\|Type of secondary structure of proteins}} ]] An alpha helix (or α-helix) is a sequence of amino acids in a protein that are twisted into a coil (a helix). The alpha helix is the most common structural arrangement in the secondary structure of proteins. It is also the most extreme type of local structure, and it is the local structure that is most easily predicted from a sequence of amino acids. The alpha helix has a right-handed helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone CO group of the amino acid that is four residues earlier in the protein sequence. Other names The alpha helix is also commonly called a: * Pauling–Corey–Branson α-helix (from the names of three scientists who described its structure) * 3.6<sub>13</sub>-helix because there are 3.6 amino acids in one ring, with 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond (starting with amidic hydrogen and ending with carbonyl oxygen)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastVoet \|firstDonald \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/title/690489261 \|titleBiochemistry \|last2Voet \|first2Judith G. \|date2011 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-0-470-57095-1 \|edition4th \|locationHoboken, NJ \|pages226 \|oclc=690489261}}</ref> {{Alpha beta structure}} Discovery {{Multiple image \| width = 180 \| align \| direction vertical \| image1 = alpha helix neg60 neg45 sideview.png \| caption1 = Side view of an α-helix of alanine residues in atomic detail. Two hydrogen bonds for the same peptide group are highlighted in magenta; the H to O distance is about {{cvt\|2\|Å\|nm}}. The protein chain runs upward here; that is, its N-terminus is at the bottom and its C-terminus at the top. Note that the sidechains (black stubs) angle slightly downward, toward the N-terminus, while the peptide oxygens (red) point up and the peptide NHs (blue with grey stubs) point down. \| image2 = alpha helix neg60 neg45 topview.png \| caption2 = Top view of the same helix shown above. Four carbonyl groups are pointing upwards toward the viewer, spaced roughly 100° apart on the circle, corresponding to 3.6 amino-acid residues per turn of the helix. }} In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ≈{{convert\|5.1\|Å\|nm\|abbroff\|lkon}}. Astbury initially proposed a linked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that: * the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form) * the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form). Although incorrect in their details, Astbury's models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kendrew JC, Dickerson RE, Strandberg BE, Hart RG, Davies DR, Phillips DC, Shore VC \| s2cid 4167651 \| title Structure of myoglobin: A three-dimensional Fourier synthesis at 2&nbsp;Å resolution \| journal Nature \| volume 185 \| issue 4711 \| pages 422–7 \| date February 1960 \| pmid 18990802 \| doi 10.1038/185422a0 \| author-link John Kendrew \| bibcode 1960Natur.185..422K }}</ref> showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Neurath H \| author-link Hans Neurath \| year 1940 \| title Intramolecular folding of polypeptide chains in relation to protein structure \| journal Journal of Physical Chemistry \| volume 44 \| pages 296&ndash;305 \| doi 10.1021/j150399a003 \| issue 3}}</ref> Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Taylor HS \| author-link Hugh Stott Taylor \| year 1942 \| title Large molecules through atomic spectacles \| journal Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society \| volume 85 \| issue 1 \| pages 1&ndash;12 \| jstor 985121}}</ref> Maurice Huggins<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Huggins M \| author-link Maurice Loyal Huggins \| year 1943 \| title The structure of fibrous proteins \| journal Chemical Reviews \| volume 32 \| pages 195&ndash;218 \| doi 10.1021/cr60102a002 \| issue 2}}</ref> and Bragg and collaborators<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bragg WL, Kendrew JC, Perutz MF \| s2cid 93804323 \| author-link1 William Lawrence Bragg \| author-link2 John Kendrew \| author-link3 Max Perutz \| year 1950 \| title Polypeptide chain configurations in crystalline proteins \| journal Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A \| volume 203 \| pages 321&ndash;? \| doi 10.1098/rspa.1950.0142 \| issue 1074\|bibcode 1950RSPSA.203..321B }}</ref> to propose models of keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix. Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of planar peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pauling L, Corey RB, Branson HR \| title The structure of proteins; two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 37 \| issue 4 \| pages 205–11 \| date April 1951 \| pmid 14816373 \| pmc 1063337 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.37.4.205 \| author-link Linus Pauling \| bibcode 1951PNAS...37..205P \| author-link2 Robert Corey \| author-link3 Herman Branson \| doi-access free }}</ref> In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances"<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/ \|title The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1954}}</ref> (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix. Structure Geometry and hydrogen bonding The amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of {{cvt\|1.5\|Å\|nm}} along the helical axis. Dunitz<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dunitz J \| author-link Jack Dunitz \| year 2001 \| title Pauling's Left-Handed α-Helix \| journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition \| volume 40 \| pages 4167&ndash;4173 \| doi 10.1002/1521-3773(20011119)40:22<4167::AID-ANIE4167>3.0.CO;2-Q \| issue 22\| pmid 29712120 }}</ref> describes how Pauling's first article on the theme in fact shows a left-handed helix, the enantiomer of the true structure. Short pieces of left-handed helix sometimes occur with a large content of achiral glycine amino acids, but are unfavorable for the other normal, biological {{small\|L}}-amino acids. The pitch of the alpha-helix (the vertical distance between consecutive turns of the helix) is {{cvt\|5.4\|Å\|nm}}, which is the product of 1.5 and 3.6. The most important thing is that the N-H group of one amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the CO group of the amino acid four residues earlier; this repeated i&nbsp;+&nbsp;4 → i hydrogen bonding is the most prominent characteristic of an α-helix. Official international nomenclature<ref>{{cite journal \| author IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature \| year 1970 \| title Abbreviations and symbols for the description of the conformation of polypeptide chains \| journal Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 245 \| issue 24 \| pages 6489–6497\| doi 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)62561-X \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"qmul_ppep1">{{cite web \|titlePolypeptide Conformations 1 and 2 \|urlhttp://www.sbcs.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/misc/ppep1.html \|websitewww.sbcs.qmul.ac.uk \|access-date5 November 2018}}</ref> specifies two ways of defining α-helices, rule 6.2 in terms of repeating φ, ψ torsion angles (see below) and rule 6.3 in terms of the combined pattern of pitch and hydrogen bonding. The α-helices can be identified in protein structure using several computational methods, such as DSSP (Define&nbsp;Secondary Structure of Protein).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kabsch W, Sander C \| title Dictionary of protein secondary structure: pattern recognition of hydrogen-bonded and geometrical features \| journal Biopolymers \| volume 22 \| issue 12 \| pages 2577–637 \| date December 1983 \| pmid 6667333 \| doi 10.1002/bip.360221211 \| s2cid 29185760 }}</ref> Similar structures include the 3<sub>10</sub> helix (i&nbsp;+&nbsp;3 → i hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix (i&nbsp;+&nbsp;5 → i hydrogen bonding). The α-helix can be described as a 3.6<sub>13</sub> helix, since the i&nbsp;+&nbsp;4 spacing adds three more atoms to the H-bonded loop compared to the tighter 3<sub>10</sub> helix, and on average, 3.6 amino acids are involved in one ring of α-helix. The subscripts refer to the number of atoms (including the hydrogen) in the closed loop formed by the hydrogen bond.<ref name"Anatax">{{cite journal \| vauthors Richardson JS \| title The anatomy and taxonomy of protein structure \| journal Advances in Protein Chemistry \| volume 34 \| pages 167–339 \| year 1981 \| pmid 7020376 \| doi 10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60520-3 \| author-link Jane S. Richardson \| isbn = 9780120342341 }}</ref> (φ,&nbsp;ψ plot), with data points for α-helical residues forming a dense diagonal cluster below and left of center, around the global energy minimum for backbone conformation.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lovell SC, Davis IW, Arendall WB, de Bakker PI, Word JM, Prisant MG, Richardson JS, Richardson DC \| title Structure validation by Calpha geometry: phi,psi and Cbeta deviation \| journal Proteins \| volume 50 \| issue 3 \| pages 437–50 \| date February 2003 \| pmid 12557186 \| doi 10.1002/prot.10286 \| s2cid 8358424 }}</ref>]] Residues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (φ,&nbsp;ψ) dihedral angles around (−60°,&nbsp;−45°), as shown in the image at right. In more general terms, they adopt dihedral angles such that the ψ dihedral angle of one residue and the φ dihedral angle of the next residue sum to roughly −105°. As a consequence, α-helical dihedral angles, in general, fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran diagram (of slope −1), ranging from (−90°,&nbsp;−15°) to (−70°,&nbsp;−35°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 3<sub>10</sub> helix is roughly −75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly −130°. The general formula for the rotation angle Ω per residue of any polypeptide helix with trans isomers is given by the equation<ref>{{citation \| vauthors Dickerson RE, Geis I \| author-link2 Irving Geis \| year 1969 \| title Structure and Action of Proteins \| publisher Harper, New York }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|chapter Structural Organization of Proteins\|first Matjaž\|last Zorko\|pages 36–57\|title Introduction to Peptides and Proteins\|editor1-first Ülo\|editor1-last Langel\|editor2-first Benjamin F.\|editor2-last Cravatt\|editor-link2 Benjamin Cravatt III\|editor3-first Astrid\|editor3-last Gräslund\|editor4-first Gunnar\|editor4-last von Heijne\|editor-link4 Gunnar von Heijne\|editor7-first Matjaž\|editor7-last Zorko\|editor5-first Tiit\|editor5-last Land\|editor6-first Sherry\|editor6-last Niessen\|publisher CRC Press\|location Boca Raton\|year 2010\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idGA3SBQAAQBAJ&pgPA40\|isbn = 9781439882047}}</ref> :{{math\|3 cos Ω {{=}} 1 − 4 cos<sup>2</sup> {{sfrac\|φ + ψ\|2}}}} The α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side-chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly "downward" (i.e., toward the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Terwilliger TC \| title Rapid model building of alpha-helices in electron-density maps \| journal Acta Crystallographica Section D \| volume 66 \| issue Pt 3 \| pages 268–75 \| date March 2010 \| pmid 20179338 \| pmc 2827347 \| doi 10.1107/S0907444910000314 \| bibcode 2010AcCrD..66..268T }}</ref> Stability {{See also\|Stapled peptide}} Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). In general, short polypeptides do not exhibit much α-helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. In general, the backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hudgins RR, Jarrold MF \| year 1999 \| title Helix Formation in Unsolvated Alanine-Based Peptides: Helical Monomers and Helical Dimers \| journal Journal of the American Chemical Society \| volume 121 \| pages 3494&ndash;3501 \| doi 10.1021/ja983996a \| issue 14}}</ref> oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Furthermore, crosslinks can be incorporated into peptides to conformationally stabilize helical folds. Crosslinks stabilize the helical state by entropically destabilizing the unfolded state and by removing enthalpically stabilized "decoy" folds that compete with the fully helical state.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kutchukian PS, Yang JS, Verdine GL, Shakhnovich EI \| title All-atom model for stabilization of alpha-helical structure in peptides by hydrocarbon staples \| journal Journal of the American Chemical Society \| volume 131 \| issue 13 \| pages 4622–7 \| date April 2009 \| pmid 19334772 \| pmc 2735086 \| doi 10.1021/ja805037p }}</ref> It has been shown that α-helices are more stable, robust to mutations and designable than β-strands in natural proteins,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Abrusan G, Marsh JA \| title Alpha helices are more robust to mutations than beta strands \| journal PLOS Computational Biology \| volume 12 \| issue 12 \| pages e1005242 \| date 2016 \| pmid 27935949 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005242 \| bibcode 2016PLSCB..12E5242A \| pmc5147804 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and also in artificially designed proteins.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rocklin GJ et al. \| title Global analysis of protein folding using massively parallel design, synthesis, and testing \| journal Science \| volume 357 \| issue 6347 \| pages 168–175 \| date 2017 \| pmid 28706065 \| doi 10.1126/science.aan0693 \| bibcode 2017Sci...357..168R \| pmc5568797}}</ref> Visualization The three most popular ways of visualizing the alpha-helical secondary structure of oligopeptide sequences are (1) a helical wheel,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schiffer M, Edmundson AB \| title Use of helical wheels to represent the structures of proteins and to identify segments with helical potential \| journal Biophysical Journal \| volume 7 \| issue 2 \| pages 121–135 \| date 1967 \| doi 10.1016/S0006-3495(67)86579-2\| pmid 6048867 \| pmc 1368002 \| bibcode 1967BpJ.....7..121S }}</ref> (2) a wenxiang diagram,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chou KC, Zhang CT, Maggiora GM \| title Disposition of amphiphilic helices in heteropolar environments \| journal Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics \| volume 28 \| pages 99–108 \| date 1997\| issue 1 \| doi 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0134(199705)28:1<99::AID-PROT10>3.0.CO;2-C \| pmid 9144795 \| s2cid 26944184 }}</ref> and (3) a helical net.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dunnill P \| title The Use of Helical Net-Diagrams to Represent Protein Structures \| journal Biophysical Journal \| volume 8 \| issue 7 \| pages 865–875 \| date 1968 \| pmid 5699810 \| pmc 1367563 \| doi 10.1016/S0006-3495(68)86525-7\| bibcode 1968BpJ.....8..865D }}</ref> Each of these can be visualized with various software packages and web servers. To generate a small number of diagrams, Heliquest<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gautier R, Douguet D, Antonny B, Drin G \| title HELIQUEST: a web server to screen sequences with specific alpha-helical properties \| journal Bioinformatics \| volume 24 \| issue 18 \| pages 2101–2102 \| date 2008 \| doi 10.1093/bioinformatics/btn392\| pmid 18662927 \| doi-access free }}</ref> can be used for helical wheels, and NetWheels<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mol AR, Castro MS, Fontes W \| title NetWheels: A web application to create high quality peptide helical wheel and net projections \| journal bioRxiv \| date 2018 \| doi 10.1101/416347\| s2cid 92137153 }}</ref> can be used for helical wheels and helical nets. To programmatically generate a large number of diagrams, helixvis<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wadhwa RR, Subramanian V, Stevens-Truss R \| title Visualizing alpha-helical peptides in R with helixvis \| journal Journal of Open Source Software \| volume 3 \| issue 31 \| pages 1008 \| date 2018 \| doi 10.21105/joss.01008\| bibcode 2018JOSS....3.1008W \| s2cid 56486576 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Subramanian V, Wadhwa RR, Stevens-Truss R \| title Helixvis: Visualize alpha-helical peptides in Python \| journal ChemRxiv \| date 2020}}</ref> can be used to draw helical wheels and wenxiang diagrams in the R and Python programming languages. Experimental determination Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds and backbone conformation, the most detailed experimental evidence for α-helical structure comes from atomic-resolution X-ray crystallography such as the example shown at right. It is clear that all the backbone carbonyl oxygens point downward (toward the C-terminus) but splay out slightly, and the H-bonds are approximately parallel to the helix axis. Protein structures from NMR spectroscopy also show helices well, with characteristic observations of nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) couplings between atoms on adjacent helical turns. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR. There are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (in particular of the C<sup>α</sup>, C<sup>β</sup> and C′) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170–250&nbsp;nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at around 208 and 222&nbsp;nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research. Long homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence, and measurements of the diffusion constant. In stricter terms, these methods detect only the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment. Amino-acid propensities Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Alanine, uncharged glutamate, leucine, charged arginine, methionine and charged lysine have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline and glycine have poor helix-forming propensities.<ref name"pmid9649402">{{cite journal \| vauthors Pace CN, Scholtz JM \| title A helix propensity scale based on experimental studies of peptides and proteins \| journal Biophysical Journal \| volume 75 \| pages 422–427 \| date 1998 \| pmid 9649402 \| pmc 1299714 \| doi 10.1016/S0006-3495(98)77529-0 \| bibcode 1998BpJ....75..422N }}</ref> Proline either breaks or kinks a helix, both because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (because it has none) and because its sidechain interferes sterically with the backbone of the preceding turn{{snd}} inside a helix, which forces a bend of about 30° in the helix's axis.<ref name"Anatax"/> However, proline is often the first residue of a helix, presumably due to its structural rigidity. At the other extreme, glycine also tends to disrupt helices because its high conformational flexibility makes it entropically expensive to adopt the relatively constrained α-helical structure. Table of standard amino acid alpha-helical propensities Estimated differences in free energy change, Δ(ΔG), estimated in kcal/mol per residue in an α-helical configuration, relative to alanine arbitrarily set as zero. Higher numbers (more positive free energy changes) are less favoured. Significant deviations from these average numbers are possible, depending on the identities of the neighbouring residues. :{\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Differences in free energy change per residue<ref name="pmid9649402"></ref> !rowspan=2\| Amino acid !rowspan2 class"unsortable"\| 3-<br>letter !rowspan2 class"unsortable"\| 1-<br>letter !colspan=2\| Helical penalty \|- !kcal/mol !kJ/mol \|- \| Alanine \| Ala \| A \| {{convert\|0.00\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Arginine \| Arg \| R \| {{convert\|0.21\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Asparagine \| Asn \| N \| {{convert\|0.65\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Aspartic acid \| Asp \| D \| {{convert\|0.69\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Cysteine \| Cys \| C \| {{convert\|0.68\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Glutamic acid \| Glu \| E \| {{convert\|0.40\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Glutamine \| Gln \| Q \| {{convert\|0.39\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Glycine \| Gly \| G \| {{convert\|1.00\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Histidine \| His \| H \| {{convert\|0.61\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Isoleucine \| Ile \| I \| {{convert\|0.41\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Leucine \| Leu \| L \| {{convert\|0.21\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Lysine \| Lys \| K \| {{convert\|0.26\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Methionine \| Met \| M \| {{convert\|0.24\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Phenylalanine \| Phe \| F \| {{convert\|0.54\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Proline \| Pro \| P \| {{convert\|3.16\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Serine \| Ser \| S \| {{convert\|0.50\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Threonine \| Thr \| T \| {{convert\|0.66\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Tryptophan \| Trp \| W \| {{convert\|0.49\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Tyrosine \| Tyr \| Y \| {{convert\|0.53\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|- \| Valine \| Val \| V \| {{convert\|0.61\|kcal/mol\|kJ/mol\|2\|disp=table}} \|} Dipole moment A helix has an overall dipole moment due to the aggregate effect of the individual microdipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hol WG, van Duijnen PT, Berendsen HJ \| s2cid 4147335 \| year 1978 \| title The alpha helix dipole and the properties of proteins \| journal Nature \| volume 273 \| issue 5662 \| pages 443–446 \| doi 10.1038/273443a0\| pmid 661956 \|bibcode 1978Natur.273..443H }}</ref> The effects of this macrodipole are a matter of some controversy. α-helices often occur with the N-terminal end bound by a negatively charged group, sometimes an amino acid side chain such as glutamate or aspartate, or sometimes a phosphate ion. Some regard the helix macrodipole as interacting electrostatically with such groups. Others feel that this is misleading and it is more realistic to say that the hydrogen bond potential of the free NH groups at the N-terminus of an α-helix can be satisfied by hydrogen bonding; this can also be regarded as set of interactions between local microdipoles such as {{nowrap\|1CO···H−N}}.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors He JJ, Quiocho FA \| title Dominant role of local dipoles in stabilizing uncompensated charges on a sulfate sequestered in a periplasmic active transport protein \| journal Protein Science \| volume 2 \| issue 10 \| pages 1643–7 \| date October 1993 \| pmid 8251939 \| doi 10.1002/pro.5560021010 \| pmc2142251}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Milner-White EJ \| title The partial charge of the nitrogen atom in peptide bonds \| journal Protein Science \| volume 6 \| issue 11 \| pages 2477–82 \| date November 1997 \| pmid 9385654 \| pmc 2143592 \| doi 10.1002/pro.5560061125 }}</ref> Coiled coils Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a "supercoil" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a heptad repeat, in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence (amino acid residues, not DNA base-pairs). The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the a and d positions) are almost always hydrophobic; the fourth residue is typically leucine{{snd}} this gives rise to the name of the structural motif called a leucine zipper, which is a type of coiled-coil. These hydrophobic residues pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. In general, the fifth and seventh residues (the e and g positions) have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin or the "stalks" of myosin or kinesin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils{{snd}} a four-helix bundle{{snd}} is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle. Facial arrangements The amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids (see the article for leucine zipper for such a diagram). Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an α-helix will exhibit two "faces"{{snd}} one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein. Changes in binding orientation also occur for facially-organized oligopeptides. This pattern is especially common in antimicrobial peptides, and many models have been devised to describe how this relates to their function. Common to many of them is that the hydrophobic face of the antimicrobial peptide forms pores in the plasma membrane after associating with the fatty chains at the membrane core.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Kohn\|first1Eric M.\|last2Shirley\|first2David J.\|last3Arotsky\|first3Lubov\|last4Picciano\|first4Angela M.\|last5Ridgway\|first5Zachary\|last6Urban\|first6Michael W.\|last7Carone\|first7Benjamin R.\|last8Caputo\|first8Gregory A.\|date2018-02-04\|titleRole of Cationic Side Chains in the Antimicrobial Activity of C18G\|journalMolecules\|languageen\|volume23\|issue2\|pages329\|doi10.3390/molecules23020329\|pmid29401708\|pmc6017431\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastToke\|firstOrsolya\|date2005\|titleAntimicrobial peptides: new candidates in the fight against bacterial infections\|journalBiopolymers\|volume80\|issue6\|pages717–735\|doi10.1002/bip.20286\|issn0006-3525\|pmid15880793\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Larger-scale assemblies molecule has four heme-binding subunits, each made largely of α-helices.]] Myoglobin and hemoglobin, the first two proteins whose structures were solved by X-ray crystallography, have very similar folds made up of about 70% α-helix, with the rest being non-repetitive regions, or "loops" that connect the helices. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a large category specifically for all-α proteins. Hemoglobin then has an even larger-scale quaternary structure, in which the functional oxygen-binding molecule is made up of four subunits. Functional roles : transcription factor Max (PDB file 1HLO)]] file 1GZM), with a bundle of seven helices crossing the membrane (membrane surfaces marked by horizontal lines)]] DNA binding α-Helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of an α-helix is about {{cvt\|12\|Å\|nm}} including an average set of sidechains, about the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA, and also because coiled-coil (or leucine zipper) dimers of helices can readily position a pair of interaction surfaces to contact the sort of symmetrical repeat common in double-helical DNA.<ref>Branden & Tooze, chapter 10</ref> An example of both aspects is the transcription factor Max (see image at left), which uses a helical coiled coil to dimerize, positioning another pair of helices for interaction in two successive turns of the DNA major groove. Membrane spanning α-Helices are also the most common protein structure element that crosses biological membranes (transmembrane protein),<ref>Branden & Tooze, chapter 12.</ref> presumably because the helical structure can satisfy all backbone hydrogen-bonds internally, leaving no polar groups exposed to the membrane if the sidechains are hydrophobic. Proteins are sometimes anchored by a single membrane-spanning helix, sometimes by a pair, and sometimes by a helix bundle, most classically consisting of seven helices arranged up-and-down in a ring such as for rhodopsins (see image at right) and other G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs). The structural stability between pairs of α-Helical transmembrane domains rely on conserved membrane interhelical packing motifs, for example, the Glycine-xxx-Glycine (or small-xxx-small) motif.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nash A, Notman R, Dixon AM \| title De novo design of transmembrane helix–helix interactions and measurement of stability in a biological membrane \| journal Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes \| volume 1848 \| issue 5 \| pages 1248–57 \| date 2015 \| pmid 25732028 \| doi 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.02.020 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Mechanical properties α-Helices under axial tensile deformation, a characteristic loading condition that appears in many alpha-helix-rich filaments and tissues, results in a characteristic three-phase behavior of stiff-soft-stiff tangent modulus.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ackbarow T, Chen X, Keten S, Buehler MJ \| title Hierarchies, multiple energy barriers, and robustness govern the fracture mechanics of alpha-helical and beta-sheet protein domains \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 104 \| issue 42 \| pages 16410–5 \| date October 2007 \| pmid 17925444 \| pmc 2034213 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.0705759104 \| bibcode 2007PNAS..10416410A \| doi-access free }}</ref> Phase I corresponds to the small-deformation regime during which the helix is stretched homogeneously, followed by phase II, in which alpha-helical turns break mediated by the rupture of groups of H-bonds. Phase III is typically associated with large-deformation covalent bond stretching. Dynamical features Alpha-helices in proteins may have low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy<ref name"pmid7115900">{{cite journal \| vauthors Painter PC, Mosher LE, Rhoads C \| title Low-frequency modes in the Raman spectra of proteins \| journal Biopolymers \| volume 21 \| issue 7 \| pages 1469–72 \| date July 1982 \| pmid 7115900 \| doi 10.1002/bip.360210715 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and analyzed via the quasi-continuum model.<ref name"pmid6362659">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chou KC \| title Identification of low-frequency modes in protein molecules \| journal The Biochemical Journal \| volume 215 \| issue 3 \| pages 465–9 \| date December 1983 \| pmid 6362659 \| pmc 1152424 \| doi 10.1042/bj2150465 }}</ref><ref name"pmid6428481">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chou KC \| title Biological functions of low-frequency vibrations (phonons). III. Helical structures and microenvironment \| journal Biophysical Journal \| volume 45 \| issue 5 \| pages 881–9 \| date May 1984 \| pmid 6428481 \| pmc 1434967 \| doi 10.1016/S0006-3495(84)84234-4 \| bibcode 1984BpJ....45..881C }}</ref> Helices not stabilized by tertiary interactions show dynamic behavior, which can be mainly attributed to helix fraying from the ends.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fierz B, Reiner A, Kiefhaber T \| title Local conformational dynamics in alpha-helices measured by fast triplet transfer \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 106 \| issue 4 \| pages 1057–62 \| date January 2009 \| pmid 19131517 \| pmc 2633579 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.0808581106 \| bibcode 2009PNAS..106.1057F \| doi-access free }}</ref> Helix–coil transition {{See also\|Helix–coil transition model}} Homopolymers of amino acids (such as polylysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is "melted out" at high temperatures. This helix–coil transition was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix. In art 's Alpha Helix for Linus Pauling (2004), powder coated steel, height {{cvt\|10\|ft\|0}}. The sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home on 3945 SE Hawthorne Boulevard in Portland, Oregon, USA.]] At least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture. San Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll,<ref name":0">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.brushwithscience.com/AboutContact.html\|titleJulie Newdoll Scientifically Inspired Art, Music, Board Games\|websitewww.brushwithscience.com\|access-date2016-04-06}}</ref> who holds a degree in microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting "Rise of the Alpha Helix" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, "the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world".<ref name":0" /> This same metaphor is also echoed from the scientist's side: "β sheets do not show a stiff repetitious regularity but flow in graceful, twisting curves, and even the α-helix is regular more in the manner of a flower stem, whose branching nodes show the influence of environment, developmental history, and the evolution of each part to match its own idiosyncratic function."<ref name="Anatax"/> Julian Voss-Andreae is a German-born sculptor with degrees in experimental physics and sculpture. Since 2001 Voss-Andreae creates "protein sculptures"<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Voss-Andreae J \| s2cid 57558522 \| year 2005 \| title Protein Sculptures: Life's Building Blocks Inspire Art \| journal Leonardo \| volume 38 \| pages 41&ndash;45 \| doi 10.1162/leon.2005.38.1.41}}</ref> based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The {{convert\|10\|ft\|m\|0\|adj=mid\|-tall}}, bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon. Ribbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.bathsheba.com/artist/\|websiteBathsheba Sculpture \|titleAbout the Artist\|lastGrossman\|firstBathsheba\|access-date2016-04-06}}</ref> Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules{{snd}} many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://02e06c9.netsolhost.com/wp/?page_id21\|titleAbout\|websitemolecularsculpture.com \| access-date = 2016-04-06}}</ref> Mike Tyka is a computational biochemist at the University of Washington working with David Baker. Tyka has been making sculptures of protein molecules since 2010 from copper and steel, including ubiquitin and a potassium channel tetramer.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.miketyka.com/#.about#.gallerypic\|titleAbout\|lastTyka\|firstMike\|websitewww.miketyka.com\|access-date2016-04-06}}</ref> See also * 3<sub>10</sub> helix * Beta sheet * Davydov soliton * Folding (chemistry) * Knobs into holes packing * Pi helix * {{Proteopedia\|Helices_in_Proteins}} References {{reflist\|33em}} Further reading {{refbegin\|33em}} * {{cite book \| last1 Tooze \| first1 John \| last2 Brändén \| first2 Carl-Ivar \| name-list-style vanc \| title Introduction to protein structure \| publisher Garland Pub \| location New York \| year 1999 \| isbn 0-8153-2304-2}}. * {{cite journal \| vauthors Eisenberg D \| title The discovery of the alpha-helix and beta-sheet, the principal structural features of proteins \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 100 \| issue 20 \| pages 11207–10 \| date September 2003 \| pmid 12966187 \| pmc 208735 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.2034522100 \| bibcode 2003PNAS..10011207E \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| doi 10.1038/127663b0 \| last1 Astbury \| first1 WT \| last2 Woods \| first2 HJ \| s2cid 4133226 \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1931 \| title The Molecular Weights of Proteins \| journal Nature \| volume 127 \| issue 3209\| pages 663–665 \|bibcode 1931Natur.127..663A }} * {{cite journal \| last1 Astbury \| first1 WT \| last2 Street \| first2 A \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1931 \| title X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. I. General \| journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A\| volume 230\| pages 75–101 \| bibcode 1932RSPTA.230...75A \| doi 10.1098/rsta.1932.0003 \| doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal \| doi 10.1039/tf9332900193 \| last1 Astbury \| first1 WT \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1933 \| title Some Problems in the X-ray Analysis of the Structure of Animal Hairs and Other Protein Fibers \| journal Trans. Faraday Soc. \| volume 29 \| issue 140\| pages 193–211 }} * {{cite journal \| last1 Astbury \| first1 WT \| last2 Woods \| first2 HJ \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1934 \| title X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. II. The molecular structure and elastic properties of hair keratin \| journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A\| volume 232\| issue 707–720\| pages 333–394 \| doi 10.1098/rsta.1934.0010 \| bibcode 1934RSPTA.232..333A \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| last1 Astbury \| first1 WT \| last2 Sisson \| first2 WA \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1935 \| title X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. III. The configuration of the keratin molecule and its orientation in the biological cell \| journal Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A\| volume 150\| issue 871\| pages 533–551 \| bibcode 1935RSPSA.150..533A \| doi 10.1098/rspa.1935.0121 \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| doi 10.1002/bip.1967.360050708 \| last1 Sugeta \| first1 H \| last2 Miyazawa \| first2 T \| name-list-style vanc \| year 1967 \| title General Method for Calculating Helical Parameters of Polymer Chains from Bond Lengths, Bond Angles, and Internal-Rotation Angles \| journal Biopolymers \| volume 5 \| issue 7\| pages 673–679 \| s2cid = 97785907 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Wada A \| title The alpha-helix as an electric macro-dipole \| journal Advances in Biophysics \| pages 1–63 \| year 1976 \| pmid 797240 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Chothia C, Levitt M, Richardson D \| title Structure of proteins: packing of alpha-helices and pleated sheets \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 74 \| issue 10 \| pages 4130–4 \| date October 1977 \| pmid 270659 \| pmc 431889 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.74.10.4130 \| bibcode 1977PNAS...74.4130C \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Chothia C, Levitt M, Richardson D \| title Helix to helix packing in proteins \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 145 \| issue 1 \| pages 215–50 \| date January 1981 \| pmid 7265198 \| doi = 10.1016/0022-2836(81)90341-7 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Hol WG \| title The role of the alpha-helix dipole in protein function and structure \| journal Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology \| volume 45 \| issue 3 \| pages 149–95 \| year 1985 \| pmid 3892583 \| doi 10.1016/0079-6107(85)90001-X \| doi-access free }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Barlow DJ, Thornton JM \| title Helix geometry in proteins \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 201 \| issue 3 \| pages 601–19 \| date June 1988 \| pmid 3418712 \| doi = 10.1016/0022-2836(88)90641-9 }} * {{cite journal \| vauthors Murzin AG, Finkelstein AV \| title General architecture of the alpha-helical globule \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 204 \| issue 3 \| pages 749–69 \| date December 1988 \| pmid 3225849 \| doi = 10.1016/0022-2836(88)90366-X }} {{refend}} External links * [http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetSurfP/ NetSurfP ver. 1.1 – Protein Surface Accessibility and Secondary Structure Predictions] * [http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Alpha+helix+%28rotational+angle%29 α-helix rotational angle calculator] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210803133427/http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Alpha+helix+%28rotational+angle%29 \|date2021-08-03 }} * [http://www.brushwithscience.com/ Artist Julie Newdoll's website] * [http://www.JulianVossAndreae.com/ Artist Julian Voss-Andreae's website] {{Protein secondary structure}} {{Spirals}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alpha Helix}} Category:Protein structural motifs Category:Helices	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helix	2025-04-05T18:26:15.921097
3055	Accrington	{{Short description\|Town in Lancashire, England}} {{Use British English\|date=May 2017}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2024}} {{Infobox UK place \| official_name = Accrington \| local_name = Accy \| country = England \| type = Town \| region = North West England \| static_image_name = Town Hall. - geograph.org.uk - 525051.jpg \| static_image_width \| static_image_caption Accrington Town Hall \| population = 34,897 \| population_ref (2021)<ref namepop2021>{{NOMIS2021\|id1119884965\|titleAccrington Built-up area\|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref> \| population_density \| os_grid_reference SD761286 \| coordinates {{coord\|53.75337\|-2.36384\|displayinline,title}} \| post_town = ACCRINGTON \| postcode_area = BB \| postcode_district = BB5 \| dial_code = 01254 \| constituency_westminster = Hyndburn \| shire_district = Hyndburn \| shire_county = Lancashire \| pushpin_map = United Kingdom Borough of Hyndburn \| pushpin_map_caption = Shown within Hyndburn }} Accrington {{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|k\|r\|ɪ\|ŋ\|t\|ə\|n}} is a town in the Hyndburn borough of Lancashire, England. It lies about {{convert\|4\|mi\|0}} east of Blackburn, {{convert\|6\|mi\|0}} west of Burnley, {{convert\|13\|mi\|0}} east of Preston, {{convert\|20\|mi\|0}} north of Manchester and is situated on the culverted River Hyndburn. Commonly abbreviated by locals to "Accy",<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://menmedia.co.uk/accringtonobserver/sport/football/accrington_stanley/s/1418758_accys-easter-rising\|titleAccy's Easter Rising\|publisherMEN Media - Accrington Observer\|access-date5 July 2011\|archive-date12 November 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121112192113/http://menmedia.co.uk/accringtonobserver/sport/football/accrington_stanley/s/1418758_accys-easter-rising\|url-statusdead}}</ref> the town has a population of 35,456 according to the 2011 census.<ref namepop2011>{{NOMIS2011\|id1119884965\|titleAccrington Built-up area\|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref> Accrington is the largest settlement and the seat of the Hyndburn borough council. Accrington is a former centre of the cotton and textile machinery industries. The town is famed for manufacturing the hardest and densest building bricks in the world, "The Accrington NORI" (iron), which were used in the construction of the Empire State Building and for the foundations of Blackpool Tower and the Haworth Art Gallery which holds Europe's largest collection of Tiffany glass. The club is home to EFL club Accrington Stanley. The town played a part in the founding of the football league system, with a defunct club(Accrington F.C.) being one of the twelve original clubs of the English Football League. History Etymology The name "Accrington" likely has Anglo-Saxon origins. The earliest known recording of the name is found in the Parish of Whalley records from 850, where it is written as "Akeringastun". In subsequent records, the name appears in various forms, including "Akarinton" in 1194, "Akerunton", "Akerinton", and "Akerynton" in 1258, "Acrinton" in 1292, "Ackryngton" in 1311, and "Acryngton" in 1324.<ref name"Ekwall 89">{{cite web \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/placenamesoflanc00ekwauoft#page/89/mode/1up \|titleAccrington \|workPlace Names of Lancashire \|firstEllert \|lastEkwall \|page89 \|access-date5 July 2011}}</ref> The name may derive from the Old English words "æcern", meaning "acorn", and "tun", meaning "farmstead" or "village", thus possibly meaning "acorn farmstead".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924088434620 \|titleAccrington \|workThe Victoria History of the County of Lancaster \|first1William \|last1Farrer \|first2J. \|last2Brownbill \|page423 \|access-date28 April 2015}}</ref> However, some sources argue that this interpretation is not definitive and that alternative explanations may exist.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe etymology of 'Accrington' \|firstDavid \|lastPostles \|journalTransactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society \|year1998 \|volume96 \|pages13–20}}</ref> New Accrington, the southern part of the town, was historically part of the Forest of Blackburnshire. The area's abundance of oak trees can be inferred from local place names such as Broad Oak and Oak Hill. Acorns, a product of oak trees, were once a crucial food source for swine, which may have led to the naming of a farmstead after this resource.<ref name"The Literary Club">{{cite book \|titleA Glossary of the Lancashire Dialect \|first1John H. \|last1Nodal \|first2George \|last2Milner \|locationManchester \|publisherThe Literary Club \|year1875 \|page7 \|ol=7247738M}}</ref> In the Lancashire dialect, "acorn" is pronounced "akran", which might have influenced the name's development. No known Old English personal name corresponds to the first element in "Accrington". Nevertheless, the Frisian names "Akkrum" and "Akkeringa", as well as the Dutch name "Akkerghem", are believed to derive from the personal name "Akker". This finding suggests the possibility of a related Old English name from which "Accrington" could have originated.<ref name="Ekwall 89"/> It is also worth noting that "Ingas" is the Old Norse word for "tribe", which may be relevant to the name's origin. Overall, the etymology of "Accrington" is complex and there are several theories about its origin. While the "acorn farmstead" interpretation is the most commonly accepted explanation, further research and analysis may be needed to confirm or refute this theory, or to identify alternative possibilities. Early history There appears to be no mention of Accrington from the Roman period. The area typically appears to be heavily forested, with very few established settlements. According to folklore, a tall Danish tribal leader named Wada invaded the area between 760 and 798;<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWade \|firstStuart Charles \|urlhttps://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/download/TheWadeGenealogy_10298686.pdf \|titleThe Wade Genealogy \|date27 September 2015 \|isbn978-1-332-21040-4 }}</ref> who seems to have founded Waddington, Paddington (Padiham) and Akeringastun (Accrington). Descendants of the Wada held much of the lands until the sixteenth century. In 1442, the Waddingtons' hold leases on Berefeld (Bellfield), and in 1517 it is recorded that Thomas Waddington transferred the lands Scaytcliff (Scaitcliffe) and Peneworth (Pennyworth) to Nicholas Rishton and to his Son Geoffrey.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEarly Grimshaw Family History, Anonymous – Grimshaw Origins and History \|urlhttp://grimshaworigin.org/miscellaneous-grimshaw-individuals/early-grimshaw-family-history/ \|access-date2022-10-26 \|websitegrimshaworigin.org}}</ref> Accrington covers two townships which were established in 1507 following disafforestation; those of Old Accrington and New Accrington; which were merged in 1878 with the incorporation of the borough council.<ref nameBHO>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid53146\|title'Townships: Old and New Accrington'; A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 6\|publisherWilliam Farrer & J. Brownbill\|access-date5 July 2011}}</ref> The William Yates map of The county Palatine of Lancaster printed in 1786 shows Old Accrington included the area of Oaklea and also the intersection of the Winburn River (now the River Hyndburn) and Warmden Brook. New Accrington included the area of Green Haworth and Broadfield.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleView map: Centre south east sheet - The county Palatine of Lancaster - Counties of Scotland, 1580-1928 \|urlhttps://maps.nls.uk/view/220113073#zoom6&lat4909&lon4341&layersBT \|access-date2022-10-26 \|websitemaps.nls.uk}}</ref> There have been settlements there since the medieval period, likely in the Grange Lane and Black Abbey area,<ref nameBHO /><ref name"Assessment">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/documents/historictowns/AccringtonComplete_LowRes.pdf \|titleAccrington Historic Town Assessment report \|publisherLancashire County Council and Egerton Lea Consultancy with the support of English Heritage and Hyndburn Borough Council \|access-date18 June 2011 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121001073738/http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/documents/historictowns/AccringtonComplete_LowRes.pdf \|archive-date=1 October 2012 }}</ref> and the King's Highway which passes above the town was at one time used by the kings and queens of England when they used the area for hunting when the Forest of Accrington was one of the four forests of the hundred of Blackburnshire. Robert de Lacy gave the manor of Accrington to the monks of Kirkstall in the 12th century. The monks built a grange there; removing the inhabitants to make room for it. The locals got their revenge by setting fire to the new building, destroying its contents and in the process killing the three lay brothers who occupied it.<ref name=BHO /> An area of the town is named 'Black Abbey', a possible reference to the murders. Regardless of whatever happened, Accrington did not remain under monastic control for long before reverting to the de Lacys. It is thought the monks of Kirkstall may have built a small chapel there during their tenure for the convenience of those in charge residing there and their tenants, but the records are uncertain.<ref nameBHO /> What is known is that there was a chapel in Accrington prior to 1553<ref nameBHO /> where the vicar of Whalley was responsible for the maintenance of divine worship. However it did not have its own minister and it was served, when at all, by the curate of one of the adjacent chapels. In 1717 Accrington was served by the curate of Church, who preached there only once a month.<ref nameBHO /> St. James's Church was built in 1763, replacing the old chapel<ref nameBHO /> however it did not achieve parochial status until as late as 1870.<ref nameAssessment />Industrial Revolution <!-- Historical importance Economic Significance Industrial Gorwth Pre and Post industrial Accrington --> Until around 1830, visitors considered Accrington to be just a "considerable village".<ref nameBHO /> The Industrial Revolution, however, resulted in large changes and Accrington's location on the confluence of a number of streams made it attractive to industry and a number of mills were built in the town in the mid-18th century. Further industrialisation then followed in the late-18th century and local landowners began building mansions in the area on the outskirts of the settlement where their mills were located while their employees lived in overcrowded unsanitary conditions in the centre.<ref nameAssessment /> Industrialisation resulted in rapid population growth during the 19th century, as people moved from over North West England to Accrington,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.localpopulationstudies.org.uk/PDF/LPS30/LPS30_1983_28-34.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.localpopulationstudies.org.uk/PDF/LPS30/LPS30_1983_28-34.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titlePatterns of Migration of Textile Workers into Accrington in the Nineteenth Century\|publisherWilliam Turner\|access-date18 June 2011}}</ref> with the population increasing from 3,266 in 1811 to 10,376 in 1851 to 43,211 in 1901<ref nameAssessment /> to its peak in 1911 at 45,029.<ref nameFrith>{{Cite book\|authorH Barrett & C Duckworth\|titleAccrington Old & New\|publisherFrith Book Company Ltd\|year2004\|isbn1-85937-806-4}}</ref> This fast population growth and slow response from the established church allowed non-conformism to flourish in the town. By the mid-19th century, there were Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, United Free Methodist, Congregationalist, Baptist, Swedenborgian, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and Catholic Apostolic churches in the town.<ref nameBHO /> The Swedenborgian church was so grand that it was considered to be the 'Cathedral' of that denomination.<ref nameFrith /> For many decades the textiles industry, the engineering industry and coal mining were the central activities of the town. Cotton mills and dye works provided work for the inhabitants, but often in very difficult conditions. There was a regular conflict with employers over wages and working conditions. On 24 April 1826 over 1,000 men and women, many armed, gathered at Whinney Hill in Clayton-le-Moors to listen to a speaker from where they marched on Sykes's Mill at Higher Grange Lane, near the site of the modern police station and magistrates' courts, and smashed over 60 looms. These riots spread from Accrington through Oswaldtwistle, Blackburn, Darwen, Rossendale, Bury and Chorley. In the end, after three days of riots 1,139 looms were destroyed, 4 rioters and 2 bystanders shot dead by the authorities in Rossendale and 41 rioters sentenced to death (all of whose sentences were commuted).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cottontimes.co.uk/1826-03.htm \|titleCotton Times \|publisherDoug Peacock \|access-date17 June 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604221023/http://www.cottontimes.co.uk/1826-03.htm \|archive-date4 June 2011 \|url-status dead\|dfdmy }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastTurner\|firstWilliam\|titleRiot! Story of East Lancashire Loom Breakers in 1826\|publisherLancashire County Books\|year1992 \|isbn978-1-871236-17-0}}</ref> In 1842 'plug riots' a general strike spread from town to town due to conditions in the town. In a population of 9,000 people as few as 100 were fully employed.<ref>"An alarming statement of distress", the Newcastle Courant, 1 July 1842</ref> From 15 August 1842 the situation boiled over and bands of men entered the mills which were running and stopped the machinery by knocking out the boiler plugs. This allowed the water and steam to escape shutting down the mill machinery.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastNewbigging\|firstThomas\|titleHistory of the Forest of Rossendale\|publisherRossendale Free Press\|year=1893}}</ref> Thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike in civil disturbances that lasted about a week.<ref>"Riot in Accrington", the Preston Chronicle, 3 September 1842</ref><ref>"Disturbances in the Manufacturing Districts", the Liverpool Mercury, 19 August 1842</ref> The strike was associated with the Chartist movement but eventually proved unsuccessful in its aims.<ref>"State of Trade", the Preston Chronicle, 12 November 1842</ref> In the early 1860s the Lancashire cotton famine badly affected Accrington, although less so than the wider area due to its more diverse economy,<ref>"The Distress in Lancashire", The Leeds Mercury, 25 October 1862</ref> with as many as half of the town's mill employees out of work at one time.<ref>"State of Employment", The Preston Guardian, 3 December 1864</ref> Conditions were such that a Local Board of Health was constituted in 1853 and the town itself incorporated in 1878 allowing the enforcement of local laws to improve the town.<ref nameBHO /><ref nameAssessment /> Accrington Pals {{further\|Recruitment to the British Army during World War I}} One well-known association the town has is with the 'Accrington Pals', the nickname given to the smallest home town battalion of volunteers formed to fight in the First World War. The Pals battalions were a peculiarity of the 1914-18 war: Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, believed that it would help recruitment if friends and work-mates from the same town were able to join up and fight together. Strictly speaking, the 'Accrington Pals' battalion is properly known as the '11th East Lancashire Regiment': the nickname is a little misleading, since of the four 250-strong companies that made up the original battalion only one was composed of men from Accrington. The rest volunteered from other east Lancashire towns such as Burnley, Blackburn and Chorley.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pals.org.uk/pals_e.htm\|titleThe Accrington Pals\|firstAndrew C\|lastJackson\|year2009\|access-date14 April 2013}}</ref> The Pals' first day of action, 1 July 1916, took place in Serre, near Montauban in the north of France.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ww1battlefields.co.uk/somme/serre.html \|titleSerre\|publisherWorld War I Battlefields\|access-date2 January 2021}}</ref> It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the Battle of the Somme) that was intended to force the German Army into a retreat from the Western Front, a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed and a further 350 wounded – more than half of the battalion – within half an hour. Similarly, desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British Army (approximately 19,000 British soldiers were killed in a single day). Later in the year, the East Lancashire Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers – in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The cenotaph also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from World War II. The trenches from which the Accrington Pals advanced on 1 July 1916 are still visible in John Copse west of the village of Serre, and there is a memorial there made of Accrington brick. After the war and until 1986, Accrington Corporation buses were painted in the regimental colours of red and blue with gold lining. The mudguards were painted black as a sign of mourning.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Maconie \|first1Stuart \|titleHope and Glory: A People's History of Modern Britain \|date10 May 2012 }}</ref> Demography The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town as 35,200. The figure for the urban area was 71,220,<ref namepop>[http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/office_of_the_chief_executive/lancashireprofile/monitors/populationurban.asp Lancashire Profile] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070808011955/http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/office_of_the_chief_executive/lancashireprofile/monitors/populationurban.asp \|date=8 August 2007 }} lancashire.gov.uk</ref> increased from 70,442 in 1991. This total includes Accrington, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Oswaldtwistle. The 2011 census gave a population of 35,456 for the Accrington built-up area subdivision (which includes Huncoat, Baxenden and Rising Bridge in Rossendale) and a population of 125,000 for the wider Accrington/Rossendale Built-up area.<ref name"AccringtonBUA">{{NOMIS2011\|idE34004905\|titleAccrington/Rossendale Built-up Area\|access-date28 February 2021}}</ref> The area in 2001 was listed as {{convert\|696\|ha\|mi2\|2}}, whereas in 2011 it was {{convert\|742.25\|ha\|mi2\|2}}.<ref namepop2011/><ref namepop/> The borough of Hyndburn as a whole has a population of 80,734.<ref>{{NOMIS2011\|id1946157094\|titleHyndburn Local Authority\|access-date10 February 2018}}</ref> This includes Accrington Urban Area and other outlying towns and villages such as; Altham, Rishton, part of Belthorn, and Knuzden and Whitebirk (considered suburbs of Blackburn).EconomyHistorically, cotton and textile machinery were important industries in Accrington, with many mills and factories operating in the town during the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name"Baggs 1911">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/lancs/vol6/pp250-261\|titleAccrington\|workA History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 6\|firstA. P.\|lastBaggs\|year1911\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The town was renowned for its production of cotton cloth, and several of its mills became famous for their high-quality fabrics, including the Victoria and Jubilee mills. However, like many other towns in Lancashire, the decline of the cotton industry in the mid-20th century led to a significant reduction in manufacturing activity in Accrington.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-lancashire-37861819\|titleAccrington and its ghosts of industry past\|publisherBBC News\|firstJonathan\|lastAli\|date1 November 2016\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> One notable industrial product associated with Accrington is NORI bricks, a type of iron-hard engineering brick that was produced in nearby Huncoat. The NORI brickworks were established in the 1860s, and their products were widely used in the construction of mills, factories, and other industrial buildings throughout the north of England, as well as Blackpool Tower and the Empire State Building.<ref name"Guardian">{{cite news \|last1Moss \|first1Chris \|titleWhere tourists seldom tread, part 3: five towns with hidden histories \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/travel/2022/nov/10/where-tourists-seldom-tread-part-3-five-towns-with-hidden-histories \|access-date25 March 2023 \|workThe Guardian \|date10 November 2022}}</ref> The brickworks closed in 2013 due to declining demand, but reopened in 2015 after being acquired by a local businessman.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/13540468.new-future-huncoat-brick-works/?refrss\|titleNew future for Huncoat brick works\|workLancashire Telegraph\|date3 August 2015\|access-date22 March 2023}}</ref> Today, the town's economy is more diverse, with a range of businesses and services operating in the area. Many of the old mill and factory buildings have been repurposed as offices, workshops, and other facilities, providing space for a variety of enterprises. The town also has a number of retail and commercial areas, including the Arndale Centre and the Peel Centre, which are home to a range of shops, restaurants, and other businesses.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/economic-profile/\|titleEconomic Profile\|publisherHyndburn Borough Council\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Accrington power station was a coal and refuse-fired electricity generating station that operated on Argyle Street adjacent to the gasworks between 1900 and 1958. The power station supplied electricity to Accrington, Haslingden, and the Altham and Clayton-le-Moors areas. The site is now a residential area.<ref name="Baggs 1911"/> Accrington remains a centre of business and industry in the region,{{citation needed\|dateMarch 2023}} with a rich history of manufacturing and innovation. The area benefits from its location close to major transport links, including the M65 motorway and the East Lancashire railway line, which connect Accrington to other parts of the county and beyond.<ref name"Accrington">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.visitlancashire.com/explore/accrington\|titleAccrington\|workVisit Lancashire\|access-date22 March 2023}}</ref> In recent years, the town has seen investment in new development projects, including the £60 million "Civic Quarter" regeneration scheme, which aims to revitalize the town center and create new jobs and opportunities for local people.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/16404022.60m-plans-accrington-civic-quarter-revealed/\|title£60m plans for Accrington Civic Quarter revealed\|workLancashire Telegraph\|date24 July 2018\|access-date=22 March 2023}}</ref> The project includes the construction of a new public square, a state-of-the-art leisure center, and new office and retail spaces, as well as the refurbishment of existing buildings. In addition to its commercial and industrial activities, Accrington is also home to a number of cultural and recreational amenities. The town has a rich sporting heritage, with Accrington Stanley Football Club, founded in 1968, representing the town in the English Football League.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://accringtonstanley.co.uk/club/history/\|titleHistory\|workAccrington Stanley Football Club\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The town also has a strong tradition of brass band music, with several local bands competing at regional and national level.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/local-news/accringtons-rich-tradition-brass-band-12211491\|titleAccrington's rich tradition of brass band music\|workAccrington Observer\|date17 November 2016\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Other cultural attractions in the town include the Haworth Art Gallery, which houses a collection of British art and decorative arts, and the Accrington Market Hall, which runs events and activities.Poverty, regeneration and investmentSome areas of Accrington have high levels of poverty and deprivation.<ref name"Gouk_2020">{{cite news \|last1Earnshaw \|first1Tom \|last2Gouk \|first2Annie \|titleChild poverty devastating Lancs- and where it is having the worst impact \|urlhttps://www.lancs.live/news/lancashire-news/child-poverty-devastating-lancashire-having-18142327 \|access-date25 March 2023 \|workLancsLive \|date26 April 2020}}</ref> In one area of the town in 2020, 77% of children were living in poverty.<ref name"Gouk_2020"/> Deprivation increased in Accrington from 2004 to 2010.<ref name"Hall 2013 p. 21">{{cite book \| lastHall \| firstP. \| titleGood Cities, Better Lives: How Europe Discovered the Lost Art of Urbanism \| publisherTaylor & Francis \| seriesPlanning, History and Environment Series \| year2013 \| isbn978-1-134-54567-4 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8XK_AAAAQBAJ&pgPA21 \| access-date25 March 2023 \| page21}}</ref> The Accrington Town Centre Investment Plan 2022-2032 states "Accrington has severe pockets of deprivation – particularly around employment, income and living environment - which has been getting worse during the last 20 years".<ref name"Inv_Plan_2022">{{cite web \|titleAccrington Town Centre Investment Plan 2022-2032 \|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Accrington-TCIP-70122.pdf \|publisherHyndburn Borough Council \|access-date25 March 2023 \|date=2022}}</ref> The council has a regeneration plan in place, which will, according to the council, boost the local economy. The plan is to upgrade old shops and to build a bus station. A memorial for the Accrington Pals may be built outside the town hall. The Hyndburn Borough Council plans to spend £10 million to refurbish the town centre, including: Revitalising the town square to attract visitors.<ref name="Inv_Plan_2022"/> Building a new bus station. Plans for the new bus station were put forward in January 2013 and approved in October 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/local-news/new-accrington-bus-station-open-1293994\|titleNew Accrington bus station open by 2015\|firstJon\|lastMacpherson\|year2013\|access-date24 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/local-news/plans-approved-controversial-accrington-bus-7947716\|titlePlans approved for controversial Accrington bus station scheme\|firstBeth\|lastAbbit\|year2014\|access-date24 August 2016}}</ref> The bus station was completed during and officially opened on 11 July 2016.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/gallery-new-accrington-bus-station-11598056\|titleGALLERY: New Accrington bus station officially opens\|firstJon\|lastMacpherson\|year2016\|access-date24 August 2016}}</ref> The new station was criticised by traders as the old station was closer and easier to get to.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/traders-fears-new-accrington-bus-6252001\|titleTraders fears new Accrington bus station could put them out of business\|firstBeth\|lastAbbit\|year2013\|access-date24 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accringtonobserver.co.uk/news/angry-market-hall-traders-petition-11701657\|titleAngry Market Hall traders petition for bus stop after 'loss of trade'\|firstJon\|lastMacpherson\|year2016\|access-date24 August 2016}}</ref> Half of Blackburn Road is being refurbished and is now being made into a more attractive shopping street, upgrading shops, adding more trees, and repaving the pavements.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/9462632.Major_work_to_enhance_Blackburn_town_centre_streets_underway/\|titleMajor work to enhance Blackburn town centre streets underway\|websiteLancashire Telegraph\|access-date2016-12-01}}</ref> As of 2014, two new phases were being built: the first one called the Acorn Park, where new houses were being built with balconies and greener spaces, and Project Phoenix, which will also include new housing.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Macpherson \|first1John \|titleAccrington 100 homes plan gets go-ahead \|urlhttps://www.lancs.live/news/accrington-100-homes-plan-gets-6521594 \|access-date3 October 2020 \|workLancsLive}}</ref> Geography Accrington is a hill town located at between the Pennines and the West Pennine Moors, within a bowl and largely encircled by surrounding hills to rising to a height of {{convert\|409\|m\|ft\|0}} in the case of Hameldon Hill to the east. The River Hyndburn or Accrington Brook flows through the centre of the town.<ref nameOS>{{cite map\|titleBlackburn & Burnley \|map 103 \|year2006 \|scale 1:50,000 \|seriesLandranger \|publisher Ordnance Survey\|editionC2 \|isbn =978-0-319-22829-6}}</ref> Hill settlements origins were as the economic foci of the district engaging in the spinning and weaving of woollen cloth. Wool, lead and coal were other local industries. Geographical coordinates: 53° 46' 0" North, 2° 21' 0" West. Height above sea level: there is a spot height outside the Market Hall which is {{convert\|133.5\|m}} the benchmark on the side of the neighbouring Town Hall is {{convert\|441.10\|ft}}. The highest height in the town is {{convert\|320\|m}} which is in Baxenden and the lowest at the town hall which is at {{convert\|132.5\|m}}. Accrington is lowering in elevation travelling northwards towards the Hyndburn. North of the river the elevation rises again, crossing over the watershed between Hyndburn and River Calder, both eventually leading into River Ribble via separate routes. The Hyndburn district further north eventually falls to the modest elevation of the Calder river banks. Transport Railway Accrington railway station, located on the East Lancashire Line, provides strong local travel links. The station runs trains locally and from Blackpool to York.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAccrington Train Station \|urlhttps://www.northernrailway.co.uk/stations/accrington \|access-date22 March 2023 \|workNorthern Railway}}</ref> However, recent changes to the train timetables have increased the journey time to Preston by up to 1.5 hours, a vital link to London or Scotland. In 2015, a train service to Manchester via the Todmorden Curve opened, providing a new rail link south to Manchester.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/10388550.New_Manchester_route_will_revitalise_Burnley_branch_station/\|titleNew Manchester route will revitalise Burnley branch station\|firstPeter\|lastMagill\|newspaperLancashire Telegraph\|publisherNewsquest (North West)\|date30 April 2013\|access-date22 March 2023}}</ref> Roads The town is served by junction seven of the M65 motorway and the A680 road, which runs from Rochdale to Whalley. The town is also linked from the A56 dual carriageway which briefly merges with the A680, connecting to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester. The closest airports are Manchester Airport, Blackpool Airport, and Leeds Bradford Airport, all within 30 miles.<ref name"Accrington"/>BusSeveral bus companies provide services in the town, including Pilkington Bus, Holmeswood Coaches, Rosso, and Transdev Blazefield subsidiaries Blackburn Bus Company and Burnley Bus Company.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.lancashire.gov.uk/corporate/web/viewdoc.asp?id49729\|titleBus map & guide: Your Guide to Services throughout Accrington & Surrounding Area\|publisherLancashire County Council\|dateNovember 2010\|access-date22 March 2023}}</ref> Regular bus services connect Accrington to other towns in East Lancashire, including Blackburn, Oswaldtwistle, Rishton, Burnley, and Clitheroe. M&M Coaches provided services in the area until the company ceased business suddenly on 21 September 2016.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/hyndburn/14755970.End_of_the_line_for_struggling_Accrington_bus_firm_after_40_years/\|titleEnd of the line for struggling Accrington Bus Firm\|date21 September 2016\|access-date22 March 2023}}</ref>Cycleways and footpathsThe trackbed from Accrington to Baxenden, which was once a rail link south to Manchester, is now a linear treelined cycleway/footpath.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lancashire.gov.uk/leisure-and-culture/cycling/cycle-routes-and-maps/east-lancashire-line-greenway/\|titleEast Lancashire Line Greenway\|publisherLancashire County Council\|access-date22 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The cycleway/footpath is a popular route for cycling and walking, offering views Public services ]] Accrington Library, on St James Street was built in 1908 as a Carnegie library. It has a stained glass window by Gustav Hiller and was a place of inspiration for the young Jeanette Winterson.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.artunpacked.co.uk/venues/accrington-library-lancashire-county-council/ \| titleAccrington Library – Lancashire County Council \| access-date10 July 2015 \| archive-date21 October 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201021231439/http://www.artunpacked.co.uk/venues/accrington-library-lancashire-county-council/ \| url-statusdead }}</ref> Near the Tesco supermarket, there is Accrington Skate Park which is popular during the school holidays. On Broadway, Accrington Police Station serves the Borough of Hyndburn. In April 2003, Hyndburn Community Fire Station opened, also serving the Borough of Hyndburn. Police services The town is served by the Lancashire Constabulary Police station on Broadway after moving into town from its previous location on Manchester Road as an effort to save money due to rising expenses and decreasing funding by the government. Crime is very low in Accrington compared to nearby towns.<ref>{{cite web\|titleCrime Map for Accrington Towne Centre\|urlhttps://www.police.uk/lancashire/E26/crime/\|websitepolice.uk\|access-date28 February 2018\|archive-date25 February 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190225103226/https://www.police.uk/lancashire/E26/crime/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Policing of the Railway station and railway-owned properties are served by the British Transport Police, nearest post in Preston. Social Governance Accrington is represented in parliament as a part of the constituency of Hyndburn. The constituency boundaries do not align exactly with those of the district of the same name. Accrington was first represented nationally after the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 after the 1885 general election by Accrington (UK Parliament constituency). This seat was abolished in the 1983 general election and replaced with the present constituency of Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency). Accrington became incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. Under the Local Government Act 1972, since 1974, the town has formed part of the larger Borough of Hyndburn including the former Urban Districts of Oswaldtwistle, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Rishton. Hyndburn consists of 16 wards, electing a total of 35 councillors. Due to its size Accrington is represented by a number of wards in the Borough of Hyndburn. The town largely consists of the Milnshaw, Peel, Central, Barnfield and Spring Hill wards, although some parts of those wards are in other towns in the borough. Health The local hospital is Accrington Victoria Hospital however, as it only deals with minor issues, Accident and Emergency is provided by the Royal Blackburn Hospital. Other services are provided at the Accrington Pals Primary Health Care Centre and the Accrington Acorn Primary Health Care Centre. Media Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lancashire on 95.5 FM, Heart North West on 96.9 FM, Smooth North West on 100.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire on 96.5 FM, Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR) on 99.8 FM, and Central Radio North West. Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Winter_Hill \|titleFull Freeview on the Winter Hill (Bolton, England) transmitter \|dateMay 2004 \|publisherUK Free TV \|access-date29 December 2023}}</ref> and one of the three local relay transmitters (Woodnook,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Woodnook \|titleFreeview Light on the Woodnook (Lancashire, England) transmitter \|dateMay 2004 \|publisherUK Free TV \|access-date29 December 2023}}</ref> Pendle Forest<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Pendle_Forest \|titleFull Freeview on the Pendle Forest (Lancashire, England) transmitter \|publisherUK Free TV \|access-date29 December 2023}}</ref> and Haslingden<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Haslingden \|titleFreeview Light on the Haslingden (Lancashire, England) transmitter\|publisherUK Free TV \|access-date29 December 2023}}</ref>). The town is served by the local newspaper, Accrington Observer, which publishes on Fridays,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britishpapers.co.uk/england-nw/accrington-observer/\|titleThe Accrington Observer\|date12 October 2013\|websiteBritish Papers\|accessdate29 December 2023}}</ref> and by the Lancashire Post and Lancashire Telegraph.Accrington dialectThe dialect spoken in Accrington is part of the broader Lancashire dialect, which belongs to the larger category of Northern English dialects. This dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages, with influences from Old Norse due to the Viking invasions in the region.<ref name"Crosby 2000">{{cite book \|titleThe Lancashire Dialect \|firstAlan \|lastCrosby \|year2000 \|publisher=Carnegie Publishing Ltd}}</ref> Features of the Accrington dialect include pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammatical structures that distinguish it from other dialects in the Lancashire region. Vocabulary specific to the Accrington dialect may include words such as "ginnel" (a narrow passage between buildings) or "snap" (referring to a packed lunch or a meal taken to work).<ref>{{cite book \|titleLancashire English \|firstGraham \|lastShorrocks \|year1999 \|publisher=Helmut Buske Verlag}}</ref> In terms of grammar, the Accrington dialect may exhibit features common to other Northern English dialects, such as the use of "thee" and "thou" for "you" and "were" instead of "was" in certain contexts.<ref>{{cite book \|titleEnglish Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles \|first1Arthur \|last1Hughes \|first2Peter \|last2Trudgill \|first3Dominic \|last3Watt \|year2012 \|edition5th \|publisherRoutledge }}</ref> Additionally, the Accrington dialect might display non-standard verb conjugations and a preference for certain sentence structures or word order. The Accrington dialect, like many local dialects, is subject to change and variation over time due to factors such as increased mobility, urbanization, and exposure to other dialects and languages.{{Citation needed\|dateApril 2023}}<!-- <ref name"Barber 2016 2–10">{{cite journal \|titleThe Disappearing Dialect: A Study of Language Variation and Change in Accrington \|firstMichael \|lastBarber \|journalEnglish Today \|year2016 \|volume32 \|issue3 \|pages2–10 \|doi10.1017/S0266078416000196\|doi-broken-date26 March 2023 }}</ref>--> This may lead to a gradual loss or modification of certain dialect features and an increased convergence with more standardised forms of English. History of Accrington dialect The history of the Accrington dialect is intertwined with the broader history of the Lancashire dialect, as well as the linguistic influences that have shaped the region over time. Although specific information about the Accrington dialect's history is limited, it is reasonable to assume that it has been impacted by similar historical events and linguistic developments as the wider Lancashire area. Influence of Old English and Middle English The Accrington dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages that were spoken in England during the early and late medieval periods, respectively.<ref name"Crosby 2000"/> These languages formed the basis for many dialects in the region, including those spoken in Accrington. As the dialect evolved over time, it retained some elements of these early linguistic influences, which can be observed in the pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar of the modern Accrington dialect.Impact of Viking invasions and Old NorseThe Viking invasions during the late 8th to 11th centuries introduced the Old Norse language to the north of England, including the Lancashire region.<ref name"Crosby 2000"/> This contact between Old English and Old Norse speakers likely influenced the Accrington dialect and other Lancashire dialects, with some Old Norse words and grammatical features being incorporated into the local language. As a result, the Accrington dialect shares some common linguistic traits with other Northern English dialects that have been similarly impacted by the Old Norse influence. Development and changes over time The Accrington dialect, like other regional dialects, has undergone various changes and developments throughout its history. Factors contributing to these changes may include the expansion and decline of local industries, increased mobility and migration, and exposure to other dialects and languages.{{Citation needed\|dateApril 2023}}<!-- <ref name"Barber 2016 2–10"/> --> Additionally, educational policies and the influence of mass media may have played a role in shaping the modern Accrington dialect, as people in the area increasingly adopt more standardized forms of English in formal settings. Despite these changes, the Accrington dialect continues to exhibit unique features that distinguish it from other dialects in the Lancashire region and reflects the town's rich linguistic heritage. Pronunciation and phonetics The pronunciation and phonetics of the Accrington dialect are characterized by a few distinctive features that set it apart from other dialects in the Lancashire region. However, specific studies and resources focusing solely on the phonetics and pronunciation of the Accrington dialect are currently unavailable. The limited information available is largely based on the broader Lancashire dialect, which may encompass some of the features present in the Accrington dialect. The lack of specific studies or resources highlights a need for more research and documentation on the Accrington dialect to better understand its unique phonetic and pronunciation features. Vowel shifts and variations One example of a vowel shift in the Accrington dialect is the pronunciation of the word "acorn" as "akran".<ref name"The Literary Club"/> This variation demonstrates a tendency in the Accrington dialect to alter vowel sounds compared to Standard English. Other examples of vowel shifts specific to Accrington are not well-documented, but the "akran" example suggests that similar variations may exist in other words and phrases.Consonant changesInformation on consonant changes specific to the Accrington dialect is scarce. However, based on the broader tendencies of Lancashire dialects and the limited available evidence, it is possible that the Accrington dialect exhibits consonant changes such as the pronunciation of "th" as "d" or "t" (e.g., "them" pronounced as "dem" or "tem") or the elision of certain consonants in some words. Further research is needed to identify and document specific consonant changes unique to the Accrington dialect.Accent and stress patterns The accent and stress patterns of the Accrington dialect have not been thoroughly documented in linguistic research. It is difficult to provide specific examples or details about the stress patterns in the Accrington dialect without more comprehensive data. Further study of the Accrington dialect's pronunciation and phonetics is necessary to fully understand its unique accent and stress patterns. In conclusion, while the Accrington dialect exhibits some unique features, such as the pronunciation of "acorn" as "akran", more research and documentation are needed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dialect's specific vowel shifts, consonant changes, and accent and stress patterns. The lack of specific studies on the Accrington dialect highlights an opportunity for linguists and researchers to further explore this unique dialect and its pronunciation and phonetics. Local and regional words Ginnel - A local term for a narrow passage or alleyway between buildings, commonly found in Accrington and other Lancashire towns.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.greatbritishlife.co.uk/people/what-s-the-difference-between-a-ginnel-and-a-snicket-7031328\|titleWhat's the difference between a ginnel and a snicket?\|authorPaul Mackenzie\|date2019-07-30\|publisherGreat British Life\|accessdate2023-03-22}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mither - A verb meaning to bother or annoy someone, or to be fussy or worried about something.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/6117402.50-great-lancashire-words-phrases/\|title50 great Lancashire words and phrases\|authorVanessa Cornall\|date2004-08-02\|workLancashire Telegraph\|accessdate2023-03-22}}</ref> Industry and occupation-related terminology Tackler - A term referring to a skilled worker responsible for setting up and maintaining looms in the textile industry, which was used in Accrington during the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book\|lastRoberts\|firstElizabeth\|titleWomen's Work 1840-1940\|year1988\|publisherCambridge University Press\|pages32}}</ref> Landscape and geography-related vocabulary Clough - A term used in Accrington and other parts of Lancashire to describe a steep-sided, wooded valley or ravine, as in the case of Woodnook Clough.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1019059\|titleWoodnook Clough: a late prehistoric and Romano-British enclosed farmstead, 560m south east of Hollins Lane Farm\|publisherHistoric England\|accessdate2023-03-22}}</ref> Brook - A small stream or watercourse, such as the Hyndburn Brook, which runs through Accrington.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-planning/WaterBody/GB112071065520\|titleHyndburn Brook\|publisherEnvironment Agency\|accessdate2023-03-22}}</ref> Ancient customs and traditions of Accrington Accrington, as a historic town, has been home to several ancient customs and traditions that have shaped its local culture and identity. While some of these customs may no longer be practised, they offer valuable insights into the town's past. Rush-Bearing Festival One of the most notable ancient customs in Accrington was the rush-bearing festival. This annual event involved the gathering of rushes from nearby marshlands and meadows to be used as fresh flooring material in local churches. The rushes were then transported to the churches in decorative carts or wagons, accompanied by a festive procession, music, and dancing.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.visitlancashire.com/dbimgs/Rushbearing%20Festival(1).pdf\|titleRushbearing Festival\|accessdate22 March 2023\|publisherVisit Lancashire}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> This event was once widespread across Lancashire and the North of England, but its prevalence in Accrington is particularly noteworthy. Wakes Week Another significant custom in Accrington was Wakes Week, a holiday period that took place in the town and surrounding areas. Typically, it occurred during the summer months and lasted for one week. During this time, local mills and factories closed, allowing workers to enjoy a much-needed break from their labor-intensive occupations.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/10899807.historic-wakes-weeks-coming-end-accrington/\|titleHistoric Wakes Weeks coming to an end in Accrington\|accessdate22 March 2023\|workLancashire Telegraph}}</ref> Wakes Week often featured various festivities, such as fairs, carnivals, and other communal events, which brought the community together in celebration. Local sports and games In the past, Accrington was known for hosting traditional sports and games, which were enjoyed by the local community. Some of these sports included football, cricket, and quoits.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHolt\|firstRichard\|titleSport and the Working Class in Modern Britain\|year1990\|publisherManchester University Press\|isbn978-0-7190-2650-8\|page66}}</ref> These games not only provided entertainment but also fostered a sense of community spirit and camaraderie. Sport Football team {{main\|Accrington Stanley F.C.}} Accrington Stanley F.C.,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.accringtonstanley.co.uk/ \|titleAccrington Stanley F.C. \|access-date29 December 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130325190530/http://www.accringtonstanley.co.uk/ \|archive-date25 March 2013 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> entered the Football League in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually resigned from the League in 1962, due to financial problems, and folded in 1965. The club was reformed three years later and then worked its way through the non-league divisions to reach the Nationwide Conference in 2003. In the 2005–06 season, Stanley, after winning against Woking with three matches to spare, secured a place back in the Football League and the town celebrated with a small parade and honours placed on senior executives of the team. One of the teams relegated— and thus being replaced by Stanley—were Oxford United, who was voted into the Football League to replace the previous Accrington Stanley. The football stadium is called the Crown Ground. Until the 2012–13 season, when Fleetwood Town entered the league, Accrington was the smallest town in England and Wales with a Football League club.<ref>[http://www.lovemytown.co.uk/FootballTeams/FootballTeamsTable5.asp Towns Represented in League Two 2007-8]</ref> Accrington Stanley Football Club has had its own pub in the town, the Crown, since July 2007.<ref>[http://www.accringtonstanley.co.uk/index.php/commercial/crown http://www.accringtonstanley.co.uk/index.php/commercial/crown] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://archive.today/20120730053902/http://www.accringtonstanley.co.uk/index.php/commercial/crown \|date30 July 2012 }} Accringtonstanley.co.uk</ref> Team history An earlier club, Accrington F.C., was one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful and considerably briefer than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893 and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique "distinction" of having lost two separate clubs from league football. Accrington Stanley F.C. are currently placed in EFL League Two after being relegated from EFL League One in the 2022/23 season, having finished 23rd. Cricket {{main\|Accrington Cricket Club}} Accrington Cricket Club plays at Thorneyholme Road in the Lancashire League. Cricket is also played in parks. Schools nearby have shown major interest in cricket and have held cricket training and tournaments. Other sports There are two sports centres, the main one being the Hyndburn Sports Centre, which recently renovated its swimming pool area and is situated near Lidl. Education Accrington has the following primary schools: {{div col}} * St Mary's RC Primary School, Clayton le Moors * Hyndburn Park Primary School, * Peel Park Primary School, * Sacred Heart Primary School, * Benjamin Hargreaves CE Primary School, * Springhill County Primary School, * Accrington Huncoat Primary School, * St Johns and St Augustines CE Primary School, * St Mary Magdalen's CE Primary School, * St Nicholas' CE Primary School, * Woodnook Primary School, * St James CE Primary School, Altham, * St Johns CE Primary School, Baxenden, * All Saints CE Primary School, * Mount Pleasant Primary School, * Green Haworth CE Primary School, * Stonefold CE Primary School, * St Peters CE Primary School. * St Mary's RC Primary School, Oswaldtwistle. * St Anne's and St Joseph's RC Primary School * St Oswald's RC Primary School * Hippings Methodist Primary School Oswaldtwistle * St Andrews CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle * St Oswalds CoE Primary School Knuzden * West End Primary School Oswaldtwistle * Moor End Community Primary School Oswaldtwistle * St Paul's CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle {{div col end}} The secondary schools serving Accrington are: * Accrington Academy * Heathland School * The Hollins * The Hyndburn Academy * Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School * Rhyddings * St Christopher's Church of England High School The college in the town centre is Accrington and Rossendale College; nearby universities include University Centre at Blackburn College, and the University of Central Lancashire in Preston. Landmarks Haworth Art Gallery The Haworth Art Gallery is an art museum located in Accrington, Lancashire, England. The gallery is housed in a Tudor-style mansion, originally known as Hollins Hill, which was built in 1909 by William Haworth, a local cotton manufacturer.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/haworthartgallery/\|titleHaworth Art Gallery: A Brief History\|publisherHyndburn Borough Council\|accessdate23 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Upon his death in 1913, William Haworth bequeathed the mansion and its surrounding parkland to the people of Accrington.<ref>{{citation\|titleHaworth Art Gallery and William Haworth\|publisherSource Publisher}}</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonno URL, no source\|dateMarch 2023}} The gallery opened in 1921.<ref>{{citation\|titleHaworth Art Gallery Opening\|publisherSource Publisher}}</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonno URL, no source\|date=March 2023}} The Haworth Art Gallery holds the largest public collection of Tiffany glass in Europe, known as the Tiffany Glass Collection.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/haworth-tiffany-glass/\|titleTiffany Glass Collection at Haworth Art Gallery\|publisherHyndburn Borough Council\|accessdate23 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The collection was donated by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington native who worked for the famous American artist and designer Louis Comfort Tiffany.<ref>{{citation\|titleJoseph Briggs and the Tiffany Glass Collection\|publisherSource Publisher}}</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonno URL, no source\|dateMarch 2023}} In addition to the Tiffany Glass Collection, the gallery holds a range of artwork, including 19th and 20th-century oil paintings, watercolours, prints, and sculptures.<ref>{{citation\|titleArtwork at Haworth Art Gallery\|publisherSource Publisher}}</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonno URL, no source\|date=March 2023}} The Haworth Art Gallery also holds temporary exhibitions showing contemporary art by local and national artists.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/haworth-exhibitions-events/\|titleExhibitions and Events at Haworth Art Gallery\|publisherHyndburn Borough Council\|accessdate23 March 2023}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonprimary source\|dateMarch 2023}}The ViaductThe Viaduct is a bridge which has a railway line on it, it goes through the town and has many storage units and shop on sale by National Rail. The Viaduct ends at the Accrington Eco Station.Town HallAccrington Town Hall was built in memory of Sir Robert Peel and opened as the Peel Institute in 1858;<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/conway/357acdf5.html \| titleA&A &#124; Facade, Accrington Town Hall \| access-date13 March 2017 \| archive-date14 March 2017 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170314063352/http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/conway/357acdf5.html \| url-statusdead }}</ref> it is also listed.<ref>{{NHLE\|descTown Hall\|num1362011\|access-date2 January 2021}}</ref> The Arcade The Arcade is a Victorian shopping centre with about 10-15 shops and restaurants.{{citation needed\|dateMarch 2023}}Oak Hill ParkOak Hill Park is a large and old park with a view of Accrington. It has won awards, such as the Green Flag Award in 2024-25.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHyndburn Celebrates Record-Breaking 11 Green Flag Awarded Parks and Green Spaces in 2024 \|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/news/hyndburn-celebrates-record-breaking-11-green-flag-awarded-parks-and-green-spaces-in-2024/}}</ref> It has also been awarded an Eco Award. It is on Manchester Road.Haworth ParkHaworth Park can be accessed from Manchester Road and is off Hollins Lane at the top of Harcourt Road. The Park was originally William Haworth's private residence. The Haworth Art Gallery holds the Tiffany Glass collection.The Coppice and Peel ParkPeel Park is a green space in the centre of Accrington. The park was opened by William Peel on 29 September 1909 and was originally called the Corporation Park. The park was renamed in honour of William Peel, the grandson of Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of his service as a Liberal MP for the town. The park covers an area of approximately 18 acres and includes a wide range of features, including a lake, flower gardens, a bandstand, and a bowling green.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID268&pageNumber5\|titlePeel Park and the Coppice\|lastPickup\|firstMark\|websitehyndburnbc.gov.uk\|access-date2023-03-22\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160307044639/http://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID268&pageNumber5\|archive-date7 March 2016\|url-statusdead\|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Coppice is a hill in the park, and provides a 2.2-mile scenic walk around the park, offering visitors views of the surrounding area. The Coppice has been part of the park since it was first opened, and there have been refurbishments to the paths and monuments at the top of the hill over the years.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.visitlancashire.com/things-to-do/peel-park-coppice-p12989\|titlePeel Park & Coppice\|websitevisitlancashire.com\|access-date2023-03-22}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2009, the people of Accrington celebrated the centenary of the Coppice being handed over to the town. The occasion was marked with a series of events and activities, including a refurbishment of the paths and monument at the top of the hill. Since then, there have been several revamps to the playground area of the park.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/parks-outdoor-spaces/\|titleParks & Outdoor Spaces\|websitehyndburnbc.gov.uk\|access-date2023-03-22}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Events and festivals are held in the park throughout the year, including the annual Accrington Food and Drink Festival, which takes place in the summer.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.accringtonfoodfestival.co.uk/\|titleAccrington Food & Drink Festival\|websiteaccringtonfoodfestival.co.uk\|access-date2023-03-22\|archive-date3 January 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190103104008/http://accringtonfoodfestival.co.uk/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Early landownersThis section outlines the contributions of landowning families, including the de Lacy, Walmsley, Peel, Hargreaves and Haworth families, to the development of Accrington. De Lacy family The de Lacy family were the first recorded landowners in Accrington,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/download-package/accrington-treasures/page/4/\|titleAccrington Treasures\|accessdate22 March 2023\|publisherHyndburn Borough Council}}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> instrumental in the town's establishment as a regional center for agriculture and trade. Walmsley family The Walmsley family acquired the manor of Accrington in the 16th century<ref>{{cite book\|lastWhitaker\|firstThomas Dunham\|titleAn History of the Original Parish of Whalley, and Honor of Clitheroe\|year1872\|publisherGeorge Routledge\|pages315–316}}</ref> and owned several mills, contributing to the expansion of Accrington's textile industry. Peel family The Peel family were key figures in the 18th and 19th centuries,<ref>{{cite book\|lastHolt\|firstRichard\|titleSport and the Working Class in Modern Britain\|year1990\|publisherManchester University Press\|isbn978-0-7190-2650-8\|pages53–54}}</ref> with Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, establishing textile mills in the area, significantly boosting Accrington's economy. Hargreaves family The Hargreaves family built the Broad Oak Print Works in 1778,<ref>{{cite book\|lastBaines\|firstEdward\|titleHistory, Directory & Gazetteer, of the County of York: With Select Lists of the Merchants & Traders of London, and the Principal Commercial and Manufacturing Towns of England; and a Variety of Other Commercial Information: Also a Copious List of the Seats of the Nobility and Gentry of Yorkshire\|year1822\|publisherEdward Baines\|pages33–34}}</ref> which became one of the largest textile printing establishments in the region. Haworth family The Haworth family were prominent landowners in Accrington, with James Haworth establishing Haworth Mill in the early 1800s. The family's investments in local industry contributed to the town's economic development. Peel, Yates and Co. Peel, Yates and Co. was a partnership between the Peel family and the Yates family.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Whittaker \|first1Joseph \|titleAn Historical and Descriptive Account of the Town and Parochial Chapelry of Oldham \|year1859 \|publisherJ. Galt \|locationOldham \|pages48–49}}</ref> The Peel family, led by Robert Peel (1750–1830), and the Yates family, led by William Yates (1769–1849), established Peel, Yates and Co. in 1795.<ref name"The Cotton Industry">{{cite book \|last1Aspin \|first1Chris \|titleThe Cotton Industry \|year1981 \|publisherShire Publications \|locationAylesbury \|pages27–28}}</ref> The company owned and operated several cotton mills in Accrington, including the Woodnook Mill, which employed around 800 people during its peak operation.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Peel,_Yates_and_Co \|titlePeel, Yates and Co \|publisherGrace's Guide \|accessdate22 March 2023}}</ref> Duckworth family The Duckworth family were landowners and industrialists in Accrington during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/6174346.100-years-looking-back-family/ \|title100 years of looking back for family \|workLancashire Telegraph\|date1997-05-09 \|accessdate22 March 2023}}</ref> They invested in the local textile industry, owning several mills, such as the Broad Oak Mill and the Spring Hill Mill.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn72&subbroad&o578 \|titleBroad Oak Mill, Accrington \|publisherSpinning the Web \|accessdate22 March 2023 }}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The Duckworth family's mills employed hundreds of workers. Birtwistle family The Birtwistle family were involved in the cotton industry in Accrington, owning and operating cotton mills during the 19th century.<ref name"The Cotton Industry"/> Members of the family, including John Birtwistle (1807–1884), owned mills like the Church Bank Mill and the Wellington Mill, employing over 1,000 workers between the two establishments.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.oneguyfrombarlick.co.uk/viewtopic.php?t8023 \|titleJohn Birtwistle, entrepreneur \|publisherOne Guy From Barlick \|accessdate22 March 2023}} {{dead link\|dateMarch 2023}}</ref> Holden family The Holden family contributed to Accrington's development through their involvement in various industries, such as coal mining and brick manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/6003626.brick-works-true-legacy-nori/ \|titleBrick works the true legacy of the Nori \|workLancashire Telegraph\|date2000-11-10 \|accessdate22 March 2023}}</ref> The family-owned Accrington Brick and Tile Company, established by Joseph HoldenNotable residents{{more citations needed section\|dateNovember 2018}} Alan Ramsbottom, professional cyclist Andy Hargreaves, academic Andy Kanavan, rock drummer with Dire Straits and Level 9 was born in the town Jenny (Jane) Kenney, sister of suffragette Annie Kenney who taught at Montessori school in the 1900s Anthony Rushton, tech entrepreneur Barry Stanton (actor), actor for RSC and films such as The Madness of King George David Lloyd, cricketer, now a pundit for Sky Sports Diana Vickers, singer-songwriter, stage actress and fashion designer Edward Ormerod, mining engineer and inventor of the Ormerod safety link for use in coal mines Frederick Higginbottom, journalist and newspaper editor Graeme Fowler, cricketer, former England batsman, cricket coach and occasional pundit on BBC Radio's Test Match Special Harrison Birtwistle, composer Hollie Steel, ''Britain's Got Talent finalist of 2009 Jeanette Winterson, author; Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is an account of her childhood in the town John Rex Whinfield, chemist, inventor of Terylene (polyester), the first completely synthetic fibre invented in UK John Virtue, artist Jon Anderson, singer with rock band Yes, was born in the town Jonathan Slinger, RADA trained actor Julie Hesmondhalgh, actor, Hayley Cropper in the TV Soap Coronation Street'' Mick O'Shea, author and scriptwriter Mike Duxbury, footballer, was born in the town Mystic Meg, astrologer, was born in the town as Margaret Anne Lake in 1942 Netherwood Hughes, World War I veteran, died in 2009, aged 108 Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978), Award-winning Lancashire poet Pauline Aitken, artist Paul Manning, undercover police officer and whistleblower Reece Bibby, member of Stereo Kicks and 2014 finalist of The X Factor. Now a member of the band New Hope Club Ron Hill, long-distance and marathon runner Thomas Birtwistle, trade unionist Vicky Entwistle, actor, Janice Battersby in the TV Soap Coronation Street William Macrorie bishop of Maritzburg<ref>{{cite DNB12\|wstitleMacrorie, William Kenneth\|last Woods\|firstGabriel Stanley\|volume2}}</ref> Stephen Heys, footballer Val Robinson, footballer and field hockey player See also Listed buildings in Accrington * Howard & Bullough References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading William Turner. Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword, 1998. {{ISBN\|978-0-85052-360-7}} External links {{Wikivoyage\|Accrington}} {{commons category}} [http://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk Hyndburn Borough Council] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060530050349/http://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk/ \|date30 May 2006 }} {{Borough of Hyndburn geography}} {{Lancashire}} {{authority control}} Category:Towns in Lancashire Category:Unparished areas in Lancashire Category:Former civil parishes in Lancashire Category:Geography of Hyndburn Category:English royal forests	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accrington	2025-04-05T18:26:15.949112
3058	Armageddon	{{Short description\|Biblical apocalyptic battle site}} {{Other uses}} {{Redirect\|Battle of Armageddon\|the hymn\|The Battle of Armageddon}} with archaeological remains from the Bronze and Iron Ages]] {{Christian Eschatology}} According to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, Armageddon ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|ɑːr\|m\|ə\|ˈ\|g\|ɛ\|d\|ən}} {{respell\|AR\|mə\|GHED\|ən}}; {{Langx\|grc\|{{Wikt-lang\|grc\|Ἁρμαγεδών}}\|{{grc-transl\|Ἁρμαγεδών}}}};<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bibletranslation.ws/trans/revwgrk.pdf \|titleBibletranslation.ws \|websitebibletranslation.ws \|access-date2009-09-23 \|archive-date2011-07-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716112352/http://www.bibletranslation.ws/trans/revwgrk.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://biblehub.com/revelation/16-16.htm \|titleRevelation 16:16 And they assembled the kings in the place that in Hebrew is called Armageddon. \|websitebiblehub.com \|access-date2019-04-01 \|archive-date2012-10-27 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121027132808/http://scripturetext.com/revelation/16-16.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> {{langx\|la\|labelLate Latin\|Armagedōn}};<ref>Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins, 3rd ed., p. 81</ref> from {{langx\|he\|הַר מְגִדּוֹ\|Har Məgīddō}}) is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, which is variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end-of-the-world scenario. In Islamic theology, Armageddon is also mentioned in Hadith as the Greatest Armageddon or Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (the great battle).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHadith - Book of Tribulations - Sunan Ibn Majah - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) \|urlhttps://sunnah.com/ibnmajah/36/147 \|access-date2020-12-24 \|websitesunnah.com \|archive-date2020-11-12 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112011312/https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah/36/147 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The "mount" of Megiddo in northern Israel is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a mound or hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding at the same spot)<ref>[http://travel.nytimes.com/2006/07/16/travel/16family.html "Amateur Archaeologists Get the Dirt on the Past"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308111520/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/16/travel/16family.html \|date2021-03-08 }}, The New York Times</ref> on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. The nearby modern Megiddo is a kibbutz in the Kishon River area.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bloganavazquez.com/tag/anales-tutmosis-iii/ \|titleMaps and pictures of Megiddo mountain and the surrounding plain (in Spanish) \|websitewww.bloganavazquez.com \|access-date2010-06-22 \|archive-date2017-06-14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170614105632/http://www.bloganavazquez.com/tag/anales-tutmosis-iii/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref>EtymologyThe word Armageddon appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation 16:16. The word is a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew har məgīddō ({{lang\|he\|הר מגידו\|rtlyes}}). Har means "a mountain" or "a range of hills". This is a shortened form of harar meaning "to loom up; a mountain". Məgīddō refers to a fortification made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. Its name means "place of crowds".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://lexiconcordance.com/hebrew/4023.html \|titleStrong's Number 4023 Hebrew Dictionary of the Old Testament Online Bible with Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Brown Driver Briggs Lexicon, Etymology, Translations Definitions Meanings & Key Word Studies \|websitelexiconcordance.com \|access-date2014-02-25 \|archive-date2014-03-01 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140301082204/http://lexiconcordance.com/hebrew/4023.html \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>BC The Archaeology of the Bible Lands. By Magnus Magnusson. BBC Publications 1977</ref> Adam Clarke wrote in his Bible commentary (1817) on Revelation 16:16:<blockquote>Armageddon – The original of this word has been variously formed, and variously translated. It is {{lang\|he\|הר־מגדון}} har-megiddon, "the mount of the assembly;" or {{lang\|he\|חרמה גדהון}} chormah gedehon, "the destruction of their army;" or it is {{lang\|he\|הר־מגדו}} har-megiddo, "Mount Megiddo."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRevelation 16 Clarke's Commentary \|urlhttps://biblehub.com/commentaries/clarke/revelation/16.htm \|websiteBible Hub}}</ref></blockquote>Christianity {{See also\|Christian eschatology}} ''. Painting by Hieronymus Bosch (1505).]] Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city".<ref name"Bible cite">{{cite web \|year2011 \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/keyword/?searchmegiddo&version19&searchtypeall&limitnone&wholewordsonlyno \|titleBible Keyword Search Results: megiddo (KJV) \|access-date2011-01-15 \|archive-date2012-07-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120715041951/http://www.biblegateway.com/keyword/?searchmegiddo&version19&searchtypeall&limitnone&wholewordsonlyno \|url-statuslive }} Listing of the 12 Biblical Old Testament passages containing the word "Megiddo".&nbsp;</ref> None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in {{bibleverse\|Revelation\|16:16}} makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, either, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to&nbsp;... Armageddon".<ref name"No armies referred to">{{cite web \|year2011 \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchRevelation+16&versionNIV \|titleRevelation 16, The Seven Bowls of God's Wrath \|access-date2011-01-15 \|archive-date2011-01-11 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110111112320/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchRevelation+16&versionNIV \|url-statuslive }} New Testament excerpt describing various apparent calamities of nature with respect to Armageddon.</ref> The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location.<ref name"Biblical Horizons, No. 85">James B. Jordan, [http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-85-some-observations/ Biblical Horizons, No. 85] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100801052848/http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-85-some-observations/ \|date2010-08-01 }}</ref> R. J. Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place."<ref>Rousas John Rushdoony, Thy Kingdom Come: Studies in Daniel and Revelation, 190.</ref> Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan, argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew moed ({{lang\|he\|מועד\|rtlyes}}), meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly", which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion".<ref name="Biblical Horizons, No. 85"/> Most traditions interpret this Bible prophecy to be symbolic of the progression of the world toward the "great day of God, the Almighty" in which God pours out his just and holy wrath against unrepentant sinners led by Satan, in a literal end-of-the-world final confrontation.<ref>{{cite book\|firstRoger \|lastChapman\|chapterPremillennial Dispensationalism\|titleCulture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices\|locationLondon\|publisher Routledge\|year2015\|pages 517–518\|isbn978-1317473510 \|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idXO9nBwAAQBAJ&pgPA517}}</ref> 'Armageddon' is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of their elect, Israel, at Megiddo.<ref>{{citation \|urlhttps://intertextual.bible/text/judges-5.19-revelation-16.16 \|titleJudges 5:19 {{!}} Hebrew Bible \|access-date2022-01-09 \|archive-date2022-01-09 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220109030641/https://intertextual.bible/text/judges-5.19-revelation-16.16 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Christian scholar William Hendriksen writes: {{blockquote\|For this cause, Har Magedon is the symbol of every battle in which, when the need is greatest and believers are oppressed, the Lord suddenly reveals His power in the interest of His distressed people and defeats the enemy. When Sennacherib's 185,000 are slain by the Angel of Jehovah, that is a shadow of the final Har-Magedon. When God grants a little handful of Maccabees a glorious victory over an enemy which far outnumbers it, that is a type of Har-Magedon. But the real, the great, the final Har Magedon coincides with the time of Satan’s little season. Then the world, under the leadership of Satan, anti-Christian government, and anti-Christian religion – the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet – is gathered against the Church for the final battle, and the need is greatest; when God's children, oppressed on every side, cry for help; then suddenly, Christ will appear on the clouds of glory to deliver his people; that is Har-Magedon.<ref>William Hendriksen, More Than Conquerors, 163.</ref>}} Dispensationalism {{See also\|Dispensationalism}} In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted a chapter to the subject, "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses it as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes: {{blockquote\|It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the second advent of Christ to the earth. The extent of this great movement in which God deals with "the kings of the earth and of the whole world"<ref>Rev. 16:14</ref> will not be seen unless it is realized that the "battle of that great day of God Almighty"<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|16:14\|NKJV}}</ref> is not an isolated battle, but rather a campaign that extends over the last half of the tribulation period. The Greek word "polemo", translated "battle" in Revelation 16:14, signifies a war or campaign, while "machē" signifies a battle, and sometimes even single combat. This distinction is observed by Trench (see Richard C. Trench, New Testament Synonyms, pp. 301–32) and is followed by Thayer (see Joseph Henry Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 528) and Vincent (see Marvin R. Vincent, Word Studies in the New Testament, II, 541). The use of the word polemos (campaign) in Revelation 16:14 signifies that God views the events culminating in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent as one connected campaign.\|Pentecost, p. 340}} Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat"<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Joel\|3:2\|NKJV}}</ref> and "the valley of the passengers",<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Ezekiel\|39:11\|NKJV}}</ref> "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when he returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself.<ref>Zech. 12:2–11; 14:2</ref><ref>Pentecost, p. 341</ref> Pentecost further describes the area involved: {{blockquote\|This wide area would cover the entire land of Israel and this campaign, with all its parts, would confirm what Ezekiel pictures when he says the invaders will 'cover the land'.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Ezekiel\|38:9–16\|NKJV}}</ref> This area would conform to the extent pictured by John in Revelation 14:20.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|14:20\|NKJV}}</ref>}} Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDaniel 11:40–45 (King James Version) \|publisherBibleGateway.com \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDan.%2011:40-45;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073621/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDan.%2011%3A40-45%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book: # "The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast–False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end'."<ref>{{cite web \|titleDaniel 11:40 (King James Version) \|publisherBibleGateway.com \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDan.%2011:40;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073626/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDan.%2011%3A40%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-status=live}}</ref> # The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Daniel\|11:40\|NKJV}}</ref> Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack,<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Zechariah\|12:2\|NKJV}}</ref> and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Ezekiel\|39\|NKJV}}, {{bibleverse\|\|Zechariah\|12:4\|NKJV}}</ref> # "The full armies of the Beast move into Israel<ref>Daniel 11:41</ref> and shall conquer all that territory.<ref>Daniel 11:41–42</ref> Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape." # "... a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast"<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Daniel\|11:44\|NKJV}}, {{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|16:12\|NKJV}}</ref> # "The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there."<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Daniel\|11:45\|NKJV}}</ref> # "It is there that his destruction will come."<ref>Daniel 11:45</ref><ref>Pentecost, p. 356</ref> After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically Gog and Magog.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|20:8\|NKJV}}</ref> The army mentioned attacks the saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|20:11–15\|NKJV}}</ref> and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows: {{blockquote\|The destiny of the lost is a place in the lake of fire.<ref>Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14–15; 21:8</ref> This lake of fire is described as everlasting fire<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatthew 25:41 (King James Version) \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMatt.%2025:41;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073727/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMatt.%2025%3A41%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleMatthew 18:8 (King James Version) \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMatt.%2018:8;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073722/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMatt.%2018%3A8%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and as unquenchable fire,<ref>{{cite web \|titleMark 9:43–44 (King James Version) \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMark%209:43–44;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073712/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMark%209%3A43-44%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleMark 9:46–48 (King James Version) \|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMark%209:46-48;&version9; \|access-date2007-11-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071125073717/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMark%209%3A46-48%3B&version9%3B \|archive-date25 November 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> emphasizing the eternal character of retribution of the lost.\|Pentecost, p. 555}} Jehovah's Witnesses {{See also\|Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans who will be free from sin and death.<ref name"w2005881">{{cite journal \|urlhttp://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005881 \|titleArmageddon&mdash;A Happy Beginning \|dateDecember 1, 2005 \|pages4&ndash;7 \|journalThe Watchtower \|access-dateMay 22, 2015 \|archive-dateSeptember 29, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150929031820/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005881 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, only leaving righteous mankind.<ref>{{cite journal \|journalThe Watchtower \|urlhttp://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2008241 \|titleArmageddon—God's War to End All Wars \|pages5&ndash;8 \|dateApril 1, 2008 \|access-dateMay 22, 2015 \|archive-dateJuly 20, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150720213025/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2008241 \|url-status=live }}</ref> They believe that the gathering of all of the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process which began in 1914 and was later seen in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars.<ref>What Does the Bible Really Teach pp. 215–218 "1914 – A Significant Year in Bible Prophecy"</ref>{{full citation needed\|reasonauthor? publisher? year?\|dateJune 2022}} These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and they are disgusting in that they stand in the place of God's kingdom before men as the only hope of mankind.<ref name"w2005881" /> Babylon the Great is interpreted as being the world empire of false religions, and it will be destroyed by the beast just prior to Armageddon.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1102006290 \|titleThe End of False Religion is Near \|websitewol.jw.org \|access-date2015-05-22 \|archive-date2015-05-02 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150502200231/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1102006290 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>Mankind's Search for God chap. 16 p. 371 par. 13 "the destruction of Babylon the Great will usher in a period of 'great tribulation' that culminates in 'the war of the great day of God the Almighty ... Har–Magedon.{{'"}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|reasonwhat is this, a book? who wrote it and when?\|dateJune 2022}} Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments of the world will turn their attention to destroying Jehovah’s Witnesses, provoking God to intervene and precipitating Armageddon.<ref>{{cite journal \|journalThe Watchtower \|dateSeptember 15, 2005 \|page19 \|titleWalk by Faith, Not by Sight!}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1101992009 \|titleThe Marvelous New World of God's Making \|websitewol.jw.org \|access-date2015-05-22 \|archive-date2015-08-31 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150831130456/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1101992009 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan will be destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free from sin and death.<ref>{{cite journal \|journalThe Watchtower \|dateJune 1, 1996 \|page18 \|title=Flight to Safety Before the 'Great Tribulation'}}</ref> The religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on passages that are found in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional passages that are found in the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of the Watch Tower Society's founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth.<ref>{{cite book \|authorAlan Rogerson \|titleMillions Now Living Will Never Die \|publisherConstable \|year1969 \|page47}}</ref> Tony Wills, the author of a historical study of Jehovah's Witnesses, wrote that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry, Rutherford allocated about half the space that was available in The Watchtower magazines to discussions about Armageddon.<ref>{{Citation \|lastWills \|firstTony \|titleA People For His Name \|publisherLulu Enterprises \|year2006 \|page154 \|isbn978-1-4303-0100-4}}</ref> Seventh-day Adventist {{Main\|Seventh-day Adventist eschatology#Armageddon}} understanding of Revelation 13–22]] The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event.<ref>"Seventh-day Adventists believe" 1988 by the Ministerial Association General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists</ref>{{verify source\|reasonA conference by itself is not a verifiable source. Are we actually citing conference proceedings here, or something else?\|dateJune 2022}} Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further teaching in Seventh-day Adventist theology is that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium.<ref>Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology 2000 Review and Herald Publishing Association and the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists</ref>{{full citation needed\|dateJune 2022}} They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound".<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|20:2\|NKJV}}</ref> The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth";<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Revelation\|21:1\|NKJV}}</ref> then follows the millennium.ChristadelphiansFor Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the "great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together 'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God."<ref>The Christadelphian (1970), Volume 107, pp. 555–556.</ref>Baháʼí Faith {{See also\|Battle of Megiddo (1918)}} From Baháʼí literature, a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.<ref name"Lambden">{{cite journal \|lastLambden \|firstStephen \|titleCatastrophe, Armageddon and Millennium: some aspects of the Bábí-Bahá'í exegesis of apocalyptic symbolism \|journalBaháʼí Studies Review \|volume9 \|urlhttp://bahai-library.com/lambden_catastrophe_millennium \|access-date2007-06-10 \|archive-date2018-12-24 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181224184227/http://bahai-library.com/lambden_catastrophe_millennium%20 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers.<ref name"Lambden"/> The second, and best-known one, relates to events near the end of World War I involving General Allenby and the Battle of Megiddo (1918) wherein World Powers are said to have drawn soldiers from many parts of the world to engage in battle at Megiddo. In winning this battle Allenby also prevented the Ottomans from killing 'Abdu'l-Baha, then head of the Baháʼí Faith, whom they had intended to crucify.<ref>{{cite book \|year1997 \|titleThe Servant, the General, and Armageddon \|publisherGeorge Ronald \|isbn0-85398-424-7 \|authorRoderic Maude and Derwent Maude}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|lastSmith \|firstPeter \|titleA Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith \|author-linkPeter Smith (historian) \|encyclopediaA concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith \|publisherOneworld Publications \|locationOxford \|isbn1-85168-184-1 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/18 \|year2000 \|page18}}</ref> A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after.<ref name"Lambden"/> See also {{div col\|colwidth=20em}}<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---> * 1 Maccabees * Al-Malhama Al-Kubra * Amik Valley * Antiochus Epiphanes * Apocalyptic literature * Armageddon (novel) * Futurist view of the Book of Revelation * Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation * List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events * Megiddo: The Omega Code 2 * Millenarianism * Millennialism * Preterist interpretation of the Book of Revelation * Ragnarök * Siege of Jerusalem (70) * Waiting for Armageddon * World War III * Dagor Dagorath {{div col end}} References {{Reflist}} External links * {{Commons category-inline}} * {{Wiktionary-inline\|Armageddon}} * {{Wikiquote-inline\|Armageddon}} * [https://www.cdamm.org/articles/armageddon Armageddon], in James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.) Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements. 2021 {{Coord\|32\|35\|06\|N\|35\|11\|06\|E\|display=title}} {{Doomsday}} {{Authority control}} Category:Apocalypticism Category:Battlefields Category:Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses Category:Book of Revelation Category:Christian terminology Category:New Testament Hebrew words and phrases Category:Prophecy in Christianity Category:Seventh-day Adventist theology Category:Tel Megiddo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armageddon	2025-04-05T18:26:15.964987
3060	Athlon	thumb\|Original AMD Athlon logo thumb\|Logo used since 2018 for Zen-based Athlon processors AMD Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD's high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor. Brand history K7 design and development The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD's development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities. Original release The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel's GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume, and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others. Later Athlon iterations The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to "low-cost, high-volume products", in a situation similar to both Intel's Celeron and Pentium Gold. Generations Athlon Classic (1999) The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon "Classic" was an enormous success. The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 250 nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 180 nm process. split level-1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from setting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU. AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch-predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology. AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating-point unit (FPU). The 3DNow! floating-point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed "Enhanced 3DNow!" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE. Specifications L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions) L2-cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed MMX, 3DNow! Slot A (EV6) Front-side bus:100 MHz (200MT/s) Vcore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75) First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75) Clock-rate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75) Athlon Thunderbird (2000–2001) right\|thumb\|150px\|Athlon "Thunderbird" The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird or T-Bird, debuted on June 4, 2000. making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout. The Thunderbird was "cherished by many for its overclockability" and proved commercially successful, AMD's new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz. Palomino's design used 180 nm fabrication process size. Among other changes, Palomino consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. Palomino also had enhanced K7's TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. Palomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. Palomino was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the Athlon MP (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP. Specifications L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions) L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s) Vcore: 1.50 to 1.75 V Power consumption: 68 W First release: October 9, 2001 Clock-rate: Athlon 4: 850–1400 MHz Athlon XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+) Athlon MP: 1000–1733 MHz Thoroughbred thumb\|right\|150px\|Athlon XP "Thoroughbred B" 2400+ The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the Thoroughbred core, or T-Bred, on April 17, 2002. The Thoroughbred core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor. Specifications L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions) L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s) Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B) Clock-rate: Thoroughbred "A": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+) Thoroughbred "B": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+) 133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+) 166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+) Barton / Thorton thumb\|150px\|Athlon XP "Barton" 2500+ Fifth-generation Athlon Barton-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than Thoroughbred-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The Thorton core, a blend of Thoroughbred and Barton, was a later variant of the Barton with half of the L2 cache disabled. The Barton was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some Barton models more efficiency. and Barton only saw a small performance increase over the Thoroughbred-B it derived from, Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11× multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for, meaning that seamless overclocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification, but the result was not always reliable. Specifications Barton (130 nm) L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions) L2-cache: 512 KB, full speed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s) Vcore: 1.65 V First release: February 10, 2003 Clock rate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+) 133 MHz FSB: 1867–2133 MHz (2500+ to 2800+); uncommon 166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+) 200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+) Thorton (130 nm) L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions) L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed MMX, 3DNow!, SSE Socket A (EV6) Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s) Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V First release: September 2003 Clock rate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+) 133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+) 166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+) 200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+) Mobile Athlon XP thumb\|225px\|Athlon XP Mobile "Barton" 2400+ The Palomino core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market in May 2001, where it was branded as Mobile Athlon 4 with the codename "Corvette". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the Thunderbird instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later Palomino processors. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop's "level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand", thus extending "battery life by reducing processor power when it isn't needed by applications". Duron chips also included PowerNow! In 2002 the Athlon XP-M (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer Thoroughbred core, with Barton cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers. Athlon 64 (2003–2009) The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture. Athlon 64 X2 (2005–2009) The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original Brisbane Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture and were released in 2007. Athlon II (2009–2012) Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based Regor was released in June 2009 with 45-nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version Sargas, followed by the quad-core Propus, the triple-core Rana in November 2009, and the Llano 32 nm version released in 2011. Piledriver and Steamroller-based Athlon X4 (2013–2016) Various Steamroller-based Athlon X4 and X2 FM2+ socketed processors were released in 2014 and the years after. The preceding Piledriver-based Athlon X4 and X2 processors were released before 2014, and are socket compatible with both FM2+ and FM2 mainboards. Excavator-based Athlon X4 (2017) The Bristol Ridge Athlon X4 lineup was released in 2017. It is based on the Excavator microarchitecture and uses 2 Excavator modules totalling 4 cores. It has a dual-channel DDR4-2400 memory controller with clock speeds up to 4.0 GHz. It runs on the new Socket AM4 platform that was later used for Zen 1 to Zen 3 CPUs. Zen-based Athlon (2018–present) The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD's Raven Ridge core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance. On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE, Zen 2-based Athlon with Radeon Graphics processors, codenamed "Mendocino", were released on September 20, 2022, for the entry-level laptop market, alongside the more powerful quad-core Ryzen 7020 mobile series under the same codename. Featuring two processing cores, with two threads on Athlon Silver and four threads on Athlon Gold models, Athlon 7020 series mobile processors are equipped with two compute units (CUs) of RDNA 2 graphics. These 7020U series models were followed by the release of Ryzen/Athlon 7020C series for Chromebooks on May 23, 2023. Unlike prior Athlon generations, AMD has not released desktop variants of Mendocino. Specifications Raven Ridge (14 nm), Picasso (12 nm) (see the list article for more details) L1 cache: 192 KiB (2×64 KiB + 2×32 KiB) L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB) L3 cache: 4 MiB Memory: dual-channel DDR4-2666, 64 GiB max. Socket AM4 TDP: 35 W First release: September 6, 2018 CPU clock rate: 3.2 to 3.5 GHz GPU clock rate: 1000 to 1100 MHz Mendocino (6 nm) (see the list article for more details) L1 cache: 128 KiB (2×32 KiB + 2×32 KiB) L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB) L3 cache: 4 MiB Memory: dual-channel LPDDR5-5500, 16 GiB max. TDP: 15 W First release: September 20, 2022 CPU clock rate: 2.4 GHz GPU clock rate: 1900 MHz Supercomputers A number of supercomputers have been built using Athlon chips, largely at universities. Among them: In 2000, several American students claimed to have built the world's least expensive supercomputer by clustering 64 AMD Athlon chips together, also marking the first time Athlons had been clustered in a supercomputer. The PRESTO III, a Beowulf cluster of 78 AMD Athlon processors, was built in 2001 by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. That year it ranked 439 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers. In 2002, a "128-Node 256-Processor AMD Athlon Supercomputer Cluster" was installed at the Ohio Supercomputer Center at the University of Toledo. Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster—AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS. See also List of AMD Athlon processors List of AMD Duron processors List of AMD Phenom processors List of AMD Opteron processors List of AMD Sempron processors References External links Website Category:Computer-related introductions in 1999 Category:AMD x86 microprocessors Category:AMD microarchitectures Category:Superscalar microprocessors Category:X86 microarchitectures	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon	2025-04-05T18:26:16.038715

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