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Abacá
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{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Abacas|Abacus}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=October 2022}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Abacá<br/>Musa textilis
| image = Musa textilis 7zz.jpg
| image_caption = At the United States Botanic Garden
| genus = Musa
| parent = Musa sect. Callimusa
| species = textilis
| authority = Née
| synonyms =
{{Collapsible list |
{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*Musa abaca <small>Perr.</small>{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} nom. inval.
*Musa amboinensis <small>Miquel</small>
*Musa mindanaensis <small>Miquel</small>
*Musa mindanensis <small>Rump.</small>{{sfn|Bailey|1947|p=2078}}
*Musa silvéstris <small>Colla</small>{{sfn|Bailey|1947}}
*Musa tikap <small>Warburg</small>
*Musa troglodytàrum textòria <small>Blanco</small>{{sfn|Bailey|1947}}
}}
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref>
}}
Abacá ({{IPAc-en|ɑː|b|ə|ˈ|k|ɑː}} {{respell|ah-bə|KAH|'}}; {{langx|fil|abaka}} {{IPA|tl|ɐbɐˈka|}}), also known as Manila hemp, is a species of banana, Musa textilis, endemic to the Philippines. The plant grows to {{convert|13|-|22|ft|m}}, and averages about {{convert|12|ft|m}}. The plant has great economic importance, being harvested for its fiber extracted from the leaf-stems.<ref name"edwards"/><ref>{{GRIN | Musa textilis | 24742 | accessdate 5 June 2014}}</ref><ref name"hendrickx">{{cite journal|authorKatrien Hendrickx|year1904|seriesStudia anthropologica|volume11|titleThe Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan|journalFarmers' Bulletin|isbn978-90-5867-614-6|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idULyu8dNqS1sC|page170|publisherLeuven University Press }}</ref>
The lustrous fiber is traditionally hand-loomed into various indigenous textiles (abaca cloth or medriñaque) in the Philippines. They are still featured prominently as the traditional material of the barong tagalog, the national male attire of the Philippines, as well as in sheer lace-like fabrics called nipis used in various clothing components. Native abaca textiles also survive into the modern era among various ethnic groups, like the ''t'nalak'' of the T'boli people and the dagmay of the Bagobo people. Abaca is also used in traditional Philippine millinery, as well as for bags, shawls, and other decorative items. The hatmaking straw made from Manila hemp is called tagal or tagal straw.<ref>{{cite book|lastDreher|firstDenise|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfc9x1E8J0wwC&qTagal|titleFrom the neck up : an illustrated guide to hatmaking|publisherMadhatter|year1981|isbn9780941082006|edition1st|locationMinneapolis, Minn.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastGinsburg|firstMadeleine|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hattrendstraditi00gins|titleThe hat: trends and traditions|publisherBarron's|year1990|isbn9780812061987|edition1st U.S.|locationHauppauge, N.Y.|quoteTagal.|url-accessregistration}}</ref>
The fiber is also exceptionally strong, stronger than hemp and naturally salt-resistant, making it ideal for making twines and ropes (especially for maritime shipping). It became a major trade commodity in the colonial era for this reason.<ref name"gdv">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/fasern/manila/manila.htm|titleManila hemp|publisherTransport Information Service, Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. |access-dateMay 15, 2011}}</ref> The abaca industry declined sharply in the mid-20th century when abaca plantations were decimated by World War II and plant diseases, as well as the invention of nylon in the 1930s. Today, abaca is mostly used in a variety of specialized paper products including tea bags, filter paper and banknotes. Manila envelopes and Manila paper derive their name from this fiber.<ref name"edwards">{{cite journal|author1H. T. Edwards |author2B. E. Brewer |author3George E. Nesom |author4Otis Warren Barrett |author4-linkOtis Warren Barrett |author5William Scrugham Lyon |author6Murad M. Saleeby |name-list-styleamp |year1904|titleAbacá (manila hemp)|journalFarmers' Bulletin|publisherBureau of Agriculture. Republic of the Philippines}}</ref><ref name="hendrickx"/>
Abaca is classified as a hard fiber, along with coir, henequin and sisal. Abaca is grown as a commercial crop in the Philippines, Ecuador, Costa Rica.
Description
The abacá plant is stoloniferous, meaning that the plant produces runners or shoots along the ground that then root at each segment.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} Cutting and transplanting rooted runners is the primary technique for creating new plants, since seed growth is substantially slower.{{refn|groupnb|A plant grown from a shoot takes three years to maturity; while a plant grown from a seed takes four years to maturity.<ref namewor>{{harvnb|Worcester|1899|p506}}</ref>}}<ref namewood>{{harvnb|Wood|Roberts|2005|p=301}}</ref> Abacá has a "false trunk" or pseudostem about {{convert|6|-|15|in|cm}} in diameter.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} The leaf stalks (petioles) are expanded at the base to form sheaths that are tightly wrapped together to form the pseudostem. There are from 12 to 25 leaves, dark green on the top and pale green on the underside, sometimes with large brown patches. They are oblong in shape with a deltoid base.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} They grow in succession. The petioles grow to at least {{convert|1|ft|cm}} in length.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}}
When the plant is mature, the flower stalk grows up inside the pseudostem. The male flower has five petals, each about {{convert|1.5|in|cm}} long.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} The leaf sheaths contain the valuable fiber. After harvesting, the coarse fibers range in length from {{convert|6|-|12|ft|cm}} long.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} They are composed primarily of cellulose, lignin, and pectin.
The fruit, which is inedible{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} and is rarely seen as harvesting occurs before the plant fruits, grows to about {{convert|2|-|3|in|cm}} in length and {{convert|1|in|cm}} in diameter.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} It has black turbinate seeds that are {{convert|0.167|in|cm}} in diameter.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}}
Systematics
The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Its scientific name is Musa textilis. Within the genus Musa, it is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n&nbsp;20.<ref nameWong02>{{harvnb|Wong|Kiew|Argent|Set|2002|p234}}</ref> Genetic diversity The Philippines, especially the Bicol region in Luzon, has the most abaca genotypes and cultivars. Genetic analysis using simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers revealed that the Philippines' abaca germplasm is genetically diverse.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|last1Yllano|first1 O. B.|last2Diaz|first2 M. G. Q.|last3Lalusin|first3 A. G.|last4Laurena|first4 A. C.|last5Tecson-Mendoza|first5 E. M.|date2020|titleGenetic Analyses of Abaca (Musa textilis Née) Germplasm from its Primary Center of Origin, the Philippines, Using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers – The Philippine Agricultural Scientist|urlhttps://pas.cafs.uplb.edu.ph/download/genetic-analyses-of-abaca-musa-textilis-nee-germplasm-from-its-primary-center-of-origin-the-philippines-using-simple-sequence-repeat-ssr-markers/|archive-url|archive-date|access-dateFebruary 16, 2021|website|languageen-US}}</ref> Abaca genotypes in Luzon had higher genetic diversity than Visayas and Mindanao.<ref name":0" /> Ninety-five (95) percent was attributed to molecular variance within the population, and only 5% of the molecular variance to variation among populations.<ref name":0" /> Genetic analysis by Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) revealed several clusters irrespective of geographical origin.<ref name":0" />History
]]
Before synthetic textiles came into use, M.&nbsp;textilis was a major source of high quality fiber: soft, silky and fine.<ref namePloe07>{{harvnb|Ploetz|Kepler|Daniells|Nelson|2007|p4}}</ref> Ancestors of the modern abacá are thought to have originated from the eastern Philippines, where there is significant rainfall throughout the year. Wild varieties of abacá can still be found in the interior forests of the island province of Catanduanes, away from cultivated areas.
in Southeast Asia at the National Museum of the Philippines). The cloth was found in the sacred Ipot cave of Romblon. It is made from abacá.<ref name"ocampo">{{cite news |last1Ocampo |first1Ambeth R. |titleHistory and design in Death Blankets |urlhttps://opinion.inquirer.net/15599/history-and-design-in-death-blankets |access-date2 June 2023 |workInquirer |date19 October 2011}}</ref>]]
Today, Catanduanes has many other modern kinds of abacá which are more competitive. For many years, breeders from various research institutions have made the cultivated varieties of Catanduanes even more competitive in local and international markets. This results in the optimum production of the island which had a consistent highest production throughout the archipelago.<ref>{{Cite web |lastFlores |firstHelen |dateApril 30, 2022 |titleCatanduanes declared Philippines abaca capital |urlhttps://www.philstar.com/nation/2022/04/30/2177709/catanduanes-declared-philippines-abaca-capital- |access-date2024-06-02 |websitePhilstar.com}}</ref> 16th century
, Philippines]]
Europeans first came into contact with Abacá fibre when Ferdinand Magellan landed in the Philippines in 1521, as the natives were already cultivating it and utilizing it in bulk for textiles.<ref namewood/> Throughout the Spanish colonial era, it was referred to as "medriñaque" cloth.{{sfn|Blair|1906}} 19th century By 1897, the Philippines were exporting almost 100,000 tons of abacá,<ref name"wor" /> and it was one of the three biggest cash crops, along with tobacco and sugar.<ref name"dolan">{{harvnb|Seekins|1993|p11}}</ref> In fact, from 1850 through the end of the 19th century, sugar or abacá alternated with each other as the biggest export crop of the Philippines.<ref name"dolan" /> This 19th-century trade was predominantly with the United States and the making of ropes was done mainly in New England, although in time rope-making shifted back to the Philippines.<ref name"dolan" />
From 1898 to 1946, the United States colonized the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. The Guggenheim claims the "colonial government found ways to prevent Filipinos from profiting off of the abaca crops, instead favoring the businesses of American expats and Japanese immigrants, as well as ensuring that the bulk of the abaca harvests were exported to the United States" for use in military initiatives.<ref name":02">{{Cite web |titleA Manila Envelope: The Inspiration behind an Exhibition's Graphic Identity |urlhttps://www.guggenheim.org/articles/checklist/a-manila-envelope-the-inspiration-behind-an-exhibitions-graphic-identity |access-date2023-10-27 |websiteThe Guggenheim Museums and Foundation |languageen-US}}</ref>
20th century
In the early 1900s, a train running from Danao to Argao would transport Philippine abacá from the plantations to Cebu City for export.<ref>{{cite web|last1Tampos|first1Nikki|titleWhat happened to Cebu's old train?|urlhttp://www.everythingcebu.com/lifestyle/what-happened-to-cebus-old-train/|websitewww.everythingcebu.com|dateJuly 16, 2015|publisherEverything Cebu|access-dateNovember 18, 2016}}</ref> The railway system was destroyed during World War II; the abaca continues to be transported to Cebu by road.<ref>{{cite web|last1Palmera|first1Erica Jean|titleThe Sugbo railway|urlhttp://www.rafi.org.ph/news-highlights/sugbo-railway/|websitewww.rafi.org.ph|publisherRAFI|access-dateNovember 18, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160608113319/http://www.rafi.org.ph/news-highlights/sugbo-railway/|archive-dateJune 8, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Outside the Philippines, abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the nineteenth century, followed up by plantings in Central America in 1929 sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.<ref name"eb">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p6}}</ref> It also was transplanted into India and Guam.<ref name"wood" /> Commercial planting began in 1930 in British North Borneo; at the onset of World War II, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the Empire of Japan.<ref name"eb" />
After the war, the U.S. Department of Agriculture started production in Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala.<ref name"wood" /> 21st century Today, abacá is produced primarily in the Philippines and Ecuador.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/abaca0/en/|titleFuture Fibres: Abaca|websitewww.fao.org|languageen|access-dateFebruary 16, 2017}}</ref> The Philippines produces between 85%<ref name"NIMBB" /> and 95%<ref name"wood" /> of the world's abacá, and the production employs 1.5 million people. Production has declined because of virus diseases.<ref name"NIMBB">{{harvnb|Anon|2013a}}</ref>CultivationThe plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using rhizomes planted at the start of the rainy season.<ref name"eb"/> In addition, new plants can be started by seeds.<ref namevan/> Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 12–25 months.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}}<ref name"eb"/> Harvesting is done by removing the leaf-stems after flowering but before the fruit appears.{{sfn|Bailey|1947}} The plant loses productivity between 15 and 40 years.{{sfn|Bailey|1947|p171}} The slopes of volcanoes provide a preferred growing environment.<ref name"Colliers">{{harvnb|Borneman|1997|p=4}}</ref> Harvesting generally includes several operations involving the leaf sheaths:
* tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath)
* stripping (getting the fibers)
* drying (usually following the tradition of sun-drying).
When the processing is complete, the bundles of fiber are pale and lustrous with a length of {{convert|6|-|12|ft|m}}.<ref namevan>{{harvnb|Considine|Considine|1983|p1}}</ref><gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:01-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-LEAVES-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|1. Abacá plants have several stalks which can be harvested annually and regenerate fully within a year.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBANANATEX®|urlhttps://www.bananatex.info/responsibility_EN.html|access-date2021-07-12|websitewww.bananatex.info}}</ref>
File:06-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-HARVEST-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|2. Abacá plants are harvested by "topping", cutting the leaves with a bamboo sickle, cutting or "tumbling" the stalks. The leaves are compost on the ground, creating a fertiliser.
File:12-QWSTION-BANANATEX-TUXYING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. The tuxy, the outer layer of the leaf sheath contains primary fibres is separated from the inner layers.
File:13-QWSTION-BANANATEX-TUXYING-2-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|4. The inner layers contain the secondary fibres and pulpy material.
File:14-QWSTION-BANANATEX-STRIPPING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|5.The tuxies are separated by hand using a stripping knife at the harvesting site.
File:16-QWSTION-BANANATEX-STRIPPING-LAUSCHSICHT-2.jpg|6. The fibres are then "combed" to separate them.
File:20-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FIBERS-2-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|7. The fibres are then air-dried and bundled together before being transported from forest to the trading warehouse of the farmers cooperative.
File:23-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-GRADES.jpg|8. There they are sorted by colour grades, with lighter coloured fibres being more expensive due to their rarity.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-04-27|titleBananatex®, the World's First Waterproof Fabric Made From Banana Plants|urlhttps://globalshakers.com/bananatex-the-worlds-first-waterproof-fabric-made-from-banana-plants/|access-date2021-07-12|websiteGlobal Shakers|languageen-US}}</ref>
</gallery>
In Costa Rica, more modern harvest and drying techniques are being developed to accommodate the very high yields obtained there.
According to the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority, the Philippines provided 87.4% of the world's abacá in 2014, earning the Philippines US$111.33 million.<ref name"Malaya2015">{{cite news|titlePH biggest abaca exporter {{!}} Malaya Business Insight|urlhttp://www.malaya.com.ph/business-news/business/ph-biggest-abaca-exporter|workMalaya Business Insight|dateJune 15, 2015|access-dateJune 14, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160809215438/http://www.malaya.com.ph/business-news/business/ph-biggest-abaca-exporter|archive-dateAugust 9, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> The demand is still greater than the supply.<ref name"Malaya2015" /> The remainder came from Ecuador (12.5%) and Costa Rica (0.1%).<ref name"Malaya2015" /> The Bicol region in the Philippines produced 27,885 metric tons of abacá in 2014, the largest of any Philippine region.<ref name"Malaya2015" />
The Philippine Rural Development Program (PRDP) and the Department of Agriculture reported that in 2009–2013, Bicol Region had a 39% share of Philippine abacá production of which an overwhelming 92% came from Catanduanes Island. Eastern Visayas, the second largest producer had 24% and the Davao Region, the third largest producer had 11% of the total production. Around 42 percent of the total abacá fiber shipments from the Philippines went to the United Kingdom in 2014, making it the top importer.<ref name"Malaya2015" /> Germany imported 37.1 percent abacá pulp from the Philippines, importing around 7,755 metric tons (MT).<ref name"Malaya2015" /> Sales of abacá cordage surged 20 percent in 2014 to a total of 5,093&nbsp;MT from 4,240&nbsp;MT, with the United States holding around 68 percent of the market.<ref name"Malaya2015" />PathogensAbacá is vulnerable to a number of pathogens, notably abaca bunchy top virus, abaca bract mosaic virus,<ref name"NIMBB"/> and abaca mosaic virus.<ref name"abaca-strain-EPPO-GD">{{cite web | titleSugarcane mosaic virus abaca mosaic strain (SCMVA0){{bracket|Overview}} | websiteGlobal Database | publisherEPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) | dateFebruary 4, 2001 | urlhttp://gd.eppo.int/taxon/SCMVA0 | access-dateSeptember 4, 2021}}</ref> Uses
]]
Due to its strength, it is a sought after product and is the strongest of the natural fibers.<ref name"wood" /> It is used by the paper industry for such specialty uses such as tea bags, banknotes<ref>{{Cite web |titleA Primer on the New Generation Philippine Currency |urlhttp://www.bsp.gov.ph/downloads/Publications/FAQs/currencyprogram.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190529033050/http://www.bsp.gov.ph/downloads/Publications/FAQs/currencyprogram.pdf |archive-dateMay 29, 2019 |access-dateJuly 12, 2019 |websiteBangko Sentral ng Pilipinas |page7}}</ref> and decorative papers.<ref name"wood" /> It can be used to make handcrafts such as hats,<ref>{{cite web |titleAll About Sinamay |urlhttp://www.torbandreiner.com/MillineryMaterials/sinamay |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200120063235/http://www.torbandreiner.com/MillineryMaterials/sinamay |archive-dateJanuary 20, 2020 |publisher=Torb & Reiner}}</ref> bags, carpets, clothing and furniture.
Lupis is the finest quality of abacá.<ref name"bab1">{{harvnb|Gove|1976|p1347}}</ref> Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá.<ref name"bab2">{{harvnb|Gove|1976a|p2122}}</ref>
Textiles
{{See also|Barong tagalog}}
'' cloth of the T'boli dreamweavers are made from abacá fibers]]
dreamweaver using a traditional loom]]
Abacá fibers were traditionally woven into sturdy textiles and clothing in the Philippines since pre-colonial times. Along with cotton, they were the main source of textile fibers used for clothing in the pre-colonial Philippines. Abacá cloth was often compared to calico in terms of texture and was a major trade commodity in the pre-colonial maritime trade and the Spanish colonial era.<ref name"Craig">{{cite book |last1Craig |first1Austin |last2Benitez |first2Conrado |titlePhilippine Progress Prior to 1898: A Source Book of Philippine History to Supply a Fairer View of Filipino Participation and Supplement the Defective Spanish Accounts |date1916 |publisherPhilippine Education Co., Inc. |locationManila}}</ref><ref name"Ocampo">{{cite news |last1Ocampo |first1Keith R. |titleDemand rises for PH abaca as raw material for PPE |urlhttps://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1272482/demand-rises-for-ph-abaca-as-raw-material-for-ppe |access-date30 May 2023 |newspaperPhilippine Daily Inquirer |date10 May 2020}}</ref> There are multiple traditional types and names of abaca cloth among the different ethnic groups of the Philippines. Undyed plain abacá cloth, woven from fine fibers of abaca, is generally known as sinamáy in most of the islands. Abacá cloth with a more delicate texture is called tinampipi. While especially fine lace-like abacá cloth is called nipis or lupis. Fine abacá fibers may also be woven with piña, silk, or fine cotton to create a fabric called jusi.<ref name"hendrickx"/>
Traditional abacá textiles were often dyed in various colors from various natural dyes. These include blue from indigo (tarum, dagum, tayum, etc.); black from ebony (knalum or batulinao) leaves; red from noni roots and sapang; yellow from turmeric (kalawag, kuning, etc.); and so on. They were often woven into specific patterns, and further ornamented with embroidery, beadwork, and other decorations.<ref name"Palasi">{{cite web |last1Palasi |first1Kat |titlePhilippine Natural Dyes: A Short Overview |urlhttps://www.habiphilippinetextilecouncil.com/blogs/what-we-do/philippine-natural-dyes-a-short-overview |websiteHABI: The Philippine Textile Council |access-date31 May 2023}}</ref><ref name"hendrickx"/> Most clothing made from abacá took the form of the baro (also barú or bayú, literally "shirt" or "clothing"), a simple collar-less shirt or jacket with close-fitting long sleeves worn by both men and women in most ethnic groups in the pre-colonial Philippines. These were paired with wraparound sarong-like skirts (for both men and women), close-fitting pants, or loincloths (bahag).<ref name"hendrickx"/><ref name"Coo 2014">{{Cite thesis |lastCoo |firstStéphanie Marie R. |titleClothing and the Colonial Culture of Appearances in Nineteenth Century Spanish Philippines (1820–1896) |date2014 |degreePhD |publisherUniversité Nice Sophia Antipolis |urlhttps://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01126974/document}}</ref><ref name"Ramos 2016">{{Cite thesis |lastRamos |firstMarlene Flores |titleThe Filipina Bordadoras and the Emergence of Fine European-Style Embroidery Tradition in Colonial Philippines, 19th to early-20th Centuries |date2016 |degreeMA |publisherMount Saint Vincent University |hdl10587/1788 |hdl-accessfree |s2cid=194439772}}</ref>
During the Spanish colonial era, abacá cloth became known as medriñaque in Spanish (apparently derived from a native Cebuano name). They were exported to other Spanish colonies since the 16th century. A waistcoat of a native Quechua man in Peru was recorded as being made of medriñaque as early as 1584. Abacá cloth also appear in English records, spelled variously as medrinacks, medrianacks, medrianackes, and medrinacles, among other names. They were used as canvas for sails and for stiffening clothing like skirts, collars, and doublets.<ref name"hendrickx"/><ref name"Craig"/><ref name"Castro-Baker">{{cite book |last1Castro-Baker |first1Sandra |titleTextiles in the Philippine Landscape: A Lexicon and Historical Survey |date2018 |publisherAteneo De Manila University Press |isbn=9789715508957}}</ref>
Philippine indigenous tribes still weave abacá-based textiles like ''t'nalak, made by the Tiboli tribe of South Cotabato, and dagmay'', made by the Bagobo people.<ref>{{cite web |titlePhilippine Basketry of the Luzon Cordillera {{pipe}} www.flysfo.cn |urlhttps://www.flysfo.com/museum/exhibitions/philippine-basketry-luzon-cordillera |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170930085352/http://www.flysfo.com/museum/exhibitions/philippine-basketry-luzon-cordillera |archive-dateSeptember 30, 2017 |access-dateJune 17, 2019 |publisherFlysfo.com |languagezh}}</ref> Abacá cloth is found in museum collections around the world, like the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Textile Museum of Canada.<ref name="acl"/>
The inner fibers are also used in the making of hats, including the "Manila hats", hammocks, matting, cordage, ropes, coarse twines, and types of canvas.<ref name"acl">{{cite web |titleAbaca cloth |urlhttp://www.mfa.org/collections/object/abaca-cloth-73450 |access-dateSeptember 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleTextile Museum of Canada Collection and Exhibitions {{!}} Textile Museum of Canada Collection and Exhibitions |urlhttp://collections.textilemuseum.ca/index.cfm?pagecollection.browse&subYarn,_Fabric_and_Fabric_Finishing_Material&catArtifactType&id668 |access-dateSeptember 1, 2015 |websitecollections.textilemuseum.ca}}</ref>
Industrial textile production
Processing
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:30-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FIBER-PULP-SHEETS-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|alt1. The raw fibres are tied with rope and shipped to Mindanao, Philippines, where they are boiled and pressed into cardboard like sheets which are then shipped to Taiwan.|1. The raw fibres are tied with rope and shipped to a factory, where they are boiled and pressed into cardboard like sheets.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBANANATEX®|urlhttps://www.bananatex.info/index.html#manufacturing|access-date2021-07-12|website=www.bananatex.info}}</ref>
File:31-QWSTION-BANANATEX-PAPER-MAKING.jpg|2. The abacá fibre sheets are then soaked in water.
File:32-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-PAPER-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. They are then made into paper which are then cut into strips.
File:34-QWSTION-BANANATEX-YARN-SPINNING.jpg|4. The paper strips are then spun into yarn.
</gallery>
Dyeing and weaving
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:36-1-QWSTION-BANANATEX-YARN-DYEING-2.jpg|alt1. The natural white yarn is sent to Qwstion's dyeing and weaving partner in Tainan, Taiwan. They colour the yarn using the yarn dyeing method which is more sustainable than the roll dyeing alternative and certified OekoTex® Standard 100, the highest standard.|1. The natural white yarn is then coloured using the yarn dyeing method which is more sustainable than the roll dyeing alternative.<ref>{{Cite web|titleEliminating silo thinking and the word 'waste', plus a tip from Jimi Hendrix|urlhttps://www.innovationintextiles.com/interviews/|access-date2021-07-12|website=www.innovationintextiles.com}}</ref>
File:40-QWSTION-BANANATEX-WARPING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|2. The warp yarns are then prepared for weaving.
File:38-QWSTION-BANANATEX-WEAVING-3-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. The yarn is then woven at extra high density.
File:48-QWSTION-BANANATEX-LOOM-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|Weaving looms processing the fabric.
File:49-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FABRIC.jpg|4. The finished Manila hemp fabric, a natural beeswax coating is added to make the fabric waterproof. This particular fabric is manufactured by the Swiss company QWSTION.
</gallery>
Manila rope
{{see also|Fiber rope}}
Manila rope is a type of rope made from manila hemp. Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets.<ref name"eb" /> A {{convert|1|in|cm}} rope can require {{convert|4|MT|lb}} to break.<ref name"Colliers" /> Manilla rope is still the only material specified for lifeboat falls (the ropes with which a ship's lifeboat is lowered) in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |titleNATURAL & SYNTHETIC FIBRE CORDAGE FOR LIFE SAVING APPLIANCES |urlhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5fbce3d58fa8f559e77576e0/MGN_106__M+F_.pdf |publisherMarine and Coastguard Agency |access-date9 July 2024}}</ref>
Manila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that the shrinkage is less than it would be if the rope had never been wet. A major disadvantage in this shrinkage is that many knots made with manila rope became harder and more difficult to untie when wet, thus becoming subject of increased stress. Manila rope will rot after a period of time when exposed to saltwater.
Manila hemp rope was previously the favoured variety of rope used for executions by hanging, both in the U.K. and USA. Usually 3/4 to 1 inch diameter, boiled prior to use to take out any overelasticity. It was also used in the 19th century as whaling line.<ref name"hm">Moby-Dick, 1851, Herman Melville</ref> Abacá fiber was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance.See also
*Musa basjoo (Japanese banana), banana species also used as a traditional source of fiber in Okinawa, Japan
*Kijōka-bashōfu, similar traditional fiber from Okinawa, Japan
*Piña
*T'nalak
*Malong
*Tapis
*Inabel
*Batik
*Yakan people
*Fiber crop
*International Year of Natural Fibres
*Natural fiber
*Manila folder
* Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia
Notes
{{Reflist|groupnb}}Footnotes{{Reflist}}References* {{cite book |titleThe Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 Vol. 15 |lastBlair |firstEmma |year1906 |publisherArthur H. Clark Company |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7001/pg7001-images.html}}
* {{GRIN | access-date=June 10, 2014}}
* {{cite web|authorAnon |year2013 |urlhttp://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-255018 |titleMusa textilis Née |websiteThe Plant List |access-dateJune 4, 2014 |archive-dateAugust 5, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170805231405/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-255018 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |authorAnon |urlhttp://www.nimbb.upd.edu.ph/?page_id103 |title(Research) Plant Molecular Biology and Plant Virology |websiteNational Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology |year2013a |archive-dateDecember 3, 2013 |access-dateJune 4, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203005532/http://www.nimbb.upd.edu.ph/?page_id103 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Bailey | editor-first L. H. | encyclopedia The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture | title Abacá | publisher The Macmillan Company | location New York, NY | year 1947 | orig-year 1900 | volume = I: A-E }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last1 Borneman | first1 John A. Jr.| editor-last Johnston | editor-first Bernard | encyclopedia Collier's Encyclopedia | title Abaca | edition 1st | year 1997 | publisher P. F. Collier | volume I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Considine | editor1-first Douglas M. | editor2-last Considine | editor2-first Glenn D. | encyclopedia Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia | edition 6th | volume I: A-H | publisher Van Nostrand Reinhold Company | location New York, NY | isbn 0-442-25164-5 | title Abaca | year 1983 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Gove | editor-first Philip Babcock | encyclopedia Webster's Third New International Dictionary | edition 3rd | year 1976 | publisher G. & C. Merriam Company | location Springfield, MA | isbn 0-87779-101-5 | title = Lupis }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Gove | editor-first Philip Babcock | encyclopedia Webster's Third New International Dictionary | edition 3rd | year 1976a | publisher G. & C. Merriam Company | location Springfield, MA | isbn 0-87779-101-5 | title = Sinamay }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica | year 2010 | volume 1: A - ak Bayes | edition 15th | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. | location Chicago, Illinois | isbn 978-0-85229-961-6 | title Sbaca }}
* {{cite book | last1 Ploetz | first1 Randy C. | last2 Kepler | first2 Angela Kay | last3 Daniells | first3 Jeff | last4 Nelson | first4 Scot C. | editor-last Elevitch | editor-first C. R. | year 2007 | chapter Banana and Plantain: An Overview with Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars | title Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry | location Hōlualoa, HI | publisher Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR) | url http://agroforestry.net/tti/Banana-plantain-overview.pdf | access-date June 4, 2014 | archive-date January 1, 2016 | url-status live | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160101232525/http://agroforestry.net/images/pdfs/Banana-plantain-overview.pdf | name-list-style amp | website www.traditionaltree.org | pages = 1–27 }}
* {{cite book | last Seekins | first Donald M. | editor-last Dolan | editor-first Ronald E. | title Philippines: A Country Study | year 1993 | isbn 0-8444-0748-8 | publisher United States Government Printing Office | location Washington, DC | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/philippinescount00dola }}
* {{cite journal | last1 Wong | first1 Carol | last2 Kiew | first2 Ruth | last3 Argent | first3 George | last4 Set | first4 Ohn | last5 Lee | first5 Sing Kong | last6 Gan | first6 Yik Yuen | year 2002 | title Assessment of the Validity of the Sections in Musa (Musaceae) using ALFP | journal Annals of Botany | volume 90 | issue 2 | pages 231–238 | doi 10.1093/aob/mcf170 | name-list-style amp | pmc 4240415 | pmid12197520}}
* {{cite book | last1 Wood | first1 Frances A. | last2 Roberts | first2 George A. F. | editor1-last Prance | editor1-first Ghillean | editor2-last Nesbitt | editor2-first Mark | title The Cultural History of Plants | publisher Routledge | location New York, NY | isbn 0-415-92746-3 | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book | last Worcester | first Dean C. | title The Philippine Islands and Their People | url https://archive.org/details/philippineislan00worcgoog | publisher The Macmillan Company | location New York, NY | year 1899 | orig-year 1898 }}
*Yllano, O. B., Diaz, M. G. Q., Lalusin, A. G., Laurena, A. C., & Tecson-Mendoza, E. M. (2020). Genetic Analyses of Abaca (Musa textilis Née) Germplasm from its Primary Center of Origin, the Philippines, Using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers. Philippine Agricultural Scientist, 103(4).
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Abaca}}
{{Wikispecies|Musa textilis}}
*The World Book encyclopedia set, 1988.
*See International Year of Natural Fibres 2009
*{{cite journal | last1 Christenhusz | first1 M.J.M. | year 2009 | title Typification of ornamental plants: Musa textilis (Musaceae) | journal Phytotaxa | volume 2 | pages 53–54 | doi10.11646/phytotaxa.2.1.10}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090212162352/http://filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactIDBKJ000000001&page1&epage=15 abacá] A comprehensive pamphlet about Philippine abacá presented 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco. Online publication uploaded in [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085143/http://filipiniana.net/ Filipiniana.net]
{{Fibers}}
{{Textile}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q161097}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abaca}}
Category:Musa (genus)
Category:Flora of the Philippines
Category:Fiber plants
Category:Biodegradable materials
Category:Philippine clothing
Category:History of Asian clothing
Category:Philippine handicrafts
Category:Austronesian agriculture
|
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Abaddon
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right|Apollyon (top) battling Christian in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress|250px|thumb
The Hebrew term Abaddon ( , meaning "destruction", "doom") and its Greek equivalent Apollyon (, Apollúōn meaning "Destroyer") appear in the Bible as both a place of destruction and an angel of the abyss. In the Hebrew Bible, abaddon is used with reference to a bottomless pit, often appearing alongside the place Sheol ( ), meaning the resting place of dead peoples.
In the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, an angel called Abaddon is described as the king of an army of locusts; his name is first transcribed in Koine Greek (Revelation 9:11—"whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon") as , and then translated , Apollyon. The Vulgate and the Douay–Rheims Bible have additional notes not present in the Greek text, "in Latin Exterminans", being the Latin word for "destroyer".
In medieval Christian literature, Abaddon's portrayal diverges significantly, as seen in the "Song of Roland", an 11th-century epic poem. Abaddon is depicted as part of a fictional trinity, alongside Mahome (Mahound) and Termagant (Termagaunt), which the poem attributes to the religious practices of Muslims.
Etymology
According to the Brown–Driver–Briggs lexicon, the Hebrew is an intensive form of the Semitic root and verb stem "perish", transitive "destroy", which occurs 184 times in the Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint, an early Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, renders "Abaddon" as "" (), while the Greek is the active participle of ἀπόλλυμι , "to destroy".
Judaism
Hebrew Bible
The term abaddon appears six times in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible; abaddon means destruction or "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is accompanied by Sheol.
Job 26:6: Sheol is naked before Him; Abaddon has no cover.
Job 28:22: Abaddon and Death say, "We have only a report of it."
Job 31:12: A fire burning down to Abaddon, Consuming the roots of all my increase.
Psalm 88:11: Is your steadfast love declared in the grave, or your faithfulness in Abaddon?
Proverbs 15:11: Sheol and Abaddon lie exposed to the LORD, How much more the minds of men!
Proverbs 27:20: Sheol and Abaddon cannot be satisfied, Nor can the eyes of man be satisfied.
Second Temple era texts
The Thanksgiving Hymns—a text found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947—tell of "the Sheol of Abaddon" and of the "torrents of Belial [that] burst into Abaddon". The Biblical Antiquities (misattributed to Philo) mention Abaddon as a place (destruction) rather than as an individual. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of Gehenna. By extension, the name can refer to an underworld abode of lost souls, or Gehenna.
Rabbinical literature
In some legends, Abaddon is identified as a realm where the damned lie in fire and snow, one of the places in Gehenna that Moses visited.
Christianity
The New Testament contains the first known depiction of Abaddon as an individual entity instead of a place.
In the Old Testament, Abaddon and Death can be personified:
And,
And,
And,
The Hebrew text of Proverbs 6:32 does not contain the noun () but a participial form of the verb (). But the Septuagint uses (), the accusative case of the noun () with which it also translates in five of the six Hebrew verses that contain the word. (Though an English interlinear of the Septuagint might read "destruction the soul of him obtains", the reader should understand that "adulterer" is the subject, "soul" is the indirect object, and "destruction" is the direct object.)
In Revelation 9:11, Abaddon is described as "Destroyer", the angel of the Abyss,
The symbolism of Revelation 9:11 leaves the identity of Abaddon open to interpretation. Protestant commentator Matthew Henry (1708) believed Abaddon to be the Antichrist, whereas the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary (1871) and Henry Hampton Halley (1922) identified the angel as Satan.
Early in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress the Christian pilgrim fights "over half a day" long with the demon Apollyon. This book permeated Christianity in the English-speaking world for 300 years after its first publication in 1678.
In contrast, the Methodist publication The Interpreter's Bible states, "Abaddon, however, is an angel not of Satan but of God, performing his work of destruction at God's bidding", citing the context at Revelation chapter 20, verses 1 through 3. Jehovah's Witnesses also cite Revelation 20:1-3 where the angel having "the key of the abyss" is actually shown to be a representative of God, concluding that "Abaddon" is another name for Jesus after his resurrection.
In Medieval Christian Literature
In medieval Christian literature, the depiction of Abaddon often mirrors the religious and cultural contexts of the time. A notable illustration of this is found in the Song of Roland, an 11th-century epic poem. This work associates Abaddon with figures such as Mahome (Mahound), Apollyon (Appolin), and Termagant, which are presented as deities in the context of the poem's portrayal of Muslims. The inclusion of Apollyon, a name sometimes linked with Abaddon in Christian texts, highlights the interpretative approaches of the period towards Islamic practices.
Mandaeism
Mandaean scriptures such as the Ginza Rabba mention the Abaddons () as part of the World of Darkness. The Right Ginza mentions the existence of the "upper Abaddons" () as well as the "lower Abaddons" (). The final poem of the Left Ginza mentions the "House of the Abaddons" ().
Häberl (2022) considers the Mandaic word
ʿbdunia to be a borrowing from Hebrew.
Apocryphal texts
In the 3rd-century Gnostic text Acts of Thomas, Abaddon is the name of a demon, or the devil himself.
Abaddon is given particularly important roles in two sources, a homily entitled The Enthronement of Abaddon by pseudo-Timothy of Alexandria, and the Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, by Bartholomew the Apostle. In the homily by Timothy, Abaddon was first named Muriel, and had been given the task by God of collecting the earth that would be used in the creation of Adam. Upon completion of this task, the angel was appointed as a guardian. Everyone, including the angels, demons, and corporeal entities feared him. Abaddon was promised that any who venerated him in life could be saved. Abaddon is also said to have a prominent role in the Last Judgment, as the one who will take the souls to the Valley of Josaphat.
See also
Abaddon in popular culture
List of angels in theology
Maalik
Muriel (angel)
Citations
Further reading
External links
Category:Angels in Christianity
Category:Book of Revelation
Category:Hebrew Bible places
Category:Hell (Christianity)
Category:Individual angels
Category:Jewish underworld
Category:Satan
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Abadeh
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{{Short description|City in Fars province, Iran}}
{{for-multi|the administrative division of Fars province|Abadeh County|other places with the same name|Abadeh (disambiguation){{!}}Abadeh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Abadeh
| native_name = {{langx|fa|آباده}}
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = File:Skyline of Abadeh from a mountain.jpg
| imagesize | image_caption Skyline of Abadeh from a mountain
| image_flag = Flag of Abadeh.gif
| image_seal = Abadeh Logo.png
| image_map | map_caption
| pushpin_map = Iran
| pushpin_label_position | pushpin_mapsize
| pushpin_map_caption | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_type1 = Province
| subdivision_name = Iran
| subdivision_name1 = Fars
| subdivision_type2 = County
| subdivision_name2 = Abadeh
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Central
| established_title | established_date 1925 (1304 Hejry Shamsi)
| government_type | leader_title Mayor<br/>(Shahrdar)
| leader_name = Mehdi Shaker
| leader_title1 = Member of Parliament
| leader_name1 = Rahim Zare
| unit_pref = metric
| area_magnitude | area_total_sq_mi
| area_total_km2 | area_land_sq_mi
| area_land_km2 | area_urban_sq_mi
| area_urban_km2 | area_metro_km2
| area_metro_sq_mi | population_as_of 2016
| population_footnotes <ref name"2016 Fars Province"/>
| population_total = 59116
| population_urban | population_metro
| population_density_sq_mi | population_density_km2
| timezone = IRST
| utc_offset = +3:30
| coordinates {{coord|31|09|46|N|52|38|54|E|dim:2km|displayinline,title}}
|coordinates_footnotes <ref>{{Cite map |author((OpenStreetMap contributors)) |urlhttps://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat31.162778&mlon52.648333&zoom14#map14/31.16278/52.64833|websiteOpenStreetMap |titleAbadeh, Abadeh County|date29 September 2024|access-date29 September 2024|langfa}}</ref>
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m
| elevation_ft = 6200
| postal_code_type = Postal Code
| postal_code = 73911-***** to 73991-*****
| area_code = 071
| website = {{URL|http://sh-abadeh.ir/}}
| footnotes | name
}}
Abadeh ({{langx|fa|آباده}}){{efn|Also romanized as Ābādeh<ref>{{GEOnet3|-3051024}}</ref>}} is a city in the Central District of Abadeh County, Fars province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district.<ref name"Fars Province Structure">{{cite report|titleApproval of the organization and chain of citizenship of the elements and units of the national divisions of Fars province, centered in Shiraz|languagefa|websitelamtakam.com|viaLam ta Kam|urlhttps://lamtakam.com/law/council_of_ministers/113032|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231207211349/https://lamtakam.com/law/council_of_ministers/113032|publisherMinistry of the Interior, Council of Ministers|lastHabibi|firstHassan|orig-dateApproved 21 June 1369|datec. 2023|archive-date7 December 2023|access-date7 December 2023|id=Notification 82840/T128K}}</ref>
Abadeh is the largest city in the Northern Fars Region (South-Central Iran), which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of pear and box trees.<ref name="Chisholm"/> Sesame oil, castor oil, grain, and various fruits are also produced there. The area is famous for its Abadeh rugs.
The city is closer in road distance to the four provincial capitals of Isfahan (193&nbsp;km), Yasuj (197&nbsp;km), Yazd (217&nbsp;km), and Shahrekord (237&nbsp;km) compared with the distance to its own provincial capital, Shiraz (260&nbsp;km).
History
According to the texts of archaeologists, the settlement in the current area of Abadeh dates back to the first millennium BC. Nomadic Kurdish groups were the first to settle in the plain between Abadeh and Isfahan in the Achaemenid period. Remaining ancient monuments, such as the ancient castle of Izadkhas and Bahram Gur Palace in Surmaq, are proofs of the existence of culture and civilization in this geographical area. Abadeh city has a special position due to its location at the three-way communication between Isfahan, Yazd and Shiraz.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbadeh |urlhttps://www.visitiran.ir/destination/abadeh |access-date2022-12-09 |websitewww.visitiran.ir |languageen}}</ref>Demographics
{{Historical populations
| title = Abadeh Historical population
| type = Iran
|align = right
| width | state
| shading | percentages
| footnote <ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://citypopulation.de/Iran-Cities.html|title = Iran: Provinces, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information}}</ref><br><ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abada ĀBĀDA, Encyclopaedia Iranica]</ref>
|1958|15888
|1976|23383
|1991|44967
|1996|48882
|2006|52042
|2011|55758
|2016|59116
}}
Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 52,042 in 14,184 households.<ref name"2006 Fars Province">{{cite report|titleCensus of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006): Fars Province|languagefa|publisherThe Statistical Center of Iran|websiteamar.org.ir|urlhttp://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/07.xls|access-date25 September 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110920091830/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/07.xls|formatExcel|archive-date20 September 2011}}</ref> The following census in 2011 counted 55,758 people in 16,546 households.<ref name"2011 Fars Province">{{cite report|titleCensus of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1390 (2011): Fars Province|languagefa|publisherThe Statistical Center of Iran|websiteirandataportal.syr.edu|viaIran Data Portal, Syracuse University|urlhttps://irandataportal.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/Fars.xls|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230116202002/https://irandataportal.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/Fars.xls|archive-date16 January 2023|access-date19 December 2022|formatExcel}}</ref> The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 59,116 people in 18,965 households.<ref name"2016 Fars Province">{{cite report|titleCensus of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1395 (2016): Fars Province|languagefa|publisherThe Statistical Center of Iran|websiteamar.org.ir|urlhttps://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1395/results/abadi/CN95_HouseholdPopulationVillage_07.xlsx|access-date19 December 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220406013432/https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1395/results/abadi/CN95_HouseholdPopulationVillage_07.xlsx|formatExcel|archive-date6 April 2022}}</ref> Geography LocationAbadeh is at an elevation of {{convert|6200|ft|m|-1}} in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, {{convert|190|km|mi}} from the former and {{convert|270|km|mi}} from the latter.<ref name"Chisholm">{{EB1911|wstitleAbadeh|volume1|page6|inline1}}</ref>
Abadeh is in the northernmost point of Fars province. The city is connected to Isfahan province from the north and west, Safacity and Eqlid from the south, and Yazd province from the east. The city is located {{Convert|270|km}} north of Shiraz, {{Convert|670|km}} south of Tehran, {{Convert|200|km}} south of Isfahan, and {{Convert|190|km}} southwest of Yazd. The geographical area of Abadeh is {{Convert|6052|km2}}, which is about 11% of the total area of the province.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbadeh |urlhttps://www.visitiran.ir/destination/abadeh |access-date26 November 2022 |websitewww.visitiran.ir |language=en}}</ref>
{{clear}}
Climate
Abadeh features an arid climate (Köppen climate classification BWk) with heat and dryness over summer, and cold (extreme at times) and relatively wetter winters, with huge variations between daytime and nighttime throughout the year. The area can experience severely cold weather due to its high elevation.
{{Weather box |metric firstYes |single line Yes |width =auto
|location= Abadeh, (normals 1991–2020, extremes 1977–2020) Altitude: 2030.0 M
|Jan record high C = 19.6
|Feb record high C = 21.6
|Mar record high C = 27.2
|Apr record high C = 28.6
|May record high C = 35.0
|Jun record high C = 38.8
|Jul record high C = 39.6
|Aug record high C = 39.3
|Sep record high C = 36.4
|Oct record high C = 32.6
|Nov record high C = 25.4
|Dec record high C = 24.0
|Jan high C = 9.5
|Feb high C = 11.7
|Mar high C = 15.9
|Apr high C = 21.1
|May high C = 26.7
|Jun high C = 32.3
|Jul high C = 34.3
|Aug high C = 32.9
|Sep high C = 29.6
|Oct high C = 23.6
|Nov high C = 16.1
|Dec high C = 11.9
| Jan mean C =2.5
| Feb mean C =4.9
| Mar mean C =8.9
| Apr mean C =14.0
| May mean C =19.2
| Jun mean C =24.6
| Jul mean C =27.0
| Aug mean C =25.2
| Sep mean C =21.1
| Oct mean C =15.0
| Nov mean C =8.3
| Dec mean C =4.4
|Jan low C = -3.7
|Feb low C = -1.5
|Mar low C = 2.0
|Apr low C = 6.8
|May low C = 10.8
|Jun low C = 14.9
|Jul low C = 17.8
|Aug low C = 15.8
|Sep low C = 11.7
|Oct low C = 6.4
|Nov low C = 1.2
|Dec low C = -2.1
|Jan record low C = -20.2
|Feb record low C = -20.2
|Mar record low C = -10.0
|Apr record low C = -3.0
|May record low C = 2.2
|Jun record low C = 7.6
|Jul record low C = 10.0
|Aug record low C = 9.4
|Sep record low C = 3.0
|Oct record low C = -2.2
|Nov record low C = -9.0
|Dec record low C = -21.4
| Jan dew point C =-7.7
| Feb dew point C =-7.5
| Mar dew point C =-6.2
| Apr dew point C =-2.8
| May dew point C =-1.5
| Jun dew point C =-2.2
| Jul dew point C =-0.1
| Aug dew point C =-1.6
| Sep dew point C =-4.3
| Oct dew point C =-4.2
| Nov dew point C =-4.9
| Dec dew point C =-6.5
|precipitation colour=green
|Jan precipitation mm = 21.4
|Feb precipitation mm = 15.2
|Mar precipitation mm = 26.5
|Apr precipitation mm = 19.5
|May precipitation mm = 9.2
|Jun precipitation mm = 0.9
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 0.3
|Sep precipitation mm = 0.2
|Oct precipitation mm = 3.9
|Nov precipitation mm = 14.7
|Dec precipitation mm = 25.7
| unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
| Jan precipitation days =3.2
| Feb precipitation days =2.5
| Mar precipitation days =3.5
| Apr precipitation days =3.1
| May precipitation days =1.5
| Jun precipitation days =0.2
| Jul precipitation days =0.2
| Aug precipitation days =0.1
| Sep precipitation days =0.1
| Oct precipitation days =0.9
| Nov precipitation days =2.1
| Dec precipitation days =3
| year precipitation days | Jan snow cm 9.8
| Feb snow cm = 4.1
| Mar snow cm = 0.4
| Apr snow cm = 0.0
| May snow cm = 0.0
| Jun snow cm = 0.0
| Jul snow cm = 0.0
| Aug snow cm = 0.0
| Sep snow cm = 0.0
| Oct snow cm = 0.0
| Nov snow cm = 0.1
| Dec snow cm = 5.8
| year snow cm | Jan snow days3.2
| Feb snow days =1.2
| Mar snow days =0.6
| Apr snow days =0
| May snow days =0
| Jun snow days =0
| Jul snow days =0
| Aug snow days =0
| Sep snow days =0
| Oct snow days =0
| Nov snow days =0.2
| Dec snow days =1.9
| year snow days |Jan sun 232
|Feb sun = 237
|Mar sun = 255
|Apr sun = 257
|May sun = 307
|Jun sun = 342
|Jul sun = 334
|Aug sun = 340
|Sep sun = 308
|Oct sun = 285
|Nov sun = 231
|Dec sun = 233
|Jan humidity = 51
|Feb humidity = 45
|Mar humidity = 39
|Apr humidity = 36
|May humidity = 29
|Jun humidity = 19
|Jul humidity = 19
|Aug humidity = 19
|Sep humidity = 20
|Oct humidity = 30
|Nov humidity = 44
|Dec humidity = 50
|source 1 NOAA NCEI<ref name"ncei">{{cite web |titleWorld Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020: Abadeh |urlhttps://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Iran/CSV/Abadeh_40818.csv |websitencei.noaa.gov |formatCSV |publisherNOAA |access-date1 February 2024}}</ref> (Snow 1981–2010)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Iran/WMO_Normals_Excel_IRAN_060719.xls |titleWorld Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981-2010: Abadeh(WMO number: 40818) |access-date1 February 2024 |websitencei.noaa.gov |publisherNOAA |formatXLS |quote=Number of days with Sleet/Snow Parameter code:80}}</ref>
|source 2 Iran meteorological organization(extremes)<ref nameIRIMO>[http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/iranarchive.asp I.R OF IRAN SHAHREKORD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION ( IN PERSIAN )]. 1988-2005</ref>
}}
{{Weather box |collapsed=y
|metric firstYes |single line Yes |location= Abadeh, Altitude: 2030.0 M from: 1977-2010
|Jan record high C = 17.6
|Feb record high C = 20.0
|Mar record high C = 26.6
|Apr record high C = 28.6
|May record high C = 34.4
|Jun record high C = 38.8
|Jul record high C = 39.6
|Aug record high C = 38.4
|Sep record high C = 36.4
|Oct record high C = 32.6
|Nov record high C = 25.0
|Dec record high C = 24.0
|Jan high C = 6.2
|Feb high C = 8.6
|Mar high C = 14.7
|Apr high C = 21.4
|May high C = 26.9
|Jun high C = 32.4
|Jul high C = 34.2
|Aug high C = 33.1
|Sep high C = 29.6
|Oct high C = 23.5
|Nov high C = 16.6
|Dec high C = 11.6
|Jan low C = -7.6
|Feb low C = -3.7
|Mar low C = 0.0
|Apr low C = 6.8
|May low C = 10.7
|Jun low C = 14.7
|Jul low C = 16.5
|Aug low C = 15.8
|Sep low C = 11.4
|Oct low C = 6.3
|Nov low C = 1.3
|Dec low C = -5.8
|Jan record low C = -20.2
|Feb record low C = -20.2
|Mar record low C = -10.0
|Apr record low C = -3.0
|May record low C = 2.2
|Jun record low C = 7.6
|Jul record low C = 10.0
|Aug record low C = 9.4
|Sep record low C = 3.0
|Oct record low C = -2.2
|Nov record low C = -9.0
|Dec record low C = -21.4
|Jan rain days= 7.3
|Feb rain days= 5.6
|Mar rain days= 7.4
|Apr rain days= 6.7
|May rain days= 4.4
|Jun rain days= 1.2
|Jul rain days= 1.0
|Aug rain days= 0.6
|Sep rain days= 0.3
|Oct rain days= 2.5
|Nov rain days= 3.7
|Dec rain days= 6.4
|precipitation colour=green
|Jan precipitation mm = 24.2
|Feb precipitation mm = 15.3
|Mar precipitation mm = 25.3
|Apr precipitation mm = 14.6
|May precipitation mm = 8.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 1.2
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.5
|Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
|Sep precipitation mm = 0.0
|Oct precipitation mm = 5.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 9.4
|Dec precipitation mm = 32.1
|Jan sun = 233.3
|Feb sun = 238.9
|Mar sun = 256.4
|Apr sun = 254.8
|May sun = 312.5
|Jun sun = 344.4
|Jul sun = 336.3
|Aug sun = 338.3
|Sep sun = 311.4
|Oct sun = 287.4
|Nov sun = 237.1
|Dec sun = 226.3
|Jan humidity = 52
|Feb humidity = 46
|Mar humidity = 41
|Apr humidity = 36
|May humidity = 29
|Jun humidity = 21
|Jul humidity = 22
|Aug humidity = 21
|Sep humidity = 22
|Oct humidity = 32
|Nov humidity = 43
|Dec humidity = 51
|Jan snow days= 3.3
|Feb snow days= 1.3
|Mar snow days= 0.8
|Apr snow days= 0.1
|May snow days= 0.0
|Jun snow days= 0.0
|Jul snow days= 0.0
|Aug snow days= 0.0
|Sep snow days= 0.0
|Oct snow days= 0.0
|Nov snow days= 0.2
|Dec snow days= 2.1
|source 1 <ref nameIRIMO/>
|date=1977-2010
}}
Economy
Air defense base
In 2012 Iran announced it had started the construction of an air defense site in the city of Abadeh. The site is planned to be the largest in the country and will house 6,000 personnel for a variety of duties, including educational ones.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://english.farsnews.ir/newstext.php?nn9104254795 |titleIran Starts Building Powerful Air Defense Base in South |publisherFars News Agency |date21 August 2012 |access-date22 December 2012 }}{{dead link|dateAugust 2023|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref> Mining
The mines located in this city are:
Esteghlal Abadeh large refractory soil mine is one of the largest producers of this mineral. In addition to the Esteghlal refractory mine, there is also an industrial mine around the city where the raw materials are from tile, ceramic and brick factories in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFamennian conodonts from the Esteghlal Refractories Mine, Abadeh area, south-central Iran |urlhttps://museum.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/14.%20Yadzi,%20Meysami,%20Mannani,%20Bakhshaei,%20Mawson.pdf}}</ref>
Arts and crafts
Handicrafts
Abadeh woodwork is world famous and its examples are kept in world museums as the best works of art. The carvings of the Marble Palace were made by the artists of this city, such as Master Ahmad Emami. In 2017, the World Council of Handicrafts (WCC) introduced Abadeh as the world city of carving. Monbat Abadeh has 150 active domestic or commercial carving workshops and 5000 carving artists.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbadeh {{!}} The Global City for Wood Carving |urlhttp://ir-handicrafts.ir/Blog/en/Abadeh |access-date2022-12-03 |websiteir-handicrafts.ir}}</ref>
Abadeh crafts can be embroidered in cotton. The town also produces Abadeh rugs.
The rugs tend to be based on a cotton warp and have a thin, tightly knotted pile. Most Abadeh rugs are closely cut making them very flat. Although some of the older Abadehs vary in style, many of the new designs are easily recognisable. These new designs, known as Heybatlu consist of a single diamond shaped medallion in the centre with smaller medallions on each corner. The pattern is typically geometrical flowers or animals and the main colours are light reds or burnt orange on top of a dark blue background with strong green details. The corners or borders are generally ivory in colour. Although some Abadeh and Shiraz rugs appear similar Abadeh can normally be differentiated by their higher knot counts as well as the fact that the warp is invariably cotton. The rugs are almost always exclusively medium in size and the KPSI of an average Abadeh is around 90. As always in the rug-world you get what you pay for however in general Abadeh are well made and fairly popular items, particularly in modern interiors or those with a Mediterranean or North African style.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2021}} Transportation
Expressway 65 passes through Abadeh. This situation helps Abadeh to improve its capabilities compared to the neighboring city, Eqlid. Road 78 makes connections from Abadeh to Abarkuh, Yazd Eqlid and Yasuj. It has a junction with Abadeh Shiraz Expressway 24&nbsp;km south of the city. A road starts from Abadeh Ring Road to Soqad and Semirom, Road 55.
The railroad from Isfahan to Shiraz passes Abadeh and there are train services at Abadeh Railway Station to Shiraz, Esfahan, Tehran and Mashad. Abadeh Airport (OISA) was planned to be built in the mid-1990s.
Historical monuments
Abadeh historical monuments include Emirate Kolah Farangi, Tymcheh Sarafyan and Khaje tomb, located in the Khoja mountains.
Sports
Abadeh's main sport is football, as in the rest of the country. The main stadium is Takhti Stadium located in Mo'allem Square. The main team in Abadeh is Behineh Rahbar Abadeh F.C. which is currently playing in Iran Football's 3rd Division after finishing first in Fars Provincial League (FPL) last year. It played in Hazfi Cup 2010-11 reaching the fourth round.
Education
* Islamic Azad University, Abadeh branch<ref>{{Cite web |lastelseo |date2021-08-06 |titleIslamic Azad University of Abadeh Ranking |urlhttps://topuniversitieslist.com/islamic-azad-university-of-abadeh/ |access-date2022-12-14 |websiteTop Universities List - Highest Ranking Universities 2021 |languageen-US}}</ref> Notable people
* Jalal Zolfonun was an Iranian musician
* Mahmoud Zoufonoun was an Iranian-born American musician accomplished in the art of Persian traditional music.
* Hooshmand Aghili is a prominent Iranian singer
* Ruhollah Hosseinian was an Iranian principalist politician.
* Rahmatollah Khosravi is an Iranian politician who was formerly a member of the Iranian Parliament and City Council of Tehran.
* Mojtaba Heidarpanah is an Iranian cartoonist, illustrator, painter, character designer and animator.
* Mahmoud Mohammadi (diplomat) is an Iranian diplomat and politician.
* Soodeh Farokhi is an Iranian-Canadian award-winning entrepreneur<ref>{{Cite AV media |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vWlTzLDqe13M |titleSoodeh Farokhi_ C2R0 _ Innovation Award Finalist |date2020-11-19 |lastWomen of Influence |access-date2025-01-11 |viaYouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastNajibzadeh |firstArezoo |titleMeet Soodeh Farokhi, Founder of C2RO and 2020 RBC Canadian Women… – Women of Influence |urlhttps://www.womenofinfluence.ca/2020/10/30/meet-soodeh-farokhi-founder-of-c2ro-and-2020-rbc-canadian-women-entrepreneur-awards-innovation-finalist/ |access-date2025-01-11 |websitewww.womenofinfluence.ca |languageen-US}}</ref> recognized for her innovative contributions to the tech industry and her advocacy for diversity and inclusion.
* Seyed Mohammad Torbati researcher of world studies and politics, founder of the Scientific Association of World Studies
* Owrang Khazraei Iranian left-wing poet and speaker in Goethe's Ten Nights
* Bozorg Khazraei Iranian left-wing painter living in the Netherlands - the designer of Goethe's Ten Nights poster
* Iman Islamian bank researcher and deputy of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development
* Mozneb Abadei a poet and Sufi during the Qajar period in Abadeh
See also
{{wikivoyage inline}}
{{Portal-inline|Iran}}
{{clear}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Fars Province|state=collapsed}}
{{Abadeh County|state=collapsed}}
Category:Populated places in Abadeh County
Category:Cities in Fars province
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abadeh
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2476
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Abae
|
{{Short description|Ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name | native_name Ἄβαι
| native_name_lang = Ancient Greek
| alternate_name = Kalapodi
| image = File:Αρχαιολογικός χώρος Καλαποδίου.jpg
| image_size = 280px
| alt | caption The archaeological site
| map | map_type Greece
| map_alt | map_caption
| map_size = 280px
| altitude_m = <!-- Enter a number for altitude in meters (m) -->
| altitude_ref | relief yes
| coordinates {{coord|38|38|13.46|N|22|53|44.81|E|displayinline, title|type:landmark_source:dewiki}}<!--{{Coord|38.5957|22.9053|formatdms|displayinline, title}}{{coord|38|34|49|N|22|54|54|E|display=inline, title|type:landmark_source:dewiki}}-->
| gbgridref | map_dot_label Abae
| location = Ancient Phocis
| region | type
| part_of | length
| width | area
| volume | diameter
| circumference | height
| builder | material
| built | abandoned
| epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
| cultures | dependency_of
| occupants | event
| discovered | excavations
| archaeologists | condition
| ownership | management
| public_access | other_designation
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| architectural_styles | architectural_details
| notes =
}}
Abae ({{langx|grc|Ἄβαι}}, {{Lang|grc-latn|Abai}})<ref>{{harvnb|Avery|1962|p1}}</ref>{{efn-lr | The ancient history of the site is derived from references in ancient works. There is no continuous history. These references are called fragments. The Topos Text Project has undertaken to collect these fragments, combined with archaeological information, on various topics of ancient history. It has found at least 19 on Abae: {{cite web | titleApollo of Abae (phthiotis) 19 Kalapodi | publisherTopos Text | urlhttps://topostext.org/place/386229SAba | access-date22 September 2020}} For example, one from {{Cite Stephanus|s.v. Abae}} states that Abae is "a city of the Phokians, where there is a sanctuary of Apollo. This was the oracle before the one in Delphi." The s.v. stands for sub verso, "under the heading."}} was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age, and sites protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus,<ref name"DGRBM">{{harvnb|Schmitz|2013|p1}}</ref> one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia,<ref name Her>{{harvnb|Herodotus|1920|p53}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hesychius|Schmidt|1867|p2}}</ref><ref name p2/> and Mardonius, among others.<ref>{{harvnb|Bell|1989|p1}}</ref> The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times{{r|pierattini2022|p31}}. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore, and continuous occupation from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period{{r|pierattini2022|p31}}.
History
Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings.<ref>{{harvnb|Herodotus|2003|p33}}</ref> It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480&nbsp;BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346&nbsp;BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2011|p1}}</ref> Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes.<ref>{{Cite Pausanias|10|35|1}} et seq.</ref><ref>{{Cite Herodotus|1.46, 8.134, 33.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Diodorus|16.530}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Strabo|pp. 423, 445}}</ref><!--<ref nameStephanus/>-->OracleDespite destruction of the town, the oracle was still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE.<ref namep2>{{harvnb|Pausanias|1898|p439}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Henderson|2000|p351}}</ref> The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants;<ref>{{harvnb|Henderson|2000a|p381}}</ref> however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE,<ref name PausX>{{harvnb|Pausanias|1898|p440}}</ref> though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.<ref nameEB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=7}}</ref>
The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae,<ref>{{harvnb|Bilco|1882|p172}}</ref> and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.<ref>{{harvnb|Henderson|2000a|p581}}</ref>
Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.{{efn-lr | See reports of the excavations of the German Archaeological Institute in Archaeological Reports for 2008/9 43-45, Archaeological Reports for 2007/8 47-49, Archaeological Reports for 2006/7 41-43, Archaeological Reports for 2005/6 68-69, Archaeological Reports for 2004/5 55-56.}}
The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis:
"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. [150 m] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found."<ref>{{EB1911|wstitleAbae|volume1|page6|inline1}}</ref>
The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex.<ref>Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 897</ref>
Attribution
{{DGRG|wstitleAbae}}Notes{{notelist-lr|20em}}References{{reflist|20em|refs
<ref name="pierattini2022">
{{cite book
| first = Alessandro
| last = Pierattini
| location = Cambridge
| title = The Origins of Greek Temple Architecture
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2022
}}
</ref>
}}
Reference bibliography
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Avery | editor-first Catherine A. | encyclopedia The New Century Classical Handbook | publisher Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. | location New York, NY | year 1962 | lccn 62-10069 | title Abae }}
* {{cite book | last Bell | first Robert E. | title Place-Names in Classical Mythology | publisher ABC-CLIO | year 1989 | location Santa Barbara, CA | isbn 978-0874365078 | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/placenamesinclas00bell }}
* {{cite journal | last Bilco | first J. | journal Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique | title Lettre du roi Philippe aux habitants d'Abae | volume 6 | pages 171–175 | year 1882 | doi 10.3406/bch.1882.4191 | url = http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bch_0007-4217_1882_num_6_1_4191 }}
* {{cite book | editor-last Henderson | editor-first Jeffrey | title Pausanian Description of Greece | year 2000 | orig-year 1926 | translator W. H. S. Jones | translator2 H. A. Ormerod | volume II: Books III-V | publisher Harvard University Press | location Cambridge, UK | isbn = 0-674-99207-5 }}
* {{cite book | editor-last Henderson | editor-first Jeffrey | title Pausanian Description of Greece | year 2000a | orig-year 1935 | translator W. H. S. Jones | translator2 H. A. Ormerod | volume IV: Books VIII §22 — X | publisher Harvard University Press | location Cambridge, UK | isbn = 0-674-99328-4 }}
* {{cite book | author Herodotus | author-link Herodotus | translator Godley, A. D. | year 1920 | title Herodotus | publisher William Heinemann | location London, UK | volume I: Books I and II | isbn 9780674991316 | url https://books.google.com/books?id8RsMAAAAIAAJ&qherodotus+histories }}
* {{cite book | author1 Herodotus | author-link Herodotus | editor-last Powell | editor-first J. Enoch | title Herodotus, Book VIII | publisher Duckworth Publishers | year 2003 | location London, UK | orig-year 1939 | isbn 978-0862920043 | language grc | url https://books.google.com/books?idBu8VAAAAYAAJ&qabae&pg=PA177 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last1 Hesychius | last2 Schmidt | first2 Mauricius | year 1867 | encyclopedia Hesychii Alexandrini lexicon | language grc | title Ἄβαι | publisher Sumptibus Hermanni Dufftii (Libraria Maukiana) | author-link Hesychius of Alexandria | url https://books.google.com/books?idPNI9AAAAcAAJ&q%22Hesychii+Alexandrini+lexicon%22 | edition = 2nd }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica| title Abae | edition 15th | year 2010 | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume 1: A-ak Bayes | location Chicago, Illinois | isbn 978-0-85229-961-6 | lccn = 2002113989 }}
* {{cite book | author1 Pausanias | author-link Pausanias (geographer) | title Pausanias's Description of Greece | translator Frazer, J. G. | publisher Macmillan and Company, Limited | location London, UK | year 1898 | volume V }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|lastSchmitz |firstLeonhard |titleAbaeus |editor-lastSmith |editor-firstWilliam |encyclopediaDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |volume1: Abaeus - Dysponteus |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge, UK |year2013 |orig-year1867 |urlhttp://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0010.html |seriesCambridge Library Collection - Classics |isbn978-1108060820 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080714093030/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0010.html |archive-date=2008-07-14 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last Smith | first William | author-link William Smith (lexicographer) | title Abæ | encyclopedia A new classical dictionary of biography, mythology, and geography, partly based on the "Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology" | publisher Nabu Press | year 2011 | orig-year 1850 | url https://books.google.com/books?id5_oGAAAAQAAJ | isbn = 978-1172756001 }}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abae}}
{{Commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120318060323/http://www.dainst.org/en/project/kalapodi?ft=28 German Archaeological Institute] (German)
* [http://www.lisa.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/projectvideo_diary.php?nav_id931&video_id1101 10-part documentary series] (German)
* [http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/168/ Excavation archive] of the British School at Athens and French School at Athens (English and French)
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Ancient Greek cities
Category:Cities in ancient Greece
Category:Populated places in ancient Phocis
Category:Former populated places in Greece
Category:Classical oracles
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abae
|
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2477
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Abakan
|
{{Short description|City in the Republic of Khakassia, Russia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox Russian inhabited locality
| en_name = Abakan
| ru_name = Абакан
| loc_name1 = Ағбан
| loc_lang1 = Khakas
| loc_name2 = Абахан
| loc_lang2 = Khakas
| image_skyline = Abakan-.jpg
| image_caption = Statue in Abakan
| image_map | map_caption
| map_label_position = right
| coordinates {{coord|53|43|10|N|91|26|23|E|displayinline,title}}
| image_flag = Flag of Abakan (Khakassia).png
| flag_caption | image_coa Coat of Arms of Abakan (Khakassia).png
| coa_caption | anthem
| anthem_ref | holiday Second to last Saturday in August
| holiday_ref <ref name"Holiday">Charter of Abakan, Article&nbsp;7</ref>
<!-- administrative status -->
| federal_subject = Republic of Khakassia
| federal_subject_ref <ref name"Ref54" />
| adm_district_jur | adm_district_jur_ref
| adm_inhabloc_jur = City of Abakan
| adm_inhabloc_jur_ref <ref name"Ref54" />
| adm_citydistrict_type | adm_selsoviet_jur
| adm_selsoviet_type | adm_selsoviet_jur_ref
| capital_of = Republic of Khakassia
| capital_of_ref <ref name"Ref54" /><ref name"ODW">{{harvnb|Munro|1995|p2}}</ref>
| adm_ctr_of1 = City of Abakan
| adm_ctr_of1_ref <ref name"Ref54" />
| adm_ctr_of2 | adm_ctr_of2_ref
| inhabloc_cat = City
| inhabloc_cat_ref <ref name"Ref54" />
| inhabloc_type | inhabloc_type_ref
<!-- municipal status -->
| mun_district_jur | mun_district_jur_ref
| urban_okrug_jur = Abakan Urban Okrug
| urban_okrug_jur_ref <ref name"Ref741" />
| urban_settlement_jur | urban_settlement_jur_ref
| rural_settlement_jur | rural_settlement_jur_ref
| inter_settlement_territory | inter_settlement_territory_ref
| mun_admctr_of1 = Abakan Urban Okrug
| mun_admctr_of1_ref <ref name"Ref741" />
| mun_admctr_of2 | mun_admctr_of2_ref
| leader_title = Head
| leader_title_ref <ref name"HeadLegis">Charter of Abakan, Article&nbsp;20</ref>
| leader_name = Alexey Lemin
| leader_name_ref <ref name"Lead">{{cite web| url http://xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/main/glava-goroda-i-ego-zamestiteli/aleksej-viktorovich-lyomin.html | title Абакан - Официальный портал {{!}} Алексей Викторович Лемин}}</ref>
| representative_body = Council of Deputies
| representative_body_ref <ref name"HeadLegis" />
<!-- statistics -->
| elevation_m | area_km2
| area_km2_ref | pop_2010census 165214
| pop_2010census_rank = 109th
| pop_2010census_ref <ref name"2010Census" />
| pop_density | pop_latest 173200
| pop_latest_date = January 2014
| pop_latest_ref <ref name"2014Est">Republic of Khakassia Territorial Branch of the Federal State Statistics Service. [http://hakasstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/hakasstat/resources/7e23de0043e1d7da821ccbd92111eac8/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.htm Численность населения на начало года] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140515051743/http://hakasstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/hakasstat/resources/7e23de0043e1d7da821ccbd92111eac8/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.htm |dateMay 15, 2014 }} {{in lang|ru}}</ref>
| population_demonym =
<!-- history -->
| established_date = 1675
| established_title | established_date_ref <ref name="gr" />
| current_cat_date = 30 April 1931
| current_cat_date_ref <ref name"XformRename" />
| abolished_date | abolished_date_ref
<!-- misc -->
| postal_codes = 655000–655012, 655014–655019, 655022, 655400, 655899, 655961, 655965, 655966
| postal_codes_ref | dialing_codes 3902
| dialing_codes_ref | website http://абакан.рф
}}
Abakan ({{langx|ru|Абака́н|ɐbɐˈkan}}; {{langx|kjh|Ағбан|Ağban}}, or {{langx|kjh|Абахан|Abaxan}}) is the capital city of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of the Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of&nbsp;165,214<ref name"2010Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref>—a slight increase over&nbsp;165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census<ref name"2002Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2002Census}}</ref> and a further increase from&nbsp;154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.<ref name"1989Census">{{ru-pop-ref|1989Census}}</ref>{{Historical populations|31926|43000|51939|636652|71959|856416|91970|1090136|111979|12128311|131989|14154092|152002|16165197|172010|18165214|192021|20184769|type|footnoteSource: Census data}}HistoryAbakansky ostrog ({{lang|ru|Абаканский острог}}), also known as Abakansk ({{lang|ru|Абаканск}}), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675.<ref name"gr">{{cite book|titleЭнциклопедия Города России|trans-title"Cities and Towns of Russia" Encyclopedia|year2003|publisherБольшая Российская Энциклопедия|locationMoscow|isbn5-7107-7399-9|page13}}</ref> In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye ({{lang|ru|Усть-Абаканское}}) was established in this area.<ref name"gr" /> It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931.<ref name="XformRename">Resolution of April&nbsp;30, 1931</ref>
{{see also|Abakan palace ruins}}
In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC–220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire's borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist {{ill|Lidiya Yevtyukhova|ru|Евтюхова, Лидия Алексеевна}} surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99&nbsp;BCE, and defected to them as a result.<ref>{{harvnb|Yevtyukhova|1954}}{{page needed|dateAugust 2014}}</ref> While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by {{ill|Aleksey Kovalyov (archaeologist)|ru|Ковалёв, Алексей Анатольевич|ltAleksey Kovalyov}} as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.<ref>{{harvnb|Kovalyov|2007|p148}}</ref>Lithuanian and Polish exilesIn the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.<ref>{{harvnb|Juodvalkytė|2001}}{{page needed|dateAugust 2014}}</ref>
Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University.<ref>{{cite book|lastGoreva|firstSvetlana|editor-lastLeończyk|editor-firstSergiusz|year2019|titlePolacy na Syberii od XIX do XXI wieku|languagepl|locationWarszawa|page99|chapterDzieje Szkoły polonijnej w Abakanie 1994–2019|isbn978-83-64206-39-9}}</ref>Administrative and municipal statusAbakan is the capital of the republic.<ref name"Ref54">Law #20</ref><ref name"EB">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|1993|p7}}</ref> Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts<ref name"Ref54" /> As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as Abakan Urban Okrug.<ref name"Ref741">Law #59</ref>
Economy
The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.
Transportation
Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.
The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.
Military
The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa&nbsp;1996.<ref>{{harvnb|Schofield|1993}}{{page needed|dateAugust 2014}}</ref>Sites
in Abakan]]
Abakan's sites of interest include:
* Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral’nyy sobor))
* "Good Angel of Peace" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul’ptura «Dobryy angel mira»))
* Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva))
* Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova))
Sports
Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia<ref>[http://xakac.info/files/news/43/11/news1425826770.jpeg Team picture of Sayany-Khakassia]</ref> was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. The Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.
Geography
Climate
Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification Dwb)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains.
{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location=Abakan
|single line=yes
|metric first=yes
|Jan record high C=7.2
|Feb record high C=9.1
|Mar record high C=20.2
|Apr record high C=33.5
|May record high C=37.6
|Jun record high C=37.1
|Jul record high C=38.5
|Aug record high C=36.3
|Sep record high C=34.3
|Oct record high C=24.5
|Nov record high C=15.6
|Dec record high C=7.5
|year record high C|Jan avg record high C 0.1
|Feb avg record high C = 1.8
|Mar avg record high C = 11.6
|Apr avg record high C = 22.5
|May avg record high C = 30.1
|Jun avg record high C = 32.3
|Jul avg record high C = 33.7
|Aug avg record high C = 31.5
|Sep avg record high C = 25.9
|Oct avg record high C = 18.3
|Nov avg record high C = 8.3
|Dec avg record high C = 1.8
|year avg record high C = 34.5
|Jan high C=−12.3
|Feb high C=−8.6
|Mar high C=1.0
|Apr high C=11.5
|May high C=19.9
|Jun high C=24.7
|Jul high C=26.8
|Aug high C=24.1
|Sep high C=17.0
|Oct high C=8.5
|Nov high C=-2.4
|Dec high C = −9.7
|year high C |Jan mean C -17.8
|Feb mean C = -15.2
|Mar mean C = -5.4
|Apr mean C = 4.4
|May mean C = 12.3
|Jun mean C = 17.8
|Jul mean C = 20.4
|Aug mean C = 17.6
|Sep mean C = 10.7
|Oct mean C = 2.9
|Nov mean C = -7.2
|Dec mean C = -14.8
|year mean C |Jan low C −23.3
|Feb low C = −21.8
|Mar low C = −11.8
|Apr low C = -2.7
|May low C = 4.6
|Jun low C = 10.9
|Jul low C = 13.9
|Aug low C = 11.0
|Sep low C = 4.3
|Oct low C = -2.7
|Nov low C = −11.9
|Dec low C = −19.9
|year low C |Jan avg record low C -34.9
|Feb avg record low C = -33.5
|Mar avg record low C = -25.7
|Apr avg record low C = -11.6
|May avg record low C = -5.0
|Jun avg record low C = 3.3
|Jul avg record low C = 8.4
|Aug avg record low C = 4.3
|Sep avg record low C = -3.3
|Oct avg record low C = -12.1
|Nov avg record low C = -24.5
|Dec avg record low C = -32.7
|year avg record low C = -37.4
|Jan record low C = −47.6
|Feb record low C = −45.1
|Mar record low C = −38.7
|Apr record low C = −23.2
|May record low C = −11.1
|Jun record low C = -3.6
|Jul record low C = 1.2
|Aug record low C = 0.2
|Sep record low C = −9.5
|Oct record low C = −22.9
|Nov record low C = −37.6
|Dec record low C = −43.8
|year record low C |Jan precipitation mm 7.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 5.6
|Mar precipitation mm = 4.6
|Apr precipitation mm = 12.3
|May precipitation mm = 27.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 55.8
|Jul precipitation mm = 66.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 61.5
|Sep precipitation mm = 35.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 16.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 10.1
|Dec precipitation mm = 8.0
|year precipitation mm |Jan precipitation days 2.6
|Feb precipitation days = 2.0
|Mar precipitation days = 1.4
|Apr precipitation days = 3.4
|May precipitation days = 5.9
|Jun precipitation days = 9.3
|Jul precipitation days = 8.8
|Aug precipitation days = 9.4
|Sep precipitation days = 7.2
|Oct precipitation days = 3.8
|Nov precipitation days = 3.1
|Dec precipitation days = 2.4
|year precipitation days |source 1 Météo climat stats<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/listenormale-1981-2010-2-p239.php|titleMoyennes 1981-2010 Russie (Asie)|languagefr|access-date1 November 2019}}</ref>
|source 2Météo Climat<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?pagestati&id2393|titleMétéo Climat stats for Abakan |publisherMétéo Climat|access-date=8 November 2019}}</ref>
|date=November 2019
}}
Local government
The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows:<ref name"УставГорода">{{Cite web |urlhttp://xn--h1ahm5cm.xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/aboutcity/ustav.html |titleМэрия Абакана / Устав города Абакана |trans-titleCity Hall of Abakan / Charter of the city of Abakan |publisherмэрия.абакан.рф |accessdate2019-12-04 |archive-date2019-12-08 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191208092304/http://xn--h1ahm5cm.xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/aboutcity/ustav.html}}</ref>
* council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality;
* the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality;
* the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality;
* auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality.
; Council of Deputies
The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Composition of the City Council<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.vybory.izbirkom.ru/region/izbirkom?actionshow&vrn4194013334654&region19&prver1&pronetvd1 |titleСведения о проводящихся выборах и референдумах |trans-titleInformation about ongoing elections and referendums |websitewww.vybory.izbirkom.ru |access-date2022-01-07 |archive-date2022-01-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220107183135/http://www.vybory.izbirkom.ru/region/izbirkom?actionshow&vrn4194013334654&region19&prver1&pronetvd1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |languageru |urlhttps://xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/sovet-deputatov/sostav-soveta-deputatov.html |titleСостав Совета депутатов |trans-titleComposition of the Council of Deputies |websiteабакан.рф |access-date2022-01-07 |archive-date2022-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107183137/https://xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/sovet-deputatov/sostav-soveta-deputatov.html}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" |Party
! colspan="2" |Number of deputies
! rowspan="2" |Result
|-
!By okrug
!By lists
|-
|United Russia
|11
|5 (28.83%)
|16
|-
|CPRF
|2
|3 (23.97%)
|5
|-
|LDPR
|0
|3 (22.19%)
|3
|-
|Party of Pensioners
|0
|1 (7.11%)
|1
|-
|A Just Russia – For Truth
|0
|1 (6.93%)
|1
|-
|Communists of Russia
|0
|1 (6.83%)
|1
|-
|Self-nominated
|1
| ---
|1
|-
|
|14
|14
|28
|}
; Head of the city (head of the municipality)
* Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin
; Chairman of the Council of Deputies
* Albert Yuryevich Tupikin
; Nikolai Bulakin Prize
In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city's development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma.<ref>Applicants for the N. G. Bulakin Prize - Abakan. - 2021. - November 24. - p. 4.</ref><ref>[https://abakan-news.ru/2021/10/15/премия-имени-н-г-булакина-новая-муниц/ Новая муниципальная награда] — IRTA Abakan, 15 October 2021.</ref>
References
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{Refbegin}}
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|kk|adm|law}}
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|kk|mun|list|abakan}}
*{{RussiaBasicLawRef|kk|abakan}}
*{{Cite Soviet law
|ru_entity=Президиум Центрального исполнительного комитета СССР
|ru_type=Постановление
|ru_date=30 апреля 1931 г.
|ru_title=О преобразовании села Усть-Абаканское, центра Хакасской автономной области, в город с переименованием его в "Абакан"
|ru_effective_date|ru_published_in
|ru_published_date|ru_url
|en_entity=Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR
|en_type=Resolution
|en_date=April&nbsp;30, 1931
|en_title=On the Transformation of the Selo of Ust-Abakanskoye, the Center of Khakas Autonomous Oblast, into a City and on Renaming It "Abakan"
|en_effective_date|en_url
}}
*{{Cite web |authorAnon |urlhttp://climatebase.ru/station/29865/?langen |titleAbakan, Khakasia, Russia #29865 |year2012a |websiteclimatebase.ru |access-dateAugust 14, 2014 |archive-dateApril 7, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140407070807/http://climatebase.ru/station/29865/?langen |url-statuslive |dfmdy }}
*{{Cite web |authorAnon |year2011 |urlhttp://www.timetemperature.com/europe/russia_time_zones.shtml |websiteTimeTemperature.com |access-dateAugust 13, 2014 |titleRussia Time Zones - Russia Current Times |archive-dateJuly 7, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140707140404/http://www.timetemperature.com/europe/russia_time_zones.shtml |url-statusdead |dfmdy }}
*{{Cite book|lastYevtyukhova|firstL. A.|chapterЮжная Сибирь в древности [Southern Siberia in Ancient Times]|script-titleru:По следам древних культур: от Волги до Тихого Океана|trans-titleTracing Ancient Cultures between the Volga and the Pacific|locationMoscow, Russia|year1954|pages195–224|language=ru}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|editor-lastHoiberg|editor-firstDale H.|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica|edition15th|year1993|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|volume1: A-ak Bayes|locationChicago, Illinois|isbn0-85229-961-3|lccn2002113989|title=The New Encyclopaedia Britannica}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|lastJuodvalkytė|firstAldona|titleAbakan (Abakanas)|volumeI: A-Ar|encyclopediaUniversal Lithuanian Encyclopedia|year2001|languagelt|publisherScience and Encyclopedia Publishing Institute|locationVilnius, Lithuania|urlhttps://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/abakan-104534}}
*{{Cite book|lastKovalyov|firstA. A.|chapterКитайский император на Енисее? Ещё раз о хозяине ташебинского «дворца» [Chinese Emperor on the Yenisy? Once Again About the Owner of the Tashebik "Palace"]|trans-titleThe Ethnohistory and Archaeology of Northern Eurasia: Theory, Methods, and Practice|script-titleru:Этноистория и археология Северной Евразии: теория, методология и практика исследования|locationIrkutsk, Russian|year2007|pages145–148|languageru|isbn978-5-8038-0430-7|urlhttp://otval.spb.ru/library/kovalov-aa-2007.pdf|archive-dateAugust 14, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140814125908/http://otval.spb.ru/library/kovalov-aa-2007.pdf|url-statusdead|df=mdy-all}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|editor-lastMunro|editor-firstDavid|year1995|encyclopediaOxford Dictionary of the World|isbn0-19-866184-3|publisherOxford University Press|locationOxford, UK|titleAbakan|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00munr}}
*{{Cite book|lastSchofield|firstCarey|year1993|titleThe Russian Elite: Inside Spetsnaz and the Airborne Forces|pages249–251|publisherGreenhill Press|isbn=1-8536-7155-X}}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Wikivoyage|Abakan}}
{{EB1911 poster|Abakansk}}
*{{in lang|ru}} [http://абакан.рф/ Official website of Abakan] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211028162118/https://xn--80aaac0ct.xn--p1ai/ |dateOctober 28, 2021 }}
*{{in lang|ru}} [http://www.abakan.ru Unofficial website of Abakan]
*{{in lang|ru}} [https://abakan.jsprav.ru/ Directory of organizations in Abakan]
*[http://russiatrek.org/abakan-city Abakan city streets views]
*{{in lang|tr}} [http://www.pdx.edu/turkish_studies_center/books] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180620033315/https://www.pdx.edu/turkish_studies_center/books |dateJune 20, 2018 }} Beyaz Arif Akbas, "Khakassia: The Lost Land", Portland State Center for Turkish Studies, 2007
{{Republic of Khakassia}}
{{Russian republics capitals}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2011}}
Category:Cities and towns in Khakassia
Category:Yeniseysk Governorate
Category:Populated places established in 1675
Category:1675 establishments in Russia
Category:Populated places on the Yenisei River
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abakan
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.090044
|
2482
|
Arc de Triomphe
|
{{About||the horse race in Paris|Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe||Arch of Triumph (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|text=the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, which stands west of the Louvre Palace}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{short description|Triumphal arch in Paris, France}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Arc de Triomphe
| native_name | image
| caption | former_names
| alternate_names = Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile
| mapframe-zoom = 16
| building_type = Triumphal arch
| architectural_style = Neoclassicism
| structural_system | cost
| coordinates {{Coord|48|52|25.6|N|2|17|42.1|E|displayinline,title}}
| location = Place Charles de Gaulle (formerly Place de l'Étoile)
| owner | altitude
| start_date 15 August 1806<ref name"Raymond2008">{{cite book |lastRaymond |firstGino |titleHistorical dictionary of France |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJVIRzOWyqUAC&pgPA9 |access-date28 July 2011 |date30 October 2008 |publisherScarecrow Press |isbn978-0-8108-5095-8 |page9 |archive-date12 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112200257/https://books.google.com/books?idJVIRzOWyqUAC&pgPA9 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| completion_date | inauguration_date 29 July 1836<ref name"Fleischmann1914">{{cite book |lastFleischmann |firstHector |titleAn unknown son of Napoleon |urlhttps://archive.org/details/unknownsonofnapo00flei |access-date28 July 2011 |year1914 |publisherJohn Lane company |page=[https://archive.org/details/unknownsonofnapo00flei/page/204 204]}}</ref>
| demolition_date | height {{cvt|50|m|ft|0}}
| other_dimensions = Wide: {{cvt|45|m|ft|0}}<br />Deep: {{cvt|22|m|ft|0}}
| floor_count | floor_area
| main_contractor | architect Jean Chalgrin<br/>Louis-Étienne Héricart de Thury
| structural_engineer | services_engineer
| civil_engineer | other_designers
| quantity_surveyor | awards
}}
The '''Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile,{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɑːr|k|_|d|ə|_|ˈ|t|r|iː|ɒ|m|f|,_|-|_|ˈ|t|r|iː|oʊ|m|f}},<ref>{{Cite dictionary |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Arc+de+Triomphe |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200818031516/https://www.lexico.com/definition/arc_de_triomphe?st |url-statusdead |archive-date18 August 2020 |titleArc de Triomphe |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/arc-de-triomphe |titleArc de Triomphe |workCollins English Dictionary |publisherHarperCollins |access-date22 August 2019 |archive-date22 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190822202215/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/arc-de-triomphe |url-statuslive }}</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|-|_|t|r|iː|ˈ|oʊ|m|f}},<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|arc de triomphe |access-date=22 August 2019}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|aʁk də tʁijɔ̃f də letwal|lang|Arc de Triomphe.oga|}}; {{literal translation|Triumphal Arch of the Star}}.}} often called simply the Arc de Triomphe''', is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'Étoile—the étoile or "star" of the juncture formed by its twelve radiating avenues. The location of the arc and the plaza is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east). The Arc de Triomphe honours those who fought and died for France in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I.
The central cohesive element of the Axe historique (historic axis, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route running from the courtyard of the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense), the Arc de Triomphe was designed by Jean Chalgrin in 1806; its iconographic programme pits heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail. It set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Arch of Titus in Rome, Italy, the Arc de Triomphe has an overall height of {{cvt|50|m|ft|0}}, width of {{cvt|45|m|ft}} and depth of {{cvt|22|m|ft}}, while its large vault is {{cvt|29.19|m|ft}} high and {{cvt|14.62|m|ft}} wide. The smaller transverse vaults are {{cvt|18.68|m|ft}} high and {{cvt|8.44|m|ft}} wide.
Paris's Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, which is {{cvt|67|m|ft|0}} high. The Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modeled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at {{cvt|60|m|ft|0}}. The Grande Arche in La Défense near Paris is 110 metres high, and, if considered to be a triumphal arch, is the world's tallest.<ref nameParisDigest>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.parisdigest.com/monument/arc-de-triomphe-facts.htm |titleArc de Triomphe facts |year2018 |publisherParis Digest |access-date6 September 2018 |archive-date7 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180907032231/https://www.parisdigest.com/monument/arc-de-triomphe-facts.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> History Construction and late 19th century
, the former Place de l'Étoile.]]
The Arc de Triomphe is located on the right bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806, after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. Laying the foundations alone took two years and, in 1810, when Napoleon entered Paris from the west with his new bride, Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, he had a wooden mock-up of the completed arch constructed. The architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot.
During the Bourbon Restoration, construction was halted, and it would not be completed until the reign of Louis Philippe I, between 1833 and 1836, by the architects Goust, then Huyot, under the direction of Héricart de Thury. The final cost was reported at about 10,000,000 francs (equivalent to an estimated €65 million or $75 million in 2020).<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFpx9pqp_d5AC&dq%2210,432,000+francs%22+triomphe&pgPP252 |titleL'Abeille |date1848 |publisherPetit Séminaire de Québec |languagefr |access-date25 November 2021 |archive-date12 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112200258/https://books.google.com/books?idFpx9pqp_d5AC&dq%2210,432,000+francs%22+triomphe&pgPP252 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleHistorical Currency Converter |urlhttps://www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html |access-date5 October 2021 |websitewww.historicalstatistics.org |archive-date20 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160120202259/http://www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, Napoleon's remains passed under it on their way to the Emperor's final resting place at {{lang|fr|Les Invalides|italicno}}.<ref>[http://www.paris.org/Musees/Invalides/ Hôtel des Invalides website] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080725104448/http://www.paris.org/Musees/Invalides/ |date=25 July 2008 }}.</ref> Before burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc on the night of 22 May 1885.
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Barrière de l'étoile, QB.244a (cropped).jpg|The Arc de Triomphe under construction between the toll houses of the ''Barrière de l'Étoile'', 1818.
File:Funerailles de l'Empereur Napoleon.png|State funeral of Emperor Napoleon, 15 December 1840.
File:Nouveau Paris. - Vue générale du rond-point de l'Etoile dessin de M. Bertrand. - Voir page 610. QB.298.jpg|The Place de l'Étoile and Arc de Triomphe, 1868.
File:Les officiels regroupés sous l'Arc de Triomphe, 4246(2).jpg|State funeral of Victor Hugo, 31 May 1885.
</gallery>
20th century
The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, that the Battle of Verdun began in 1916. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.placesinfrance.com/history_arc_de_triomphe.html |titleHistory of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris |publisherPlaces in France |access-date28 December 2013 |archive-date7 October 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121007100623/http://placesinfrance.com/history_arc_de_triomphe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
'', a long perspective that runs from the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense.]]
On 7 August 1919 three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919 (marking the end of hostilities in World War I), Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the arch's primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.histoire-image.org/site/oeuvre/analyse.php?i260&d441 |titleLes débuts de l'aviation : Charles Godefroy – L'Histoire par l'image |publisherHistoire-image.org |access-date13 August 2014 |archive-date10 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140810040558/http://www.histoire-image.org/site/oeuvre/analyse.php?i260&d441 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>Melville Wallace, ''La vie d'un pilote de chasse en 1914–1918'', Flammarion, Paris, 1978. The film clip is included in The History Channel's Four Years of Thunder.</ref><ref>* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k572980s « Un aviateur passe en avion sous l'Arc de Triomphe »] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200930200901/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k572980s |date=30 September 2020 }}, Le Matin from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 3–4.
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k809713r « Un avion passe sous l'Arc de Triomphe »] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200921024431/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k809713r |date21 September 2020 }}, ''L'Écho de Paris'' from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 3.
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k299396b « L'Acte insensé d'un aviateur »] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201023063334/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k299396b |date23 October 2020 }}, par Raoul Alexandre, L'Humanité from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 2.
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k789003z « Un avion, ce matin, est passé sous l'Arc de Triomphe »] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200921042046/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k789003z |date21 September 2020 }}, par Paul Cartoux, L'Intransigeant from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 6.
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k243729f « Aéronautique : l'inutile exploit du sergent Godefroy »] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201028100422/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k243729f |date28 October 2020 }}, Le Temps from 1919/08/09, morning edition, p.3, column 4–5.</ref> Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight
forces on parade after the liberation of Paris on 26 August 1944.]]
Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the rallying point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns and for the annual Bastille Day military parade. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944<ref>[http://pictopia.com/perl/get_image?size457x275_mb&provider_id38&ptp_photo_id79689 Image of Liberation of Paris parade] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070928011119/http://pictopia.com/perl/get_image?size457x275_mb&provider_id38&ptp_photo_id79689 |date28 September 2007 }}.</ref> and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées and U.S. airplanes fly overhead on 29 August 1944. After the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades (including the aforementioned post-1919) have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb and its symbolism. Both Hitler in 1940 and Charles de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom.
By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, the Grande Arche de la Défense, was built in 1982, completing the line of monuments that forms Paris's Axe historique. After the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the ''Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, the Grande Arche'' is the third arch built on the same perspective.
In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/18/world/bomb-near-arc-de-triomphe-wounds-17.html |titleBomb Near Arc De Triomphe wounds 17 |newspaperNew York Times |date18 August 1995 |access-date8 January 2015 |last1Simons |first1Marlise |archive-date8 January 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150108151545/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/18/world/bomb-near-arc-de-triomphe-wounds-17.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
On 12 July 1998, when France won the FIFA World Cup for the first time after defeating Brazil 3–0 at the Stade de France, images of the players including double goal scorer Zinedine Zidane and their names along with celebratory messages were projected onto the arch.<ref>{{cite web |titleFrance 98 : Nuit de fête sur les Champs-Elysées après la victoire (Archive INA) |trans-titleFrance 98: Night of celebration on the Champs-Elysées after the victory |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vWyuVIRDtel4 |publisherInstitut National de l'Audiovisuel |author((France 2)) |date13 July 1998 |access-date20 July 2023 |websiteYouTube |languageFR |archive-date20 July 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230720151350/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vWyuVIRDtel4 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Parijs (Frankrijk) Waaghalzerij in de lucht, SFA006011795.jpg|Charles Godefroy flying through the Arc de Triomphe in 1919.
File:Paris. Arc de Triomphe. Postcard, c.1920.jpg|Arc de Triomphe, postcard, {{Circa|1920}}.
File:Collier's 1921 Vol 4 Frontispiece -- Paris.jpg|A colourized aerial photograph of the southern side, published in 1921.
File:Avenue des Champs-Élysées in 1939.jpg|Arc de Triomphe in 1939.
</gallery>
21st century
In late 2018, the Arc de Triomphe suffered acts of vandalism as part of the Yellow vests protests.<ref>{{cite news |last1Irish |first1John |titleMacron mulls state of emergency after worst unrest in decades |urlhttps://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-france-protests/macron-visits-riot-damaged-arc-de-triomphe-state-of-emergency-mulled-idUKKBN1O1076 |websiteReuters |date2 December 2018 |access-date2 December 2018 |archive-date26 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726082232/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-france-protests/macron-visits-riot-damaged-arc-de-triomphe-state-of-emergency-mulled-idUKKBN1O1076 |url-statusdead }}</ref> The vandals sprayed the monument with graffiti and ransacked its small museum.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKatz |firstBrigit |titleArc de Triomphe to Reopen After Being Vandalized During 'Yellow Vest' Protests |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/arc-de-triomphe-reopen-after-being-vandalized-during-yellow-vest-protests-180970994/ |access-date4 July 2020 |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |languageen |archive-date6 February 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220206065445/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/arc-de-triomphe-reopen-after-being-vandalized-during-yellow-vest-protests-180970994/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> In September 2021, the arc was wrapped in a silvery blue fabric and red rope,<ref>{{Cite news |titleHere's Why The Arc De Triomphe Was Just Wrapped In Fabric |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2021/09/17/1038287275/arc-de-triomphe-christo-jeanne-claude-wrapped |access-date19 September 2021 |newspaperNPR |date17 September 2021 |languageen |last1Chappell |first1Bill |archive-date19 September 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210919220900/https://www.npr.org/2021/09/17/1038287275/arc-de-triomphe-christo-jeanne-claude-wrapped |url-statuslive }}</ref> as part of L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, a posthumous project planned by artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude since the early 1960s.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKatz |firstBrigit |titleL'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped: Christo's dream being realised |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/jun/13/larc-de-triomphe-wrapped-christo-dream-bulgarian-artist |access-date21 June 2021 |websiteTheGuardian.com |date13 June 2021 |languageen |archive-date20 June 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210620210243/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/jun/13/larc-de-triomphe-wrapped-christo-dream-bulgarian-artist |url-statuslive }}</ref>
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Arc de Triomphe de lÉtoile, Paris 7 June 2012.jpg|View of the Arc de Triomphe from the Avenue d'Iéna, 2012.
File:Secretary Kerry, French Foreign Minister Fabius, Ambassador Hartley Pause After 70th Anniversary VE Day Wreath-Laying Ceremony in Paris (17421255431).jpg|Laurent Fabius, Minister of Foreign Affairs, with John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State, under the Arc de Triomphe in 2015.
File:Bastille Day Parade 170714-D-PB383-005 (35087624434).jpg|Bastille Day military parade, 2017.
File:PARADE DES CHAMPIONS PARIS 2024 CHAMPS ELYSEES (53997937113).jpg|The Arc de Triomphe during the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris.
</gallery>
Design
Monument
's drawing of the Arc de Triomphe, 1806.]]
The astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811), in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: Jean-Pierre Cortot; François Rude; Antoine Étex; James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are The Triumph of 1810 (Cortot), Resistance and Peace (both by Antoine Étex), and the most renowned of them all, Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 commonly called La Marseillaise (François Rude). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the honorary rank of Marshal of France. Since the fall of Napoleon (1815), the sculpture representing Peace is interpreted as commemorating the Peace of 1815.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ackland.emuseum.com/objects/1640/sculpture-on-the-arc-de-triomphe-the-peace-of-1815-by-antoi;jsessionid365026D7EE7878A64647A53F71EC0076 |titleSculpture on the Arc De Triomphe: the Peace of 1815 by Antoine Etex |publisherAckland Art Museum |access-date1 October 2022 |archive-date12 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112200248/http://ackland.emuseum.com/objects/1640/sculpture-on-the-arc-de-triomphe-the-peace-of-1815-by-antoi;jsessionid365026D7EE7878A64647A53F71EC0076 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars.<ref>The Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro is inscribed as a French victory, instead of the tactical draw and strategic defeat that it actually was.</ref> The inside walls of the monument list the names of 660 people, among which are 558 French generals of the First French Empire;<ref>Among the generals are at least two foreign generals, Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda and German-born Nicolas Luckner.</ref> The names of those generals killed in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major French victories in the Napoleonic Wars. The battles that took place in the period between the departure of Napoleon from Elba to his final defeat at Waterloo are not included.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://frenchmoments.eu/arc-de-triomphe-paris/ |titleDiscover the Arc de Triomphe in Paris |websiteFrench Monuments |date26 November 2012 |access-date29 May 2022 |archive-date29 May 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220529115444/http://frenchmoments.eu/arc-de-triomphe-paris/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
For four years from 1882 to 1886, a monumental sculpture by Alexandre Falguière topped the arch. Titled Le triomphe de la Révolution ("The Triumph of the Revolution"), it depicted a chariot drawn by horses preparing "to crush Anarchy and Despotism".<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCLcvAAAAYAAJ&pgRA2-PA318 |titleL'Art moderne |page318 |year1882 |publisherImp. Ve (i.e. 5th) Monnom |access-date18 March 2023 |archive-date20 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231120085155/https://books.google.com/books?idCLcvAAAAYAAJ&pgRA2-PA318 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Inside the monument, a permanent exhibition, conceived by artist Maurice Benayoun and architect Christophe Girault, opened in February 2007.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.arc-de-triomphe.org/ |titleBetween War and Peace |access-date15 September 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141216184504/http://arc-de-triomphe.org/ |archive-date16 December 2014}}</ref> Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
beneath the Arc de Triomphe.]]
Beneath the Arc is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. Interred on Armistice Day 1920,<ref name"NaourAllen2005">{{cite book |last1Naour |first1Jean-Yves Le |last2Allen |first2Penny |titleThe Living Unknown Soldier: A Story of Grief and the Great War |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3E3PRfQdBosC&pgPA78 |access-date28 July 2011 |date16 August 2005 |publisherMacmillan |isbn978-0-8050-7937-1 |page74}}</ref> an eternal flame burns in memory of the dead who were never identified (now in both world wars).<ref namegranfield>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXw9Cw3Khj68C&pgPP15 |titleThe Unknown Soldier |publisherNorth Winds Press |firstLinda |lastGranfield |year2008 |isbn978-0-4399-3558-6 |access-date18 March 2023 |archive-date20 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231120085157/https://books.google.com/books?idXw9Cw3Khj68C&pgPP15 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
A ceremony is held at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every 11 November on the anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 signed by the Entente Powers and Germany in 1918. It was originally decided on 12 November 1919 to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the Panthéon, but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc de Triomphe. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on 10 November 1920, and put in its final resting place on 28 January 1921.<ref namegranfield/> The slab on top bears the inscription: Ici repose un soldat français mort pour la Patrie, 1914–1918 ("Here rests a French soldier who died for the Fatherland, 1914–1918").<ref namegranfield/>
In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy paid their respects at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, accompanied by President Charles de Gaulle. After the 1963 assassination of President Kennedy, Mrs. Kennedy remembered the eternal flame at the Arc de Triomphe and requested that an eternal flame be placed next to her husband's grave at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.<ref>{{cite book| lastGormley| firstBeatrice| author2Meryl Henderson| titleJacqueline Kennedy Onassis: Friend of the Arts| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF03mk7v-QxUC&qeternal+flame| pages142–43| date11 May 2010| publisherSimon and Schuster| locationNew York| isbn978-1-4391-1358-5| access-date1 August 2024| url-accesssubscription}}</ref>
Details
* The four main sculptural groups on each of the Arc's pillars are:
** Le Départ de 1792 (or La Marseillaise), by François Rude. The sculptural group celebrates the cause of the French First Republic during the 10 August uprising. Above the volunteers is the winged personification of Liberty. This group served as a recruitment tool in the early months of World War I and encouraged the French to invest in war loans in 1915–1916.<ref>{{cite book |lastForrest |firstAlan |titleThe Legacy of the French Revolutionary Wars |date28 May 2009 |publisherCambridge University Press |page38 |isbn=978-1-1394-8924-9}}</ref>
** Le Triomphe de 1810, by Jean-Pierre Cortot celebrates the Treaty of Schönbrunn. This group features Napoleon, crowned by the goddess of Victory.
** La Résistance de 1814, by Antoine Étex commemorates the French Resistance to the Allied Armies during the War of the Sixth Coalition.
** La Paix de 1815, by Antoine Étex commemorates the Treaty of Paris, concluded in that year.
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"240">
File:Paris July 2011-16a.jpg|Le Départ de 1792 <br /> (La Marseillaise).
File:Paris July 2011-17a.jpg|Le Triomphe de 1810.
File:Paris July 2011-15a.jpg|La Résistance de 1814.
File:Antoine Étex, Der Friede von 1815, Halbrelief, Arc de Triomphe, Paris.jpg|La Paix de 1815.
</gallery>
* Six reliefs sculpted on the façades of the arch, representing important moments of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era include:
** Les funérailles du général Marceau (General Marceau's burial), by Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire (Southern façade, right).
** ''La bataille d'Aboukir (The Battle of Aboukir), by Bernard Seurre (Southern façade, left).
** La bataille de Jemappes (The Battle of Jemappes), by Carlo Marochetti (Eastern façade).
** Le passage du pont d'Arcole (The Battle of Arcole), by Jean-Jacques Feuchère (Northern façade, right).
** La prise d'Alexandrie (The Fall of Alexandria), by John-Étienne Chaponnière (Northern façade, left).
** La bataille d'Austerlitz (The Battle of Austerlitz), by Jean-François-Théodore Gechter (Western façade).
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"110">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille de Jemmappes.jpg|La bataille de Jemmappes'',<br /> 6 November 1792.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille d'Austerlitz.jpg|''La bataille d'Austerlitz,<br /> 2 December 1805.
</gallery>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"100">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Mort de Marceau 2.jpg|Les funérailles du général Marceau'',<br /> 20 September 1796.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille d'Aboukir.jpg|''La bataille d'Aboukir'',<br />25 July 1799.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe passage du pont d'Arcole.jpg|''Le passage du pont d'Arcole'',<br /> 15 November 1796.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe prise d'Alexandrie.jpg|''La prise d'Alexandrie'',<br /> 3 July 1798.
</gallery>
* The names of 158 battles fought by the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the monument. Among them, 30 battles are engraved on the attic:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"110">
File:Batailles gravées sur atique ADT.jpg
</gallery>
* 96 battles are engraved on the inner façades, under the great arches:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"500">
File:Batailles gravées sous grandes arcades.jpg|
</gallery>
* The names of 660 military leaders who served during the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the inner façades of the small arches.<ref>{{cite web |firstArnauld |lastDivry |year2023 |titleLes 660 noms inscrits sur l'Arc de Triomphe de Paris |urlhttps://arnauld-divry.ovh/arc_de_triomphe.htm |websitearnauld-divry.ovh |access-date25 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastBaedeker |firstKarl |date1860 |titleGuide à Paris par Baedeker: Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQQY_AAAAcAAJ&pgPA91 |locationParis |publisherA. Bohné |page91 |access-date13 August 2021 |archive-date12 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112200300/https://books.google.com/books?idQQY_AAAAcAAJ&pgPA91 |url-status=live }}</ref> Underlined names signify those who died on the battlefield:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 2.jpg|Northern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 3.jpg|Eastern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 7.jpg|Southern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 6.jpg|Western pillar.
</gallery>
* The spandrels of the great arches are decorated with allegorical figures representing characters in Roman mythology (by James Pradier):
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe 06.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Northern façade, left spandrel).
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe 07B.jpg|Figure of Victoria (Northern façade, right spandrel).
File:Figure allégorique 2 grande arche.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Southern façade, left spandrel).
File:Figure allégorique 1 grande arche.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Southern façade, right spandrel).
</gallery>
* The ceilings with sculpted roses:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Arc de triomphee.jpg|Ceilings of the great and small archways.
File:French Flag Flying.jpg|French flag suspended from the vault of the great archway.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile Bogen 3.jpg|Ceiling of the great archway.
File:Arc de Triomphe May 7, 2008.jpg|Ceilings of the great and small archways.
</gallery>
* Interior of the Arc de Triomphe:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Stairs of Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile (49652636762).jpg|Stairway with 284 steps leading to the rooftop terrace at the top of the&nbsp;arch.
File:Interior of the Arc de Triomphe (22265695019).jpg|Permanent exhibition in the attic room below the terrace.
File:Arc de Triomphe statue.jpg|First World War monument.
File:DecorSculpteMB.jpg|Permanent exhibition in the attic room below the terrace.
</gallery>
* There are several plaques at the foot of the monument:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Placa.004 - Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile.jpg|Plaque in memory of the proclamation of the Republic, 4&nbsp;September&nbsp;1870.
File:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Paris (4077371144).jpg|Plaque in memory of the return of the regions Alsace and Lorraine to France, 11&nbsp;November&nbsp;1918.
File:Placa.003 - Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile.jpg|Plaque in memory of the fighters of the Armies and the Resistance who died for France, 1939–1945.
File:De Gaulle speech plaque in Arc de Triomphe.jpg|Plaque in memory of de&nbsp;Gaulle's speech, 18&nbsp;June&nbsp;1940.
</gallery>
Access
The Arc de Triomphe is accessible by the RER and Métro, with exit at the Charles de Gaulle–Étoile station. Because of heavy traffic on the roundabout of which the Arc is the centre, pedestrians use the two underpasses located at the Champs-Élysées and the Avenue de la Grande Armée. A lift will take visitors almost to the top – to the attic, where a small museum contains large models of the Arc and tells its story from the time of its construction. Another 40 steps remain to climb to reach the top, the terrasse, from where one can enjoy a panoramic view of Paris.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.paris-arc-de-triomphe.fr/en/discover/the-panorama |titleThe panorama |websiteCentre des Monuments Nationaux |access-date4 January 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The location of the arc, as well as the Place de l'Étoile, is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east).
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"240">
File:ArcTriompheParis.jpg|Paris seen from the top of the Arc de Triomphe.
</gallery>
Replicas
While many structures around the world resemble the Arc de Triomphe, some were actually inspired by it. Replicas that used its design as a model include the Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, US (1924); the Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania (1936); the Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea (1982); and a miniature version at the Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US (1999).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lacomediedevanneau.com/arc-de-triomphe-montpellier/ |titleThese Arc de Triomphe Around the World… And in Montpellier? |date20 November 2020 |access-date21 April 2023 |archive-date21 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230421182520/https://www.lacomediedevanneau.com/arc-de-triomphe-montpellier/ |website=La Comédie de Vanneau}}</ref>
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Memorial arch - panoramio.jpg|Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, US.
File:Triumphal Arch Bucharest 1.jpg|Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania.
File:Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang) 05.JPG|Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea.
File:Paris hotel (Las Vegas) Arc de Triomphe.JPG|Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US.
</gallery>
See also
{{Portal|France}}
* Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
* Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
* List of works by James Pradier
* Napoleon's tomb
* {{lang|fr|Galerie des Batailles|italic=no}}
* Bastille Day military parade
* Romanian Arcul de Triumf
* List of tourist attractions in Paris
* List of post-Roman triumphal arches
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Sisterlinks|dQ64436|cCategory:Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile|sno|wiktno|bno|vno|qno|nno|mno|mwno|speciesno|voyParis/8th_arrondissement}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050306125604/http://www.parisrama.com/thematiques/thematique_arcdetriomphe.htm Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://arcdetriompheparis.com/history Clarification of history of Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://www.arc-de-triomphe.org/ The permanent exhibition inside the Arc de Triomphe]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T_wyyfmCZuo View from the Arc de Triomphe]
{{8th arrondissement of Paris}}
{{16th arrondissement of Paris}}
{{Visitor attractions in Paris}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arc De Triomphe}}
Category:Triumphal arches in France
Category:Monuments and memorials related to Napoleonic Wars
Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1836
Category:Monuments and memorials in Paris
Category:Neoclassical architecture in Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 8th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 16th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 17th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Landmarks in France
Category:Champs-Élysées
Category:Terminating vistas in Paris
Category:Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
<!-- Category:Tombs in France and Category:Tombs of Unknown Soldiers not needed, due to new redirect (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (France) -->
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.135851
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2483
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April 21
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{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*753 BC &ndash; Romulus founds Rome (traditional date).
*43 BC &ndash; Battle of Mutina: Mark Antony is again defeated in battle by Aulus Hirtius, who is killed. Antony fails to capture Mutina and Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly after.
* 900 &ndash; The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (the earliest known written document found in what is now the Philippines): the Commander-in-Chief of the Kingdom of Tondo, as represented by the Honourable Jayadewa, Lord Minister of Pailah, pardons from all debt the Honourable Namwaran and his relations.
*1092 &ndash; The Diocese of Pisa is elevated to the rank of metropolitan archdiocese by Pope Urban II
*1506 &ndash; The three-day Lisbon Massacre comes to an end with the slaughter of over 1,900 suspected Jews by Portuguese Catholics.
*1509 &ndash; Henry VIII ascends the throne of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
*1526 &ndash; The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi is defeated and killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat.
1601–1900
*1615 &ndash; The Wignacourt Aqueduct is inaugurated in Malta.
*1782 &ndash; The city of Rattanakosin, now known internationally as Bangkok, is founded on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya River by King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke.
*1789 &ndash; John Adams sworn in as first US Vice President (nine days before George Washington).{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=393–394}}
* 1789 &ndash; George Washington's reception at Trenton is hosted by the Ladies of Trenton as he journeys to New York City for his first inauguration.<ref>{{cite web |last1Washington |first1George |author-linkGeorge Washington |titleFrom George Washington to the Ladies of Trenton, 21 April 1789 |urlhttps://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-02-02-0095 |publisherFounders Online, National Archives |date=April 21, 1789}}</ref>
*1792 &ndash; Tiradentes, a revolutionary leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged, drawn and quartered.
*1796 &ndash; War of the First Coalition: In the climax of the Montenotte Campaign, Napoleon Bonaparte decisively defeats the army of Piedmont at the Battle of Mondovi, leading to Piedmont's surrender a week later and decisively turning the Italian campaign in France's favor.<ref>https://www.napoleon-empire.org/en/battles/mondovi.php</ref>
*1802 &ndash; Twelve thousand Wahhabis sack Karbala, killing over three thousand inhabitants.
*1806 &ndash; Action of 21 April 1806: A French frigate escapes British forces off the coast of South Africa.
*1809 &ndash; Two Austrian army corps are driven from Landshut by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon as two French corps to the north hold off the main Austrian army on the first day of the Battle of Eckmühl.
*1821 &ndash; Benderli Ali Pasha arrives in Constantinople as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire; he remains in power for only nine days before being sent into exile.
*1836 &ndash; Texas Revolution: The Battle of San Jacinto: Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.
*1856 &ndash; Australian labour movement: Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne march from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day.
*1894 &ndash; Norway formally adopts the Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
*1898 &ndash; Spanish–American War: The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports. When the U.S. Congress issued a declaration of war on April 25, it declared that a state of war had existed from this date.
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; Ypiranga incident: A German arms shipment to Mexico is intercepted by the U.S. Navy near Veracruz.
*1918 &ndash; World War I: German fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen, better known as "The Red Baron", is shot down and killed over Vaux-sur-Somme in France.
*1926 &ndash; Al-Baqi cemetery, former site of the mausoleum of four Shi'a Imams, is leveled to the ground by Wahhabis.
*1934 &ndash; The "Surgeon's Photograph", the most famous photo allegedly showing the Loch Ness Monster, is published in the Daily Mail (in 1994, it is revealed to be a hoax).<ref name"museumofhoaxes_nessie">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.museumofhoaxes.com/nessie.html |titleThe Loch Ness Monster and the Surgeon's Photo |publisherMuseumofhoaxes.com |access-date28 May 2009 |archive-date6 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140806122015/http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/nessie.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Soviet forces south of Berlin at Zossen attack the German High Command headquarters.
*1946 &ndash; The U.S. Weather Bureau publish a paper which stated the width of a tornado which struck the city of Timber Lake, South Dakota was {{convert|4|mi|km}}, which would make this the widest tornado ever documented in history.<ref>{{cite journal |journalMonthly Weather Review |date1 April 1946 |volume74 |issue4 |page73 |doi10.1175/1520-0493(1946)074<0073:SLSFA>2.0.CO;2 |doi-accessfree |titleSevere Local Storms for April 1946 |bibcode=1946MWRv...74...73. }}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 relating to Kashmir conflict is adopted.
*1950 &ndash; The Nainital wedding massacre occurs, killing 22 members of the Harijan caste.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id529YAAAAIBAJ&sjidEPgDAAAAIBAJ&pg1389,1304611&dq 22 guests slain], The Bend Bulletin (21 April 1950)</ref><ref>[https://newspaperarchive.com/ogden-standard-examiner/1950-04-21/ 22 guests slain as wedding held], The Ogden Standard-Examiner (21 April 1950)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121105104424/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/423532671.html?dids423532671:423532671&FMTCITE&FMTSCITE:AI&typehistoric&dateApr+22%2C+1950&author&pubLos+Angeles+Times&descStudio+Electrician+Loses+Paternity+Suit+Verdict&pqatl=google Drunk Gurkha Kills 22], Los Angeles Times (22 April 1950) </ref><ref>[https://newspaperarchive.com/huntingdon-daily-news/1950-04-22/page-5 Murders 22 at wedding], The Huntingdon Daily News (22 April 1950)</ref>
*1952 &ndash; Secretary's Day (now Administrative Professionals' Day) is first celebrated.
*1958 &ndash; United Air Lines Flight 736 collides with a United States Air Force fighter jet near Arden, Nevada in what is now Enterprise, Nevada.<ref>{{cite news|titleFatal Las Vegas crash in 1958 led to modern air safety system|newspaperLas Vegas Review-Journal|authorHenry Brean|dateApril 20, 2018|urlhttps://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/fatal-las-vegas-crash-in-1958-led-to-modern-air-safety-system/|access-date2020-04-05}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Brasília, Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 09:30, the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, Rio de Janeiro.
*1962 &ndash; The Seattle World's Fair (Century 21 Exposition) opens. It is the first World's Fair in the United States since World War II.
*1963 &ndash; The first election of the Universal House of Justice is held, marking its establishment as the supreme governing institution of the Baháʼí Faith.
*1964 &ndash; A Transit-5bn satellite fails to reach orbit after launch; as it re-enters the atmosphere, {{convert|2.1|lb}} of radioactive plutonium in its SNAP RTG power source is widely dispersed.
*1965 &ndash; The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair opens for its second and final season.
*1966 &ndash; Rastafari movement: Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Jamaica, an event now celebrated as Grounation Day.
*1967 &ndash; A few days before the general election in Greece, Colonel George Papadopoulos leads a coup d'état, establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
*1972 &ndash; Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke fly Apollo 16's Apollo Lunar Module to the Moon's surface, the fifth NASA Apollo Program crewed lunar landing.<ref>[https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_16/ Landing site/]. Retrieved 25 March 2019</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Vietnam War: President of South Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu flees Saigon, as Xuân Lộc, the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct North Vietnamese assault on Saigon, falls.
*1977 &ndash; Annie opens on Broadway.
*1982 &ndash; Baseball: Rollie Fingers of the Milwaukee Brewers becomes the first pitcher to record 300 saves.
*1985 &ndash; The compound of the militant group The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord surrenders to federal authorities in Arkansas after a two-day government siege.
*1987 &ndash; The Tamil Tigers are blamed for a car bomb that detonates in the Sri Lankan capital city of Colombo, killing 106 people.
*1989 &ndash; Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: In Beijing, around 100,000 students gather in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Chinese reform leader Hu Yaobang.
*1993 &ndash; The Supreme Court in La Paz, Bolivia, sentences former dictator Luis García Meza to 30 years in jail without parole for murder, theft, fraud and violating the constitution.
*2004 &ndash; Five suicide car bombers target police stations in and around Basra, killing 74 people and wounding 160.
*2010 &ndash; The controversial Kharkiv Pact (Russian Ukrainian Naval Base for Gas Treaty) is signed in Kharkiv, Ukraine, by Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; it was unilaterally terminated by Russia on March 31, 2014.
*2012 &ndash; Two trains are involved in a head-on collision near Sloterdijk, Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, killing one person and injuring 116 others.<ref>{{Cite news |date2012-04-22 |titleDutch train crash: Woman dies of her injuries |languageen-GB |workBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17807697 |access-date2023-04-19}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; The American city of Flint, Michigan switches its water source to the Flint River, beginning the ongoing Flint water crisis which has caused lead poisoning in up to 12,000 people, and at least 12 deaths from Legionnaires' disease, ultimately leading to criminal indictments against 15 people, five of whom have been charged with involuntary manslaughter.
*2019 &ndash; Eight bombs explode at churches, hotels, and other locations in Sri Lanka on Easter Sunday, killing at least 269.<ref>{{cite news |authorBurke |firstJason |date2019-04-21 |title'There was utter chaos': Sri Lanka left reeling after wave of bombings |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/21/there-was-utter-chaos-sri-lanka-left-reeling-after-wave-of-bombings |access-date2019-04-22 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Indonesian Navy submarine KRI Nanggala (402) sinks in the Bali Sea during a military drill, killing all 53 on board.<ref name"reuters.search">{{Cite web|last1Beo Da Costa|first1Agustinus|last2Lamb|first2Kate|date21 April 2021|editor-lastPetty|editor-firstMartin|titleIndonesian navy checking on submarine after failure to report back from exercise|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesian-navy-checking-submarine-after-failure-report-back-exercise-2021-04-21/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210421093435/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesian-navy-checking-submarine-after-failure-report-back-exercise-2021-04-21/|archive-date21 April 2021|access-date21 April 2021|websiteReuters}}<!-- note: source states spokesperson announces failure to report results but does not identify spokesperson --></ref>BirthsPre-1600
*1132 &ndash; Sancho VI, king of Navarre (d. 1194)
*1488 &ndash; Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)
*1523 &ndash; Marco Antonio Bragadin, Venetian lawyer and military officer (d. 1571)
*1555 &ndash; Ludovico Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1619)
1601–1900
*1619 &ndash; Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch founder of Cape Town (d. 1677)
*1630 &ndash; Pieter Gerritsz van Roestraten, Dutch-English painter (d. 1700)
*1631 &ndash; Francesco Maidalchini, Catholic cardinal (d. 1700)
*1642 &ndash; Simon de la Loubère, French mathematician, poet, and diplomat (d. 1729)
*1651 &ndash; Joseph Vaz, Sri Lankan priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1711)
*1652 &ndash; Michel Rolle, French mathematician and academic (d. 1719)
*1671 &ndash; John Law, Scottish economist (d. 1729)
*1673 &ndash; Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1742)
*1713 &ndash; Louis de Noailles, French general (d. 1793)
*1730 &ndash; Antonín Kammel, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1788)
*1752 &ndash; Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait, French engineer, hydrographer, and politician, French Minister of Marine and the Colonies (d. 1807)
* 1752 &ndash; Humphry Repton, English gardener and author (d. 1818)
*1774 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Biot, French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1862)
*1775 &ndash; Alexander Anderson, Scottish-American illustrator and engraver (d. 1870)
*1783 &ndash; Reginald Heber, English priest (d. 1821)<ref>{{cite book|lastMontefiore|first Arthur|titleReginald Heber, Bishop of Calcutta|url https://archive.org/stream/reginaldheberbis00bric#page/n5/mode/2up|publisherFleming H. Revell Company|location New York, Chicago and Toronto|year1902|oclc 155604573 |pages=9&ndash;10}}; re-printed 2015 by Facsimile Publisher and distributed by Gyan Books, New Delhi.</ref>
*1790 &ndash; Manuel Blanco Encalada, Spanish-Chilean admiral and politician, 1st President of Chile (d. 1876)
*1810 &ndash; John Putnam Chapin, American politician, 10th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1864)
*1811 &ndash; Alson Sherman, American merchant and politician, 8th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1903)
*1814 &ndash; Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts, English art collector and philanthropist (d. 1906)
*1816 &ndash; Charlotte Brontë, English novelist and poet (d. 1855)
*1837 &ndash; Fredrik Bajer, Danish lieutenant and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1922)
*1838 &ndash; John Muir, Scottish-American environmentalist and author (d. 1914)
*1854 &ndash; William Stang, German-American bishop (d. 1907)
*1864 &ndash; Max Weber, German economist and sociologist (d. 1920)
*1868 &ndash; Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (d. 1932)
* 1868 &ndash; Mary Rogers Miller, American author and educator (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book |last1Stearns |first1Ezra S. |titleHistory of Plymouth, New Hampshire|volume II |date1906 |publisherUniversity Press |locationCambridge, Mass. |page578 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofplymout22stea/page/n365/mode/2up}}</ref>
*1870 &ndash; Edwin Stanton Porter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1941)
*1874 &ndash; Vincent Scotto, French composer and actor (d. 1952)
*1882 &ndash; Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
*1885 &ndash; Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (d. 1967)
*1887 &ndash; Joe McCarthy, American baseball manager (d. 1978)
*1889 &ndash; Marcel Boussac, French businessman (d. 1980)
* 1889 &ndash; Paul Karrer, Russian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
* 1889 &ndash; Efrem Zimbalist, Sr., Russian-American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1985)
*1892 &ndash; Freddie Dixon, English motorcycle racer and racing driver (d. 1956)
*1893 &ndash; Romeo Bertini, Italian runner (d. 1973)
*1897 &ndash; Odd Lindbäck-Larsen, Norwegian Army general and war historian (d. 1975)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleOdd Lindbäck-Larsen |firstAksel Schreiner |lastBrakestad |first2Dag |last2Leraand |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Odd_Lindbäck-Larsen |languageno|access-date=15 March 2024}}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; Maurice Wilson, English soldier, pilot, and mountaineer (d. 1934)
*1899 &ndash; Randall Thompson, American composer and academic (d. 1984)
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; Luis Saslavsky, Argentinian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)
*1904 &ndash; Jean Hélion, French painter (d. 1987)
* 1904 &ndash; Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (d. 1945)
*1905 &ndash; Pat Brown, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Governor of California (d. 1996)
*1911 &ndash; Ivan Combe, American businessman, developed Clearasil (d. 2000)
* 1911 &ndash; Kemal Satır, Turkish physician and politician (d. 1991)
*1912 &ndash; Eve Arnold, Russian-American photojournalist (d. 2012)
* 1912 &ndash; Marcel Camus, French director and screenwriter (d. 1982)
*1913 &ndash; Norman Parkinson, English photographer (d. 1990)
*1914 &ndash; Angelo Savoldi, Italian-American wrestler and promoter, co-founded International World Class Championship Wrestling (d. 2013)
*1915 &ndash; Garrett Hardin, American ecologist, author, and academic (d. 2003)
* 1915 &ndash; Anthony Quinn, Mexican-American actor (d. 2001)
*1916 &ndash; Estella B. Diggs, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
*1918 &ndash; Eddy Christiani, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
*1919 &ndash; Don Cornell, American singer (d. 2004)
* 1919 &ndash; Roger Doucet, Canadian tenor (d. 1981)
* 1919 &ndash; Licio Gelli, Italian financer (d. 2015)
*1922 &ndash; Alistair MacLean, Scottish novelist and screenwriter (d. 1987)
* 1922 &ndash; Allan Watkins, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 2011)
*1923 &ndash; John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (d. 2009)
*1924 &ndash; Ira Louvin, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player (d. 1965)
*1925 &ndash; Anthony Mason, Australian soldier and judge, 9th Chief Justice of Australia
* 1925 &ndash; John Swinton of Kimmerghame, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire (d. 2018)
*1926 &ndash; Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom and her other realms (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-61585886|titleQueen Elizabeth II has died|workBBC News|date8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Arthur Rowley, English footballer, manager, and cricketer (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/21/guardianobituaries.football|titleObituaries: Arthur Rowley |date21 December 2002 |publishertheguardian.com |access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Ahmed Arif, Turkish poet and author (d. 1991)
*1928 &ndash; Jack Evans, Welsh-Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1996)
*1930 &ndash; Hilda Hilst, Brazilian author, poet, and playwright (d. 2004)
* 1930 &ndash; Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (d. 1989)
* 1930 &ndash; Dieter Roth, German-Swiss illustrator and sculptor (d. 1998)
* 1930 &ndash; Jack Taylor, English footballer and referee (d. 2012)
*1931 &ndash; Morgan Wootten, American high school basketball coach (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/morgan-wootten-winningest-high-school-basketball-coach-dies-at-88/2020/01/22/a7ad57b0-3c61-11ea-baca-eb7ace0a3455_story.html |titleMorgan Wootten, former DeMatha Catholic High School basketball coach, dies at 88 |newspaperThe Washington Post |lastAsher |firstMark |date22 January 2020 |access-date=19 August 2021 }}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Slide Hampton, African-American trombonist and composer (d. 2021)
* 1932 &ndash; Elaine May, American actress, comedian, director, and screenwriter
* 1932 &ndash; Angela Mortimer, English tennis player
*1933 &ndash; Edelmiro Amante, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
* 1933 &ndash; Easley Blackwood, Jr., American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2023)
* 1933 &ndash; Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (d. 2014)
*1935 &ndash; Charles Grodin, American actor and talk show host (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web |last1Lowry |first1Brian |titleCharles Grodin, 'Midnight Run' and 'The Heartbreak Kid' star, dead at 86 |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2021/05/18/entertainment/charles-grodin-obit/index.html |websiteCNN|date18 May 2021 }}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; Thomas Kean, American academic and politician, 48th Governor of New Jersey
*1936 &ndash; James Dobson, American evangelist, psychologist, and author, founded Focus on the Family
* 1936 &ndash; Reg Fleming, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2009)
*1937 &ndash; Gary Peters, American baseball player (d. 2023)
* 1937 &ndash; Ben Zinn, Israeli-born American academic and former international soccer player
*1939 &ndash; John McCabe, English pianist and composer (d. 2015)
* 1939 &ndash; Sister Helen Prejean, American nun, activist, and author
* 1939 &ndash; Reni Santoni, American actor (d. 2020)
*1940 &ndash; Jacques Caron, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1940 &ndash; Souleymane Cissé, Malian director, producer, and screenwriter
*1941 &ndash; David Boren, American lawyer and politician, 21st Governor of Oklahoma (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |lastMcFadden |firstRobert D. |dateFebruary 20, 2025 |titleDavid Boren, an Oklahoma Eminence as Governor and Senator, Dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/20/us/politics/david-boren-dead.html |access-dateFebruary 23, 2025 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Geoffrey Palmer, New Zealand politician, 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand
*1945 &ndash; Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Indian cricketer and umpire
* 1945 &ndash; Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (d. 2017)
* 1945 &ndash; Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (d. 2000)
*1947 &ndash; Al Bumbry, American baseball player
* 1947 &ndash; Iggy Pop, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
* 1947 &ndash; John Weider, English bass player
*1948 &ndash; Gary Condit, American businessman and politician
* 1948 &ndash; Paul Davis, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2008)
* 1948 &ndash; Josef Flammer, Swiss ophthalmologist
* 1948 &ndash; Dieter Fromm, German runner
*1949 &ndash; Patti LuPone, American actress and singer
*1950 &ndash; Shivaji Satam, Indian actor
*1951 &ndash; Tony Danza, American actor and producer
* 1951 &ndash; Michael Freedman, American mathematician and academic
* 1951 &ndash; Bob Varsha, American sportscaster
* 1951 &ndash; Steve Vickers, Canadian ice hockey player
*1952 &ndash; Gerald Early, American author and academic
* 1952 &ndash; Cheryl Gillan, British businesswoman and politician, Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2021)
*1953 &ndash; John Brumby, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Victoria
*1954 &ndash; Ebiet G. Ade, Indonesian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1954 &ndash; James Morrison, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1954 &ndash; Mike Wingfield, South African academic and scientist<ref>{{Cite web |titleWingfield, Michael John (1954-....) |urlhttps://www.idref.fr/116589000 |websiteId Ref |access-date2022-12-26 |archive-date2022-12-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221226130626/https://www.idref.fr/116589000 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; Murathan Mungan, Turkish author, poet, and playwright
*1956 &ndash; Peter Kosminsky, English director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1956 &ndash; Phillip Longman, German-American demographer and journalist
*1957 &ndash; Hervé Le Tellier, French linguist and author
* 1957 &ndash; Herbert Wetterauer, German painter, sculptor, and author
*1958 &ndash; Andie MacDowell, American model, actress, and producer
* 1958 &ndash; Yoshito Usui, Japanese illustrator (d. 2009)
* 1958 &ndash; Michael Zarnock, American author
*1959 &ndash; Tim Jacobus, American illustrator and painter
* 1959 &ndash; Robert Smith, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1961 &ndash; David Servan-Schreiber, French physician, neuroscientist, and author (d. 2011)
*1963 &ndash; Ken Caminiti, American baseball player (d. 2004)<ref>{{cite web |titleKen Caminiti |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/ken-caminiti-111908 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date11 April 2023}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Fiona Kelleghan, American academic, critic and librarian
*1969 &ndash; Toby Stephens, English actor
*1970 &ndash; Rob Riggle, American actor and comedian<ref>{{cite web |last1Vergun |first1David |titleComedian, Game Show Host Is a Retired Marine |urlhttps://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/Story/Article/2820091/comedian-game-show-host-is-a-retired-marine/ |publisherUnited States Department of Defense |access-date11 April 2023 |date=1 November 2021}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Michael Turner, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)
*1973 &ndash; Steve Backshall, English naturalist, writer, and television presenter
*1977 &ndash; Gyula Koi, Hungarian scholar and educator
*1979 &ndash; Virginie Basselot, French chef
* 1979 &ndash; James McAvoy, Scottish actor<ref>{{cite web |titleJames McAvoy · BIFA · British Independent Film Awards |urlhttps://www.bifa.film/people/james-mcavoy/ |websiteBIFA · British Independent Film Awards |access-date8 September 2022 |date=12 October 2018}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Tony Romo, American football player and announcer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.foxsports.com/stories/nfl/the-40-year-old-qb|titleThe 40-Year-Old QB|workFox Sports|date21 April 2020|accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite web |last1Pattra |first1Kevin |titleFormer NFL QB Tarvaris Jackson dies in car crash |urlhttps://www.nfl.com/news/former-nfl-qb-tarvaris-jackson-dies-in-car-crash-0ap3000001109122 |websiteNFL |access-date13 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Kim Wall, British sprinter<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://worldathletics.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/kim-wall-14276636 |titleKim WALL |website=worldathletics.org}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Ricky Berens, American swimmer<ref>{{cite web|titleRicky Berens|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/ricky-berens|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date21 May 2020}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Jencarlos Canela, American singer-songwriter and actor
*1989 &ndash; Nikki Cross, Scottish wrestler<ref>{{cite web |last1Harris |first1Jeffrey |titleWWE News: Nikki Cross Turns 32, Top 10 Cesaro Feats of Strength, Mustafa Ali Chats About Fasting During Ramadan |urlhttps://411mania.com/wrestling/wwe-news-nikki-cross-turns-32-top-10-cesaro-feats-of-strength/ |publisher411Mania |access-date11 April 2023 |date=21 April 2021}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Isco, Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleIsco |urlhttps://www.realmadrid.com/en/about-real-madrid/history/football-legends/francisco-roman-alarcon-suarez |publisherReal Madrid CF |access-date11 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1992 &ndash; Joc Pederson, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJoc Pederson |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/joc-pederson-592626 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date11 April 2023}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Ludwig Augustinsson, Swedish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleLudwig Augustinsson |urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/12303/Ludwig-Augustinsson/overview |publisherPremier League |access-date2 November 2023}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Arianne Hartono, Dutch tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleArianne Hartono {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/323451/arianne-hartono |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleArianne Hartono - Player Profile - Tennis |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/tennis/arianne-hartono_prs602464/person.shtml |access-date2022-10-21 |websiteEurosport UK |languageen}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Mikel Oyarzabal, Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleMikel Oyarzabal Ugarte |dateOctober 2016 |urlhttps://www.realsociedad.eus/en/team/player/real-sociedad/mikel-oyarzabal-ugarte |publisherReal Sociedad |access-date=25 October 2023}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Jarrett Allen, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJarrett Allen |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1628386/jarrett-allen |websiteNBA.com |access-date20 April 2023}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Choi Hyun-suk, South Korean rapper<ref>{{cite web|title"0421" 트레저 최현석 생일 축하 위한 깜짝 이벤트|urlhttps://m.entertain.naver.com/article/629/0000269108|work더팩트|date23 February 2024|access-date27 February 2025|languageko}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Xavi Simons, Dutch footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf |titleFIFA World Cup Qatar 2022™: List of Players: Netherlands |publisherFIFA |page20 |date18 December 2022 |access-date27 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221218195301/https://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf |archive-date18 December 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Princess Isabella of Denmark, daughter of King Frederik X and Queen Mary of Denmark<ref>[http://kongehuset.dk/Den-kongelige-familie/Kronprinsparret/HKH-Prinsesse-Isabella Kongehuset – Aktuelt – Den Kongelige Families Kongehuset.dk (21 May 2010). Retrieved 18 July 2015.]</ref>
*2008 &ndash; Hyein, South Korean singer<ref>{{cite web|title’HAPPY BIRTHDAY‘…뉴진스 혜인, 컴백 앞두고 부상→생일 맞이|urlhttps://www.topstarnews.net/news/articleView.html?idxno15483771|work톱스타뉴스|date21 April 2024|access-date10 March 2025|language=ko}}</ref>
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 234 &ndash; Emperor Xian of Han, Chinese emperor (b. 181)
* 586 &ndash; Liuvigild, king of the Visigoths
* 847 &ndash; Odgar, Frankish archbishop of Mainz
* 866 &ndash; Bardas, de facto regent of the Byzantine Empire
* 941 &ndash; Bajkam, de facto regent of the Abbasid Caliphate
*1073 &ndash; Pope Alexander II<ref>{{cite web |titleAlexander II {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-II-pope |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date30 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1109 &ndash; Anselm of Canterbury, Italian-English archbishop and saint (b. 1033)
*1136 &ndash; Stephen, Count of Tréguier Breton noblemen (b. {{Circa|1058/62}})
*1142 &ndash; Peter Abelard, French philosopher and theologian (b. 1079)
*1213 &ndash; Maria of Montpellier, Lady of Montpellier, Queen of Aragon (b. 1182)
*1329 &ndash; Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282)
*1400 &ndash; John Wittlebury, English politician (b. 1333)<ref>{{cite web|url http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/member/wittlebury-john-1333-1400| title WITTLEBURY, John (1333-1400), of Whissendine, Rutland and Milton and Marholm, Northants.|publisherHistory of Parliament Online|access-date 16 April 2013}}</ref>
*1509 &ndash; Henry VII of England (b. 1457)
*1557 &ndash; Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1495)
*1574 &ndash; Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1519)
*1591 &ndash; Sen no Rikyū, Japanese exponent of the tea ceremony (b. 1522)
1601–1900
*1650 &ndash; Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (b. 1607)
*1668 &ndash; Jan Boeckhorst, Flemish painter (b. {{Circa|1604}})
*1699 &ndash; Jean Racine, French playwright and poet (b. 1639)
*1719 &ndash; Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1640)
*1720 &ndash; Antoine Hamilton, Irish-French soldier and author (b. 1646)
*1722 &ndash; Robert Beverley, Jr., English historian and author (b. 1673)
*1736 &ndash; Prince Eugene of Savoy (b. 1663)
*1740 &ndash; Thomas Tickell, English poet and author (b. 1685)
*1758 &ndash; Francesco Zerafa, Maltese architect (b. 1679)
*1815 &ndash; Joseph Winston, American soldier and politician (b. 1746)
*1825 &ndash; Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician and academic (b. 1765)
*1852 &ndash; Ivan Nabokov, Russian general (b. 1787)
*1863 &ndash; Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet, Irish politician (b. 1782)
*1900 &ndash; Vikramatji Khimojiraj, Indian ruler (b. 1819)
1901–present
*1910 &ndash; Mark Twain, American novelist, humorist, and critic (b. 1835)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain |titleMark Twain |publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica |locationEdinburgh |access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; Manfred von Richthofen, German captain and pilot (b. 1892)
*1924 &ndash; Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (b. 1858)<ref>{{cite web |titleDuse, Eleonora (1858-1924), actress |urlhttps://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-1801621 |websiteAmerican National Biography |year2000 |access-date22 January 2022 |languageen |doi10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1801621|isbn978-0-19-860669-7 |last1Fisher |first1James }}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Robert Bridges, English poet and author (b. 1844)
*1932 &ndash; Friedrich Gustav Piffl, Bohemian cardinal (b. 1864)
*1938 &ndash; Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani National philosopher and poet (b. 1877)
*1941 &ndash; Fritz Manteuffel, German gymnast (b. 1875)
*1945 &ndash; Walter Model, German field marshal (b. 1891)
*1946 &ndash; John Maynard Keynes, English economist and philosopher (b. 1883)
*1948 &ndash; Aldo Leopold, American ecologist and author (b. 1887)
*1952 &ndash; Leslie Banks, American actor, director and producer (b. 1890)
*1954 &ndash; Emil Leon Post, Polish-American mathematician and logician (b. 1897)
*1956 &ndash; Charles MacArthur, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1895)
*1965 &ndash; Edward Victor Appleton, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892)
*1971 &ndash; François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (b. 1907)
*1973 &ndash; Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894)
* 1973 &ndash; Kemal Tahir, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1910)
*1977 &ndash; Gummo Marx, American vaudevillian and talent agent (b. 1892)
*1978 &ndash; Sandy Denny, English singer-songwriter (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/sandy-denny-fair-play-to-her-399500.html|titleSandy Denny: Fair Play to Her|publisherIndependent.co.uk|date8 November 2007|access-date22 April 2022|locationLondon, UK}}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Thomas Wyatt Turner, American biologist and academic (b. 1877)
*1980 &ndash; Alexander Oparin, Russian biochemist and academic (b. 1894)
* 1980 &ndash; Sohrab Sepehri, Iranian poet and painter (b. 1928)
*1983 &ndash; Walter Slezak, Austrian-American actor and singer (b. 1902)
*1984 &ndash; Marcel Janco, Romanian-Israeli artist (b. 1895)
* 1984 &ndash; Hristo Prodanov, Bulgarian engineer and mountaineer (b. 1943)
*1985 &ndash; Rudi Gernreich, Austrian-American fashion designer, created the monokini (b. 1922)
* 1985 &ndash; Tancredo Neves, Brazilian banker and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (b. 1910)
*1986 &ndash; Marjorie Eaton, American painter and actress (b. 1901)
* 1986 &ndash; Salah Jahin, Egyptian poet, playwright, and composer (b. 1930)
*1987 &ndash; Gustav Bergmann, Austrian-American philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1906)
*1990 &ndash; Erté, Russian-French illustrator (b. 1892)
*1991 &ndash; Willi Boskovsky, Austrian violinist and conductor (b. 1909)
*1992 &ndash; Väinö Linna, Finnish author (b. 1920)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.hs.fi/mielipide/art-2000004151933.html|titleMielipide: Suomen suurin kirjailija ansaitsee liputuspäivän|workHelsingin Sanomat|dateJuly 7, 2003|access-dateDecember 20, 2021|languagefi}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer (b. 1925)
* 1996 &ndash; Jimmy Snyder, American sportscaster (b. 1919)
*1998 &ndash; Jean-François Lyotard, French sociologist and philosopher (b. 1924)
*1999 &ndash; Buddy Rogers, American actor (b. 1904)
*2003 &ndash; Nina Simone, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and activist (b. 1933)
*2005 &ndash; Zhang Chunqiao, Chinese writer and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1917)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4533401.stm|titleChina's Gang of Four member dies|date10 May 2005|access-date16 October 2023}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Gustav Lorentzen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1947)
* 2010 &ndash; Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spanish businessman, seventh President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1920)
* 2010 &ndash; Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan-English engineer and civil servant (b. 1930)
*2011 &ndash; Catharina Halkes, Dutch theologian and academic (b. 1920)
*2012 &ndash; Doris Betts, American author and academic (b. 1932)
*2013 &ndash; Shakuntala Devi, Indian mathematician and astrologer (b. 1929)
* 2013 &ndash; Leopold Engleitner, Austrian Holocaust survivor, author, and educator (b. 1905)
*2014 &ndash; George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite web |titleGeorge Heilmeier dies; a principal developer of liquid-crystal display technology |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/george-heilmeier-a-principal-developer-of-liquid-crystal-display-technology-dies-at-77/2014/05/03/987e9fec-d2d6-11e3-aae8-c2d44bd79778_story.html |websiteWashington Post |access-date16 October 2024}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (b. 1930)
*2016 &ndash; Prince, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1958)
*2017 &ndash; Ugo Ehiogu, English footballer (b. 1972)
*2018 &ndash; Nabi Tajima, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1900)<ref>{{Cite news | urlhttps://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20180421/k10011413001000.html | titleWorlds oldest age 117-year-old Tashima Navi died | access-date1 April 2019 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180421225231/https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20180421/k10011413001000.html | archive-date21 April 2018 | url-statusdead }}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Polly Higgins, Scottish barrister, author and environmental lobbyist (b. 1968)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/25/polly-higgins-obituary |lastMehta |firstJojo |titlePolly Higgins Obituary |newspaperThe Guardian |locationLondon |date25 April 2019 |access-date27 April 2019}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Terry A. Anderson, American journalist (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite news |lastBell |firstAlistair |dateApril 21, 2024 |titleTerry Anderson, US journalist held hostage nearly seven years in Lebanon, dead at 76 |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/terry-anderson-us-journalist-held-hostage-lebanon-dead-76-2024-04-21/ |access-dateApril 22, 2024 |work=Reuters}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Abdecalas
**Anastasius Sinaita
**Anselm of Canterbury
**Beuno
**Conrad of Parzham
**Holy Infant of Good Health
**Shemon Bar Sabbae
**Wolbodo
**April 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Natale di Roma (Rome)<ref name="Plutarch12">Plutarch, Parallel Lives - Life of Romulus, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Romulus*.html#12 12.2] (from LacusCurtius)</ref>
*Parilia (ancient Rome)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleDictionary of Roman Religion |author1Lesley Adkins |author2Roy A. Adkins |year1996 |entryParilia |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dictionaryofroma0000adki/page/175/mode/1up |isbn0-8160-3005-7 |page175|publisher=Facts on File }}</ref>
*Civil Service Day (India)
*Grounation Day (Rastafari)
*National Tea Day (United Kingdom)
*National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
*San Jacinto Day (Texas)
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
* {{cite book |lastMcCullough |firstDavid |date2001 |titleJohn Adams |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE9TOxypjZY4C&pgPA144-IA8 |locationNew York, NY |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-1-4165-7588-7 |author-linkDavid McCullough }}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/21 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day21}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/21 Historical Events on April 21]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_21
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.191785
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2484
|
ATM (disambiguation)
|
An automated teller machine (ATM) is an electronic device that performs financial transactions.
ATM or atm may also refer to:
Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software
ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991
Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts
Accelerated Turing machine, or Zeno machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking
ATM adaptation layer
ATM Adaptation Layer 5
Arts, entertainment, media
Amateur Telescope Making (books), a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls
"ATM" (song), a 2018 song by J. Cole from KOD
ATM (TV series), an Indian Telugu-language TV series
Film
ATM (2012 film), an American film
ATM: Er Rak Error, a 2012 Thai film
Azhagiya Tamil Magan, a 2007 Indian film
Groups, companies, organizations
Abiding Truth Ministries, anti-LGBT organization in Springfield, Massachusetts, US
Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK
Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in Tanked
ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia
Atlético Madrid (abbreviated AtM), football club in Spain
African Transformation Movement, South African political party founded in 2018
The a2 Milk Company (NZX ticker symbol ATM)
Science and engineering
Atmosphere (unit) (symbol atm), a unit of atmospheric pressure
Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory
ATM serine/threonine kinase, a serine/threonine kinase activated by DNA damage
The Airborne Topographic Mapper, a laser altimeter among the instruments used by NASA's Operation IceBridge
Transportation
Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England
Air traffic management, a concept in aviation
Altamira Airport (IATA airport code ATM), Brazil
Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the municipal public transport company of Milan
Par Avion (airline), formerly Airlines of Tasmania, (ICAO airline code ATM)
Catalonia, Spain
Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area
Other uses
A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist
Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize
Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks
Ass to mouth, a sexual act
At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price
At-the-market offering, a type of follow-on offering of stock
Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp
"at the moment" (atm) in the common abbreviation in SMS language
Texas A&M University, whose lettermark resembles "ATM"
See also
ATMS (disambiguation)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_(disambiguation)
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.197664
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2487
|
Amazonite
|
{{Short description|Green variety of microcline, tectosilicate mineral}}
{{Infobox mineral
|boxbgcolor#9ef5d8| name Amazonite
| category = Tectosilicate minerals, feldspar group, alkali series, microcline variety
| image = Amazonita1.jpeg
| imagesize = 260px
| alt = Photo of a turquoise mineral with beige microcline speckled within it
| caption = Amazonite from Brazil
| formula = KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>
| molweight | strunz
| color = Green, blue-green
| habit = Prismatic
| system = Triclinic
| twinning | cleavage Perfect
| fracture = Uneven, splintery
| mohs = 6.0–6.5
| tenacity = Brittle
| luster = Vitreous
| refractive = 1.522–1.530
| opticalprop | birefringence −0.008
| pleochroism = Absent
| dispersion = None
| fluorescence = Weak; olive-green
| streak = White
| gravity = 2.56–2.58
| melt | fusibility
| diagnostic | solubility
| diaphaneity = Translucent, opaque
| other = Radioactive 14.05% (K)
| references <ref name"Walter">{{Cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/gemstonesofworld00schu/page/164|titleGemstones of the world|lastWalter|firstSchumann|date1997|publisherSterling Pub. Co|isbn0806994614|editionRev. & expanded|locationNew York|page[https://archive.org/details/gemstonesofworld00schu/page/164 164]|url-accessregistration|viaInternet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last|first |date|titleRadioactive Gems : ClassicGems.net |urlhttps://www.classicgems.net/info_Radioactive.htm |url-statuslive |workClassicGems.net |location |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211013824/http://classicgems.net/info_Radioactive.htm |archive-date2021-02-11 |access-date2021-08-13}}</ref><ref name"bulletin">{{Cite journal|lastSchlegel|firstDorothy McKenney|date1957|titleGem Stones of the United States|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idD78jhspXwxYC|journalGeological Survey Bulletin|publisherUnited States Government Publishing Office|issue1042-G|viaGoogle Books}}</ref><sup>:214–215</sup>
}}
Amazonite, also known as amazonstone,<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAmazon-stone|volume1|page791}}</ref> is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline.<ref name"EB1911"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.gemdat.org/gem-184.html |titleAmazonite gemstone information |websitegemdat.org |access-date2018-08-24 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210301171608/https://www.gemdat.org/gem-184.html |archive-date2021-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleAmazonite |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-184.html}}</ref> Its chemical formula is KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>,<ref name"Walter" /><ref name"Mindat">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-184.html |titleAmazonite: Amazonite mineral information and data. |websitemindat.org |access-date13 April 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210514154137/https://www.mindat.org/min-184.html |archive-date14 May 2021}}</ref> which is polymorphic to orthoclase.
Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite.<ref name"EB1911"/> Although it has been used for jewellery for well over three thousand years, as attested by archaeological finds in Middle and New Kingdom Egypt<ref>Harrell and Osman 2007</ref> and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century.<ref name"Ostrooumov">Mikhail Ostrooumov, Amazonite: Mineralogy, Crystal Chemistry, and Typomorphism (Elsevier, 2016), p. 1–12.</ref>
Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite.<ref name"Pivec1981">{{Cite journal |last1Pivec |first1E. |last2Ševčik |first2J. |last3Ulrych |first3J. |dateDecember 1981 |titleAmazonite from the alkali granite of the Avdar Massif, Mongolia |journalTMPM Tschermaks Petr. Mitt. |volume28 |issue4 |pages277–283 |doi10.1007/BF01081855|bibcode1981TMPM...28..277P }}</ref> It has been described as a "beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green"<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitleMicrocline|volume18|page380|refnone}}</ref> and as possessing a "lively green colour".<ref name"EB1911"/> It is occasionally cut and used as a gemstone.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.dmme.virginia.gov/dgmr/minerals.shtml|titleCommon Minerals of Virginia|websiteVirginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy|publisherCommonwealth of Virginia|access-date5 July 2019|archive-date24 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210724021345/https://dmme.virginia.gov/dgmr/minerals.shtml|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Occurrence
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, {{convert|50|mi|-1}} southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Amazonite is now known to occur in various places around the world. Those places are, among others, as follows:
Australia:
* Eyre Peninsula, Koppio, Baila Hill Mine (Koppio Amazonite Mine)<ref>{{Cite web |titleBarnes L. C., et al, (1980), Some Semiprecious and Ornamental Stones of South Australia, Government Printer, Adelaide, South Australia. |urlhttps://www.mindat.org/reference.php?id=15954600}}</ref>
China:
* Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Yang|first1Jianye|last2Zhao|first2Lei|last3Zhang|first3Weiguo|dateApril 2014|titleThe Geochemical Effect of Lanthanides: Its Types and Application for Magmatic Rocks—A New Method to Semi-Quantitatively Determine Strength of Magmatic Fluid Complexation and Fractional Crystallization|urlhttp://en.earth-science.net/PDF/20140514043208.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://en.earth-science.net/PDF/20140514043208.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|journalJournal of Earth Science|publisherChina University of Geosciences (Wuhan)|volume25|issue2|pages252–262|doi10.1007/s12583-014-0420-z|s2cid54836739|issn1674-487X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Sihai|first1Liu|last2Changzhi|first2Wu|last3Lianxing|first3Gu|last4Zunzhong|first4Zhang|last5Junhua|first5Tang|last6Guangrong|first6Li|last7Ruxiong|first7Lei|last8Chuansheng|first8Wang|date2008|title中天山白石头泉岩体年代学、岩石成因及构造意义|trans-titleGeochronology, petrogenesis and tectonic significances of the Baishitouquan pluton in Middle Tianshan, Northwest China|urlhttp://www.ysxb.ac.cn/ysxb/ch/reader/create_pdf.aspx?file_no20081206&year_id2008&quarter_id12&falg1|journalActa Petrologica Sinica|languagezh|locationBeijing|publisherChina Science Publishing & Media Ltd.|volume24|issue11|pages2720|issn1000-0569}}</ref>
Libya:
* Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Suayah|first1Ismail B.|last2Miller|first2Jonathan S.|last3Miller|first3Brent V.|last4Bayer|first4Tovah M.|last5Rogers|first5John J.W.|s2cid26947582|dateApril 2006|titleTectonic significance of Late Neoproterozoic granites from the Tibesti massif in southern Libya inferred from Sr and Nd isotopes and U–Pb zircon data|journalJournal of African Earth Sciences|volume44|issue4–5|pages564|doi10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.11.020|bibcode2006JAfES..44..561S|issn1464-343X|display-authors=3}}</ref>
Mongolia:
* Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite<ref name="Pivec1981"/>
Ethiopia:
* Konso Zone
South Africa:
* Mogalakwena, Limpopo Province<ref name":0">{{Cite web|titleAmazonite from South Africa|urlhttps://www.mindat.org/locentries.php?p14468&m184|websitewww.mindat.org|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref>
* Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape<ref name=":0" />
* Kakamas, Northern Cape<ref name=":0" />
* Ceres Valley, Western Cape<ref name=":0" />
Sweden:
*Skuleboda mine, Västra Götaland County: found in pegmatite<ref nameAlmq>{{Cite book|titleNyttosten i Sverige|last1Lundegårdh|first1Per H.|publisherAlmqvist & Wiksell|year1971|isbn|locationStockholm|languageSwedish|pages21}}</ref>
United States:
* Colorado:
** Deer Trail, Arapahoe County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:233</sup>
** Custer County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:234</sup>
** Devils Head, Douglas County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:234</sup>
** Pine Creek, Douglas County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:234</sup>
** Crystal Park, El Paso County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:234</sup>
** Pikes Peak, El Paso County: found in coarse granites or pegmatite<ref name="EB1911"/>
** St. Peter's Dome, El Paso County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:234</sup>
** Tarryall Mountains, Park County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:235</sup>
** Crystal Peak, Teller County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:235</sup>
* Wyoming
* Virginia:
** Morefield Mine, Amelia County: found in pegmatite<ref name"virginia_minerals">{{Cite journal|last1Penick|first1D. Allen Jr.|last2Sweet|first2Palmer C.|dateMay 1992|titleMineral collecting sites in Virginia|urlhttp://www.dmme.virginia.gov/DMR3/dmrpdfs/vamin/VAMIN_VOL38_NO02.pdf|url-statusdead|journalVirginia Minerals|locationCharlottesville, Virginia|publisherVirginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy|volume38|issue2|pages10–12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120424152733/http://www.dmme.virginia.gov/DMR3/dmrpdfs/vamin/VAMIN_VOL38_NO02.pdf|archive-date=24 April 2012}}</ref>
** Rutherford Mine, Amelia County<ref name="virginia_minerals"/>
* Pennsylvania:
** Media, Delaware County<ref name="bulletin"/><sup>:244</sup>
** Middletown, Delaware County<ref name"bulletin"/><sup>:244</sup> Color For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery.<ref name"mineralogist"/> Some people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors.<ref name"mineralogist">{{cite journal | urlhttp://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM70/AM70_794.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM70/AM70_794.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | authorHoffmeister and Rossman | titleA spectroscopic study of irradiation coloring of amazonite; structurally hydrous, Pb-bearing feldspar | journalAmerican Mineralogist | year1985 | volume70 | pages794–804 | viaMineralogical Society of America}}</ref> A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.<ref name"mineralogist"/> Subsequent 1998 theoretical studies by A. Julg expand on the potential role of aliovalent lead in the color of microcline.<ref name"Julg">{{Cite journal|lastJulg|firstA.|dateFebruary 1998|titleA theoretical study of the absorption spectra of Pb<sup>+</sup> and Pb<sup>3+</sup> in site K<sup>+</sup> of microcline: application to the color of amazonite|journalPhysics and Chemistry of Minerals|publisherSpringer-Verlag|volume25|issue3|pages229–233|doi10.1007/s002690050108|bibcode1998PCM....25..229J|s2cid95011489|issn=1432-2021}}</ref>
Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature.<ref name"Pivec1981"/> A 2010 study also implicated the role of divalent iron in the green coloration.<ref name"Mindat"/> These studies and associated hypotheses indicate the complex nature of the color in amazonite; in other words, the color may be the aggregate effect of several mutually inclusive and necessary factors.<ref name"Ostrooumov"/> Health A 2021 study by the German Institut für Edelsteinprüfung (EPI) found that the amount of lead that leaked from an {{convert|11|g|oz|abbron}} sample of amazonite into an acidic solution simulating saliva exceeded European Union standard DIN EN 71-3:2013's recommended amount by five times. This experiment was to simulate a child swallowing amazonite, and could also apply to new alternative medicine practices such as inserting the mineral into oils or drinking water for days.<ref>{{cite news |last|first |dateApril 22, 2021 |titleLead in Amazonite – Caution |urlhttps://www.epigem.de/en-us/toxic-minerals/lead-in-amazonite-caution.html |url-statuslive |workInstitut für Edelsteinprüfung |location |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210307075548/https://epigem.de/en-us/toxic-minerals/lead-in-amazonite-caution.html |archive-dateMarch 7, 2021 |access-dateAugust 13, 2021}}</ref> Gallery <gallery widths"130" heights="150">
File:Microcline-Quartz-Albite-48224.jpg|Deep robins-egg blue color amazonite crystal on smoky quartz and albite, from Teller County, Colorado. Size: {{cvt|3.4|x|3.3|x|2.5|cm|1}}.
File:Amazonite, quartz 300-3-7927.JPG|Amazonite crystal on smoky quartz, from Pikes Peak, El Paso County, Colorado
File:Microcline-179612.jpg|Large deep-turquoise amazonite crystal with attached stark-white microcline, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Size: {{cvt|16.4|x|11.9|x|8.0|cm|1}}.
File:Microcline-Quartz-206935.jpg|Two smoky quartz crystals surrounded by amazonite crystals, from Smoky Hawk Mine, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: {{cvt|11.0|x|8.2|x|6.3|cm|1}}.
File:Amazonite 1.jpg|Amazonite crystals on orthoclase, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia.
File:Microcline-20436.jpg|Deep lustrous crystal of amazonite, from Take 5 Claim, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: {{cvt|4.4|x|4.0|x|3.5|cm|1}}.
File:Landsverk-1 amazonite+ordførerkjede.jpg|Amazonite from the Landsverk 1 mine with the livery collar of the mayor of Evje, Norway. Size: {{cvt|21|x|22|cm}}.
File:LANDSVERK-1 mikroklien-verdringt-amazoniet.jpg|Amazonite partly altered to brown microcline from the Landsverk 1 mine in Evje, Norway.
File:Amazonite specimen (polished) arp.jpg|Polished Amazonite specimen. Height {{cvt|13|cm|0}}.
</gallery>
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
*{{cite book |lastPerl |firstRichard M. |titleColorado Gem Trails: And Mineral Guide |year1972 |publisherSwallow Press |isbn978-0-8040-0956-0}}
External links
{{Commons-inline}}
{{Gemstones}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Feldspar
Category:Gemstones
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonite
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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{{short description|Dutch painter and art dealer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Ambrosius Bosschaert
| image = Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (Dutch - Flower Still Life - Google Art Project.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| alt | caption Still-Life of Flowers, 1614, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
| birth_name | birth_date 18 January 1573
| birth_place = Antwerp
| death_date = {{death year and age|1621|1573}}
| death_place = The Hague
| nationality = Dutch and Flemish
| field = Painting
| training | movement Baroque
| works | patrons
| influenced by | influenced
| awards =
}}
Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (18 January 1573 &ndash; 1621) was a Flemish-born Dutch still life painter and art dealer.<ref nameRKD>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305130947/https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/11147 Ambrosius Bosschaert] at The Netherlands Institute for Art History</ref> He is recognised as one of the earliest painters who created floral still lifes as an independent genre.<ref nameox>[https://doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T010306 Irene Haberland, Bosschaert family] at Oxford Art Online</ref> He founded a dynasty of painters who continued his style of floral and fruit painting and turned Middelburg into the leading centre for flower painting in the Dutch Republic.<ref nameox/><ref namethus>{{Cite web|titleChinese Vase with Flowers, Shell and Insects|urlhttps://www.museothyssen.org/en/collection/artists/bosschaert-i-ambrosius/chinese-vase-flowers-shell-and-insects|access-date7 June 2020|websiteMuseo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza|languageen}}</ref>Biography
, Stockholm.]]
He was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587&ndash;1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A).<ref nameRKD/> At the age of twenty-one, he joined the city's Guild of Saint Luke and later became dean.<ref nameRKD/> Not long after, Bosschaert married and established himself as a leading figure in the fashionable floral painting genre.
He had three sons who all became flower painters: Ambrosius II, Johannes and Abraham. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast also lived and worked in his workshop and accompanied him on his travels. Bosschaert later worked in Amsterdam (1614), Bergen op Zoom (1615&ndash;1616), Utrecht (1616&ndash;1619), and Breda (1619).<ref nameRKD/> In 1619 when he moved to Utrecht, his brother-in-law van der Ast entered the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke, where the renowned painter Abraham Bloemaert had just become dean. The painter Roelandt Savery (1576–1639) entered the St. Luke's guild in Utrecht at about the same time. Savery had considerable influence on the Bosschaert dynasty.<ref nameRKD/>
After Bosschaert died in The Hague while on commission there for a flower piece, Balthasar van der Ast took over his workshop and pupils in Middelburg.<ref nameRKD/>Style
, The Hague.]]
His bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper. They sometimes included symbolic and religious meanings. At the time of his death, Bosschaert was working on an important commission in the Hague.<ref nameRKD/> That piece is now in the collection in Stockholm.<ref nameRKD/><ref>[https://rkd.nl/en/explore/images/122783 Link to Stockholm piece] in the RKD</ref>
Bosschaert was one of the first artists to specialize in flower still life painting as a stand-alone subject. He started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses, and inspired the genre of Dutch flower painting. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests.<ref>[http://www.nga.gov/feature/artnation/still_life/bosschaert_1.shtm Bouquet of Flowers in a Glass Vase, the painting with inscription] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121010221730/http://www.nga.gov/feature/artnation/still_life/bosschaert_1.shtm |date10 October 2012 }} at the National Gallery</ref> His works commanded high prices although he never achieved the level of prestige of Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Antwerp master who contributed to the floral genre.<ref namethus/>Legacy
His sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century.
It may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after.
Although he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer.
References
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite thesis |last1Pennisi |first1Meghan Siobhan Wilson |titleThe flower still -life painting of Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder in Middelburg, ca. 1600–1620 |date2007 |publisherDepartment of Art History, Northwestern University |locationEvanston, Illinois |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/openview/281af1909a24efe146c0677a3660ca8b/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl18750|typePhD thesis}}
* {{cite web|last1Wheelock|first1Arthur K.|titleBosschaert, Ambrosius Dutch, 1573–1621|urlhttps://www.nga.gov/Collection/artist-info.18262.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nga.gov/Collection/artist-info.18262.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|websiteCollection: Artists|publisherNational Gallery of Art|access-date12 November 2017|date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopediaWinkler Prins encyclopedia| edition8 | year1975 | articleBosschaert de Oudere, Ambrosius}}
* {{cite journal |last1Stechow |first1Wolfgang |titleAmbrosius Bosschaert: Still Life |journalThe Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art |date1966 |volume53 |issue3 |pages61–65 |jstor=25152092 }}
{{refend}}
External links
*{{Commons-inline|Category:Ambrosius Bosschaert (I)|Ambrosius Bosschaert (I)}}
{{Authority control (arts)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bosschaert, Ambrosius}}
Category:1573 births
Category:1621 deaths
Category:Flemish Baroque painters
Category:Dutch flower artists
Category:Dutch Golden Age painters
Category:Dutch male painters
Category:Painters from Antwerp
Category:Painters from Middelburg
Category:Dutch still life painters
Category:Flemish still life painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosius_Bosschaert
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Anthroposophy
|
{{short description|Spiritual and pseudoscientific philosophy founded by Rudolf Steiner in 1912 Germany}}
{{Anthroposophy}}
Anthroposophy is a spiritual<ref name"Staudenmaierthesis">{{Cite thesis |lastStaudenmaier |firstPeter |titleBetween Occultism and Fascism: Anthroposophy and the Politics of Race and Nation in Germany and Italy, 1900–1945 |date2010 |degreePhD |publisherCornell University |urlhttps://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/17662/Staudenmaier%2C%20Peter.pdf |oclc743130298 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/17662/Staudenmaier%2C%20Peter.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |hdl1813/17662}}</ref>{{rp|i}} new religious movement<!-- see also: <ref name"Robertson 2021 p. 57" /><ref name"Gilmer 2021 p. 41" /><ref name"Layton 1980 p. " /><ref name"Quispel van Oort 2008 p. 1"/><ref name"Livak 2018 p. 58" /><ref name"Metzger Coogan 1993 p. 256" /><ref name"Diener Hipolito 2013 p. 77" /><ref name"Gardner"/><ref name"Eliade 1987 p. " /><ref name"Steiner Seddon Goodrick-Clarke 2004 p. 7" /> --><ref name"newreli">Sources for 'new religious movement':{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |lastNorman |firstAlex |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5aRyJ-vbrJsC&pgPA213 |titleHandbook of New Religions and Cultural Production |publisherBrill |year2012 |isbn978-90-04-22187-1 |editor-lastCusack |editor-firstCarole M. |seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |page213 |quote[...] continue to have influence beyond the institutional reach of Anthropospophy, the new religious movement he founded. |access-date1 January 2024 |editor-last2Norman |editor-first2Alex}}|{{cite book | first1Liselotte | last1Frisk | editor-last1Cusack | editor-first1Carole M. | editor-last2Norman | editor-first2Alex | titleHandbook of New Religions and Cultural Production | publisherBrill | seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion | year2012 | isbn978-90-04-22187-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5aRyJ-vbrJsC&pgPA204 | access-date1 January 2024 | page204 fn. 10, 208 | quoteThus my conclusion is that it is quite uncontroversial to see Anthroposophy as a whole as a religious movement, in the conventional use of the term, although it is not an emic term used by Anthroposophists themselves.}}|{{cite book | first1Carole M. | last1Cusack | editor-last1Cusack | editor-first1Carole M. | editor-last2Norman | editor-first2Alex | titleHandbook of New Religions and Cultural Production | publisherBrill | seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion | year2012 | isbn978-90-04-22187-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5aRyJ-vbrJsC&pgPA190 | access-date1 January 2024 | page190 | quoteSteiner, of all esoteric and new religious teachers of the early twentieth century, was acutely aware of the peculiar value of cultural production, an activity with which he engaged with tireless energy, and considerable (amateur and professional) skill and achievement.}}|{{cite book | first1Sælid | last1Gilhus | editor-last1Bogdan | editor-first1Henrik | editor-last2Hammer | editor-first2Olav | titleWestern Esotericism in Scandinavia | publisherBrill | seriesBrill Esotericism Reference Library | year2016 | isbn978-90-04-32596-8 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrGpyDAAAQBAJ&pgPA56 | access-date6 February 2024 | page56}}|{{cite journal | lastAhlbäck | firstTore | titleRudolf Steiner as a religious authority | journalScripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis | volume20 | year2008 | issn2343-4937 | doi10.30674/scripta.67323 | page| doi-accessfree }}|{{cite journal | lastToncheva | firstSvetoslava | titleAnthroposophy as religious syncretism | journalSOTER: Journal of Religious Science | volume48 | issue48 | date2013 | doi10.7220/1392-7450.48(76).5 | pages81–89| urlhttp://vddb.library.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:J.04~2013~ISSN_1392-7450.N_48_76.PG_81-89/DS.002.1.01.ARTIC }}|{{cite book | lastToncheva | firstSvetoslava | titleOut of the New Spirituality of the Twentieth Century: The Dawn of Anthroposophy, the White Brotherhood and the Unified Teaching | publisherFrank & Timme GmbH | publication-placeBerlin | year2015 | isbn978-3-7329-0132-6 | pages13, 17 | issn2196-3312 | urlhttps://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9783732998463_A34278232/preview-9783732998463_A34278232.pdf}}|{{cite journal | lastClemen | firstCarl | titleAnthroposophy | journalThe Journal of Religion | volume4 | issue3 | date1924 | issn0022-4189 | doi10.1086/480431 | pages281–292| s2cid222446655 }}}}</ref> which was founded in the early 20th century by the esotericist Rudolf Steiner<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthroposophy Anthroposophy] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210208022011/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthroposophy |date2021-02-08 }}, 1998?, Encyclopedia Britannica online. "Anthroposophy, philosophy based on the premise that the human mind has the ability to contact spiritual worlds. It was formulated by Rudolf Steiner (q.v.), an Austrian philosopher, scientist, and artist, who postulated the existence of a spiritual world comprehensible to pure thought but fully accessible only to the faculties of knowledge latent in all humans."</ref> that postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world, accessible to human experience. Followers of anthroposophy aim to engage in spiritual discovery through a mode of thought independent of sensory experience.<ref name"Essential">{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |titleThe essential Steiner : basic writings of Rudolf Steiner |date1984 |publisherHarper & Row |isbn0-06-065345-0 |editor-lastMcDermott |editor-firstRobert |edition1st |locationSan Francisco}}</ref>{{rp|3&ndash;11, 392&ndash;5}}<ref>[http://library.eb.com/eb/article-9007798 "Anthroposophy"], Encyclopædia Britannica online, accessed 10/09/07</ref> Though proponents claim to present their ideas in a manner that is verifiable by rational discourse and say that they seek precision and clarity comparable to that obtained by scientists investigating the physical world, many of these ideas have been termed pseudoscientific by experts in epistemology and debunkers of pseudoscience.<ref name"pssci">Sources for 'pseudoscience':{{Bulleted list|<!--{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2008}}|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2010}}|{{Cite book |titleSchriften über Mystik, Mysterienwesen und Religionsgeschichte |date2013 |publisherFrommann-Holzboog |isbn978-3-7728-2635-1 |editor-lastClement |editor-firstChristian |locationStuttgart-Bad Cannstatt |pagexlii |languagede}}-->{{Cite news |last1McKie |first1Robin |last2Hartmann |first2Laura |date28 April 2012 |titleHolistic unit will 'tarnish' Aberdeen University reputation |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/apr/29/holistic-unit-tarnish-aberdeen-university-reputation |access-date1 October 2022 |workThe Guardian |languageen}}|{{harvnb|Gardner|1957|pp169, 224f}}|{{Cite book |lastRegal |firstBrian |titlePseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia: A Critical Encyclopedia |publisherABC-CLIO |year2009 |isbn978-0-313-35508-0 |page29 |chapterAstral Projection |quoteThe Austrian philosopher and occultist Rudolf Steiner (1861 - 1925) claimed that, by astral projection, he could read the Akashic Record. ... Other than anecdotal eyewitness accounts, there is no evidence of the ability to astral project, the existence of other planes, or of the Akashic Record. |access-date31 January 2022 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc6PACQAAQBAJ&pgPA29}}|{{Cite book |lastGorski |firstDavid H. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZLT4DwAAQBAJ&pgPA313 |titlePseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science |publisherMIT Press |year2019 |isbn978-0-262-53704-9 |editor-lastKaufman |editor-firstAllison B. |page313 |quoteTo get an idea of what mystical nonsense anthroposophic medicine is, I like to quote straight from the horse's mouth, namely Physician's Association for Anthroposophic Medicine, in its pamphlet for patients: |access-date31 January 2022 |editor-last2Kaufman |editor-first2James C.}}|{{Cite book |lastOppenheimer |firstTodd |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWrTQtLgxZeQC&pgPA384 |titleThe Flickering Mind: Saving Education from the False Promise of Technology |publisherRandom House Publishing Group |year2007 |isbn978-0-307-43221-6 |page384 |quoteIn Dugan's view, Steiner's theories are simply "cult pseudoscience". |access-date31 January 2022}}|{{Cite book |lastRuse |firstMichael |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPc4OAAAAQBAJ&pgPA227 |titlePhilosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |year2013b |isbn978-0-226-05182-6 |editor-lastPigliucci |editor-firstMassimo |page227 |quoteIt is not so much that they have a persecution or martyr complex, but that they do revel in having esoteric knowledge unknown to or rejected by others, and they have the sorts of personalities that rather enjoy being on the fringe or outside. Followers of Rudolf Steiner's biodynamic agriculture are particularly prone to this syndrome. They just know they are right and get a big kick out of their opposition to genetically modified foods and so forth. |access-date31 January 2022 |editor-last2Boudry |editor-first2Maarten}}|{{Cite book |lastMahner |firstMartin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqUMuFaXjNjEC&pgPA548 |titleGeneral Philosophy of Science: Focal Issues |publisherElsevier Science |year2007 |isbn978-0-08-054854-8 |editor-lastGabbay |editor-firstDov M. |seriesHandbook of the Philosophy of Science |page548 |quoteExamples of such fields are various forms of "alternative healing" such as shamanism, or esoteric world views like anthroposophy ... For this reason, we must suspect that the "alternative knowledge" produced in such fields is just as illusory as that of the standard pseudosciences. |access-date3 February 2022 |editor-last2Thagard |editor-first2Paul |editor-last3Woods |editor-first3John |editor-last4Kuipers |editor-first4Theo A.F.}}|{{Cite book |lastCarlson |firstMaria |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJrl9BgAAQBAJ&pgPA136 |titleNo Religion Higher Than Truth: A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875-1922 |publisherPrinceton University Press |year2015 |isbn978-1-4008-7279-4 |seriesPrinceton Legacy Library |page136 |quoteBoth turned out to be "positivistic religions," offering a seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience. |access-date14 August 2024 |orig-year1993}}|{{Cite book |lastPattberg |firstThorsten J. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNbh_EAAAQBAJ&pgPA125 |titleShengren: Above Philosophy and Beyond Religion |publisherLoD Press, New York |year2012 |page125 |quoteWorse, he couldn't be a real philosopher either; his theosophy and anthroposophy and the Waldorf humanism in particular were considered pseudoscience or at best pedagogy, not a philosophical system. Steiner's credentials were not university-level professional work. [...] German mainstream scholarship called him an 'autodidact, with a poor teacher' and 'gypsy-intellectual.'{{sup|144}} Not uncommon for practitioners at the fringes of society, he was accused of class treason. |access-date15 August 2024}}|See also {{Cite web |lastHansson |firstSven Ove |date20 May 2021 |orig-date3 September 2008 |titleScience and Pseudo-Science |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/ |access-date15 August 2024 |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |issn1095-5054}}|{{harvnb|Ruse|2013a|pp128–}}|{{harvnb|Dugan|2002|p31–33}}|{{harvnb|Dugan|2007|pp74–76}}|{{cite book | lastRonchi | firstClaudio | titleThe Tree of Knowledge: The Bright and the Dark Sides of Science | publisherSpringer International Publishing | seriesSpringerLink : Bücher | year2013 | isbn978-3-319-01484-5 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqRUJAgAAQBAJ&pgPA180 | access-date17 November 2024 | page180 fn. 2 | quotemerely represent, from a scientific point of view, examples of fuzzy reasoning}}}}</ref>
Anthroposophy has its roots in German idealism, Western and Eastern esoteric ideas, various religious traditions, and modern Theosophy.<ref>Sources for 'Theosophy':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2008}}|{{harvnb|Dugan|2002|p32}}}}</ref> Steiner chose the term anthroposophy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος {{Lang|grc-latn|anthropos-}}, 'human', and σοφία sophia, 'wisdom') to emphasize his philosophy's humanistic orientation.<ref name"Essential" /><ref>Rudolf Steiner, Waldorf Education and Anthroposophy, Anthroposophic Press 1995 {{ISBN|0880103876}}</ref> He defined it as "a scientific exploration of the spiritual world",<ref>{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjNAOAAAAIAAJ&qPhilosophie+und+Anthroposophie,++Rudolf+Steiner |titlePhilosophie und Anthroposophie: Gesammelte Aufsätze, 1904–1918 |date1965 |publisherVerlag der Rudolf Steiner-Nachlassverwaltung |languagede}}</ref> others have variously called it a "philosophy and cultural movement",<ref>{{Cite book |titleHandbook of new religions and cultural production |date2012 |publisherBRILL |isbn978-90-04-22648-7 |editor-lastCarole M. Cusack |locationLeiden |oclc794328527 |editor-last2Alex Norman}}</ref> a "spiritual movement",<ref>{{Cite book |lastPhillips |firstD. C. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id84StBAAAQBAJ&qphillips+encyclopedia+of+educational+theory+and+philosophy |titleEncyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy |date2014-05-19 |publisherSAGE Publications |isbn978-1-4833-6475-9 |pages847 |languageen |access-date2021-04-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601024947/https://books.google.com/books?id84StBAAAQBAJ&qphillips+encyclopedia+of+educational+theory+and+philosophy |archive-date2021-06-01 |url-statuslive}}</ref> a "spiritual science",<ref>{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |titleWhat is anthroposophy?: three perspectives on self-knowledge |date2002 |publisherAnthroposophic Press |othersChristopher Bamford |isbn0-88010-506-2 |locationGreat Barrington, MA |oclc49531507}}</ref> "a system of thought",<ref>{{Cite book |last1Weiner |first1Irving B. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbe0VYic5iWwC&qCorsini%20encyclopedia%20of%20psychology |titleThe Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, Volume 1 |last2Craighead |first2W. Edward |date2010-01-19 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-0-470-17025-0 |pages86 |languageen |access-date2021-04-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601024948/https://books.google.com/books?idbe0VYic5iWwC&qCorsini+encyclopedia+of+psychology |archive-date2021-06-01 |url-statuslive}}</ref> "a speculative and oracular metaphysic",<ref name"k734">{{cite book | lastBlackburn | firstSimon | titleThe Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy | publisherOUP Oxford | seriesOxford Quick Reference | year2016 | isbn978-0-19-105427-3 | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMc55CwAAQBAJ&pgPT719 | access-date2 January 2025 | pageunpaginated | chapterSteiner, Rudolf (1861–1925) | quotea speculative and oracular metaphysic}}</ref> "system [...] replete with esoteric and occult mystifications",<ref name"j611">{{cite book | lastMautner | firstThomas | titleThe Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy | publisherPenguin Books | publication-placeLondon | year2005 | isbn978-0-14-101840-9 | page593 | chapterSteiner | quoteAlthough Steiner’s anthroposophical system is replete with esoteric and occult mystifications, impartial observers have found much of value in his ideas for schooling (including an emphasis on the development of children’s aesthetic and creative potential), practised in the so-called Waldorf or Steiner schools.}}</ref> or "a spiritualist movement".<ref name"m378">{{Cite journal |last1Herzig van Wees |first1Sibylle |last2Ström |first2Maria |date2024 |title"Your child will have a bird brain!": Vaccination choices and stigma among vaccine enquirers in Sweden: A qualitative study |journalSocial Science & Medicine |volume349 |page116893 |doi10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116893 |pmid38663145 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Anthroposophical ideas have been applied in a range of fields including education (both in Waldorf schools<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Randoll |first1Dirk |last2Peters |first2Jürgen |date2015 |titleEmpirical research on Waldorf education |urlhttps://www.scielo.br/j/er/a/8nyN7QDpx6JYdh4VvYsPBHN/ |journalEducar em Revista |languageen |issue56 |pages33–47 |doi10.1590/0104-4060.41416 |issn0104-4060 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastGoldshmidt |firstGilad |date2017-09-02 |titleWaldorf Education as Spiritual Education |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15507394.2017.1294400 |journalReligion & Education |languageen |volume44 |issue3 |pages346–363 |doi10.1080/15507394.2017.1294400 |issn1550-7394 |s2cid151518278}}</ref> and in the Camphill movement<ref>{{Cite journal |lastGarfat |firstThom |date2011-10-31 |titleDiscovering Camphill: a personal narrative |urlhttps://www.celcis.org/knowledge-bank/sircc-journal/all-issues |journalScottish Journal of Residential Child Care |volume11 |issue1 |issn1478-1840}}</ref>), environmental conservation<ref>{{Cite journal |lastPaull |firstJohn |date2013-07-01 |titleThe Rachel Carson Letters and the Making of Silent Spring |journalSAGE Open |languageen |volume3 |issue3 |pages215824401349486 |doi10.1177/2158244013494861 |issn2158-2440 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastBackfish |firstCharles |date2016 |titleLong Island Women Preserving Nature and the Environment. |urlhttps://lihj.cc.stonybrook.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Long-Island-Women-Preserving-Nature-and-the-Environment-_-Long-Island-History-Journal.pdf |journalLong Island History Journal |viastonybrook.edu}}</ref> and banking; with additional applications in agriculture, organizational development, the arts, and more.<ref>Sources for 'additional applications':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Steiner|1984}}|{{harvnb|Willmann|2001}}|{{harvnb|Ullrich|2000}}|{{harvnb|Schneider|1985}}|{{Cite book |lastUllrich |firstHeiner |titleRudolf Steiner: Leben und Lehre |date2011 |publisherC.H.Beck |isbn978-3-406-61205-3 |publication-placeMünchen |page9 |languagede}}}}</ref>
The Anthroposophical Society is headquartered at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland. Anthroposophy's supporters include writers Saul Bellow,<ref name":0" /> and Selma Lagerlöf,<ref name":1" /> <!-- I doubt that a thorough rationalist like Schweitzer supported occultism: theologian Albert Schweitzer,<ref name":14" /> -->painters Piet Mondrian, Wassily Kandinsky and Hilma af Klint,<ref name":6" /><ref name":7" /> filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky,<ref name":8" /> child psychiatrist Eva Frommer,<ref name"Frommer 1995 p. " /><ref name":13" /> music therapist Maria Schüppel,<ref>{{Cite web |titleMusiktherapie |urlhttp://www.musiktherapeutische-arbeitsstaette.de/index.php?openMaria_Schuppel/maria_schuppel |access-date2022-11-27 |websitewww.musiktherapeutische-arbeitsstaette.de}}</ref> Romuva religious founder Vydūnas,<ref name"VydunasAnthroHindu">Bagdonavičius, Vaclovas. "[https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/51874 Similarities and Differences between Vydūnas and Steiner] ("Berührungspunkte und Unterschiede zwischen Vydūnas und Steiner"). [In Lithuanian]. Vydūnas und deutsche Kultur, sudarytojai Vacys Bagdonavičius, Aušra Martišiūtė-Linartienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2013, pp. 325–330.</ref><ref name"JacobsenHinduism">{{Cite book |last1Jacobsen |first1Knut A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrAT1DwAAQBAJ |titleHandbook of Hinduism in Europe |last2Sardella |first2Ferdinando |date2020 |publisherBrill |isbn9789004432284 |locationLeiden |pages1177–1178 |quote"The philosopher Vilhelmas (Vilius) Storosta, or Vydunas (1868-1953), joined the Theosophical Society and was particularly interested in anthroposophy and its attempts to combine religion, science, and philosophy." |access-date9 December 2022}}</ref> and former president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia.<ref name"Urushadze">{{Cite web |lastUrushadze |firstLevari Z. |titleZviad Gamsakhurdia – the first President of Georgia |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ZviadGamsakhurdia-TheFirstPresidentOfGeorgia |access-date9 December 2022 |websiteGeorgian National Museum |languageEnglish |quote"Gamsakhurdia, although his self-proclaimed Orthodoxy was overlaid with the anthroposophy of Rudolf Steiner, promoted a distinct program of Orthodox Church-Georgian State cooperation in such spheres as education. It is interesting that “Steinerism” has come under attack in Madli [Grace], the monthly newspaper of the Georgian Patriarchate."}}</ref> While critics and proponents alike acknowledge Steiner's many anti-racist statements,<ref name"Staudenmaierthesis" /><ref name":14">{{Cite journal |lastSegall |firstMatthew |date2023-09-27 |titleThe Urgency of Social Threefolding in a World Still at War with Itself |urlhttps://cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1069 |journalCosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy |languageen |volume19 |issue1 |pages229–248 |issn1832-9101}}</ref><ref name":15">{{Cite book |lastMcKanan |firstDan |urlhttps://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520290068/eco-alchemy |titleEco-Alchemy: Anthroposophy and the History and Future of Environmentalism |publisherUniversity of California Press |year2017 |isbn978-0-520-29006-8 |languageen |chapterEcology. The Boundaries of Anthroposophy |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKL42DwAAQBAJ&pgPA196}}</ref> "Steiner's collected works...contain pervasive internal contradictions and inconsistencies on racial and national questions."<ref namePeter/><ref>See also {{Cite thesis |lastMunoz |firstJoaquin |titleThe Circle of Mind and Heart: Integrating Waldorf Education, Indigenous Epistemologies, and Critical Pedagogy |date23 March 2016 |access-date8 February 2024 |degreePhD |publisherThe University of Arizona |urlhttps://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/621063/azu_etd_14891_sip1_m.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy |pages189–190 |chapter=CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: THE CHALLENGE OF WALDORF EDUCATION FOR ALL YOUTH. Waldorf Education and Racism}}</ref>
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has termed anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history".<ref name"Hammer">{{Cite book |lastHammer |firstOlav |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzpJOEAAAQBAJ&pgPA153 |titleClaiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age |publisherBrill |year2021 |isbn978-90-04-49399-5 |seriesNumen Book Series |pages204; 243; 329; 64f; 225–8; 176 |access-date21 January 2022 |orig-date2004}} See also p. 98, where Hammer states that – unusually for founders of esoteric movements – Steiner's self-descriptions of the origins of his thought and work correspond to the view of external historians.</ref> Many scientists, physicians, and philosophers, including Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized anthroposophy's application in the areas of medicine, biology, agriculture, and education, considering it dangerous and pseudoscientific.<ref name"dangerous">Sources for 'dangerous' or 'pseudoscientific':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Dugan|2002|pp31–33}}|{{cite book|lastRuse|firstMichael|titleThe Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEQRuAAAAQBAJ&pgPA128|access-date21 June 2015|year2013a|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press|isbn9780226060392|pages128–}}|{{cite news |titleSchools of pseudoscience pose a serious threat to education {{!}} letters |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2012/may/13/letters-steiner-maharishi-schools-wrong |access-date29 November 2018 |workThe Guardian |date12 May 2012 |languageen |archive-date10 September 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170910173601/https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2012/may/13/letters-steiner-maharishi-schools-wrong |url-statuslive }}|{{Cite web |lastGorski |firstDavid |date14 March 2011 |titleA University of Michigan Medical School alumnus confronts anthroposophic medicine at his alma mater |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/a-university-of-michigan-medical-school-alumnus-confronts-anthroposophic-medicine-at-his-alma-mater/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190507155634/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/a-university-of-michigan-medical-school-alumnus-confronts-anthroposophic-medicine-at-his-alma-mater/ |archive-date7 May 2019 |access-date29 November 2018 |websiteScience-Based Medicine}}}}</ref> Ideas of Steiner's that are unsupported or disproven by modern science include: racial evolution,{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2010}}{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2008}} clairvoyance (Steiner claimed he was clairvoyant),<ref name"Ruse2018">{{Cite book |lastRuse |firstMichael |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idD1RuDwAAQBAJ&pgPA97 |titleThe Problem of War: Darwinism, Christianity, and Their Battle to Understand Human Conflict |date12 November 2018 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-086757-7 |page97}}</ref><ref name"QuackWatch">{{Cite web |lastKreidler |firstMarc |date23 July 2012 |titleRudolf Steiner's Quackery |urlhttps://quackwatch.org/11ind/steiner/ |access-date5 September 2021 |publisherQuackwatch}}</ref> and the Atlantis myth.<ref>Sources for 'Atlantis':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2008}}|{{Cite book |lastGardner |firstMartin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTwP3SGAUsnkC&pgPA169 |titleFads and Fallacies in the Name of Science |publisherDover Publications |year1957 |isbn978-0-486-20394-2 |seriesDover Books on the Occult |pages169, 224f |quoteThe late Rudolf Steiner, founder of the Anthroposophical Society, the fastest growing cult in post-war Germany... Closely related to the organic farming movement is the German anthroposophical cult founded by Rudolf Steiner, whom we met earlier in connection with his writings on Atlantis and Lemuria. ... In essence, the anthroposophists' approach to the soil is like their approach to the human body—a variation of homeopathy. (See Steiner's An Outline of Anthroposophical Medical Research, English translation, 1939, for an explanation of how mistletoe, when properly prepared, will cure cancer by absorbing "etheric forces" and strengthening the "astral body.") They believe the soil can be made more "dynamic" by adding to it certain mysterious preparations which, like the medicines of homeopathic "purists," are so diluted that nothing material of the compound remains. |access-date31 January 2022 |orig-year1952}}|{{cite book | lastFritze | firstRonald H. | chapterAtlantis: Mother of Pseudohistory | titleInvented Knowledge : false history, fake science and pseudo-religions | urlhttps://archive.org/details/inventedknowledg0000frit | publisherReaktion Books | publication-placeLondon | year2009 | isbn978-1-86189-430-4 | pages[https://archive.org/details/inventedknowledg0000frit/page/45 45], [https://archive.org/details/inventedknowledg0000frit/page/60/mode/2up 61] | quoteFor the Theosophists and other occultists Atlantis has a greater importance since it forms an integral part of their religious worldview.}}|{{cite book | lastLachman | firstGary | titleRudolf Steiner: An Introduction to His Life and Work | publisherPenguin Publishing Group | year2007 | isbn978-1-101-15407-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgsfrzMrkkc8C&pgPT10 | access-date29 February 2024 | pagesxix, 233 | quoteI formulated the cognitive challenge I was presenting myself with in this way: How can I account for the fact that, on one page, Steiner can make a powerful and original critique of Kantian epistemology—basically, the idea that there are limits to knowledge—yet on another make, with all due respect, absolutely outlandish and, more to the point, seemingly unverifiable statements about life in ancient Atlantis?}}|{{cite journal | lastStaudenmaier | firstPeter | titleOccultism, Race and Politics in German-speaking Europe, 1880—1940: A Survey of the Historical Literature | journalEuropean History Quarterly | volume39 | issue1 | date2009 | issn0265-6914 | doi10.1177/0265691408097366 | pages47–70}}}}</ref>
History
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The early work of the founder of anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, culminated in his Philosophy of Freedom (also translated as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path). Here, Steiner developed a concept of free will based on inner experiences, especially those that occur in the creative activity of independent thought.<ref name"Essential" /> "Steiner was a moral individualist".{{efn-lr|Ethical individualism is the opposite of ethical collectivism (meaning a moral code which is good for everyone).}}<ref name"t661">{{Cite book |lastRyan |firstAlexandra E. |chapterAnthroposophy |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDouBAgAAQBAJ&pgPA34 |titleEncyclopedia of New Religious Movements |publisherTaylor & Francis |year2004 |isbn978-1-134-49970-0 |editor-lastClarke |editor-firstPeter |page34 |access-date2024-07-19}}</ref>
By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned almost exclusively to spirituality. His work began to draw the attention of others interested in spiritual ideas; among these was the Theosophical Society. From 1900 on, thanks to the positive reception his ideas received from Theosophists, Steiner focused increasingly on his work with the Theosophical Society, becoming the secretary of its section in Germany in 1902. During his leadership, membership increased dramatically, from just a few individuals to sixty-nine lodges.<ref name"ahern2edAnthSec">Of these, 55 lodges – about 2,500 people – seceded with Steiner to form his new Anthroposophical Society at the end of 1912. Geoffrey Ahern, [http://www.sun-at-midnight.com/ Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner Movement and Gnosis in the West, 2nd edition] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100117174448/http://www.sun-at-midnight.com/ |date=2010-01-17 }}, 2009, James Clark and Co, {{ISBN|978-0-227-17293-3}}, p. 43</ref>
By 1907, a split between Steiner and the Theosophical Society became apparent. While the Society was oriented toward an Eastern and especially Indian approach, Steiner was trying to develop a path that embraced Christianity and natural science.<ref name"Lachman">Gary Lachman, Rudolf Steiner, New York:Tarcher/Penguin {{ISBN|978-1-58542-543-3}}</ref> The split became irrevocable when Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, presented the child Jiddu Krishnamurti as the reincarnated Christ. Steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense; many years later, Krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion. Steiner's continuing differences with Besant led him to separate from the Theosophical Society Adyar. He was subsequently followed by the great majority of the Theosophical Society's German members, as well as many members of other national sections.<ref name"ahern2edAnthSec" /><ref name="Lachman" />
By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher and expert in the occult.<ref>Ahern, Geoffrey. (1984): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition</ref> He spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the Akashic Records (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history, and future of the world and mankind. In a number of works,<ref>especially How to Know Higher Worlds and An Outline of Esoteric Science</ref> Steiner described a path of inner development he felt would let anyone attain comparable spiritual experiences. In Steiner's view, sound vision could be developed, in part, by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration, and meditation. In particular, Steiner believed a person's spiritual development could occur only after a period of moral development.<ref name="Essential" />
, seat of the Anthroposophical Society]]
In 1912, Steiner broke away from the Theosophical Society to found an independent group, which he named the Anthroposophical Society. After World War I, members of the young society began applying Steiner's ideas to create cultural movements in areas such as traditional and special education, farming, and medicine.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastUhrmacher |firstP. Bruce |dateWinter 1995 |titleUncommon Schooling: A Historical Look at Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy, and Waldorf Education |journalCurriculum Inquiry |volume25 |issue4 |pages381–406 |doi10.2307/1180016 |jstor1180016}}</ref>
By 1923, a schism had formed between older members, focused on inner development, and younger members eager to become active in contemporary social transformations. In response, Steiner attempted to bridge the gap by establishing an overall School for Spiritual Science. As a spiritual basis for the reborn movement, Steiner wrote a Foundation Stone Meditation which remains a central touchstone of anthroposophical ideas.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGA260 – The Foundation Stone Meditation |urlhttps://rsarchive.org/Lectures/19231227p02.html |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteThe Rudolf Steiner Archive}}</ref>
Steiner died just over a year later, in 1925. The Second World War temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of Continental Europe, as the Anthroposophical Society and most of its practical counter-cultural applications were banned by the Nazi government.<ref name"Hansen-Schaberg 2006 p. ">{{Cite book |titleWaldorf-Pädagogik |date2006 |publisherSchneider-Verl. Hohengehren |isbn3-8340-0042-6 |editor-lastHansen-Schaberg |editor-firstInge |editor-linkInge Hansen-Schaberg |publication-placeBaltmannsweiler |languagede |editor-last2Schonig |editor-first2Bruno}}</ref> Though at least one prominent member of the Nazi Party, Rudolf Hess, was a strong supporter of anthroposophy,<ref name"g287">{{cite book | lastStaudenmaier | firstPeter | editor-lastManthripragada | editor-firstAshwin | editor-last2Mušanović | editor-first2Emina | editor-last3Theison | editor-first3Dagmar | titleThe Threat and Allure of the Magical: Selected Papers from the 17th Annual Interdisciplinary German Studies Conference, University of California, Berkeley | publisherCambridge Scholars Publisher | year2013 | isbn978-1-4438-6586-9 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVzYyBwAAQBAJ&pgPA44 | access-date15 November 2024 | pages44–46 | quoteWithout endorsing Steiner's doctrines as a whole, Nazi leaders like Hess, Ohlendorf, and Baeumler considered specific aspects of anthroposophy, both ideological and practical, to be compatible with and complementary to National Socialist principles.}}</ref> very few anthroposophists belonged to the National Socialist Party.<ref>Sources for 'Nazi Party':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Dugan|2007|pp74–76}}|{{cite book|titleAnthroposophie in Deutschland: Theosophische Weltanschauung und gesellschaftliche Praxis 1884–1945|first1Helmut|last1Zander|languagede|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht|year2007|locationGöttingen|isbn978-3-525-55452-4|page250}}|{{cite thesis |last1Priestman |first1Karen |date2009 |titleIllusion of Coexistence: The Waldorf Schools in the Third Reich, 1933–1941 |typePhD dissertation |publisherWilfrid Laurier University |urlhttps://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/1080/ |access-date16 March 2023 |isbn978-0-494-54260-6 }}|{{Cite web |lastErnst |firstEdzard |titleRudolf Hess (Hitler's deputy) on alternative medicine |urlhttps://edzardernst.com/2015/01/rudolf-hess-hitlers-deputy-on-alternative-medicine/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190929125131/https://edzardernst.com/2015/01/rudolf-hess-hitlers-deputy-on-alternative-medicine/ |archive-date29 September 2019 |access-date29 November 2018 |websiteEdzard Ernst}}|{{cite book |last1Staudenmaier |first1Peter |titleBetween occultism and Nazism: anthroposophy and the politics of race in the fascist era |date2014 |publisherAries Books |isbn9789004270152 |pages101–145 |urlhttp://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004270152_005 |access-date29 November 2018 |archive-date29 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181129100522/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004270152_005 |url-statuslive }}}}</ref> In reality, Steiner had both enemies and loyal supporters in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp118–119}} Staudenmaier speaks of the "polycratic party-state apparatus", so Nazism's approach to Anthroposophy was not characterized by monolithic ideological unity.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p104}} When Hess flew to the UK and was imprisoned, their most powerful protector was gone,<ref name"Rieppel 2016 p. 246" /><ref name"Douglas-Hamilton 2012 p. 106" /><ref name"Tucker 2018 p. 165" /> but Anthroposophists were still not left without supporters among higher-placed Nazis.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp=103–106}}
The Third Reich had banned almost all esoteric organizations, claiming that these were controlled by Jews.<ref name"Sutin 2014 p. 506">{{Cite book |lastSutin |firstLawrence |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idp9iZAwAAQBAJ&pgPT506 |titleDo What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley |publisherSt. Martin's Publishing Group |year2014 |isbn978-1-4668-7526-5 |pageunpaginated |quotefor the Third Reich had outlawed virtually all esoteric groups (alleged to be under covert Jewish control) in Germany |access-date9 February 2023}}</ref> The truth was that while Anthroposophists complained of bad press, they were to a surprising extent tolerated by the Nazi regime, "including outspokenly supportive pieces in the Völkischer Beobachter".{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p174|ps: "Though anthroposophists complained regularly about negative publicity, Steiner's movement received remarkably positive press coverage in the Nazi era, including outspokenly supportive pieces in the Völkischer Beobachter.<sup>108</sup> Anthroposophist authors generally encountered few difficulties in publishing their work,<sup>109</sup> SD specialists on occult groups made suppression of anthroposophist publications a priority, but met with relatively little success. They argued that misuse of terms such as "race, nation, community, Germanness" by non-Nazi authors, even if sincere and well-meaning, "must be regarded as an attack on the National Socialist worldview."<sup>110</sup> Criticizing "materialist misinterpretations" of Nazi racial theory, they contended that the Nazi conception of race united the biological with the spiritual, the physical with the soul, into one comprehensive synthesis. The SD was especially wary of spiritual groups claiming that Nazism had "adopted" some of their own ideas or that their teachings had all along been in concert with National Socialist precepts. Movements like anthroposophy, from this point of view, represented unwelcome competition."}} Ideological purists from Sicherheitsdienst argued largely in vain against Anthroposophy.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p174|ps: "Though anthroposophists complained regularly about negative publicity, Steiner's movement received remarkably positive press coverage in the Nazi era, including outspokenly supportive pieces in the Völkischer Beobachter.<sup>108</sup> Anthroposophist authors generally encountered few difficulties in publishing their work,<sup>109</sup> SD specialists on occult groups made suppression of anthroposophist publications a priority, but met with relatively little success. They argued that misuse of terms such as "race, nation, community, Germanness" by non-Nazi authors, even if sincere and well-meaning, "must be regarded as an attack on the National Socialist worldview."<sup>110</sup> Criticizing "materialist misinterpretations" of Nazi racial theory, they contended that the Nazi conception of race united the biological with the spiritual, the physical with the soul, into one comprehensive synthesis. The SD was especially wary of spiritual groups claiming that Nazism had "adopted" some of their own ideas or that their teachings had all along been in concert with National Socialist precepts. Movements like anthroposophy, from this point of view, represented unwelcome competition."}} According to Staudenmaier, "The prospect of unmitigated persecution was held at bay for years in a tenuous truce between pro-anthroposophical and anti-anthroposophical Nazi factions."{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp118–119}}
{{blockquote|The anti-esoteric faction ensconced in the SD and Gestapo recognized that they faced influential adversaries in other sectors of the Nazi hierarchy. They knew that Hess and his staff, Baeumler in the Amt Rosenberg, and Ohlendorf in the SD itself were willing to intervene on behalf of anthroposophical endeavors. Minister of Agriculture Darré and Lotar Eickhoff in the Interior Ministry were also seen as sympathizers of anthroposophy, and the SD considered the head of the party's "Examination Commission for Safeguarding National Socialist Writings," Karl Heinz Hederich, a supporter of occultists and astrologers.{{sup|52}}|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2014|p=228}}}}
{{blockquote|While anthroposophists were in the center of the SD's sights, they were supposed to receive relatively mild treatment compared to other occultists.|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2014|p=236}}}}
{{blockquote|Despite these measures, anthroposophist authors were able to write long after June 1941. Franz Dreidax, Max Karl Schwarz, Elisabeth Klein, Johannes Bertram-Pingel, Georg Halbe, Otto Julius Hartmann, Rudolf Hauschka, Jürgen von Grone, Wolfgang Schuchhardt and others continued to publish throughout the war. But serious disruptions were common.|{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2014|p=238}}}}
Morals: Anthroposophy was not the stake of that dispute, but merely powerful Nazis wanting to get rid of other powerful Nazis.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p215}} E.g. Jehovah's Witnesses were treated much more aggressively than Anthroposophists.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp173–174}}
{{blockquote|Yet, the relative moderation of Heydrich's action, which paled in comparison to measures taken against communists and socialists, Jews, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, as well as the mentally and physically disabled, continued to reflect the Third Reich's underlying ambivalence toward policing the occult.|{{harvnb|Kurlander|2015a|p=514}}}}
Kurlander stated that "the Nazis were hardly ideologically opposed to the supernatural sciences themselves"&mdash;rather they objected to the free (i.e. non-totalitarian) pursuit of supernatural sciences.<ref name"Black Kurlander 2015 p. 149">{{Cite book |lastKurlander |firstEric |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhlS3CgAAQBAJ&pgPA149 |titleRevisiting the "Nazi Occult": Histories, Realities, Legacies |publisherCamden House |year2015b |isbn978-1-57113-906-1 |editor-lastBlack |editor-firstMonica |seriesGerman history in context |page149 |quotethe Nazis were hardly ideologically opposed to the supernatural sciences themselves. |access-date16 March 2024 |editor-last2Kurlander |editor-first2Eric}}</ref>
According to Hans Büchenbacher, an anthroposophist, the Secretary General of the General Anthroposophical Society, Guenther Wachsmuth, as well as Steiner's widow, Marie Steiner, were "completely pro-Nazi."<ref name"Büchenbacher">Staudenmaier (2014: 18, 79). Quote: Though raised Catholic, Büchenbacher had partial Jewish ancestry and was considered a “half-Jew” by Nazi standards. He emigrated to Switzerland in 1936. According to his post-war memoirs, “approximately two thirds of German anthroposophists more or less succumbed to National Socialism.” He reported that various influential anthroposophists were “deeply infected by Nazi views” and “staunchly supported Hitler.” Both Guenther Wachsmuth, Secretary of the Swiss-based General Anthroposophical Society, and Marie Steiner, the widow of Rudolf Steiner, were described as “completely pro-Nazi.” Büchenbacher retrospectively lamented the far-reaching “Nazi sins” of his colleagues.{{sup|59}}</ref> Marie Steiner-von Sivers, Guenther Wachsmuth, and Albert Steffen, had publicly expressed sympathy for the Nazi regime since its beginnings; led by such sympathies of their leadership, the Swiss and German Anthroposophical organizations chose for a path conflating accommodation with collaboration, which in the end ensured that while the Nazi regime hunted the esoteric organizations, Gentile Anthroposophists from Nazi Germany and countries occupied by it were let be to a surprising extent.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp103–106}} Of course they had some setbacks from the enemies of Anthroposophy among the upper echelons of the Nazi regime, but Anthroposophists also had loyal supporters among them, so overall Gentile Anthroposophists were not badly hit by the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp=103–106}}
{{blockquote|Yet when Hitler threatened to suppress the Anthroposophical Society, its executive council—which had recently expelled much of its membership—chose to collaborate rather than resist. Marie Steiner, Günther Wachsmuth, and Albert Steffen knew of Hitler's violent intentions toward the Jewish people, since Hitler's attacks on anthroposophy included the accusation that anthroposophy was aligned with the Jews. Rather than standing in solidarity with Hitler's other targets, they disavowed any sympathy for Judaism and assured Nazi leaders that both they and Steiner were of pure Aryan heritage.{{sup|44}}|{{harvnb|McKanan|2017|p=196}}}}
Staudenmaier's overall argument is that "there were often no clear-cut lines between theosophy, anthroposophy, ariosophy, astrology and the völkisch movement from which the Nazi Party arose."<ref name"Koehne 2016 pp. 281–283">{{Cite journal |lastKoehne |firstSamuel |date2016 |titleRevisiting the "Nazi Occult": Histories, Realities, Legacies. Edited by Monica Black and Eric Kurlander. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2015. Pp. 306. Cloth $90.00. ISBN 978-1571139061. |journalCentral European History |volume49 |issue2 |pages281–283 |doi10.1017/S0008938916000492 |issn0008-9389 |s2cid148281372 |quote=there were often no clear-cut lines between theosophy, anthroposophy, ariosophy, astrology and the völkisch movement from which the Nazi Party arose.}}</ref>
By 2007, national branches of the Anthroposophical Society had been established in fifty countries and about 10,000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophical ideas.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGoetheanum |urlhttp://www.goetheanum.org/121.html?&L1 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110930063201/http://www.goetheanum.org/121.html?&L1 |archive-date2011-09-30 |access-date2013-12-31 |publisherGoetheanum}}</ref>
Etymology and earlier uses of the word
Anthroposophy is an amalgam of the Greek terms {{lang|grc|ἄνθρωπος}} ({{Lang|grc-latn|anthropos}} 'human') and {{lang|grc|σοφία}} ({{Lang|grc-latn|sophia}} 'wisdom'). An early English usage is recorded by Nathan Bailey (1742) as meaning "the knowledge of the nature of man".<ref>"Anthroposophy", OED</ref>
The first known use of the term anthroposophy occurs within Arbatel de magia veterum, summum sapientiae studium, a book published anonymously in 1575 and attributed to Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. The work describes anthroposophy (as well as theosophy) variously as an understanding of goodness, nature, or human affairs. In 1648, the Welsh philosopher Thomas Vaughan published his Anthroposophia Theomagica, or a discourse of the nature of man and his state after death.<ref>Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes): Anthroposophia Theomagica, or a discourse of the nature of man and his state after death. Oxford 1648</ref>
The term began to appear with some frequency in philosophical works of the mid- and late-nineteenth century.<ref>The term was used for example in a [http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/ilej/image1.pl?itempage&seq1&size1&idnq.1863.5.9.3.71.x.373 discussion of Boehme] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180928235524/http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/ilej/image1.pl?itempage&seq1&size1&idnq.1863.5.9.3.71.x.373 |date2018-09-28 }} in Notes and Queries, May 9, 1863, p. 373</ref> In the early part of that century, Ignaz Troxler used the term anthroposophy to refer to philosophy deepened to self-knowledge, which he suggested allows deeper knowledge of nature as well. He spoke of human nature as a mystical unity of God and world. Immanuel Hermann Fichte used the term anthroposophy to refer to "rigorous human self-knowledge", achievable through thorough comprehension of the human spirit and of the working of God in this spirit, in his 1856 work Anthropology: The Study of the Human Soul. In 1872, the philosopher of religion Gideon Spicker used the term anthroposophy to refer to self-knowledge that would unite God and world: "the true study of the human being is the human being, and philosophy's highest aim is self-knowledge, or Anthroposophy."<ref>Die Philosophie des Grafen von Shaftesbury, 1872</ref>
In 1882, the philosopher Robert Zimmermann published the treatise, "An Outline of Anthroposophy: Proposal for a System of Idealism on a Realistic Basis," proposing that idealistic philosophy should employ logical thinking to extend empirical experience.<ref>Anthroposophie im Umriß. Entwurf eines Systems idealer Weltsicht auf realistischer Grundlage, 1882</ref> Steiner attended lectures by Zimmermann at the University of Vienna in the early 1880s, thus at the time of this book's publication.<ref>Robert Zimmermann Geschichte der Aesthetik als philosophische Wissenschaft. Vienna, 1858. Anthroposophie im Umriss-Entwurf eines Systems idealer Weltansicht auf realistischer Grundlage. (Vienna, 1882): Steiner, Anthroposophic Movement: Lecture Two: The Unveiling of Spiritual Truths, 11 June 1923.[http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/GA258/English/RSP1993/19230611p01.html]</ref>
In the early 1900s, Steiner began using the term anthroposophy (i.e. human wisdom) as an alternative to the term theosophy (i.e. divine wisdom).
Central ideas
Spiritual knowledge and freedom
Anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the scientific method to phenomena of human soul-life and spiritual experiences. Steiner believed this required developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception, which he maintained was still possible for contemporary humans. The steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved imagination, inspiration, and intuition.<ref name"Schneider">{{Cite book |lastSchneider |firstPeter |titleEinführung in die Waldorfpädagogik |date1985 |publisherKlett-Cotta |isbn3-608-93006-X |publication-placeStuttgart |languagede}}</ref> Steiner believed results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way that can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science.<ref name"Willmann" /><ref name="Schneider20" />
Steiner hoped to form a spiritual movement that would free the individual from any external authority.<ref name"Schneider20">{{harvnb|Schneider|1985|pp20–21}}, Schneider quotes here from Steiner's dissertation, Truth and Knowledge</ref> For Steiner, the human capacity for rational thought would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and bypass the danger of dependency on an authority such as himself.<ref name="Schneider20" />
Steiner contrasted the anthroposophical approach with both conventional mysticism, which he considered lacking the clarity necessary for exact knowledge, and natural science, which he considered arbitrarily limited to what can be seen, heard, or felt with the outward senses.
Nature of the human being
<ref name="EM" />]]
In Theosophy, Steiner suggested that human beings unite a physical body of substances gathered from and returning to the inorganic world; a life body (also called the etheric body), in common with all living creatures (including plants); a bearer of sentience or consciousness (also called the astral body), in common with all animals; and the ego, which anchors the faculty of self-awareness unique to human beings.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |author-linkRudolf Steiner |urlhttps://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA009/English/AP1971/GA009_c01_4.html |titleTheosophy – An Introduction to the Supersensible Knowledge of the World and the Destination of Man |date1922 |publisherMartino Fine Books |isbn1614270503 |page<!-- or pages --> |chapter=The Essential Nature of Man}}</ref>
Anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human consciousness. Early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality, including a clairvoyant perception of spiritual realities. Humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on intellectual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences, which have become atavistic. The increasing intellectualization of consciousness, initially a progressive direction of evolution, has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities. However, to go further requires new capacities that combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the imagination and with consciously achieved inspiration and intuitive insights.<ref name"RAMcD">{{Cite book |lastMcDermott |firstRobert A. |titleModern Esoteric Spirituality |date1995 |publisherCrossroad Publishing |isbn978-0-8245-1444-0 |editor-lastFaivre |editor-firstAntoine |publication-placeNew York |pages299–301; 288ff |chapterRudolf Steiner and Anthroposophy |editor-last2Needleman |editor-first2Jacob |editor-last3Voss |editor-first3Karen}}</ref>
Anthroposophy speaks of the reincarnation of the human spirit: that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living on earth, leaving the body behind, and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. After the death of the physical body, the human spirit recapitulates the past life, perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions. A complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life. The individual's karmic condition eventually leads to a choice of parents, physical body, disposition, and capacities that provide the challenges and opportunities that further development requires, which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life.<ref name=RAMcD/>
Steiner described some conditions that determine the interdependence of a person's lives, or karma.<ref>Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy, {{ISBN|0-85440-269-1}}</ref><ref>Rudolf Steiner, An Outline of Esoteric Science, {{ISBN|0-88010-409-0}}</ref>
Evolution
The anthroposophical view of evolution considers all animals to have evolved from an early, unspecialized form. As the least specialized animal, human beings have maintained the closest connection to the archetypal form;<ref>{{Cite book |lastVerhulst |firstJos |titleDevelopmental Dynamics |publisherAdonis Press |year2003 |isbn978-0-932776-28-0 |locationGhent, NY |pages24–25}}</ref> contrary to the Darwinian conception of human evolution, all other animals devolve from this archetype.<ref name"Trevelyan 1981 p. ">{{Cite book |lastTrevelyan |firstGeorge |titleOperation Redemption: A Vision of Hope in an Age of Turmoil |date1981 |publisherTurnstone |isbn978-0-85500-150-6 |pages117–118}}</ref> The spiritual archetype originally created by spiritual beings was devoid of physical substance; only later did this descend into material existence on Earth.<ref>Steiner, Man as Symphony of the Creative Word and Occult Science</ref> In this view, human evolution has accompanied the Earth's evolution throughout the existence of the Earth.
{{Blockquote|The evolution of man, Steiner said, has consisted in the gradual incarnation of a spiritual being into a material body. It has been a true "descent" of man from a spiritual world into a world of matter. The evolution of the animal kingdom did not precede, but rather accompanied the process of human incarnation. Man is thus not the end result of the evolution of the animals, but is rather in a certain sense their cause. In the succession of types which appears in the fossil record-the fishes, reptiles, mammals, and finally fossil remains of man himself — the stages of this process of incarnation are reflected.<ref name"Harwood 1961 p. ">{{Cite book |lastWaterman |firstJohn |titleThe Faithful Thinker: Centenary Essays on the Work and Thought of Rudolf Steiner, 1861-1925 |publisherHodder and Stoughton |year1961 |editor-lastHarwood |editor-firstA.C. |page45 |chapterEvolution and The Image of Man |access-date16 March 2024 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=ZHASSQAACAAJ}}</ref>}}
Anthroposophy adapted Theosophy's complex system of cycles of world development and human evolution. The evolution of the world is said to have occurred in cycles. The first phase of the world consisted only of heat. In the second phase, a more active condition, light, and a more condensed, gaseous state separate out from the heat. In the third phase, a fluid state arose, as well as a sounding, forming energy. In the fourth (current) phase, solid physical matter first exists. This process is said to have been accompanied by an evolution of consciousness which led up to present human culture.
Ethics
The anthroposophical view is that good is found in the balance between two polar influences on world and human evolution. These are often described through their mythological embodiments as spiritual adversaries which endeavour to tempt and corrupt humanity, Lucifer and his counterpart Ahriman. These have both positive and negative aspects. Lucifer is the light spirit, which "plays on human pride and offers the delusion of divinity", but also motivates creativity and spirituality; Ahriman is the dark spirit that tempts human beings to "...deny [their] link with divinity and to live entirely on the material plane", but that also stimulates intellectuality and technology. Both figures exert a negative effect on humanity when their influence becomes misplaced or one-sided, yet their influences are necessary for human freedom to unfold.<ref name"Essential" /><ref name"Willmann" />
Each human being has the task to find a balance between these opposing influences, and each is helped in this task by the mediation of the Representative of Humanity, also known as the Christ being, a spiritual entity who stands between and harmonizes the two extremes.<ref name"Willmann" />Claimed applications{{further|Rudolf Steiner#Breadth of activity}}Rationale{{block quote|1As noted by Hammer, this means that anthroposophy harbors extensive empirical claims on "the most diverse subjects: matters normally defined as belonging to the domain of science, yet made immune to scientific critique because of Steiner’s radical dichotomy—agronomy, chemistry, pharmacology, physiology, anatomy, developmental psychology, astronomy, physics etc." (Hammer 2004, 227).|2{{harvnb|Hansson|2022}}}}Steiner/Waldorf education
{{Main|Waldorf education}}
There is a pedagogical movement with over 1000 Steiner or Waldorf schools (the latter name stems from the first such school, founded in Stuttgart in 1919)<ref>Paull, John (2011) [https://www.academia.edu/9168722/Rudolf_Steiner_and_the_Oxford_Conference_The_birth_of_Waldorf_education_in_Britain Rudolf Steiner and the Oxford Conference: The Birth of Waldorf Education in Britain] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190819215344/https://www.academia.edu/9168722/Rudolf_Steiner_and_the_Oxford_Conference_The_birth_of_Waldorf_education_in_Britain |date2019-08-19 }}. European Journal of Educational Studies, 3 (1): 53–66.</ref> located in some 60 countries; the great majority of these are independent (private) schools.<ref>German Education Research Group, [http://www.waldorfschule.info/index.71.0.3.html "International Associations and Waldorf Schools in alphabetical order of country"] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080916210620/http://www.waldorfschule.info/index.71.0.3.html |dateSeptember 16, 2008 }}</ref> Sixteen of the schools have been affiliated with the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, which sponsors education projects that foster improved quality of education throughout the world.<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001223/122345E.pdf Agenda Fact Sheet, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization dated 18 April 2001] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070628123844/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001223/122345E.pdf |date28 June 2007 }} The foundation, Friends of Waldorf Education (Freunde der Erziehungskunst), is one of the 26 non-governmental organizations worldwide to maintain official relations with UNESCO. [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID32925&URL_DODO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION201.html UNESCO Official Relations] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191206100505/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D32925%26URL_DO%3DDO_PRINTPAGE%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |date=2019-12-06 }}</ref> Waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations, Australia and in parts of the United States (as Waldorf method public or charter schools) and Canada.
The schools have been founded in a variety of communities: for example in the favelas of São Paulo<ref name"White">White, Ralph, [http://www.lapismagazine.org/archives/L08/querido-interview.html Interview with Rene M. Querido] Lapis Magazine {{dead link|dateJuly 2016|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref> to wealthy suburbs of major cities;<ref name"White" /> in India, Egypt, Australia, the Netherlands, Mexico and South Africa. Though most of the early Waldorf schools were teacher-founded, the schools today are usually initiated and later supported by a parent community.<ref name"Ullrich" /> Waldorf schools are among the most visible anthroposophical institutions.<ref name"Ullrich">{{Cite journal |lastUllrich |firstHeiner |year2000 |orig-date1994 |titleRudolf Steiner (1861-1925) |urlhttp://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf |journalProspects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education |locationParis |publisherUNESCO: International Bureau of Education |volumeXXIV |issue3/4 |pages8&ndash;9 [555&ndash;572] |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924041958/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf |archive-date24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name"Lenart">Lenart, Claudia M: [http://www.consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html "Steiner's Chicago Legacy Shines Brightly"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061018121557/http://www.consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html |date2006-10-18 }}, Conscious Choice June 2003</ref>
Benjamin Lazier calls Steiner a "maverick educator".<ref name"r012">{{cite book | lastLazier | firstBenjamin | titleGod Interrupted | publisherPrinceton University Press | publication-placePrinceton (N.J.) | date2008 | isbn978-0-691-13670-7 | page29 | quoteBy the 1920s gnosticism (the term) had hardly a vestige of an agreed-upon meaning. That gnosticism had returned in some form was a sentiment shared by many, but what that meant was up for debate. Some, notably those on the occult scene inspired by the maverick educator Rudolf Steiner, greeted the new age with enthusiasm.}}</ref>
Biodynamic agriculture
{{Main|Biodynamic agriculture}}
Biodynamic agriculture, is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudo-scientific and esoteric concepts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Lejano |first1Raul P. |titlePower of Narrative in Environmental Networks |last2Ingram |first2Mrill |last3Ingram |first3Helen M. |publisherMIT Press |year2013 |isbn9780262519571 |page155 |chapterChapter 6: Narratives of Nature and Science in Alternative Farming Networks}}</ref> It was also the first intentional form of organic farming,<ref nameLenart/> begun in 1924, when Rudolf Steiner gave a series of lectures published in English as The Agriculture Course.<ref name"first">Paull, John (2011) [http://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf . "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191229042256/https://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |date2019-12-29 }}, European Journal of Social Sciences, 21(1):64–70.</ref> Steiner is considered one of the founders of the modern organic farming movement.<ref name"Ferree Warrington 2003 p. ">{{Cite book |last1Ferree |first1David Curtis |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMmuBCwAAQBAJ |titleApples: Botany, Production, and Uses |last2Warrington |first2Ian J. |publisherCABI Pub. |year2003 |isbn978-0-85199-592-2 |seriesCABI Publishing Series |page553 |access-date16 March 2024}}</ref><ref>David Kupfer, [http://www.wildnesswithin.com/kupfer.html "Trailblazers, Heroes & Pioneers: The Organic Farming Movement"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071009183558/http://www.wildnesswithin.com/kupfer.html |date=2007-10-09 }}</ref>
"And Himmler, Hess, and Darré all promoted biodynamic (anthroposophic) approaches to farming as an alternative to industrial agriculture."<ref name"Kurlander 2015 pp. 498–522"/> "'[...] with the active cooperation of the Reich League for Biodynamic Agriculture' [...] Pancke, Pohl, and Hans Merkel established additional biodynamic plantations across the eastern territories as well as Dachau, Ravensbrück, and Auschwitz concentration camps. Many were staffed by anthroposophists."<ref name"Kurlander 2017 pp. 231–262">{{Cite book |lastKurlander |firstEric |urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q31shs.13 |titleHitler's Monsters |publisherYale University Press |year2017 |isbn978-0-300-18945-2 |pages239–240 |chapterMONSTROUS SCIENCE: Racial Resettlement, Human Experiments, and the Holocaust |jstorj.ctt1q31shs.13 |quote'[...] with the active cooperation of the Reich League for Biodynamic Agriculture' [...] Pancke, Pohl, and Hans Merkel established additional biodynamic plantations across the eastern territories as well as Dachau, Ravensbrück, and Auschwitz concentration camps. Many were staffed by anthroposophists. |access-date19 February 2024}}</ref>
"Steiner's 'biodynamic agriculture' based on 'restoring the quasi-mystical relationship between earth and the cosmos' was widely accepted in the Third Reich (28)."<ref name"Purcell 2018 t965">{{Cite web |lastPurcell |firstBrendan |date24 June 2018 |titleHitler's Monsters: A Supernatural History of the Third Reich |urlhttps://voegelinview.com/9101-2/ |access-date28 February 2024 |websiteVoegelinView}}</ref>
Anthroposophical medicine
{{Main|Anthroposophical medicine}}
Anthroposophical medicine is a form of alternative medicine based on pseudoscientific and occult notions rather than in science-based medicine.<ref name"teils">{{Cite journal |last1Kienle |first1Gunver S. |last2Kiene |first2Helmut |last3Albonico |first3Hans Ulrich |year2006 |titleAnthroposophische Medizin: Health Technology Assessment Bericht – Kurzfassung |journalForschende Komplementärmedizin |volume13 |issue2 |pages7–18 |doi10.1159/000093481 |pmid16883076 |s2cid72253140 |quoteteils ergänzend und teils ersetzend zur konventionellen Medizin}} Cited in {{cite journal |pmid18540325 |year2008 |last1Ernst |first1Edzard |titleAnthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis |volume150 |pages1–6 |journalMMW Fortschritte der Medizin |issueSuppl 1}}</ref>
Most anthroposophic medical preparations are highly diluted, like homeopathic remedies, while harmless in of themselves, using them in place of conventional medicine to treat illness is ineffective and risks adverse consequences.<ref name"krit">{{Cite journal |lastErnst |firstEdzard |year2008 |titleAnthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis |journalMMW Fortschritte der Medizin |volume150 |issueSuppl 1 |pages1–6 |pmid18540325}}</ref>
One of the most studied applications has been the use of mistletoe extracts in cancer therapy,<ref>{{Cite web |titleStudy by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer |urlhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101221133732/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe |archive-date2010-12-21 |access-date2013-12-31 |websiteCancer.gov}}</ref> but research has found no evidence of benefit.<ref name"coch-2010">{{Cite journal |vauthorsHorneber MA, Bueschel G, Huber R, Linde K, Rostock M |year2008 |titleMistletoe therapy in oncology |journalCochrane Database Syst Rev |typeSystematic review |volume2020 |issue2 |pagesCD003297 |doi10.1002/14651858.CD003297.pub2 |pmc7144832 |pmid18425885 |quoteThe review found that there was not enough evidence to reach clear conclusions about the effects on any of these outcomes and it is therefore not clear to what extent the application of mistletoe extracts translates into improved symptom control, enhanced tumour response or prolonged survival.}}</ref><ref name"ACS">{{Cite book |titleAmerican Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |publisherAmerican Cancer Society |year2009 |isbn9780944235713 |veditorsAdes TB |edition2nd |pages[https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse/page/424 424–428] |chapterMistletoe |quoteAvailable evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life. |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse/page/424}}</ref>
Special needs education and services
{{Main|Camphill Movement}} {{See also|Garvald Centres}}
In 1922, Ita Wegman founded an anthroposophical center for special needs education, the Sonnenhof, in Switzerland. In 1940, Karl König founded the Camphill Movement in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now over a hundred Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for children and adults in need of special care in about 22 countries around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCamphill |urlhttp://www.camphill.org/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070208172552/http://www.camphill.org/ |archive-date2007-02-08 |access-date2007-02-22}}</ref> Both Karl König, Thomas Weihs and others have written extensively on these ideas underlying Special education.<ref name"König 2009 p. ">{{Cite book |lastKönig |firstKarl |titleThe Child with Special Needs |date2009 |publisherFloris Books |isbn978-0-86315-693-9}}</ref><ref name"Weihs 2000 p. ">{{Cite book |lastWeihs |firstThomas J. |titleChildren in Need of Special Care |date2000 |publisherSouvenir Press |isbn978-0-285-63569-2}}</ref>
Architecture
, designed by Steiner in 1920, Dornach, Switzerland]]
Steiner designed around thirteen buildings in an organic—expressionist architectural style.<ref>Sharp, Dennis, Rudolf Steiner and the Way to a New Style in Architecture, Architectural Association Journal, June 1963</ref><ref>Sokolina, Anna P. "Biology in Architecture: The Goetheanum Case Study." In: The Routledge Companion to Biology in Art and Architecture, edited by Ch. Terranova and M. Tromble, 52–70. New York and London: Routledge, 2017. 546p.</ref> Foremost among these are his designs for the two Goetheanum buildings in Dornach, Switzerland.<ref>Sokolina, Anna. "Modernist Topologies: The Goetheanum in Building." In Modernity and Construction of Sacred Space, edited by Aaron French and Katharina Waldner, 149–168. Berlin: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2024. ISBN 9783111061382 and 9783111062624. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111062624-008.</ref> Thousands of further buildings have been built by later generations of anthroposophic architects.<ref name"Verlag Freies Geistesleben 1982 p. ">{{Cite book |last1Raab |first1Rex |titleDie Waldorfschule baut: sechzig Jahre Architektur der Waldorfschulen: Schule als Entwicklungsraum menschengemässer Baugestaltung |last2Klingborg |first2Arne |date1982 |publisherVerlag Freies Geistesleben |isbn978-3-7725-0240-8 |publication-placeStuttgart |language=de}}</ref><ref>Sokolina, Anna, ed., co-author, Architecture and Anthroposophy. (Arkhitektura i Antroposofiia. bilingual ed.) 1st and 2nd edition. 268p. M.: KMK Scientific Press. 2001, {{ISBN|5-87317-074-6}}. 2010, {{ISBN|5-87317-660-4}}.</ref>
Architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include Imre Makovecz in Hungary,<ref>{{Cite web |lastHeathcote |firstEdwin |date2011-09-28 |titleImre Makovecz (1935–2011) |urlhttp://www.bdonline.co.uk/news/imre-makovecz-%281935-%E2%80%93-2011%29/5025237.article |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131213022831/http://www.bdonline.co.uk/news/imre-makovecz-%281935-%E2%80%93-2011%29/5025237.article |archive-date2013-12-13 |access-date2013-12-31 |publisherBdonline.co.uk}}</ref> Hans Scharoun and Joachim Eble in Germany, Erik Asmussen in Sweden, Kenji Imai in Japan, Thomas Rau, Anton Alberts and Max van Huut in the Netherlands, Christopher Day and Camphill Architects in the UK, Thompson and Rose in America, Denis Bowman in Canada, and Walter Burley Griffin<ref name"WBGriffin">Paull, John (2012) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319670934_Walter_Burley_Griffin_and_Marion_Mahony_Griffin_Architects_of_Anthroposophy Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin, Architects of Anthroposophy] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180111165307/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319670934_Walter_Burley_Griffin_and_Marion_Mahony_Griffin_Architects_of_Anthroposophy |date2018-01-11 }}, Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 106:20–30.</ref> and Gregory Burgess in Australia.<ref name"Raab Klingborg Fant 1979 p. ">{{Cite book |last1Raab |first1Rex |titleEloquent Concrete |last2Klingborg |first2Arne |last3Fant |first3Åke |date1979 |publisherRudolph Steiner Press |isbn978-0-85440-354-7}}</ref><ref name"Pearson 2001 p. ">{{Cite book |lastPearson |firstDavid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5fncJliXFdgC |titleNew Organic Architecture: The Breaking Wave |publisherUniversity of California Press |year2001 |isbn978-0-520-23289-1 |seriesA Gaia original |access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref><ref>Sokolina, Anna, "The Goetheanum Culture in Modern Architecture." In: Science, Education and Experimental Design (Nauka, obrazovaniie i eksperimental'noie proiektirovaniie. Trudy MARKHI) (In Russian), edited by D.O. Shvidkovsky, G.V. Yesaulov, et al., 157–159. Moscow: MARKHI, 2014. 536p.</ref>
ING House in Amsterdam is a contemporary building by an anthroposophical architect which has received awards for its ecological design and approach to a self-sustaining ecology as an autonomous building and example of sustainable architecture.<ref>{{Citation |titleMeyer en van Schooten, Architect |urlhttp://www.urbika.com/firms/view/187-meyer-en-van-schooten |access-date2010-12-08 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100914052719/http://www.urbika.com/firms/view/187-meyer-en-van-schooten |archive-date14 September 2010 |publisherUrbika}}</ref>
Eurythmy
{{Main|Eurythmy}}
Together with Marie von Sivers, Steiner developed eurythmy, a performance art combining dance, speech, and music.<ref name"Poplawski 1998 p. ">{{Cite book |lastPoplawski |firstThomas |titleEurythmy |date1998 |publisherCentral European University Press |isbn978-0-88010-459-3 |page67}}</ref><ref>Ogletree, Earl J. [http://sed.sagepub.com/content/10/3/305.extract Eurythmy: A therapeutic art of movement] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601024956/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002246697601000312 |date2021-06-01 }} Journal of Special Education Fall 1976 vol. 10 no. 3 305–319 {{doi|10.1177/002246697601000312}}</ref>
Social finance and entrepreneurship
{{See also|Social finance}}
Around the world today are a number of banks, companies, charities, and schools for developing co-operative forms of business using Steiner's ideas about economic associations, aiming at harmonious and socially responsible roles in the world economy.<ref name"Essential" /> The first anthroposophic bank was the Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken in Bochum, Germany, founded in 1974.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken |urlhttp://www.gls.de/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130529145719/http://www.gls.de/ |archive-date2013-05-29 |access-date2013-12-31 |publisherGls.de}}</ref>
Socially responsible banks founded out of anthroposophy include Triodos Bank, founded in the Netherlands in 1980 and also active in the UK, Germany, Belgium, Spain and France.<ref>{{Cite web |date29 April 2017 |titleIs Triodos the ethical bank that could replace the Co-op? |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/money/2017/apr/29/triodos-ethical-bank-replace-co-op-bank |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210411010936/https://www.theguardian.com/money/2017/apr/29/triodos-ethical-bank-replace-co-op-bank |archive-date11 April 2021 |access-date19 March 2021 |websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> Other examples include Cultura Sparebank which dates from 1982 when a group of Norwegian anthroposophists began an initiative for ethical banking but only began to operate as a savings bank in Norway in the late 90s, La Nef in France and RSF Social Financein San Francisco.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEarth Times |urlhttp://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/news_press_release,132566.shtml |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140101160356/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/news_press_release,132566.shtml |archive-date2014-01-01 |access-date2013-12-31 |publisher=Earth Times}}</ref>
Harvard Business School historian Geoffrey Jones traced the considerable impact both Steiner and later anthroposophical entrepreneurs had on the creation of many businesses in organic food, ecological architecture and sustainable finance.<ref name"Jones2017">{{Cite book |lastJones |firstGeoffrey |titleProfits and Sustainability. A History of Green Entrepreneurship |publisherOxford University Press |year2017 |isbn978-019-870697-7}}</ref>Organizational development, counselling and biography workBernard Lievegoed, a psychiatrist, founded a new method of individual and institutional development oriented towards humanizing organizations and linked with Steiner's ideas of the threefold social order. This work is represented by the NPI Institute for Organizational Development in the Netherlands and sister organizations in many other countries.<ref name"Essential" />
Speech and drama
There are also anthroposophical movements to renew speech and drama, the most important of which are based in the work of Marie Steiner-von Sivers (speech formation, also known as Creative Speech) and the Chekhov Method originated by Michael Chekhov (nephew of Anton Chekhov).<ref>Byckling, L: [https://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/01/chekhovwest.shtml Michael Chekhov as Actor, Teacher and Director in the West] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061231085044/http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/01/chekhovwest.shtml |date2006-12-31 }}. Toronto Slavic Quarterly No 1 &mdash; Summer 2002. University of Toronto, Academic Electronic Journal in Slavic Studies.</ref>
Art
Anthroposophic painting, a style inspired by Rudolf Steiner, featured prominently in the first Goetheanum's cupola. The technique frequently begins by filling the surface to be painted with color, out of which forms are gradually developed, often images with symbolic-spiritual significance. Paints that allow for many transparent layers are preferred, and often these are derived from plant materials.{{sfn|Zander|2007|pp381–382, 1080, 1105}} Rudolf Steiner appointed the English sculptor Edith Maryon as head of the School of Fine Art at the Goetheanum.<ref name"EM">Paull, John (2018) [https://www.academia.edu/37021855/A_Portrait_of_Edith_Maryon_Artist_and_Anthroposophist A Portrait of Edith Maryon: Artist and Anthroposophist] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200322174156/https://www.academia.edu/37021855/A_Portrait_of_Edith_Maryon_Artist_and_Anthroposophist |date2020-03-22 }}, Journal of Fine Arts, 1(2):8–15.</ref> Together they carved the 9-metre tall sculpture titled The Representative of Humanity, on display at the Goetheanum.<ref nameEM/>Other
, Germany]]
*Phenomenological approaches to science, pseudo-scientific<ref name"pssci"/> ideas based on Goethe's philosophy of nature.<ref name"Essential" />
*John Wilkes' fountain-like flowforms, sculptural forms that guide water into rhythmic movement for the purposes of decoration.
*Antisemitic legislation in Italy (1938–1945).{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p284|ps: "The anthroposophist contribution to spiritual racism in theory and in practice yields new insights into the nature of the Fascist racial campaign between 1938 and 1945."}}
*The Fellowship Community in Chestnut Ridge, New York, United States, which includes a retirement community and other anthroposophic projects.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Fellowship Community {{!}} An Anthroposophic Community {{!}} New York |urlhttps://www.fellowshipcommunity.org |access-date2024-08-25 |websiteThe Fellowship Commu |language=en}}</ref>
*The Harduf kibbutz in Israel.
Social goals
{{Main|Social Threefolding}}
For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well known in Germany, in part because he lectured widely proposing social reforms. Steiner was a sharp critic of nationalism, which he saw as outdated, and a proponent of achieving social solidarity through individual freedom.<ref name"Essential" /> A petition proposing a radical change in the German constitution and expressing his basic social ideas (signed by Hermann Hesse, among others) was widely circulated. His main book on social reform is Toward Social Renewal.<ref name"Essential" />
Anthroposophy continues to aim at reforming society through maintaining and strengthening the independence of the spheres of cultural life, human rights and the economy. It emphasizes a particular ideal in each of these three realms of society:<ref name="Essential" />
* Liberty in cultural life
* Equality of rights, the sphere of legislation
* Fraternity in the economic sphere
According to Cees Leijenhorst, "Steiner outlined his vision of a new political and social philosophy that avoids the two extremes of capitalism and socialism."<ref name"Hanegraaff Faivre van den Broek Brach 2005 p. 1090">{{Cite book |lastLeijenhorst |firstCees |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHCUOAQAAMAAJ&pgPA1090 |titleDictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism: I |publisherBrill |year2005 |isbn978-90-04-14187-2 |editor-lastHanegraaff |editor-firstWouter J. |page1090 |quoteSteiner outlined his vision of a new political and social philosophy that avoids the two extremes of capitalism and socialism. |access-date2 January 2024 |editor-last2Faivre |editor-first2Antoine |editor-last3Broek |editor-first3Roelof van den |editor-last4Brach |editor-first4=Jean-Pierre}}</ref>
Steiner did influence Italian Fascism, which exploited "his racial and anti-democratic dogma."<ref name"Pilkington Sutcliffe 2023 p. 194">{{Cite book |lastHill |firstChris |titleStrange Attractor Journal Five |publisherMIT Press |year2023 |isbn978-1-907222-52-8 |editor-lastPilkington |editor-firstMark |page194 |chapter'Gustavo Who?' &mdash; Notes Towards the Life and Times of Gustavo Rol; Putative Mage and Cosmic 'Drainpipe' |access-date1 November 2023 |editor-last2Sutcliffe |editor-first2Jamie |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYMFNEAAAQBAJ&pgPA194}}</ref> The fascist ministers Giovanni Antonio Colonna di Cesarò<ref name"c227">{{cite book | lastBaroni | firstFrancesco | editor-lastBogdan | editor-firstHenrik | editor-last2Djurdjevic | editor-first2Gordan | titleOccultism in a Global Perspective | publisherTaylor & Francis | seriesApproaches to new religions | year2014 | isbn978-1-317-54447-0 | chapterOccultism and Christianity in twentieth-century Italy. Tommaso Palamidessi's Christian magic | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY15_BAAAQBAJ&pgPA104 | access-date17 November 2024 | page104}}</ref> (nicknamed "the Anthroposophist duke"; he became antifascist after taking part in Benito Mussolini's government<ref name"peter">{{Cite book |lastStaudenmaier |firstPeter |titleEsotericism, Religion, and Politics |publisherNew Cultures Press |year2012 |isbn978-1596500136 |editor-lastVersluis |editor-firstArthur |locationMinneapolis, MN |pages83–84 |chapterAnthroposophy in Fascist Italy |editor-last2Irwin |editor-first2Lee |editor-last3Phillips |editor-first3Melinda}}</ref>) and Ettore Martinoli have openly expressed their sympathy for Rudolf Steiner.<ref name"Pilkington Sutcliffe 2023 p. 194" /> Most from the occult pro-fascist UR Group were Anthroposophists.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p271}}<ref name"turris">{{Cite magazine |lastTurris |firstGianfranco de |titleL'Esoterismo Italiano degli anni Venti: il Gruppo di Ur, tra Magia e Super Fascismo |urlhttps://zdocs.mx/doc/abstracta-de-turris-le1225kj971v |magazineAbstracta |publication-dateJune 1987 |authorlinkGianfranco de Turris |number16 |seriesII |langit}}</ref><ref name"beraldo">{{Cite book |lastBeraldo |firstMichele |titleEsoterismo e fascismo: storia, interpretazioni, documenti |publisherEdizioni mediterranee |year2006 |isbn978-88-272-1831-0 |editor-lastTurris |editor-firstGianfranco de |page83 |languageit |chapterL'Antroposofia e il suo rapporto con il Regime Fascista |access-date11 December 2023 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=3pgrCbVilI8C}}</ref>
According to Egil Asprem, "Steiner's teachings had a clear authoritarian ring, and developed a rather crass polemic against 'materialism', 'liberalism', and cultural 'degeneration'. [...] For example, anthroposophical medicine was developed to contrast with the 'materialistic' (and hence 'degenerate') medicine of the establishment."{{sfn|Asprem|2018|p494}}Esoteric pathPaths of spiritual developmentAccording to Steiner, a real spiritual world exists, evolving along with the material one. Steiner held that the spiritual world can be researched in the right circumstances through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline. Steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline; the most complete exposition of these is found in his book How To Know Higher Worlds. The aim of these exercises is to develop higher levels of consciousness through meditation and observation. Details about the spiritual world, Steiner suggested, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, though no more infallibly than the results of natural science.<ref name"Schneider" />
{{Blockquote|Anthroposophy is a path of knowledge, to guide the spiritual in the human being to the spiritual in the universe…. Anthroposophists are those who experience, as an essential need of life, certain questions on the nature of the human being and the universe, just as one experiences hunger and thirst.<ref>Steiner, Anthroposophical Leading Thoughts (1924)</ref>}}
Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasised that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.<ref name="Schneider" /> Steiner distinguished between what he considered were true and false paths of spiritual investigation.<ref>True and False Paths in Spiritual Investigation, first English edition 1927 (online [http://wn.rudolfsteinerelib.org/Lectures/GA243/English/RSP1969/TruFal_index.html]), 2010 edition Kessinger Publishing Company {{ISBN|9781162592510}}</ref>
In anthroposophy, artistic expression is also treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality.<ref nameLindenberg/>{{rp|97}}Prerequisites to and stages of inner development{{Blockquote|A person seeking inner development must first of all make the attempt to give up certain formerly held inclinations. Then, new inclinations must be acquired by constantly holding the thought of such inclinations, virtues or characteristics in one's mind. They must be so incorporated into one's being that a person becomes enabled to alter his soul by his own will-power. This must be tried as objectively as a chemical might be tested in an experiment. A person who has never endeavored to change his soul, who has never made the initial decision to develop the qualities of endurance, steadfastness and calm logical thinking, or a person who has such decisions but has given up because he did not succeed in a week, a month, a year or a decade, will never conclude anything inwardly about these truths.|Rudolf Steiner|"On the Inner Life",<ref>{{Cite web |date1904-12-15 |titleThe Inner Development of Man |urlhttp://www.rsarchive.org/Lectures/InnDev_index.html |access-date2013-12-31 |locationFremont, Michigan}}</ref>}}
Steiner's stated prerequisites to beginning on a spiritual path include a willingness to take up serious cognitive studies, a respect for factual evidence, and a responsible attitude. Central to progress on the path itself is a harmonious cultivation of the following qualities:<ref name="Willmann" />
* Control over one's own thinking
* Control over one's will
* Composure
* Positivity
* Impartiality
Steiner sees meditation as a concentration and enhancement of the power of thought. By focusing consciously on an idea, feeling or intention the meditant seeks to arrive at pure thinking, a state exemplified by but not confined to pure mathematics. In Steiner's view, conventional sensory-material knowledge is achieved through relating perception and concepts. The anthroposophic path of esoteric training articulates three further stages of supersensory knowledge, which do not necessarily follow strictly sequentially in any single individual's spiritual progress.{{sfn|Willmann|2001|pp10-13}}<ref name"Stein">Stein, W. J., Die moderne naturwissenschaftliche Vorstellungsart und die Weltanschauung Goethes, wie sie Rudolf Steiner vertritt, reprinted in Meyer, Thomas, W.J. Stein / Rudolf Steiner, pp. 267&ndash;75; 256&ndash;7.</ref>
* By focusing on symbolic patterns, images, and poetic mantras, the meditant can achieve consciously directed Imaginations that allow sensory phenomena to appear as the expression of underlying beings of a soul-spiritual nature.
* By transcending such imaginative pictures, the meditant can become conscious of the meditative activity itself, which leads to experiences of expressions of soul-spiritual beings unmediated by sensory phenomena or qualities. Steiner calls this stage Inspiration.
* By intensifying the will-forces through exercises such as a chronologically reversed review of the day's events, the meditant can achieve a further stage of inner independence from sensory experience, leading to direct contact, and even union, with spiritual beings ("Intuition") without loss of individual awareness.{{sfn|Willmann|2001|pp10-13}}Spiritual exercises
{{Main|Rudolf Steiner's exercises for spiritual development}}
Steiner described numerous exercises he believed would bring spiritual development; other anthroposophists have added many others. A central principle is that "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development." According to Steiner, moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over one's inner life and can exercise it in harmony with the spiritual life of other people; it shows the real progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception. It also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions (which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world) and true perceptions: i.e., the capacity to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements (i.e., viewpoint) and objective reality.<ref name"Schneider" />Place in Western philosophySteiner built upon Goethe's conception of an imaginative power capable of synthesizing the sense-perceptible form of a thing (an image of its outer appearance) and the concept we have of that thing (an image of its inner structure or nature). Steiner added to this the conception that a further step in the development of thinking is possible when the thinker observes his or her own thought processes. "The organ of observation and the observed thought process are then identical, so that the condition thus arrived at is simultaneously one of perception through thinking and one of thought through perception."<ref name"Schneider" />
Thus, in Steiner's view, we can overcome the subject-object divide through inner activity, even though all human experience begins by being conditioned by it. In this connection, Steiner examines the step from thinking determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking. He characterizes thoughts he considers without sensory content, such as mathematical or logical thoughts, as free deeds. Steiner believed he had thus located the origin of free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking.<ref name="Schneider" />
Some of the epistemic basis for Steiner's later anthroposophical work is contained in the seminal work, Philosophy of Freedom.<ref name"Pifer 1991 p. ">{{Cite book |lastPifer |firstEllen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjVP559h--0wC |titleSaul Bellow Against the Grain |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated |year1991 |isbn978-0-8122-1369-0 |seriesPenn Studies in Contemporary American Fiction |access-date16 March 2024}} See also Steiner's doctoral thesis, Truth and Science</ref> In his early works, Steiner sought to overcome what he perceived as the dualism of Cartesian idealism and Kantian subjectivism by developing Goethe's conception of the human being as a natural-supernatural entity, that is: natural in that humanity is a product of nature, supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend nature's realm, allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy, art and science.<ref name"Tarnas">{{Cite book |lastTarnas |firstRichard |titleThe Passion of the Western Mind |date1996 |publisherRandom House |isbn0-7126-7332-6 |publication-placeLondon}}</ref> Steiner was one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split in Western thought.<ref name"Tarnas" /> Though not well known among philosophers, his philosophical work was taken up by Owen Barfield (and through him influenced the Inklings, an Oxford group of Christian writers that included J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis).<ref name"Myers 1994 p. ">{{Cite book |lastMyers |firstDoris T. |titleC.S. Lewis in Context |date1994 |publisherKent State University Press |isbn978-0-87338-617-3 |publication-placeKent, Ohio}}</ref>
Christian and Jewish mystical thought have also influenced the development of anthroposophy.<ref>Hans-Jürgen Bader, Lorenzo Ravagli, Rudolf Steiner als aktiver Gegner des Antisemitismus, Bund der Freien Waldorfschulen, 2005</ref><ref name"Paddock Spiegler 2003 p. ">{{Cite book |last1Paddock |first1Fred |titleJudaism and Anthroposophy |last2Spiegler |first2Mado |date2003 |publisherSteinerBooks |isbn978-0-88010-510-1 |publication-placeGreat Barrington (Mass.)}}</ref>
Union of science and spirit
Steiner believed in the possibility of applying the clarity of scientific thinking to spiritual experience, which he saw as deriving from an objectively existing spiritual world.<ref name"Lindenberg">Christoph Lindenberg, Rudolf Steiner, Rowohlt 1992, {{ISBN|3-499-50500-2}}</ref>{{rp|77ff}} Steiner identified mathematics, which attains certainty through thinking itself, thus through inner experience rather than empirical observation,<ref>Albert Einstein, [http://www.tu-harburg.de/rzt/rzt/it/Geometry.html Geometry and Experience] {{webarchive|urlhttp://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011124171015/http%3A//www.tu%2Dharburg.de/rzt/rzt/it/geometry.html |date=2001-11-24 }}</ref> as the basis of his epistemology of spiritual experience.<ref>Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy and Science, lecture of March 16, 1921</ref>
Anthroposophy regards mainstream science as Ahrimanic.<ref name"Ahrimanic">Sources for 'Ahrimanic':{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtfOUcjMD-WUC&pgPT34 |titleKarma of Materialism: 9 Lectures, Berlin, July 31–Sept. 25, 1917 (CW 176) |publisherSteinerBooks |year1985 |isbn978-1-62151-025-3 |pageunpaginated |chapter1. Forgotten Aspects of Cultural Life |quoteThe whole content of natural science is ahrimanic and will only lose its ahrimanic nature when it becomes imbued with life. |access-date15 March 2024 |chapter-urlhttps://rsarchive.org/Lectures/GA176/English/AP1985/19170731p01.html}}|{{cite book | last1Steiner | first1Rudolf | last2Meuss | first2Anna R. | titleThe Fall of the Spirits of Darkness | publisherRudolf Steiner Press | year1993 | isbn978-1-85584-010-2 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwgc6fjIeFVUC&pgPA161 | access-date16 March 2024 | pages160–161}}|{{cite book | last1Steiner | first1Rudolf | last2Barton | first2Matthew | titleThe Incarnation of Ahriman: The Embodiment of Evil on Earth | publisherRudolf Steiner Press | year2013 | isbn978-1-85584-278-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqR9FDwAAQBAJ&pgPA54 | access-date16 March 2024 | pages53–54}}|{{cite book | last1Wachsmuth | first1Guenther | last2Garber | first2Bernard J. | last3Wannamaker | first3Olin D. | last4Raab | first4Reginald E. | titleThe Life and Work of Rudolf Steiner: From the Turn of the Century to His Death | publisherSteinerBooks | year1995 | isbn978-1-62151-053-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUE_Dfrpi4-wC&pgPT445 | access-date15 March 2024 | pageunpaginated | quoteand all external science, to the extent that it is not spiritual science, is Ahrimanic.}}|{{cite journal | lastAl-Faruqi | firstIsmail Il Raji | journalBiosciences Communications | publisherS. Karger | volume3 | issue1 | year1977 | titleMoral values in medicine and science | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id09hEAAAAYAAJ | access-date15 March 2024 | pages56–58 | issn0302-2781 | quoteMedical science is Ahrimanic in that it treats the body solely as a mechanism, having no knowledge of or concern with the etheric structure, that invisible field of force and energy which all too often is found to be the seat of disease.}}|{{cite book | lastProkofieff | firstSergei O. | titleThe Case of Valentin Tomberg: Anthroposophy Or Jesuitism? | publisherTemple Lodge | year1998 | isbn978-0-904693-85-0 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI-9Rq81-xGwC&pgPA118 | access-date15 March 2024 | page118}}|{{cite book | lastYounis | firstAndrei | titleIslam in Relation to the Christ Impulse: A Search for Reconciliation between Christianity and Islam | publisherSteinerBooks | year2015 | isbn978-1-58420-185-4 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5X95CgAAQBAJ&pgPT57 | access-date16 March 2024 | pageunpaginated | quoteSteiner emphasized that, when this deadened wisdom of Gondishapur began to spread in Europe, an ahrimanic, or ahrimanically inspired, natural science began to emerge.}}|{{cite book | lastSelg | firstPeter | titleThe Future of Ahriman and the Awakening of Souls: The Spirit-Presence of the Mystery Dramas | publisherRudolf Steiner Press | year2022 | isbn978-1-912230-92-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEi1qEAAAQBAJ&pgPA12 | access-date16 March 2024 | page12}}|{{cite journal |last1Beck |first1John H. |author-link1 |display-authors|author-mask |name-list-style|dateFebruary 2007 |orig-date|editor1-lastSpiegler |editor1-firstMado |display-editors |titleChrist and Sophia: Anthroposophic Meditations on the Old Testament, New Testament, and Apocalypse by Valentin Tomberg SteinerBooks, 2006, 432 pgs. Review by John H. Beck |script-title |trans-title|urlhttps://cdm16694.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/api/collection/nyrud/id/387/download |format|department |journalRudolf Steiner Library Newsletter |type |series|language |edition|volume41 |issue|pages7–12 |no-pp|arxiv |asin|bibcode |bibcode-access|biorxiv |citeseerx|doi |doi-access|issn |jfm|jstor |jstor-access|lccn |mr|oclc |ol|ol-access |osti|osti-access |pmc|pmid |rfc|ssrn |zbl|id |via|url-access |access-date|quoteScience is Ahrimanic in so far as it is objective; Christian mysticism is Luciferic in so far as it is subjective. }}}}</ref>
Relationship to religion
Christ as the center of earthly evolution
Steiner's writing, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes Western tradition as having evolved to meet contemporary needs.<ref name"Lachman" /> He describes Christ and his mission on earth of bringing individuated consciousness as having a particularly important place in human evolution,<ref name"Essential" /> whereby:<ref name="Willmann" />
*Christianity has evolved out of previous religions;
*The being which manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions, and each religion is valid and true for the time and cultural context in which it was born;
*All historical forms of Christianity need to be transformed considerably to meet the continuing evolution of humanity.
{{Blockquote|Spiritual science does not want to usurp the place of Christianity; on the contrary it would like to be instrumental in making Christianity understood. Thus it becomes clear to us through spiritual science that the being whom we call Christ is to be recognized as the center of life on earth, that the Christian religion is the ultimate religion for the earth's whole future. Spiritual science shows us particularly that the pre-Christian religions outgrow their one-sidedness and come together in the Christian faith. It is not the desire of spiritual science to set something else in the place of Christianity; rather it wants to contribute to a deeper, more heartfelt understanding of Christianity.<ref>Rudolf Steiner,[http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/AntChr_index.html "Anthroposophy and Christianity"]</ref>}}
Thus, anthroposophy considers there to be a being who unifies all religions, and who is not represented by any particular religious faith. This being is, according to Steiner, not only the Redeemer of the Fall from Paradise, but also the unique pivot and meaning of earth's evolutionary processes and of human history.<ref name"Willmann" /> To describe this being, Steiner periodically used terms such as the "Representative of Humanity" or the "good spirit"<ref>{{Cite book |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |titleThe foundations of human experience |publisherAnthroposophic Press |year1996 |isbn978-0-88010-392-3 |page34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastSteiner |firstRudolf |dateDecember 16, 1908 |titleA Chapter of Occult History |urlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/19081216p01.html}}</ref> rather than any denominational term.Divergence from conventional Christian thoughtSteiner's views of Christianity diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include gnostic{{efn-lr|Gnosticism meaning "In the broadest sense of the term this is any spiritual teaching that says that spiritual knowledge (Greek: gnosis) or wisdom (sophia) rather than doctrinal faith (pistis) or some ritual practice is the main route to supreme spiritual attainment."<ref name"McClelland 2018 p. ">{{Cite book |lastMcClelland |firstNorman C. |titleEncyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |date15 October 2018 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-5675-8 |page100 |chapterGnosticism |quoteIn the broadest sense of the term this is any spiritual teaching that says that spiritual knowledge (Greek: gnosis) or wisdom (sophia) rather than doctrinal faith (pistis) or some ritual practice is the main route to supreme spiritual attainment. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS_Leq4U5ihkC&dqgnosticism+reincarnation&pg=PA100}}</ref>}} elements:
* One central point of divergence is Steiner's views on reincarnation and karma.
* Steiner differentiated three contemporary paths by which he believed it possible to arrive at Christ:
** Through heart-felt experiences of the Gospels; Steiner described this as the historically dominant path, but becoming less important in the future.
** Through inner experiences of a spiritual reality; this Steiner regarded as increasingly the path of spiritual or religious seekers today.
** Through initiatory experiences whereby the reality of Christ's death and resurrection are experienced; Steiner believed this is the path people will increasingly take.<ref name="Willmann" />
* Steiner also believed that there were two different Jesus children involved in the Incarnation of the Christ: one child descended from Solomon, as described in the Gospel of Matthew, the other child from Nathan, as described in the Gospel of Luke.<ref name"Essential" /><ref name"aspremthesis" /><ref name"x337">{{Cite book |lastJohnson |firstMarshall D. |titleThe Purpose of the Biblical Genealogies with Special Reference to the Setting of the Genealogies of Jesus |date1969 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-07317-2 |editor-lastBlack |editor-firstMatthew |publication-placeLondon |page=144}}</ref> (The genealogies given in the two gospels diverge some thirty generations before Jesus' birth, and 'Jesus' was a common name in biblical times.)
* His view of the second coming of Christ is also unusual; he suggested that this would not be a physical reappearance, but that the Christ being would become manifest in non-physical form, visible to spiritual vision and apparent in community life for increasing numbers of people beginning around the year 1933.<ref>Rudolf Steiner, [http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/ReapChrist/19100125p01.html "The Appearance of Christ in the Etheric World"]</ref>
* He emphasized his belief that in the future humanity would need to be able to recognize the Spirit of Love in all its genuine forms, regardless of what name would be used to describe this being. He also warned that the traditional name of the Christ might be misused, and the true essence of this being of love ignored.
{{blockquote|Theosophy, together with its continental sister, Anthroposophy... are pure Gnosticism in Hindu dress...<ref name"Robertson 2021 p. 57">{{Cite book |lastRobertson |firstDavid G. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB6s5EAAAQBAJ&pgPA57 |titleGnosticism and the History of Religions |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |year2021 |isbn978-1-350-13770-7 |seriesScientific Studies of Religion: Inquiry and Explanation |page57 |quoteTheosophy, together with its continental sister, Anthroposophy... are pure Gnosticism in Hindu dress... |access-date3 January 2023}}</ref>|C.G. Jung}}
According to Jane Gilmer, "Jung and Steiner were both versed in ancient gnosis and both envisioned a paradigmatic shift in the way it was delivered."<ref name"Gilmer 2021 p. 41">{{Cite book |lastGilmer |firstJane |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmUAvEAAAQBAJ&pgPA41 |titleThe Alchemical Actor |publisherBrill |year2021 |isbn978-90-04-44942-8 |seriesConsciousness, Literature and the Arts |page41 |quoteJung and Steiner were both versed in ancient gnosis and both envisioned a paradigmatic shift in the way it was delivered. |access-date3 January 2023}}</ref>
As Gilles Quispel put it, "After all, Theosophy is a pagan, Anthroposophy a Christian form of modern Gnosis."<ref name"Layton 1980 p. ">Sources for 'Quispel':{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |lastQuispel |firstGilles |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMBTXAAAAMAAJ |titleThe Rediscovery of Gnosticism: The school of Valentinus |publisherE.J. Brill |year1980 |isbn978-90-04-06176-7 |editor-lastLayton |editor-firstBentley |seriesStudies in the history of religions : Supplements to Numen |page123 |quoteAfter all, Theosophy is a pagan, Anthroposophy a Christian form of modern Gnosis. |access-date3 January 2023}}|{{cite book | last1Quispel | first1Gilles | last2Oort | first2Johannes van | titleGnostica, Judaica, Catholica. Collected Essays of Gilles Quispel | publisherBrill | seriesNag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies | year2008 | isbn978-90-474-4182-3 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2u15DwAAQBAJ&pgPA370 | access-date3 January 2023 | page=370}}}}</ref>
Maria Carlson stated "Theosophy and Anthroposophy are fundamentally Gnostic systems in that they posit the dualism of Spirit and Matter."<ref name"Livak 2018 p. 58">{{Cite book |lastCarlson |firstMaria |titleA Reader's Guide to Andrei Bely's "petersburg |publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press |year2018 |isbn978-0-299-31930-4 |editor-lastLivak |editor-firstLeonid |page58 |chapterPetersburg and Modern Occultism |quoteTheosophy and Anthroposophy are fundamentally Gnostic systems in that they posit the dualism of Spirit and Matter. |access-date3 January 2023 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyS93DwAAQBAJ&pgPA58}}</ref> She also stated that Theosophy and Anthroposophy "are both modern gnostic doctrines."<ref name"d438">{{cite book | lastCarlson | firstMaria | editor-lastKornblatt | editor-firstJudith Deutsch | editor-last2Gustafson | editor-first2Richard F. | titleRussian Religious Thought | publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press | seriesRussian studies: Religion | year1996 | isbn978-0-299-15134-8 | chapterGnostic Elements in Soloviev's Cosmogony | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAqwGUM4tFoEC&pgPA53 | access-date17 November 2024 | page53}}</ref>
R. McL. Wilson in The Oxford Companion to the Bible agrees that Steiner and Anthroposophy are under the influence of gnosticism.<ref name"Metzger Coogan 1993 p. 256">{{Cite book |lastMcL. Wilson |firstRobert |titleThe Oxford Companion to the Bible |publisherOxford University Press |year1993 |isbn978-0-19-974391-9 |editor-lastMetzger |editor-firstBruce M. |seriesOxford Companions |page256 |chapterGnosticism |quoteGnosticism has often been regarded as bizarre and outlandish, and certainly it is not easily understood until it is examined in its contemporary setting. It was, however, no mere playing with words and ideas, but a serious attempt to resolve real problems: the nature and destiny of the human race, the problem of *evil, the human predicament. To a gnostic it brought a release and joy and hope, as if awakening from a nightmare. One later offshoot, Manicheism, became for a time a world religion, reaching as far as China, and there are at least elements of gnosticism in such medieval movements as those of the Bogomiles and the Cathari. Gnostic influence has been seen in various works of modern literature, such as those of William Blake and W. B. Yeats, and is also to be found in the Theosophy of Madame Blavatsky and the Anthroposophy of Rudolph Steiner. Gnosticism was of lifelong interest to the psychologist C. G. *Jung, and one of the Nag Hammadi codices (the Jung Codex) was for a time in the Jung Institute in Zurich. |access-date3 January 2023 |editor-last2Coogan |editor-first2Michael D. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY2KGVuym5OUC&pg=PA256}}</ref>
Robert A. McDermott says Anthroposophy belongs to Christian Rosicrucianism.<ref name"Eliade 1987 p. ">{{Cite book |lastMcDermott |firstRobert A. |titleThe Encyclopedia of Religion |date1987 |publisherMacmillan Reference USA |isbn0-02-909700-2 |editor-lastEliade |editor-firstMircea |publication-placeNew York |page320 |chapterAnthroposophy}}</ref> According to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Rudolf Steiner "blended modern Theosophy with a Gnostic form of Christianity, Rosicrucianism, and German Naturphilosophie".<ref name"Steiner Seddon Goodrick-Clarke 2004 p. 7">{{Cite book |last1Steiner |first1Rudolf |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDkw96EUVPfwC&pgPA7 |titleRudolf Steiner |last2Seddon |first2Richard |last3Goodrick-Clarke |first3Nicholas |publisherNorth Atlantic Books |year2004 |isbn978-1-55643-490-7 |seriesWestern Esoteric Masters |page7 |languageen |quote"blended modern Theosophy with a Gnostic form of Christianity, Rosicrucianism, and German Naturphilosophie" |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref>
Geoffrey Ahern states that Anthroposophy belongs to neo-gnosticism broadly conceived, which he identifies with Western esotericism and occultism.<ref name"Ahern 2009 p. 11">{{Cite book |lastAhern |firstGeoffrey |titleSun at Midnight |publisherJames Clarke Company |year2009 |isbn978-0-227-17293-3 |publication-placeCambridge |page11 |orig-year1984}}</ref>
Stefanie von Schnurbein briefly agrees that Steiner propagated Gnostic Christianity.<ref name"i639">{{cite book | lastSchnurbein | firstStefanie von | titleNorse Revival: Transformations of Germanic Neopaganism | publisherBRILL | publication-placeBoston | date2016 | isbn978-90-04-30951-7 | pages=34–35 fn. 57}}</ref>
{{blockquote|1Was Steiner a Gnostic? Yes and no. Yes, from the point of view that he offered insights and methods for a personal experience of Christ. I have formulated this aspect of his work as his hermeneutical key: 'not I, but Christ in me'. No, from the point of view that he was not trying to reestablish Gnosticism's practices into a neo-gnostic tradition. Steiner was, in his times, well aware of concerns articulated more recently by Pope Francis about the two subtle enemies of holiness, contemporary Gnosticism and contemporary Pelagianism.<ref>{{Cite thesis |lastSamson |firstMartin |titleThe Christology of Rudolf Steiner |date2023 |degreePhD |publisherFlinders University |urlhttps://flex.flinders.edu.au/items/4cb1a804-963e-4a75-8b02-69bcfaa63110/1/?.vifile&attachment.uuidc450e767-a595-4981-a4b7-546ae735f46b |page180}}</ref>|2{{harvnb|Samson|2023|p=180}}}}
{{blockquote|1Granted that Steiner included Gnostic elements in his cosmological reinterpretation of Christianity, many of them from the Pistis Sophia, Steiner was not a Gnostic in the sense of someone who held that the world was ruled by a demiurge, that matter was evil, or that it was possible to escape from this fallen universe by acquiring secret spiritual knowledge. To characterize the structure of his thought as derived from Syrio-Egyptian gnosis (Ahern 2010) may be too strong and plays down the fact that he was critical of early Gnostic Christianity as having no adequate idea of Jesus as a man of flesh and blood.<ref name"v029">{{Cite book |lastHudson |firstWayne |titleThe gnostic world |date2019 |publisherRoutledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn978-1-315-56160-8 |editor-lastTrompf |editor-firstGarry W. |publication-placeLondon; New York |page510 |chapterRudolf Steiner: Multiple bodies |editor-last2Mikkelsen |editor-first2Gunner B. |editor-last3Johnston |editor-first3Jay}} apud {{harvnb|Samson|2023|p56}}</ref>|2{{harvnb|Hudson|2019|p510}}}}
According to Catholic scholars Anthroposophy belongs to the New Age.<ref name"q189">{{Cite journal |last1G.K. Chesterton Society |last2G.K. Chesterton Institute for Faith & Culture |dateFebruary–May 2000 |titleA conference on New Age and Christian spirituality |urlhttp://www.cultura.va/content/dam/cultura/docs/pdf/Rivista/2001-2.pdf |journalThe Chesterton Review |publisherG.K. Chesterton Society, 1974- G.K. Chesterton Institute for Faith & Culture |publication-placeSaskatoon, Saskatchewan; South Orange, New Jersey |volumeXXVI |issue1&2 |issn0317-0500 |oclc2247651 |quoteOne needs to recognise several things in New Age in order not to over-react: it is not monolithic; it is not a den of demons; nor is it a den of fools. Three main currents need to be taken very seriously, even if they reject being included in the broad term New Age. They are René Guénon’s tariqa or school of intellectual Sufism, Rudolf Steiner’s anthroposophy and 'the Work', devised by Georges Ivanovitch Gurdjieff.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Pontifical Council for Culture |last2Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue |titleJesus Christ the bearer of the water of life. A Christian reflection on the "New Age" |urlhttps://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_new-age_en.html |access-date18 May 2024 |websitevatican.va |publisherThe Catholic Church |quoteThe Age of Aquarius has such a high profile in the New Age movement largely because of the influence of theosophy, spiritualism and anthroposophy, and their esoteric antecedents. |location=The State of Vatican}}</ref>
Elizabeth Dipple stated that Rudolf Steiner's system was a "neo-Platonic, semi-Gnostic, occult anthroposophical system [...] with its allegiance to mystical Christianity, Rosicrucianism and certain versions of spiritualism [...]".<ref name"y640">{{cite book | lastDipple | firstElizabeth | titleThe Unresolvable Plot: Reading Contemporary Fiction | publisherTaylor & Francis | seriesRoutledge Library Editions: Modern Fiction | year2019 | isbn978-1-000-63913-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMyGzDwAAQBAJ&pgPT328 | access-date17 November 2024 | page=unpaginated}}</ref>
Carl Abrahamsson stated that Steiner posited a gnostic Christ.<ref name"a836">{{cite book | last1Abrahamsson | first1Carl | last2Lachman | first2Gary | titleOcculture: The Unseen Forces That Drive Culture Forward | publisherInner Traditions/Bear | year2018 | isbn978-1-62055-704-4 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddt0zDwAAQBAJ&pgPT82 | access-date17 November 2024 | pageunpaginated | quote=This gnostic Christ principle balances the ungrounded [...]}}</ref>
Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke described Anthroposophy as a [modern] offshoot of Ancient Gnosticism, especially of "the aeons of the Valentinian pleroma".<ref name"b670">{{cite book | firstNicholas | lastGoodrick-Clarke | editor-lastHammer | editor-firstOlav | editor-last2Rothstein | editor-first2Mikael | titleHandbook of the Theosophical Current | publisherBrill | seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion | year2013 | isbn978-90-04-23597-7 | chapterWestern Esoteric Traditions and Theosophy | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0VozAQAAQBAJ&pgPA301 | access-date17 November 2024 | page301}}</ref>
Steiner's theology is "redemption through sin", he accuses good Christians of killing the spirit of Christianity.{{sfn|Lazier|2008|p208 fn. 6}}JudaismRudolf Steiner wrote and lectured on Judaism and Jewish issues over much of his adult life. He was a fierce opponent of popular antisemitism, but asserted that there was no justification for the existence of Judaism and Jewish culture in the modern world, a radical assimilationist perspective which saw the Jews completely integrating into the larger society.<ref>Jan-Erik Ebbestad Hansen, [https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/8831 The Jews – Teachers of the Nazis?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180419210521/https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/8831 |date2018-04-19 }} In: NORDEUROPAforum. Journal for the Study of Culture. Yearbook 2015. Humboldt University Berlin. {{ISSN|1863-639X}}.</ref><ref name"Peter">{{cite journal|firstPeter|lastStaudenmaier|urlhttps://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1080&contexthist_fac|titleRudolf Steiner and the Jewish Question|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170916050406/http://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1080&contexthist_fac|archive-date2017-09-16|journalLeo Baeck Institute Yearbook|volume50|issue1|year2005|pages127–147|doi10.1093/leobaeck/50.1.127|issn0075-8744}}</ref><ref name"Ralf">Ralf Sonnenberg, [http://www.hagalil.com/antisemitismus/deutschland/steiner.htm "Judentum, Zionismus und Antisemitismus aus der Sicht Rudolf Steiners"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203070920/http://www.hagalil.com/antisemitismus/deutschland/steiner.htm |date2014-02-03 }}</ref> He also supported Émile Zola's position in the Dreyfus affair.<ref name=Ralf/> Steiner emphasized Judaism's central importance to the constitution of the modern era in the West but suggested that to appreciate the spirituality of the future it would need to overcome its tendency toward abstraction.
Steiner financed the publication of the book Die Entente-Freimaurerei und der Weltkrieg (1919) by {{ill|Karl Heise|de}}; Steiner also wrote the foreword for the book, partly based upon his own ideas.<ref name"Piraino Pasi Asprem 2022 p. 126">{{Cite book |lastFrench |firstAaron |titleReligious Dimensions of Conspiracy Theories: Comparing and Connecting Old and New Trends |publisherRoutledge |year2022 |isbn978-1-000-78268-4 |editor-lastPiraino |editor-firstFrancesco |publication-placeLondon |pages107–123 |chapterEsoteric Nationalism and Conspiracism in WWI |doi10.4324/9781003120940-8 |quoteOne man inspired by Steiner's lectures during World War I was the enigmatic Karl Heise, who, in 1918, published a now classic work of anti-Masonry and anti-Judaism entitled Die Entente-Freimaurerei und der Weltkrieg, which was partially backed by Steiner, who wrote a cagey introduction to the first edition, very cautiously choosing his words and not signing his name (Zander, 2007, p. 991). |access-date2024-03-01 |editor-last2Pasi |editor-first2Marco |editor-last3Asprem |editor-first3Egil |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idksKZEAAAQBAJ&pgPT126}}</ref>{{sfn|Zander|2007|pp991–992|ps: "Ein weiteres Motiv könnte in der Kollision von Steiners Freimaureraktivitäten mit seinem deutschen Patriotismus liegen (s. 14.3.1). Nach dem Krieg nannte Steiner diesen Punkt sehr deutlich, als er in Karl Heises »Die Entente-Freimaurerei und der Weltkrieg«, in der es um die Kriegsschuldfrage ging{{sup|178}}, ein nicht gezeichnetes, auf den 10. Oktober 1918 datiertes Vorwort verfaßte, sich also einen Monat vor dem Waffenstillstand und inmitten des Zusammenbruchs des Deutschen Reiches äußerte. »Die Geheimgesellschaften der Entente-Länder«, hieß es dort, hätten eine »die Weltkatastrophe vorbereitende politische Gesinnung und Beeinflussung der Weltereignisse« an den Tag gelegt. Bei der Suche nach der »Schuld am Weltkriege« habe man auch an die Freimaurer zu denken. Dies war nicht nur eine reduktive Lösung der »Kriegsschuldfrage« im Jahr 1918, sondern möglicherweise auch ein Hinweis auf seine Motivlage im Jahr 1914: Steiner hätte sich dann aus Solidarität mit Deutschland aus dem Internationalismus der Freimaurerei verabschiedet{{sup|179}}. Andere theosophische Gesellschaften haben diesen Schnitt übrigens nicht so deutlich vollzogen{{sup|180}}."}}{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p96|ps: "The foremost example of a full-fledged antisemitic conspiracy theory based squarely on anthroposophist premises was Karl Heise's 1919 tome blaming the World War on a cabal of freemasons and Jews. Heise wrote the book with Steiner's encouragement and founded its argument on Steiner's own teachings, while Steiner himself wrote the foreword and contributed a substantial sum toward publication costs.{{sup|101}}"}} The publication comprised a conspiracy theory according to whom World War I was a consequence of a collusion of Freemasons and Jews – still favorite scapegoats of the conspiracy theorists – their purpose being the destruction of Germany. Fact is that Steiner spent a large sum of money for publishing{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|p96|ps: "The foremost example of a full-fledged antisemitic conspiracy theory based squarely on anthroposophist premises was Karl Heise's 1919 tome blaming the World War on a cabal of freemasons and Jews. Heise wrote the book with Steiner's encouragement and founded its argument on Steiner's own teachings, while Steiner himself wrote the foreword and contributed a substantial sum toward publication costs.{{sup|101}}"}} "a now classic work of anti-Masonry and anti-Judaism".<ref name"Piraino Pasi Asprem 2022 p. 126" /> The writing was later enthusiastically received by the Nazi Party.{{sfn|Zander|2007|pp306, 991–992}}{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2014|pp=96–97}}
In his later life, Steiner was accused by the Nazis of being Jewish, and Adolf Hitler called anthroposophy "Jewish methods". The anthroposophical institutions in Germany were banned during Nazi rule and several anthroposophists sent to concentration camps.<ref name="Staudenmaierthesis" /><ref>Lorenzo Ravagli, Unter Hammer und Hakenkreuz: Der völkisch-nationalsozialistische Kampf gegen die Anthroposophie, Verlag Freies Geistesleben, {{ISBN|3-7725-1915-6}}</ref>
Important early anthroposophists who were Jewish included two central members on the executive boards of the precursors to the modern Anthroposophical Society,<ref>[http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/detail.php?&id24 Adolf Arenson] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402181944/http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/detail.php?&id24 |date2015-04-02 }} (board member 1904–1913) and [http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/detail.php?&id724 Carl Unger] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402131232/http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/detail.php?&id724 |date2015-04-02 }} (board member 1908–1923)</ref> and Karl König, the founder of the Camphill movement, who had converted to Christianity.{{sfn|Paddock|Spiegler|2003|pp125–126}} Martin Buber and Hugo Bergmann, who viewed Steiner's social ideas as a solution to the Arab–Jewish conflict, were also influenced by anthroposophy.<ref name"Paddock Spiegler 2003 p. " /> The non-Aryan, the non-German, and the antifascist members of the direction board of the Anthroposophical Society were purged from it; it is unclear if that happened due to Nazi ideology or for other reasons, but the purge clearly brought the Anthroposophic Society closer to Nazism.{{sfn|McKanan|2017|pp=33–34, 196}}
There are numerous anthroposophical organisations in Israel, including the anthroposophical kibbutz Harduf, founded by Jesaiah Ben-Aharon, forty Waldorf kindergartens and seventeen Waldorf schools (as of 2018).<ref>{{Cite web |titleStatistics for Waldorf schools worldwide |urlhttp://www.freunde-waldorf.de/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Waldorf_World_List/Waldorf_World_List.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191212024849/https://www.freunde-waldorf.de/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Waldorf_World_List/Waldorf_World_List.pdf |archive-date2019-12-12 |access-date2018-06-13}}</ref> A number of these organizations are striving to foster positive relationships between the Arab and Jewish populations: The Harduf Waldorf school includes both Jewish and Arab faculty and students, and has extensive contact with the surrounding Arab communities, while the first joint Arab-Jewish kindergarten was a Waldorf program in Hilf near Haifa.
Christian Community
{{Main|Christian Community}}
Towards the end of Steiner's life, a group of theology students (primarily Lutheran, with some Roman Catholic members) approached Steiner for help in reviving Christianity, in particular "to bridge the widening gulf between modern science and the world of spirit".<ref name"Essential" /> They approached a notable Lutheran pastor, Friedrich Rittelmeyer, who was already working with Steiner's ideas, to join their efforts. Out of their co-operative endeavor, the Movement for Religious Renewal, now generally known as The Christian Community, was born. Steiner emphasized that he considered this movement, and his role in creating it, to be independent of his anthroposophical work,<ref name"Essential" /> as he wished anthroposophy to be independent of any particular religion or religious denomination.<ref name"Willmann" />ReceptionAnthroposophy's supporters include Saul Bellow,<ref name":0">{{Cite news |lastFulford |firstRobert |date23 October 2000 |titleBellow: the novelist as homespun philosopher |urlhttp://www.robertfulford.com/SaulBellow.html |access-date16 March 2024 |workThe National Post}}</ref> Selma Lagerlöf,<ref name":1">{{Cite book |lastKugler |firstWalter |titleFeindbild Steiner |date2001 |publisherVerl. Freies Geistesleben & Urachhaus |isbn978-3-7725-1918-5 |publication-placeStuttgart |page61 |languagede}}</ref> Andrei Bely,<ref name":2">{{Cite web |lastLiukkonen |firstPetri |titleAndrey Bely |urlhttp://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bely.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020610132804/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bely.htm |archive-date2002-06-10 |websiteBooks and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |publisherKuusankoski Public Library |locationFinland}}</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite journal |lastElsworth |firstJ. D. |year1983 |titleAndrej Bely: A Critical Study of the Novels |journalThe Russian Review |volume45 |issue1 |pages53–55 |jstor129408}}</ref> Joseph Beuys,<ref name":4">{{Cite magazine |lastJohn F. Moffitt |dateSpring 1991 |titleOccultism in Avant-Garde Art: The Case of Joseph Beuys |magazineArt Journal |pages96–98 |volume50 |number1}}</ref> Owen Barfield, architect Walter Burley Griffin,<ref nameWBGriffin/> Wassily Kandinsky,<ref name":6">{{Cite magazine |lastPeg Weiss |dateSummer 1997 |titleKandinsky and Old Russia: The Artist as Ethnographer and Shaman |magazineThe Slavic and East European Journal |pages371–373 |volume41 |number2}}</ref><ref name":7">{{Cite web |lastDavid Hier |titleKandinsky: The Path to Abstraction 1908–1922 |urlhttp://www.artsablaze.co.uk/News/kandinsky.htm |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131014210937/http://www.artsablaze.co.uk/News/kandinsky.htm |archive-date2013-10-14 |access-date2013-12-31 |websiteArts Ablaze}}</ref> Andrei Tarkovsky,<ref name":8">{{Cite web |lastLayla Alexander Garrett |titleAndrey Tarkovsky-Enigma and Mystery |urlhttp://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Layla.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090927213535/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Layla.html |archive-date2009-09-27 |access-date2013-12-31 |websiteNostalghia}}</ref> Bruno Walter,<ref name":9">Bruno Walter, "Mein Weg zur Anthroposophie". In: Das Goetheanum 52 (1961), 418–2</ref> Right Livelihood Award winners Sir George Trevelyan,<ref name":10">B J Nesfield-Cookson, [http://www.sirgeorgetrevelyan.org.uk/mem-steiner.html "Rudolf Steiner"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924102200/http://www.sirgeorgetrevelyan.org.uk/mem-steiner.html |date2015-09-24 }} from Sir George Trevelyan: thoughts and writings</ref> and Ibrahim Abouleish,<ref name"Abouleish 2005 p. ">{{Cite book |lastAbouleish |firstIbrahim |titleSekem: A Sustainable Community in the Egyptian Desert |date2005 |publisherFloris Books |isbn0-86315-532-4 |publication-placeEdinburgh |oclcocm61302498}}</ref> and child psychiatrist Eva Frommer.<ref name"Frommer 1995 p. ">{{Cite book |lastFrommer |firstEva A. |titleVoyage Through Childhood Into the Adult World – A Guide to Child Development |publisherRudolph Steiner Press |year1995 |isbn978-1-869890-59-9}}</ref><ref name":13">Fiona Subotsky, [http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/29/5/197.1 Eva Frommer (Obituary)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161226055842/http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/29/5/197.1 |date2016-12-26 }}, 29 April 2005. {{doi|10.1192/pb.29.5.197}}</ref>
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has termed anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history."<ref nameHammer/> However authors, scientists, and physicians including Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized anthroposophy's application in the areas of medicine, biology, agriculture, and education to be dangerous and pseudoscientific.<ref name"dangerous" /> Others including former Waldorf pupil Dan Dugan and historian Geoffrey Ahern have criticized anthroposophy itself as a dangerous quasi-religious movement that is fundamentally anti-rational and anti-scientific.<ref>Sources for 'anti-rational' or 'anti-scientific':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Dugan|2007|pp74–76}}|{{harvnb|Ruse|2013a|pp128–}}|{{Cite news |lastWilliams |firstLee |date8 November 2016 |titlesteiner schools |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/steiner-schools-have-some-questionable-lessons-for-todays-children-a7402911.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601025031/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/steiner-schools-have-some-questionable-lessons-today-s-children-a7402911.html |archive-date1 June 2021 |access-date29 November 2018 |workThe Independent}}|{{harvnb|Dugan|2002|p32}}|{{harvnb|Ahern|2009}}}}</ref>Scientific basisThough Rudolf Steiner studied natural science at the Vienna Technical University at the undergraduate level, his doctorate was in epistemology and very little of his work is directly concerned with the empirical sciences. In his mature work, when he did refer to science it was often to present phenomenological or Goethean science as an alternative to what he considered the materialistic science of his contemporaries.<ref nameHammer/>
Steiner's primary interest was in applying the methodology of science to realms of inner experience and the spiritual worlds (his appreciation that the essence of science is its method of inquiry is unusual among esotericists<ref nameHammer/>), and Steiner called anthroposophy Geisteswissenschaft (science of the mind, cultural/spiritual science), a term generally used in German to refer to the humanities and social sciences.<ref>{{Cite web |titlePhilolex entry |urlhttp://www.philolex.de/geistwis.htm |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110222130/http://www.philolex.de/geistwis.htm |archive-date2013-11-10 |access-date2013-12-31 |publisherPhilolex.de}}</ref>
Whether this is a sufficient basis for anthroposophy to be considered a spiritual science has been a matter of controversy.<ref name"Willmann">{{Cite journal |lastWillmann |firstCarlo |year2001 |titleWaldorfpädagogik: Theologische und religionspädagogische Befunde |journalKölner Veröffentlichungen zur Religionsgeschichte |languagede |publisherBöhlau |publication-placeKöln Weimar Wien |volume27 |isbn978-3-412-16700-4 |issn0030-9230 |postscriptEspecially chapters 1.3, 1.4.}}</ref><ref nameHammer/> As Freda Easton explained in her study of Waldorf schools, "Whether one accepts anthroposophy as a science depends upon whether one accepts Steiner's interpretation of a science that extends the consciousness and capacity of human beings to experience their inner spiritual world."<ref name"Easton 1995 p. ">{{Cite book |lastEaston |firstFreda |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkInpHAAACAAJ |titleThe Waldorf Impulse in Education: Schools as Communities that Educate the Whole Child by Integrating Artistic and Academic Work |publisherTeachers College, Columbia University |year1995 |access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref>
Sven Ove Hansson has disputed anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis, stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable.<ref name"Sven Ove" /> Carlo Willmann points out that as, on its own terms, anthroposophical methodology offers no possibility of being falsified except through its own procedures of spiritual investigation, no intersubjective validation is possible by conventional scientific methods; it thus cannot stand up to empiricist critics.<ref name"Willmann" /> Peter Schneider describes such objections as untenable, asserting that if a non-sensory, non-physical realm exists, then according to Steiner the experiences of pure thinking possible within the normal realm of consciousness would already be experiences of that, and it would be impossible to exclude the possibility of empirically grounded experiences of other supersensory content.<ref name="Schneider" />
Olav Hammer suggests that anthroposophy carries scientism "to lengths unparalleled in any other Esoteric position" due to its dependence upon claims of clairvoyant experience, its subsuming natural science under "spiritual science". Hammer also asserts that the development of what he calls "fringe" sciences such as anthroposophic medicine and biodynamic agriculture are justified partly on the basis of the ethical and ecological values they promote, rather than purely on a scientific basis.<ref name=Hammer/>
Though Steiner saw that spiritual vision itself is difficult for others to achieve, he recommended open-mindedly exploring and rationally testing the results of such research; he also urged others to follow a spiritual training that would allow them directly to apply his methods to achieve comparable results.<ref name="Schneider" />
Anthony Storr stated about Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy: "His belief system is so eccentric, so unsupported by evidence, so manifestly bizarre, that rational skeptics are bound to consider it delusional... But, whereas Einstein's way of perceiving the world by thought became confirmed by experiment and mathematical proof, Steiner's remained intensely subjective and insusceptible of objective confirmation."<ref>{{Cite book |lastStorr |firstAnthony |author-linkAnthony Storr |titleFeet of Clay: Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus |publisherFree Press Paperbacks, Simon & Schuster |year1997 |isbn978-0-684-83495-5 |locationNew York |pages69–70 |chapterIV. Rudolf Steiner |orig-date=1996}}</ref>
According to Dan Dugan, Steiner was a champion of the following pseudoscientific claims, also championed by Waldorf schools:
#wrong color theory;<ref name="Shermer Linse 2002 p. 32" />
#obtuse criticism of the theory of relativity;<ref name"Sven Ove">{{Cite journal |lastHansson |firstSven Ove |year1991 |titleIs Anthroposophy Science? |trans-titleIst die Anthroposophie eine Wissenschaft? |urlhttp://www.waldorfcritics.org/articles/Hansson.html |journalConceptus: Zeitschrift für Philosophie |volumeXXV |issue64 |pages37–49 |issn0010-5155}}</ref><ref name="Shermer Linse 2002 p. 32" />
#weird ideas about motions of the planets;<ref name="Shermer Linse 2002 p. 32" />
#supporting vitalism;<ref name="Shermer Linse 2002 p. 32" />
#doubting germ theory;<ref name"Shermer Linse 2002 p. 32">{{Cite book |lastDugan |firstDan |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGr4snwg7iaEC&pgPA32 |titleThe Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience |publisherABC-CLIO |year2002 |isbn978-1-57607-653-8 |editor-lastShermer |editor-firstMichael |pages31–33 |quoteIn physics, Steiner championed Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's color theory over Isaac Newton, and he called relativity “brilliant nonsense.” In astronomy, he taught that the motions of the planets were caused by the relationships of the spiritual beings that inhabited them. In biology, he preached vitalism and doubted germ theory. |editor-last2Linse |editor-first2Pat |issue=v. 1}}</ref>
#weird approach to physiological systems;<ref name="FlynnDawkins2007" />
#"the heart is not a pump".<ref name"FlynnDawkins2007">{{Cite book |lastDugan |firstDan |urlhttp://www.waldorfcritics.org/articles/Anthroposophy.html |titleThe New Encyclopedia of Unbelief |publisherPrometheus Books, Publishers |year2007 |isbn9781615922802 |editor-lastFlynn |editor-firstTom |pages74–75 |quoteAnthroposophical pseudoscience is easy to find in Waldorf schools. “Goethean science” is supposed to be based only on observation, without “dogmatic” theory. Because observations make no sense without a relationship to some hypothesis, students are subtly nudged in the direction of Steiner's explanations of the world. Typical departures from accepted science include the claim that Goethe refuted Newton's theory of color, Steiner's unique “threefold” systems in physiology, and the oft-repeated doctrine that “the heart is not a pump” (blood is said to move itself). |editor-last2Dawkins |editor-first2Richard |accessdate21 June 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Hammer|2021|p228 fn. 102}}
Religious nature
Two German scholars have called Anthroposophy "the most successful form of 'alternative' religion in the [twentieth] century."{{sfn|Schnurbein|Ulbricht|2001|p38}} Other scholars stated that Anthroposophy is "aspiring to the status of religious dogma".{{sfn|Diener|Hipolito|2013|p78}} According to Maria Carlson, anthroposophy is a "positivistic religion" "offering a seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience."{{sfn|Carlson|2015|p=136}}
According to Swartz, Brandt, Hammer, and Hansson, Anthroposophy is a religion.<ref name"religion">Sources for 'religion':{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |last1Schnurbein |first1Stefanie von |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxHNhQgAACAAJ |titleVölkische Religion und Krisen der Moderne: Entwürfe "arteigener" Glaubenssysteme seit der Jahrhundertwende |last2Ulbricht |first2Justus H. |publisherKönigshausen & Neumann |year2001 |isbn978-3-8260-2160-2 |page38 |languagede |access-date8 February 2024}} apud {{cite journal | lastStaudenmaier | firstPeter | titleRace and Redemption: Racial and Ethnic Evolution in Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy | journalNova Religio | publisherUniversity of California Press | volume11 | issue3 | date1 February 2008 | issn1092-6690 | doi10.1525/nr.2008.11.3.4 | pages4–36| urlhttps://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1078&contexthist_fac }}|{{cite journal | last1Swartz | first1Karen | last2Hammer | first2Olav | titleSoft charisma as an impediment to fundamentalist discourse: The case of the Anthroposophical Society in Sweden | journalApproaching Religion | volume12 | issue2 | date14 June 2022 | issn1799-3121 | doi10.30664/ar.113383 | pages18–37 | quote2. It can be noted that insiders routinely deny that Anthroposophy is a religion and prefer to characterise it as, for example, a philosophical perspective or a form of science. From a scholarly perspective, however, Anthroposophy has all the elements that one typically associates with a religion, for example, a charismatic founder whose status is based on claims of having direct insight into a normally invisible spiritual dimension of existence, a plethora of culturally postulated suprahuman beings that are said to influence our lives, concepts of an afterlife, canonical texts and rituals. Religions whose members deny that the movement they belong to has anything to do with religion are not uncommon in the modern age, but the reason for this is a matter that goes beyond the confines of this article.| doi-accessfree }}|{{cite book | last1Hammer | first1Olav | last2Swartz-Hammer | first2Karen | titleNew Religious Movements and Comparative Religion | publisherCambridge University Press | seriesElements in New Religious Movements | year2024 | isbn978-1-009-03402-9 | chapterNRMs in Comparative Perspective | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlkn8EAAAQBAJ&pgPA62 | access-date2024-07-19 | page62}}|{{cite book | last1Brandt | first1Katharina | last2Hammer | first2Olav | editor-last1Hammer | editor-first1Olav | editor-last2Rothstein | editor-first2Mikael | titleHandbook of the Theosophical Current | publisherBrill | seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion | year2013 | isbn978-90-04-23597-7 | chapterRudolf Steiner and Theosophy| chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0VozAQAAQBAJ&pgPA113 | access-date23 January 2024 | page113 fn. 1 | quoteFrom a scholar’s point of view, Anthroposophy presents characteristics typically associated with religion, and in particular concepts of suprahuman agents (such as angels), a charismatic founder with postulated insight into the suprahuman realm (Steiner himself), rituals (for instance, eurythmy), and canonical texts (Steiner’s writings). From an insider’s perspective, however, “anthroposophy is not a religion, nor is it meant to be a substitute for religion. While its insights may support, illuminate or complement religious practice, it provides no belief system” (from the Waldorf school website www.waldorfanswers.com/NotReligion1.htm, accessed 9 October 2011). The contrast between a scholarly and an insiders’ perspective on what constitutes religion is highlighted by the clinching warrant for this assertion. Although the website argues that Anthroposophy is not a religion by stating that there are no spiritual teachers and no beliefs, it does so by adding a reference to a text by Steiner, who thus functions as an unquestioned authority figure.}}|{{cite book | last1Hammer | first1Olav | editor-last1Geertz | editor-first1Armin | editor-last2Warburg | editor-first2Margit | titleNew Religions and Globalization | publisherAarhus University Press | seriesRenner Studies On New Religions | year2008 | isbn978-87-7934-681-9 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXdsKEAAAQBAJ&pgPA69 | access-date23 January 2024 | page69 | quoteAnthroposophy is thus from an emic point of view emphatically not a religion. }}|{{cite journal | lastHansson | firstSven Ove | titleAnthroposophical Climate Science Denial | journalCritical Research on Religion | publisherSAGE Publications | volume10 | issue3 | date1 July 2022 | issn2050-3032 | doi10.1177/20503032221075382 | pages281–297| doi-accessfree | quoteAnthroposophy has characteristics usually associated with religions, not least a belief in a large number of spiritual beings (Toncheva 2015, 73–81, 134–135). However, its adherents emphatically reject that it is a religion, claiming instead that it is a spiritual science, Geisteswissenschaft (Zander 2007, 1:867).}}|{{cite book | last1Zander | first1Helmut | editor-last1Hoheisel | editor-first1Karl | editor-last2Hutter | editor-first2Manfred | editor-last3Klein | editor-first3Wolfgang Wassilios | editor-last4Vollmer | editor-first4Ulrich | titleHairesis: Festschrift für Karl Hoheisel zum 65. Geburtstag | publisherAschendorff | seriesJahrbuch für Antike und Christentum | year2002 | isbn978-3-402-08120-4 | chapterDie Anthroposophie &mdash; Eine Religion? | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ZrYAAAAMAAJ | languagede | access-date2 January 2024 | page537}}|See also {{cite book | authorInternational Bureau of Education | titleOrganization of Special Education for Mentally Deficient Children: A Study in Comparative Education | publisherUNESCO | issuev. 214-220 | year1960 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc8MpAQAAMAAJ | access-date9 February 2024 | page15 | quoteanthroposophy - a religion based upon the philosophical and scientific knowledge of man}}|See also {{cite book | authorInternational Bureau of Education | titleBulletin of the International Bureau of Education | publisherInternational Bureau of Education | issuev. 31, nr. 122 -v. 34, nr. 137 | year1957 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIM6uEoh_XpcC | access-date9 February 2024 | page36 | quoteanthroposophy - a religion based upon the philosophical and scientific knowledge of man}}}}</ref> They also call it "settled new religious movement",{{sfn|Swartz|Hammer|2022|pp18–37}} while Martin Gardner called it a cult.<ref>Sources for 'cult' or 'sect':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Gardner|1957|pp169, 224f}}|{{Cite book |lastBrown |firstCandy Gunther |titleDebating Yoga and Mindfulness in Public Schools |date6 May 2019 |publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press |isbn978-1-4696-4848-4 |pages229–254 |chapterWaldorf Methods |doi10.5149/northcarolina/9781469648484.003.0012 |quotepremised on anthroposophy, a religious sect founded by Steiner; |s2cid241945146}}}}</ref> Another scholar also calls it a new religious movement or a new spiritual movement.{{sfn|Toncheva|2013|pp81–89}} Already in 1924 Anthroposophy got labeled "new religious movement" and "occultist movement".{{sfn|Clemen|1924|pp281–292}} Other scholars agree it is a new religious movement.<ref name"newreli" /> According to {{ill|Helmut Zander|de}}, both the theory and practice of Anthroposophy display characteristics of religion, and, according to Zander, Rudolf Steiner would plead no contest.{{sfn|Zander|2002|p537}} According to Zander, Steiner's book Geheimwissenschaft [Occult Science] contains Steiner's mythology about cosmogenesis.{{sfn|Zander|2002|p528}} Hammer notices that Anthroposophy is a synthesis which does include occultism.<ref name"Lewis Tøllefsen 2015 p. 57">{{Cite book |lastHammer |firstOlav |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3tfaCQAAQBAJ&pgPA57 |titleHandbook of Nordic New Religions |publisherBrill |year2015 |isbn978-90-04-29246-8 |editor-lastLewis |editor-firstJames R. |seriesBrill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |pages56–57 |access-date6 February 2024 |editor-last2Tøllefsen |editor-first2Inga Bårdsen}}</ref> Hammer also notices that Steiner's occult doctrines bear a strong resemblance to post-Blavatskyan Theosophy (e.g. Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater).<ref name"Partridge 2014 p. 350">{{Cite book |lastHammer |firstOlav |titleThe Occult World |publisherTaylor & Francis |year2014 |isbn978-1-317-59676-9 |editor-lastPartridge |editor-firstChristopher |seriesRoutledge Worlds |page350 |chapterThe Theosophical Current in the Twentieth Century |access-date6 February 2024 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_E-2BQAAQBAJ&pgPA350}}</ref> According to Helmut Zander, Steiner's clairvoyant insights always developed according to the same pattern. He took revised texts from theosophical literature and then passed them off as his own higher insights. Because he did not want to be an occult storyteller, but a (spiritual) scientist, he adapted his reading, which he had seen supernaturally in the world's memory, to the current state of technology. When, for example, the Wright brothers began flying with gliders and eventually with motorized aircraft in 1903, Steiner transformed the ponderous gondola airships of his Atlantis story into airplanes with elevators and rudders in 1904.<ref>{{Cite book |lastZander |firstHelmut |titleRudolf Steiner: Die Biografie |date2011 |publisherPiper |isbn978-3-492-05448-5 |publication-placeMünchen Zürich |pages191ff |languagede}}</ref>
As an explicitly spiritual movement, anthroposophy has sometimes been called a religious philosophy.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |titleanthroposophy definition – Dictionary – MSN Encarta |urlhttp://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561500913/anthroposophy.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091125142135/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561500913/anthroposophy.html |archive-date2009-11-25}}</ref> In 1998 People for Legal and Non-Sectarian Schools (PLANS) started a lawsuit alleging that anthroposophy is a religion for Establishment Clause purposes and therefore several California school districts should not be chartering Waldorf schools; the lawsuit was dismissed in 2012 for failure to show anthroposophy was a religion.<ref>{{cite court |litigantsPLANS, Inc. v. Sacramento City Unified School District|vol |reporter|opinion2:98-cv-00266-FCD-EFB|pinpoint|courtUnited States District Court Eastern District of California|dateNovember 5, 2010|urlhttp://waldorfanswers.org/351MemorandumAndOrder4November2010.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://waldorfanswers.org/351MemorandumAndOrder4November2010.pdf <!--|archive-date2022-10-09--> |url-statuslive |quote}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|reasonOriginal research based upon court documents, find a better source.|dateApril 2024}} A 2012 paper in legal science reports this verdict as being provisional, and disagrees with its result, i.e. anthroposophy was declared "not a religion" due to an outdated legal framework.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRhea |firstMichael |year2012 |titleDenying and Defining Religion Under the First Amendment: Waldorf Education as a Lens for Advocating a Broad Definitional Approach |urlhttps://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article3075&contextlalrev |journalLouisiana Law Review |issue72 |issn0024-6859}}</ref> In 2000, a French court ruled that a government minister's description of anthroposophy as a cult was defamatory.<ref>United States Department of State, [https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aa9918.html U.S. Department of State Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2000 – France] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191213092132/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aa9918.html |date2019-12-13 }}, 26 Feb. 2001</ref> The French governmental anti-cults agency MIVILUDES reported that it remains vigilant about Anthroposophy, especially because of its deviant medical applications and its work with underage persons, and that the works of Grégoire Perra which lambast anthroposophical medicine do not constitute defamation.<ref name"miviludes">{{Cite web |lastMission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires |author-linkMIVILUDES |date28 April 2023 |titleRapport d'activité 2021 |urlhttps://www.miviludes.interieur.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/publications/francais/MIVILUDES-RAPPORT2021_web_%2027_04_2023%20_0.pdf |pages72–74 |languagefr}}</ref> Anthroposophical MDs think diseases are caused primarily by karma and demons, rather than materialistic causes.<ref name"miviludes" /> The Gospel of Luke is their main handbook of medical science; this makes them believe they have magical powers, and that medicine is essentially a form of magic.<ref name"miviludes" /> The professional French organization of Anthroposophic MDs have sued Mr. Perra for such claims; they have been condemned to pay 25,000 Euros damages for abusively suing him.<ref name="miviludes" />
Scholars state that Anthroposophy is influenced by Christian Gnosticism.<ref>Sources for 'Christian Gnosticism':{{Bulleted list|{{harvnb|Robertson|2021|p57}}|{{harvnb|Gilmer|2021|p41}}|{{harvnb|Quispel|1980}}|{{harvnb|Quispel|Oort|2008|p1}}|{{harvnb|Carlson|2018|p58}}|{{harvnb|McL. Wilson|1993|p256}}}}</ref> The Catholic Church did in 1919 issue an edict classifying Anthroposophy as "a neognostic heresy" despite the fact that Steiner "very well respected the distinctions on which Catholic dogma insists".<ref name"Diener Hipolito 2013 p. 77">{{Cite book |last1Diener |first1Astrid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2kf7DwAAQBAJ&pgPA77 |titleThe Role of Imagination in Culture and Society: Owen Barfield's Early Work |last2Hipolito |first2Jane |publisherWipf and Stock Publishers |year2013 |isbn978-1-7252-3320-1 |page77 |access-date6 March 2023 |orig-date2002}}</ref><ref name"k531">See also {{Cite book |lastDWB |titleThe Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisherOUP Oxford |year2022 |isbn978-0-19-263815-1 |editor-lastLouth |editor-firstAndrew |edition4th |pages76–77 |chapteranthroposophy |access-date18 May 2024 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3CNeEAAAQBAJ&pgPT591 |orig-year2005}}</ref> The secular scholar Joan Braune agrees that Anthroposophy is Gnosticism.<ref name"d182">{{cite book | lastBraune | firstJoan | titleErich Fromm's Revolutionary Hope: Prophetic Messianism as a Critical Theory of the Future | publisherSensePublishers | seriesImagination and Praxis: Criticality and Creativity in Education and Educational Research | year2014 | isbn978-94-6209-812-1 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTfibBQAAQBAJ&pgPA52 | access-date17 November 2024 | page=52}}</ref>
Some Baptist and mainstream academical heresiologists still appear inclined to agree with the more narrow prior edict of 1919<ref name"Ellwood Partin 2016 p.">{{Cite book |last1Ellwood |first1Robert |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoWN4DQAAQBAJ |titleReligious and Spiritual Groups in Modern America |last2Partin |first2Harry |publisherTaylor & Francis |year2016 |isbn978-1-315-50723-1 |edition2nd |pageunpaginated |quoteOn the one hand, there are what might be called the Western groups, which reject the alleged extravagance and orientalism of evolved Theosophy, in favor of a serious emphasis on its metaphysics and especially its recovery of the Gnostic and Hermetic heritage. These groups feel that the love of India and its mysteries which grew up after Isis Unveiled was unfortunate for a Western group. In this category there are several Neo-Gnostic and Neo-Rosicrucian groups. The Anthroposophy of Rudolf Steiner is also in this category. On the other hand, there are what may be termed "new revelation" Theosophical schisms, generally based on new revelations from the Masters not accepted by the main traditions. In this set would be Alice Bailey's groups, "I Am," and in a sense Max Heindel's Rosicrucianism. |access-date6 March 2023 |orig-date1988, 1973}}</ref> on dogma and the Lutheran (Missouri Sinod) apologist and heresiologist Eldon K. Winker quoted Ron Rhodes that Steiner's Christology is very similar to Cerinthus.<ref name"Winker 1994 p. ">Sources for 'Christology':{{Bulleted list|{{Cite book |lastWinker |firstEldon K. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW90QAQAAIAAJ |titleThe New Age is Lying to You |publisherConcordia Publishing House |year1994 |isbn978-0-570-04637-0 |seriesConcordia scholarship today |page34 |quoteThe Christology of Cerinthus is notably similar to that of Rudolf Steiner (who founded the Anthroposophical Society in 1912) and contemporary New Age writers such as David Spangler and George Trevelyan. These individuals all say the Christ descended on the human Jesus at his baptism. But they differ with Cerinthus in that they do not believe the Christ departed from Jesus prior to the crucfixion.{{sup|12}} |access-date6 March 2023}}|{{cite book | lastRhodes | firstRon | titleThe Counterfeit Christ of the New Age Movement | publisherBaker Book House | seriesChristian Research Institute Series | year1990 | isbn978-0-8010-7757-9 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQwtBPQAACAAJ | access-date26 October 2023 | page19}}}}</ref> Steiner did perceive "a distinction between the human person Jesus, and Christ as the divine Logos",<ref name"Cees Christ">{{Cite book |lastLeijenhorst |firstCees |author-linkCees Leijenhorst |titleDictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism |publisherBrill |year2006 |editor-lastHanegraaff |editor-firstWouter J. |editor-linkWouter Hanegraaff |locationLeiden / Boston |page84 |chapterAntroposophy |quoteNevertheless, he made a distinction between the human person Jesus, and Christ as the divine Logos. |editor-last2Faivre |editor-first2Antoine |editor-last3Broek |editor-first3Roelof van den |editor-last4Brach |editor-first4Jean-Pierre}}</ref> which could be construed as Gnostic but not Docetic,<ref name"Cees Christ" /> since "they do not believe the Christ departed from Jesus prior to the crucfixion".<ref name"Winker 1994 p."/> "Steiner's Christology is discussed as a central element of his thought in Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner: A Documentary Biography, trans. Leo Twyman (East Grinstead, Sussex: Henry Goulden, 1975), pp. 96-100. From the perspective of orthodox Christianity, it may be said that Steiner combined a docetic understanding of Christ's nature with the Adoptionist heresy."<ref name"g483">{{Cite book |lastEtter |firstBrian K. |titleFrom Classicism to Modernism: Western Musical Culture and the Metaphysics of Order |publisherRoutledge |year2019 |isbn978-1-315-18576-7 |pageunpaginated. fn. 80 |chapterChapter Six The New Music and the Influence of Theosophy |orig-year2001}}</ref> Older scholarship says Steiner's Christology is Nestorian.<ref name"k343">{{Cite book |lastSanders |firstJohn Oswald |titleCults and isms: Ancient and Modern |publisherZondervan |year1962 |isbn978-0-551-00458-0 |publication-placeGrand Rapids, Michigan |page165 |chapterAnthroposophy |oclc3910997 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXPZOAQAAMAAJ |orig-year1948}}</ref> According to Egil Asprem, "Steiner's Christology was, however, quite heterodox, and hardly compatible with official church doctrine."<ref name"aspremthesis">{{Bulleted list|{{Cite thesis |lastAsprem |firstEgil |titleThe problem of disenchantment: scientific naturalism and esoteric discourse, 1900-1939. |date2013 |degreedr. |publisherUniversity of Amsterdam |urlhttps://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2010817/117215_thesis.pdf |page507}}|{{Cite book |lastAsprem |firstEgil |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2e9dDwAAQBAJ&pgPA493 |titleThe Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900-1939 |publisherState University of New York Press |year2018 |isbn978-1-4384-6992-8 |editor-lastAppelbaum |editor-firstDavid |seriesSUNY series in Western Esoteric Traditions |page493 |access-date18 May 2024 |orig-year2014}}}}</ref>
Statements on race
Rudolf Steiner was an extreme pan-German nationalist, and never disavowed such stance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Zegers |first1Peter |last2Staudenmaier |first2Peter |date9 January 2009 |orig-date2000 |titleAnthroposophy and its Defenders |urlhttps://social-ecology.org/wp/2009/01/anthroposophy-and-its-defenders-2/ |journalHumanist |publisherInstitute for Social Ecology |issue=4}}</ref>
Some anthroposophical ideas challenged the National Socialist racialist and nationalistic agenda. In contrast, some American educators have criticized Waldorf schools for failing to equally include the fables and myths of all cultures, instead favoring European stories over African ones.
* From the mid-1930s on, National Socialist ideologues attacked the anthroposophical worldview as being opposed to Nazi racist and nationalistic principles; anthroposophy considered "Blood, Race and Folk" as primitive instincts that must be overcome.<ref>Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, 7. Februar 1935. BAD R 4901&ndash;3285.</ref><ref>Report of the SD-Hauptamtes Berlin: "Anthroposophy", May 1936, BAD Z/B I 904.</ref>
* An academic analysis of the educational approach in public schools noted that "[A] naive version of the evolution of consciousness, a theory foundational to both Steiner's anthroposophy and Waldorf education, sometimes places one race below another in one or another dimension of development. It is easy to imagine why there are disputes [...] about Waldorf educators' insisting on teaching Norse tales and Greek myths to the exclusion of African modes of discourse."<ref name"McDermott">{{Cite journal |last1McDermott |first1Ray |last2Henry |first2Mary E. |last3Dillard |first3Cynthia |last4Byers |first4Paul |last5Easton |first5Freda |last6Oberman |first6Ida |last7Uhrmacher |first7Bruce |date1996 |titleWaldorf education in an inner-city public school |urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02354381 |url-statusbot: unknown |journalThe Urban Review |volume28 |issue2 |pages119–140 |doi10.1007/BF02354381 |issn0042-0972 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601025024/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02354381 |archive-date2021-06-01 |access-date2021-06-01}}</ref>
In response to such critiques, the Anthroposophical Society in America published in 1998 a statement clarifying its stance:
<blockquote>We explicitly reject any racial theory that may be construed to be part of Rudolf Steiner's writings. The Anthroposophical Society in America is an open, public society and it rejects any purported spiritual or scientific theory on the basis of which the alleged superiority of one race is justified at the expense of another race.<ref>The General Council of the Anthroposophical Society in America (1998) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080106140711/http://www.anthroposophy.org/Gov/StatementOnDiversity.php Position Statement on Diversity].</ref></blockquote>
Tommy Wieringa, a Dutch writer who grew among Anthroposophists, commenting upon an essay by the Anthroposophist {{ill|Désanne van Brederode|nl}}, he wrote "It was a meeting of old acquaintances: Nazi leaders such as Rudolf Hess and Heinrich Himmler already recognized a kindred spirit in Rudolf Steiner, with his theories about racial purity, esoteric medicine and biodynamic agriculture."<ref name"NRC 2021">{{Cite web |lastWieringa |firstTommy |date8 May 2021 |titleGroene vingers |urlhttps://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2021/05/08/groene-vingers-a4042900 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210507202917/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2021/05/08/groene-vingers-a4042900 |archive-date7 May 2021 |access-date7 February 2023 |websiteNRC |languagenl |quoteHet was een ontmoeting van oude bekenden: nazi-kopstukken als Rudolf Hess en Heinrich Himmler herkenden in Rudolf Steiner al een geestverwant, met zijn theorieën over raszuiverheid, esoterische geneeskunst en biologisch-dynamische landbouw.}}</ref><ref name"Brederode 2021">{{Cite web |lastBrederode |firstDésanne van |date27 February 2021 |titleDésanne van Brederode is verbijsterd: corona drijft antroposofen in extreemrechtse armen |urlhttps://www.trouw.nl/religie-filosofie/desanne-van-brederode-is-verbijsterd-corona-drijft-antroposofen-in-extreemrechtse-armen~bb13d660/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210419072542/https://www.trouw.nl/religie-filosofie/desanne-van-brederode-is-verbijsterd-corona-drijft-antroposofen-in-extreemrechtse-armen~bb13d660/ |archive-date19 April 2021 |access-date7 February 2023 |websiteTrouw |languagenl}}</ref>
The racism of Anthroposophy is spiritual and paternalistic (i.e. benevolent), while the racism of fascism is materialistic and often malign.<ref name"Vukadinović 2022 p. 582">{{Cite book |lastMartins |firstAnsgar |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB7efEAAAQBAJ&pgPT582 |titleRassismus: Von der frühen Bundesrepublik bis zur Gegenwart |publisherDe Gruyter |year2022 |isbn978-3-11-070278-1 |editor-lastVukadinović |editor-firstVojin Saša |pageunpaginated |languagede |quoteUnd genau diese komfortable Situation macht es möglich, dass Anthroposophie bis heute eine ganz erstaunliche Auswahl von rassischen und Völker-Stereotypen tradiert, die in ihrer Gründerzeit anscheinend kaum als skandalös auffielen, aber heute den politischen Status des Ganzen verändern. Steiners nationalistische, antijüdische und rassistische Vorstellungen notierten um 1920 nicht einmal linke Kritiker wie Ernst Bloch Oder Siegfried Kracauer, aber sie sickern zum Beispiel auch noch in die jüngere Waldorf-Literatur ein und führen seit den 1990er Jahren periodisch zu erbitterten wissenschaftlichen, journalistischen und juristischen Auseinandersetzungen. Die Argumente Sind seit Jahrzehnten ausgetauscht, das Andauern der Debatte gleicht einem Sich wahnsinnig weiterdrehenden Hamsterrad. Anthroposophen reagieren dabei stets reaktiv auf externe Kritik. Dass Steiner Sich von den wilden Rassisten des 19. Jahrhunderts distanzierte, wird manchen seiner heutigen Anhänger zur Ausrede, um seinen eigenen, spirituell-paternalistischen Rassismus in der Gegenwart schönzureden.{{sup|4}} Einer überschaubaren Anzahl kritischer Aufsätze{{sup|5}} stehen monographische Hetzschriften gegenüber, die Kritiker des „gezielten, vorsätzlich unternommenen Rufmords"{{sup|6}} bezichtigen. Derweil sprechen Sich die anthroposophischen Dachverbände, wenn die Kritik allzu laut wird, in formelhaften Allgemeinplätzen gegen Rassismus aus und gestehen vage, zeitbedingte' Formulierungen Steiners zu.{{sup|7}} Überhaupt dreht Sich die Diskussion zu oft um Steiner. Es Sind jüngere Beiträge, die seine Stereotype in die Gegenwart transportieren. |access-date24 February 2023}}</ref> Olav Hammer, university professor expert in new religious movements and Western esotericism, confirms that now the racist and anti-Semitic character of Steiner's teachings can no longer be denied, even if that is "spiritual racism".<ref name"confirm">{{Cite journal |lastHammer |firstOlav |date2016 |titleBetween Occultism and Nazism: Anthroposophy and the Politics of Race in the Fascist Era, written by Peter Staudenmaier |urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/24644844 |journalNumen |publisherBrill |volume63 |issue1 |pages118–121 |doi10.1163/15685276-12341412 |issn0029-5973 |jstor24644844 |quote=their founder or their movement has been tainted with racism or anti-Semitism. [...] Denial, it would seem, is no longer an option.}}</ref>
According to Munoz, in the materialist perspective (i.e. no reincarnations), Anthroposophy is racist, but in the spiritual perspective (i.e. reincarnations mandatory) it is not racist.{{sfn|Munoz|2016|pp189-190}}Reception by Nazi regime in GermanyThough several prominent members of the Nazi Party were supporters of anthroposophy and its movements, including agriculturalist {{interlanguage link|Erhard Bartsch|de}}, SS colonel Hermann Schneider, and Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastStaudenmaier |firstPeter |date1 April 2013 |titleOrganic Farming in Nazi Germany: The Politics of Biodynamic Agriculture, 1933–1945 |journalEnvironmental History |volume18 |issue2 |pages383–411 |doi10.1093/envhis/ems154}}</ref> anti-Nazis such as Traute Lafrenz, a member of the White Rose resistance movement, were also followers.<ref>{{Cite news |lastCowell |firstAlan |dateMarch 10, 2023 |titleTraute Lafrenz, Last Survivor of Anti-Hitler Group, Dies at 103 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/10/world/europe/traute-lafrenz-page-dead.html |workThe New York Times |viaNYTimes.com}}</ref> Rudolf Hess, the adjunct Führer, was a patron of Waldorf schools<ref name"Douglas-Hamilton 2012 p. 106">{{Cite book |lastDouglas-Hamilton |firstJames |titleThe Truth About Rudolf Hess |publisherMainstream Publishing |year2012 |isbn978-1-78057-791-3 |pageunpaginated |chapter1 Turmoil at the Dictator's Court: 11 May 1941 |quoteOrganisations which Hess had supported, such as the Rudolf Steiner schools, were closed down. |access-date2 October 2022 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ5SyahCctVsC&pgPT106}}</ref><ref name"Rieppel 2016 p. 246">{{Cite book |lastRieppel |firstOlivier |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvgN-DwAAQBAJ&pgPA246 |titlePhylogenetic Systematics: Haeckel to Hennig |publisherCRC Press |year2016 |isbn978-1-4987-5489-7 |page246 |quoteAlthough in his reply, Himmler pretended to share Astel's assessment of anthroposophy as a dangerous movement, he admitted to be unable to do anything about the school of Rudolf Steiner because Rudolf Hess supported and protected it. |access-date3 October 2022}}</ref> and a staunch defender of biodynamic agriculture.<ref name"Tucker 2018 p. 165">{{Cite book |lastTucker |firstS.D. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2K6IDwAAQBAJ&pgPT165 |titleFalse Economies: The Strangest, Least Successful and Most Audacious Financial Follies, Plans and Crazes of All Time |publisherAmberley Publishing |year2018 |isbn978-1-4456-7235-9 |pageunpaginated |quoteaccording to Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess (1894-1987), those sceptics who criticised biodynamic methods on scientific grounds were just 'carrying out a kind of witch-trial' against Steiner's followers |access-date3 October 2022}}</ref> "Before 1933, Himmler, Walther Darré (the future Reich Agriculture Minister), and Rudolf Höss (the future commandant of Auschwitz) had studied ariosophy and anthroposophy, belonged to the occult-inspired Artamanen movement, [...]"<ref name"Kurlander 2015 pp. 498–522">{{Cite journal |lastKurlander |firstEric |year2015a |titleThe Nazi Magicians' Controversy: Enlightenment, "Border Science," and Occultism in the Third Reich |urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/43965203 |journalCentral European History |publisher[Cambridge University Press, Central European History Society] |volume48 |issue4 |pages498–522 |issn<!--00089389, -->15691616 |jstor43965203 |access-date19 February 2024 |quoteBefore 1933, Himmler, Walther Darré (the future Reich Agriculture Minister), and Rudolf Höss (the future commandant of Auschwitz) had studied ariosophy and anthroposophy, belonged to the occult-inspired Artamanen movement, [...]}}</ref>
"One of the most insightful contributions to this area is Peter Staudenmaier's case study of Anthroposophy, which has demonstrated the ambiguous role of Anthroposophists in fascist Italy and Nazi Germany."<ref name"o691">{{Cite book |lastStrube |firstJulian |titleHermes Explains: Thirty Questions about Western Esotericism |date28 May 2019 |publisherAmsterdam University Press |isbn978-90-485-4285-7 |editor-lastForshaw |editor-firstPeter |publication-placeAmsterdam |page230 |chapterDoesn’t occultism lead straight to fascism? |quoteOne of the most insightful contributions to this area is Peter Staudenmaier's case study of Anthroposophy, which has demonstrated the ambiguous role of Anthroposophists in fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. |editor-last2Hanegraaff |editor-first2Wouter J. |editor-last3Pasi |editor-first3Marco |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7nGaDwAAQBAJ&pgPA230}}</ref> According to Staudenmaier, the fascist and Nazi authorities saw occultism not as deviant, but as deeply familiar.<ref name"o691" />See also
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
* Esoteric Christianity
* Esotericism in Germany and Austria
* Pneumatosophy
* Spiritual but not religious
References
Notes
{{notelist-lr}}
Citations
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Library resources box|byno|onlinebooksno|wikititle=anthroposophy}}
{{wiktionary|spiritual}}
{{commons category|Anthroposophy}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://www.rsarchive.org/ Rudolf Steiner Archive] (Steiner's works online)
* [http://fvn-rs.net/ Steiner's complete works in German]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514194542/http://www.rudolf-steiner-handbuch.de/images/SteinerHandbook2012.pdf Rudolf Steiner Handbook] (PDF; 56 MB)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160812104906/http://www.goetheanum.org/45.html?L1 Goetheanum]Societies* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160806033214/https://www.goetheanum.org/Anthroposophical-Society.336.0.html?&L1 General Anthroposophical Society]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org/ Anthroposophical Society in America]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.uk/ Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040429055726/http://anthroposophyindia.org/ Anthroposophical Initiatives in India]}}
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.au/ Anthroposophical Society in Australia] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080704074440/http://www.anthroposophy.org.au/ |date2008-07-04 }}
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.nz/ Anthroposophical Society in New Zealand]
{{Anthroposophy series}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Esoteric Christianity
Category:New religious movements established in the 1910s
Category:Rudolf Steiner
Category:Theosophy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophy
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Aurochs
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{{Short description|Extinct species of large cattle}}
{{Distinguish|Cattle{{!}}Bos taurus|European bison|Oryx}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = {{Geological range|Middle Pleistocene|Holocene}}
| image = Copenhagen Aurochse.jpg
| image_caption = Mounted skeleton of an aurochs bull at the National Museum of Denmark
| status = EX
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref <ref nameiucn>{{cite iucn |authorMallon, D.P. |year2023 |titleBos primigenius |pagee.T136721A237471616 |doi|access-date27 September 2024}}</ref>
| extinct = 1627
| genus = Bos
| species = primigenius
| authority Bojanus, 1825<ref nameBojanus1827/>
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = See text
| range_map = Aurochs distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Former distribution of the aurochs
}}
The aurochs (Bos primigenius; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɔː|r|ɒ|k|s}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|aʊ|r|ɒ|k|s}}; pl.: aurochs or aurochsen) is an extinct species of bovine, considered to be the wild ancestor of modern domestic cattle. With a shoulder height of up to {{cvt|180|cm}} in bulls and {{cvt|155|cm}} in cows, it was one of the largest herbivores in the Holocene; it had massive elongated and broad horns that reached {{cvt|80|cm}} in length.
The aurochs was part of the Pleistocene megafauna. It probably evolved in Asia and migrated west and north during warm interglacial periods. The oldest-known aurochs fossils date to the Middle Pleistocene. The species had an expansive range spanning from Western Europe and North Africa to the Indian subcontinent and East Asia. The distribution of the aurochs progressively contracted during the Holocene due to habitat loss and hunting, with the last known individual dying in the Jaktorów forest in Poland in 1627.
There is a long history of interaction between aurochs and humans, including archaic hominins like Neanderthals. The aurochs is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings, Neolithic petroglyphs, Ancient Egyptian reliefs and Bronze Age figurines. It symbolised power, sexual potency and prowess in religions of the ancient Near East. Its horns were used in votive offerings, as trophies and drinking horns.
Two aurochs domestication events occurred during the Neolithic Revolution. One gave rise to the domestic taurine cattle (Bos taurus) in the Fertile Crescent in the Near East that was introduced to Europe via the Balkans and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Hybridisation between aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred during the early Holocene. Domestication of the Indian aurochs led to the zebu cattle (Bos indicus) that hybridised with early taurine cattle in the Near East about 4,000 years ago. Some modern cattle breeds exhibit features reminiscent of the aurochs, such as the dark colour and light eel stripe along the back of bulls, the lighter colour of cows, or an aurochs-like horn shape.
Etymology
Both "aur" and "ur" are Germanic or Celtic words meaning "wild ox".<ref>{{Cite book |lastPartridge |firstE. |author-linkEric Partridge |titleOrigins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English |publisherGreenwich House |year1983 |locationNew York |isbn978-0-517-41425-5 |page523 |chapterUrus, Uri gallica |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/anetymologicald00valpgoog/page/523/mode/2up}}</ref><ref namelewis>{{cite book |last1Lewis |first1C. T. |author1-linkCharlton Thomas Lewis |last2Short |first2C. |name-list-styleamp |year1879 |titleA Latin Dictionary |locationOxford |publisherClarendon Press |chapterūrus |page1936 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.61236/page/n1945/mode/1up}}</ref>
In Old High German, this word was compounded with ohso ('ox') to ūrohso, which became the early modern Aurochs.<ref namevVuure05/> The Latin word "urus" was used for wild ox from the Gallic Wars onwards.<ref namelewis/><ref namegallicwars>{{cite book |lastMcDevitte |firstW. A. |titleThe Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar |publisherHarper & Brothers |year1869 |editionFirst |seriesHarper's New Classical Library |placeNew York |translatorBohn, W. S. |chapterBook 6, Chapter 28 |chapter-urlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.6.6.html}}</ref>
The use of the plural form {{lang|en|aurochsen}} in English is a direct parallel of the German plural Ochsen and recreates the same distinction by analogy as English singular ox and plural oxen, although aurochs may stand for both the singular and the plural term; both are attested.<ref>{{cite book |lastCrystal|firstDavid |author-linkDavid Crystal |titleThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |publisherCambridge University Press |placeCambridge |year2003 |editionThird |isbn9781108437738 |page213}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/321290645 |titleResurrecting Extinct Species |author1Campbell, D.I. |author2Whittle, P.M. |chapterThree Case Studies: Aurochs, Mammoths and Passenger Pigeons |name-list-styleamp |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |placeCham |page30 |year2017 |isbn978-3-319-69578-5 |doi10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_2}}</ref>
Taxonomy and evolution
The scientific name Bos taurus was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for feral cattle in Poland.<ref name"Linnaeus">{{Cite book |lastLinnaeus |firstC. |author-linkCarl Linnaeus |titleSystema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |date1758 |publisherLaurentii Salvii |editionTenth reformed |volume1 |locationHolmiae |page71 |languagela |chapterBos Taurus |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/mobot31753000798865/page/70/mode/2up}}</ref>
The scientific name Bos primigenius was proposed for the aurochs by Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus who described the skeletal differences between the aurochs and domestic cattle in 1825, published in 1827.<ref name"Bojanus1827">{{cite journal |lastBojanus |firstL.H. |author-linkLudwig Heinrich Bojanus |year1827 |titleDe Uro nostrate eiusque sceleto commentation |urlhttps://archive.org/details/novaactaphysicom13218kais/page/444/mode/2up |journalNova Acta Physico-medica Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Naturae Curiosum |languagelatin |volume13 |issue5 |pages53–478}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Daszkiewicz |first1P. |name-list-styleamp |last2Samojlik |first2T. |date2019 |titleCorrected date of the first description of aurochs Bos primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) and steppe bison Bison priscus (Bojanus, 1827) |journalMammal Research |volume64 |issue2 |pages299–300 |doi10.1007/s13364-018-0389-6 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The name Bos namadicus was used by Hugh Falconer in 1859 for cattle fossils found in Nerbudda deposits.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Falconer |firstH. |year1859 |titleNotice of the various species of bovine animals |urlhttps://archive.org/details/zoologistmonthly1718unse/page/6419/mode/1up |journalThe Zoologist |volume17 |pages=6414–6429}}</ref>
Bos primigenius mauritanicus was coined by Philippe Thomas in 1881 who described fossils found in deposits near Oued Seguen west of Constantine, Algeria.<ref>{{cite journal |lastThomas |firstP. |year1881 |titleRecherches sur les bovidés fossiles de l'Algérie |urlhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5442632q/f146.item |journalBulletin de la Société Zoologique de France |volume6 |issueAvril |pages=92–136}}</ref>
In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature placed Bos primigenius on the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology and thereby recognized the validity of this name for a wild species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |year2003 |titleOpinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia) |journalThe Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume60 |issue1 |pages81–84 |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/bulletinofzoolog602003int#page/80/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1Gentry, A. |author2Clutton-Brock, J. |author-link2Juliet Clutton-Brock |author3Groves, C.P. |author-link3Colin Groves |name-list-styleamp |date2004 |titleThe naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume31 |issue5 |pages645–651 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006 |bibcode2004JArSc..31..645G |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518224}}</ref> Subspecies
Three aurochs subspecies have traditionally been recognised to have existed in historical times:
* The Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) was part of the Pleistocene megafauna in Eurasia and survived until the 17th century in Eastern Europe.<ref nameBollongino_al2012>{{cite journal |author1Bollongino, R. |name-list-styleamp |author2Burger, J. |author3Powell, A. |author4Mashkour, M. |author5Vigne, J.-D. |author6Thomas, M. G. |year2012 |titleModern Taurine Cattle descended from small number of Near-Eastern founders |journalMolecular Biology and Evolution |volume29 |issue9 |pages2101–2104 |doi10.1093/molbev/mss092 |pmid22422765 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) lived on the Indian subcontinent.<ref namenap>{{cite book |author1Avise, J.C. |author2Ayala, F.J. |titleIn the Light of Evolution |name-list-styleamp |chapter |year2009 |volume106 |pages9933–9938 |doi10.17226/12692 |pmid25032348 |isbn978-0-309-13986-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* The North African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) lived north of the Sahara.<ref namevVuure05/> This subspecies has also been called B. p. opisthonomus.<ref name "Hou">{{cite journal |last1Hou |first1Jiawen |last2Guan |first2Xiwen |last3Xia |first3Xiaoting |last4Lyu |first4Yang |last5Liu |first5Xin |last6Mazei |first6Yuri |last7Xie |first7Ping |last8Chang |first8Fengqin |last9Zhang |first9Xiaonan |last10Chen |first10Jialei |last11Li |first11Xinyi |last12Zhang |first12Fengwei |last13Jin |first13Liangliang |last14Luo |first14Xiaoyu |last15Sinding |first15Mikkel-Holger S. |last16Sun |first16Xin |last17Achilli |first17Alessandro |last18Migliore |first18Nicola Rambaldi |last19Zhang |first19Dongju |last20Lenstra |first20Johannes A. |last21Han |first21Jianlin |last22Fu |first22Qiaomei |last23Liu |first23Xinyi |last24Zhang |first24Xiaoming |last25Chen |first25Ningbo |last26Lei |first26Chuzhao |last27Zhang |first27Hucai |display-authors5 |titleEvolution and legacy of East Asian aurochs |journalScience Bulletin |date15 November 2024 |volume69 |issue21 |pages3425–3433 |doi10.1016/j.scib.2024.09.016 |issn2095-9273|doi-accessfree |pmid39322456 |bibcode2024SciBu..69.3425H }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|ccby4|from this sourceyes}}</ref>
In the 21st century, Chinese geneticists published mitochondrial DNA evidence supporting that Eurasian aurochs populations from northern China were genetically isolated for large stretches of the Pleistocene, and as a result distinctive enough to be considered a separate subspecies, the East Asian aurochs (B. p. sinensis), even if the animals were not morphologically distinct.<ref name = "Hou"/>
At least two dwarf subspecies of aurochs developed on Mediterranean islands as a result of sea level changes during the Pleistocene:
* B. p. siciliae on the Italian island of Sicily.<ref>Mangano, G., Bonfiglio, L., & Petruso, D. (2005). Excavations of 2003 at the S. Teodoro cave (North-Eastern Sicily, Italy): preliminary faunistic and stratigraphic data. Geo. Alp, 2, 71-76.</ref><ref>Petruso, D., Sara, M., Surdi, G., & Masini, F. (2011). Le faune a mammiferi della Sicilia tra il Tardiglaciale e l'Olocene. Biogeographia–The Journal of Integrative Biogeography, 30(1).</ref>
* B. p. thrinacius on the Greek island of Kythira.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Siarabi |first1S. |last2Kostopoulos |first2D. S. |last3Bartsiokas |first3A. |last4Rozzi |first4R. |year2023 |titleInsular aurochs (Mammalia, Bovidae) from the Pleistocene of Kythera Island, Greece |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume319 |at108342 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108342 |bibcode2023QSRv..31908342S |s2cid263817925}}</ref>
Evolution
Calibrations using fossils of 16 Bovidae species indicate that the Bovini tribe evolved about {{mya|11.7}}.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBibi |firstF. |year2013 |titleA multi-calibrated mitochondrial phylogeny of extant Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia) and the importance of the fossil record to systematics |journalBMC Evolutionary Biology |volume13 |issue1 |pages166 |bibcode2013BMCEE..13..166B |doi10.1186/1471-2148-13-166 |pmc3751017 |pmid23927069 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The Bos and Bison genetic lineages are estimated to have genetically diverged from the Bovini about {{mya|2.5|1.65}}.<ref nameWang2018>{{cite journal |author1Wang, K. |name-list-styleamp |author2Lenstra, J.A. |author3Liu, L. |author4Hu, Q. |author5Ma, T. |author6Qiu, Q. |author7Liu, J. |year2018 |titleIncomplete lineage sorting rather than hybridization explains the inconsistent phylogeny of the wisent |journalCommunications Biology |volume1 |issue1 |page169 |doi10.1038/s42003-018-0176-6 |pmid30374461 |pmc6195592 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1Zeyland, J. |name-list-styleamp |author2Wolko, Ł. |author3Lipiński, D. |author4Woźniak, A. |author5Nowak, A. |author6Szalata, M. |author7Bocianowski, J. |author8Słomski, R. |year2012 |titleTracking of wisent–bison–yak mitochondrial evolution |journalJournal of Applied Genetics |volume53 |issue3 |pages317–322 |doi10.1007/s13353-012-0090-4 |pmid22415349 |pmc3402669 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the aurochs based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in the Bovini tribe:<ref nameWang2018/><ref>{{cite journal |lastBibi |firstF. |titleA multi-calibrated mitochondrial phylogeny of extant Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia) and the importance of the fossil record to systematics |journalBMC Evolutionary Biology |date2013 |volume13 |issue1 |pages166 |doi10.1186/1471-2148-13-166 |pmid23927069 |pmc3751017 |doi-accessfree |bibcode2013BMCEE..13..166B}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sinding |first1M.-H. S. |last2Ciucani |first2M. M. |last3Ramos-Madrigal |first3J. |last4Carmagnini |first4A. |last5Rasmussen |first5J. A. |last6Feng |first6S. |last7Chen |first7G. |last8Vieira |first8F. G. |last9Mattiangeli |first9V. |last10Ganjoo |first10R. K. |last11Larson |first11G. |last12Sicheritz-Pontén |first12T. |last13Petersen |first13B. |last14Frantz |first14L. |last15Gilbert |first15M. T. P. |date2021 |titleKouprey (Bos sauveli) genomes unveil polytomic origin of wild Asian Bos |journaliScience |volume24 |issue11 |pages103226 |bibcode2021iSci...24j3226S |doi10.1016/j.isci.2021.103226 |pmc8531564 |pmid=34712923}}</ref>
{{clade
|label1=Bovini
|1={{clade
|1=Bubalina (buffalo)
|label2=Bos
|2={{clade
|1= Bos primigenius (aurochs)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=Bos mutus (wild yak)
|2={{clade
|1=Bison bison (American bison)
|2=Bison bonasus (European bison/wisent)
}}}}
|2={{clade
|1=Bos javanicus (banteng)
|2=Bos gaurus (gaur)
|3=Bos sauveli (kouprey)
}}}}}}}}}}
The cold Pliocene climate caused an extension of open grassland, which enabled the evolution of large grazers.<ref name"vVuure05">{{cite book |titleRetracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox |lastVan Vuure, C. |year2005 |locationSofia |publisherPensoft Publishers |isbn954-642-235-5}}</ref> The origin of the aurochs is unclear, with authors suggesting either an African or Asian origin for the species. Bos acutifrons is considered to be a possible ancestor of the aurochs, of which a fossil skull was excavated in the Sivalik Hills in India that dates to the Early Pleistocene about {{mya|2}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Samartzidou, E. |name-list-styleamp |author2Pandolfi, L. |year2021 |titleBos primigenius Bojanus, 1827 (Mammalia, Bovidae) in Greece: new finds and a revision of the species, with a comparison with body-size variations of aurochs from the Italian Peninsula |journalActa Zoologica Bulgarica |volume74 |pages119–139 |author3Tsoukala, E. |author4Maniatis, Y. |author5Stoulos, S.}} </ref>
An aurochs skull excavated in Tunisia's Kef Governorate from early Middle Pleistocene strata dating about {{mya|0.78}} is the oldest well-dated fossil specimen to date. The authors of the study proposed that Bos might have evolved in Africa and migrated to Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Martínez-Navarro, B.|name-list-styleamp |author2Karoui-Yaakoub, N. |author3Oms, O. |author4Amri, L. |author5López-García, J.M. |author6Zerai, K. |author7Blain, H.A. |author8Mtimet, M.S. |author9Espigares, M.P. |author10Ali, N.B.H. |author11Ros-Montoya, S. |author12Boughdiri, M. |author13Agustí J. |author14Khayati-Ammar, H. |author15Maalaoui K. |author16El Khir, M.O. |author17Sala, R. |author18Othmani, A. |author19Hawas, R. |author20Gómez-Merino, G. |author21Solè, À. |author22Carbonell, E. |author23Palmqvist, P. |year2014 |titleThe early Middle Pleistocene archeopaleontological site of Wadi Sarrat (Tunisia) and the earliest record of Bos primigenius |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume90 |pages37–46 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.02.016|bibcode2014QSRv...90...37M}}</ref> Middle Pleistocene aurochs fossils were also excavated in a Saharan erg in the Hoggar Mountains.<ref>{{cite book |lastThomas |firstH. |titleGéologie et paléontologie du gisement acheuléen de l'erg Tihodaïne, Ahaggar Sahara Algérien |publisherMemoires du centre de recherches anthlropologiques, prehistoriques et ethnographiques |year1977 |location=Paris}}</ref>
Fossils of the Indian subspecies (Bos primigenius namadicus) were excavated in alluvial deposits in South India dating to the Middle Pleistocene.<ref>{{cite journal |lastPilgrim |firstG.E. |year1947 |titleThe evolution of the buffaloes, oxen, sheep and goats |journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume41 |issue279 |pages272–286 |doi10.1111/j.1096-3642.1940.tb02077.x}}</ref> Remains of aurochs are common in Late Pleistocene sites across the Indian subcontinent.<ref name"Turvey_al2021" />
The earliest fossils in Europe date to the Middle Pleistocene. One site widely historically suggested to represent the first appearance of aurochs in Europe was the Notarchirico site in southern Italy, dating around 600,000 years ago,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Gómez-Olivencia |first1Asier |last2Sala |first2Nohemi |last3Arceredillo |first3D. |last4García |first4N. |last5Martínez-Pillado |first5V. |last6Rios-Garaizar |first6J. |last7Garate |first7D. |last8Solar |first8G. |last9Libano |first9I. |date2015 |titleThe Punta Lucero Quarry site (Zierbena, Bizkaia): a window into the Middle Pleistocene in the Northern Iberian Peninsula |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume121 |pages52–74 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.05.001|bibcode2015QSRv..121...52G}}</ref> however a 2024 re-examination of the site found that presence of aurochs at the locality was unsupported, with the oldest records of aurochs now placed at the Ponte Molle site in central Italy,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Mecozzi |first1B. |last2Iannucci |first2A. |last3Carpentieri |first3M. |last4Pineda |first4A. |last5Rabinovich |first5R. |last6Sardella |first6R. |last7Moncel |first7M.-H. |date2024 |titleClimatic and environmental changes of ~100 thousand years: The mammals from the early Middle Pleistocene sequence of Notarchirico (southern Italy) |journalPLOS ONE |volume19 |issue10 |pagese0311623 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0311623 |pmc11498728 |pmid39441829 |doi-accessfree|bibcode2024PLoSO..1911623M }}</ref> dating to around 550-450,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Mecozzi |first1B. |last2Iannucci |first2A. |last3Mancini |first3M. |last4Sardella |first4R. |date2021 |titleRedefining Ponte Molle (Rome, central Italy): an important locality for Middle Pleistocene mammal assemblages of Europe |journalAlpine and Mediterranean Quaternary |volume34 |issue1 |pages131–154 |doi10.26382/AMQ.2021.09}}</ref> Aurochs were present in Britain by Marine Isotope Stage 11 ~400,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Preece |first1R.C. |last2Parfitt |first2S.A. |last3Bridgland |first3D.R. |last4Lewis |first4S.G. |last5Rowe |first5P.J. |last6Atkinson |first6T.C. |last7Candy |first7I. |last8Debenham |first8N.C. |last9Penkman |first9K.E.H. |last10Rhodes |first10E.J. |last11Schwenninger |first11J.-L. |last12Griffiths |first12H.I. |last13Whittaker |first13J.E. |last14Gleed-Owen |first14C. |date2007 |titleTerrestrial environments during MIS 11: evidence from the Palaeolithic site at West Stow, Suffolk, UK |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume26 |issue9–10 |pages1236–1300 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.11.016 |bibcode=2007QSRv...26.1236P}}</ref>
The earliest remains aurochs in East Asia are uncertain, but may date to the late Middle Pleistocene.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Tong, H. |name-list-styleamp |author2Chen, X. |year2018 |titleNew fossils of Bos primigenius (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) from Nihewan and Longhua of Hebei, China |journalVertebrata PalAsiatica |volume56 |issue1 |pages69–92 |author3Zhang, B. |author4=Wang, F.}}</ref>
Late Pleistocene aurochs fossils were found in Affad 23 in Sudan dating to 50,000 years ago when the climate in this region was more humid than during the African humid period.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Osypinska, M. |name-list-styleamp |author2Osypinski, P. |author3Belka, Z. |author4Chlodnicki, M. |author5Wiktorowicz, P. |author6Ryndziewicz, R. |author7Kubiak, M. |year2021 |titleWild and Domestic Cattle in the Ancient Nile Valley: Marks of ecological change |journalJournal of Field Archaeology |volume46 |issue7 |pages429–447 |doi10.1080/00934690.2021.1924491 |s2cid236373843}}</ref>
Following the most recent deglaciation, the range of the aurochs expanded into Denmark and southern Sweden at the beginning of the Holocene, around 12-11,000 years ago.<ref name"Gravlund_al2012">{{cite journal |author1Gravlund, P. |author2Aaris-Sørensen, K. |author3Hofreiter, M. |author4Meyer, M. |author5Bollback, J.P. |author6Noe-Nygaard, N |name-list-styleamp |year2012 |titleAncient DNA extracted from Danish aurochs (Bos primigenius): genetic diversity and preservation |journalAnnals of Anatomy |volume194 |issue1 |pages103–111 |citeseerx10.1.1.392.4989 |doi10.1016/j.aanat.2011.10.011 |pmid22188739}}</ref> Description
{{multiple image
| perrow = 1
| image1 = Tur ZHerberstein pol XVIw small.jpg
| caption1 = Illustration by Sigismund von Herberstein captioned: {{lang|la|Urus sum, polonis Tur, germanis Aurox; ignari Bisontis nomen dederant}}; translated: "I am Urus, {{lang|pl|Tur}} in Polish, {{lang|de|Aurox}} in German; the ignorant ones gave me the name Bison"
| image2 = Copenhagen Zoological Museum Aurochs bull.jpg
| caption2 = Aurochs skeleton from Zealand island in Denmark on display in the Natural History Museum of Denmark
}}
According to a 16th-century description by Sigismund von Herberstein, the aurochs was pitch-black with a grey streak along the back; his wood carving made in 1556 was based on a culled aurochs, which he had received in Mazovia.<ref>{{cite journal |lastSenglaub, K. |year2002 |titleSigmund von Herberstein (1486–1566) und die historischen Konfusionen um Ur und Wisent |journalSäugetierkundliche Informationen |volume5 |issue26 |pages253–266 |doi |urlhttps://www.zobodat.at/biografien/Herberstein_Sigmund_von_Saeugetierkdl-Inf_26_0253-0266.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.zobodat.at/biografien/Herberstein_Sigmund_von_Saeugetierkdl-Inf_26_0253-0266.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith published an image of an aurochs that was based on an oil painting that he had purchased from a merchant in Augsburg, which is thought to have been made in the early 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |lastLydekker, R. |author-linkRichard Lydekker |year1912 |locationLondon |publisherMethuen &Co. Ltd. |titleThe ox and its kindred |pages37–67 |chapterThe wild Ox and its extermination |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxitskindred00lyde/page/50/mode/2up}}</ref> This painting is thought to have shown an aurochs,<ref name"vVuure05"/><ref name"Frisch"/> although some authors suggested it may have shown a hybrid between an aurochs and domestic cattle, or a Polish steer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Pyle |first1C.M. |titleUpdate to: "Some late sixteenth-century depictions of the aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus, extinct 1627): New evidence from Vatican MS Urb. Lat. 276 |doi10.3366/anh.1995.22.3.437 |journalArchives of Natural History |volume22 |issue3 |pages437–438 |year1995 |urlhttps://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/anh.1995.22.3.437?srcrecsys}}</ref> Contemporary reconstructions of the aurochs are based on skeletons and the information derived from contemporaneous artistic depictions and historic descriptions of the animal.<ref name"vVuure05"/> Coat colour{{anchor|Coat colour}} Remains of aurochs hair were not known until the early 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRyder, M.L. |doi10.1016/0305-4403(84)90045-1 |titleThe first hair remains from an aurochs (Bos primigenius) and some medieval domestic cattle hair |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume11 |pages99–101 |year1984|issue1 |bibcode1984JArSc..11...99R }}</ref> Depictions show that the North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back.<ref name"Frisch">{{cite book |titleDer Auerochs: Das europäische Rind |firstW. |lastFrisch |year2010 |isbn978-3-00-026764-2 |publisherLipp Graphische Betriebe |placeStarnberg}}</ref> Calves were probably born with a chestnut colour, and young bulls changed to black with a white eel stripe running down the spine, while cows retained a reddish-brown colour. Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle, but evidence for variation in coat colour does not exist. Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes, with a light saddle, but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domesticated cattle.<ref name="vVuure05"/>
Many primitive cattle breeds, particularly those from Southern Europe, display similar coat colours to the aurochs, including the black colour in bulls with a light eel stripe, a pale mouth, and similar sexual dimorphism in colour.<ref name"vVuure05"/><ref name"Frisch"/> A feature often attributed to the aurochs is blond forehead hairs. According to historical descriptions of the aurochs, it had long and curly forehead hair, but none mentions a certain colour. Although the colour is present in a variety of primitive cattle breeds, it is probably a discolouration that appeared after domestication.<ref name"vVuure05"/> Body shape
{{multiple image
| perrow = 1
| image1 = Aurochsfeatures.jpg
| caption1 = Drawing based on an aurochs bull skeleton from Lund and a cow skeleton from Cambridge, with characteristic features of the aurochs
| image2 = Indian Aurochs B p namadicus 3.jpg
| caption2 = Speculative profile of an Indian aurochs
}}
The proportions and body shape of the aurochs were strikingly different from many modern cattle breeds. For example, the legs were considerably longer and more slender, resulting in a shoulder height that nearly equalled the trunk length. The skull, carrying the large horns, was substantially larger and more elongated than in most cattle breeds. As in other wild bovines, the body shape of the aurochs was athletic, and especially in bulls, showed a strongly expressed neck and shoulder musculature. Therefore, the fore hand was larger than the rear, similar to the wisent, but unlike many domesticated cattle. Even in carrying cows, the udder was small and hardly visible from the side; this feature is equal to that of other wild bovines.<ref name"vVuure05"/> Size The aurochs was one of the largest herbivores in Holocene Europe. The size of an aurochs appears to have varied by region, with larger specimens in northern Europe than farther south. Aurochs in Denmark and Germany ranged in height at the shoulders between {{cvt|155|-|180|cm}} in bulls and {{cvt|135|-|155|cm}} in cows, while aurochs bulls in Hungary reached {{cvt|160|cm}}.<ref name"Kysely2008">{{cite journal |lastKysely |firstR. |year2008 |titleAurochs and potential crossbreeding with domestic cattle in Central Europe in the Eneolithic period. A metric analysis of bones from the archaeological site of Kutná Hora-Denemark (Czech Republic) |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/285784105 |journalAnthropozoologica |volume43 |issue2 |pages=7–37}}</ref>
The African aurochs was similar in size to the European aurochs in the Pleistocene, but declined in size during the transition to the Holocene; it may have also varied in size geographically.<ref nameLinseele2004>{{cite journal |lastLinseele, V. |year2004 |titleSize and size change of the African aurochs during the Pleistocene and Holocene |journalJournal of African Archaeology |volume2 |issue2 |pages165–185 |doi10.3213/1612-1651-10026 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/269674903}}</ref>
The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability. Some individuals reached around {{cvt|700|kg|-1}}, whereas those from the late Middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to {{cvt|1500|kg|-1}}.<ref name"vVuure05"/> The aurochs exhibited considerable sexual dimorphism in the size of males and females.<ref namevuure>{{cite journal |lastVan Vuure |firstT. |date2002 |titleHistory, morphology and ecology of the Aurochs (Bos primigenius) |journalLutra |volume45 |issue1 |pages1–16 |citeseerx10.1.1.534.6285 }}</ref> Horns The horns were massive, reaching {{cvt|80|cm}} in length and between {{cvt|10|and|20|cm}} in diameter.<ref name"Frisch"/> Its horns grew from the skull at a 60-degree angle to the muzzle facing forwards and were curved in three directions, namely upwards and outwards at the base, then swinging forwards and inwards, then inwards and upwards. The curvature of bull horns was more strongly expressed than horns of cows.<ref name"vVuure05"/> The basal circumference of horn cores reached {{cvt|44.5|cm}} in the largest Chinese specimen and {{cvt|48|cm}} in a French specimen.<ref namezongg/> Some cattle breeds still show horn shapes similar to that of the aurochs, such as the Spanish fighting bull, and occasionally also individuals of derived breeds.<ref name"vVuure05"/>GeneticsA well-preserved aurochs bone yielded sufficient mitochondrial DNA for a sequence analysis in 2010, which showed that its genome consists of 16,338 base pairs.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Edwards, C.J. |author2Magee, D.A. |author3Park, S.D.E. |author4McGettigan, P.A. |author5Lohan, A.J. |name-list-styleamp |year2010 |titleA complete mitochondrial genome sequence from a mesolithic wild Aurochs (Bos primigenius) |journalPLOS ONE |volume5 |issue2 |pagee9255 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0009255 |doi-accessfree |pmid20174668 |pmc2822870 |bibcode2010PLoSO...5.9255E}}</ref> Further studies using the aurochs whole genome sequence have identified candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Braud |first1M. |last2Magee|first2D.A. |last3Park |first3S.D.E. |last4Sonstegard |first4T.S. |last5Waters|first5S.M. |last6MacHugh |first6D.E. |last7Spillane|first7C. |date2017 |titleGenome-wide microRNA binding site variation between extinct wild Aurochs and modern cattle identifies candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes |journalFrontiers in Genetics |volume8 |pages3 |doi10.3389/fgene.2017.00003 |pmc5281612 |pmid28197171 |doi-accessfree |name-list-styleamp}}</ref> A comprehensive sequence analysis of Late Pleistocene and Holocene aurochs published in 2024 suggested that Indian aurochs (represented by modern zebu cattle) were the most genetically divergent aurochs population, having diverged from other aurochs around 300–166,000 years ago, with other aurochs populations spanning Europe and the Middle East to East Asia sharing much more recent common ancestry within the last 100,000 years. Late Pleistocene European aurochs were found to have a small (~3%) ancestry component from a divergent lineage that split prior to the divergence of Indian and other aurochs, suggested to be residual from earlier European aurochs populations. Towards the end of the Late Pleistocene, European aurochs experienced considerable gene flow from Middle Eastern aurochs. European Holocene aurochs primarily descend from those that were present in the Iberian Peninsula during the Last Glacial Maximum, with the Holocene also seeing mixing between previously isolated aurochs populations.<ref nameRossi2024>{{Cite journal |last1Rossi |first1C. |last2Sinding |first2M.-H.S. |last3Mullin |first3V.E. |last4Scheu |first4A. |last5Erven |first5J.A.M. |last6Verdugo |first6M.P. |last7Daly |first7K.G. |last8Ciucani |first8M.M. |last9Mattiangeli |first9V. |last10Teasdale |first10M.D. |last11Diquelou |first11D. |last12Manin |first12A. |last13Bangsgaard |first13P. |last14Collins |first14M. |last15Lord |first15T.C. |date2024 |titleThe genomic natural history of the aurochs |journalNature |volume635 |issue8037 |pages136–141 |doi10.1038/s41586-024-08112-6 |pmid39478219|bibcode2024Natur.635..136R }}</ref>
Distribution and habitat
(130–115,000 years ago)]]
The aurochs was widely distributed in North Africa, Mesopotamia, and throughout Europe to the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Caucasus and Western Siberia in the west and to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in the north.<ref nameGeptner1961>{{cite book |lastHeptner, V.G. |author2Nasimovich, A.A. |author3Bannikov, A.G. |name-list-styleamp |orig-year1961 |year1988 |titleMlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola |trans-titleMammals of the Soviet Union |volume((Volume I. Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla)) |publisherSmithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation |locationWashington DC |chapterAurochs, primitive cattle |pages539–549 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsovietu11988gept/page/538/mode/2up}}</ref>
Fossil horns attributed to the aurochs were found in Late Pleistocene deposits at an elevation of {{cvt|3400|m}} on the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau close to the Heihe River in Zoigê County that date to about 26,620{{Thinsp}}±600 years BP. Most fossils in China were found in plains below {{cvt|1000|m}} in Heilongjiang, Yushu, Jilin, northeastern Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, near Beijing, Yangyuan County in Hebei province, Datong and Dingcun in Shanxi province, Huan County in Gansu and in Guizhou provinces.<ref namezongg>{{cite journal |lastZong |firstG. |date1984 |titleA record of Bos primigenius from the Quaternary of the Aba Tibetan Autonomous Region |translatorDehut, J. |journalVertebrata PalAsiatica |volume22 |issue3 |pages239–245 |urlhttp://www.nau.edu/~qsp/will_downs/79.Bos.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927083310/http://www.nau.edu/~qsp/will_downs/79.Bos.pdf |archive-date27 September 2007}}</ref> Ancient DNA in aurochs fossils found in Northeast China indicate that the aurochs survived in the region until at least 5,000 years BP.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Cai, D. |name-list-styleamp |author2Zhang, N. |author3Zhu, S. |author4Chen, Q. |author5Wang, L. |author6Zhao, X. |author7Ma, X. |author8Royle, T.C. |author9Zhou, H. |author10Yang, D.Y. |year2018 |titleAncient DNA reveals evidence of abundant aurochs (Bos primigenius) in Neolithic Northeast China |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume98 |pages72–80 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2018.08.003 |bibcode2018JArSc..98...72C |s2cid135295723 |urlhttp://bjkg.jlu.edu.cn/__local/D/E8/49/0A08A3ED3FED16810A705CC375D_1229B3A5_1C46BE.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bjkg.jlu.edu.cn/__local/D/E8/49/0A08A3ED3FED16810A705CC375D_1229B3A5_1C46BE.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Fossils were also excavated on the Korean Peninsula,<ref>{{cite book |lastJo, Y.-S. |name-list-styleamp |author2Baccus, J.T. |author3Koprowski, J. |year2018 |titleMammals of Korea |locationSeoul |publisherMagnolia Press |isbn978-89-6811-369-7 |chapter |chapter-url}}</ref> and in the Japanese archipelago.<ref>{{cite journal |lastKurosawa, Y. |pages29–31 |journalLIAJ |issue109 |titleモノが語る牛と人間の文化 - ② 岩手の牛たち |urlhttp://liaj.lin.gr.jp/japanese/liajnews/liaj10909.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://liaj.lin.gr.jp/japanese/liajnews/liaj10909.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date6 April 2016}}</ref><ref nameKuzuuFossil>{{cite journal |author1Hasegawa, Y. |author2Okumura, Y. |author3Tatsukawa, H. |name-list-styleamp |year2009 |titleFirst record of Late Pleistocene Bison from the fissure deposits of the Kuzuu Limestone, Yamasuge, Sano-shi, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan |journalBulletin of Gunma Museum of Natural History |issue13 |pages47–52 |urlhttp://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_13/bulletin13_5.pdf |access-date6 April 2016 |archive-date24 September 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924022657/http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_13/bulletin13_5.pdf |url-statusdead}}</ref>
During warm interglacial periods the aurochs was widespread across Europe,<ref namePushkina2007/> but during glacial periods retreated into southern refugia in the Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas.<ref nameRossi2024/>
Landscapes in Europe probably consisted of dense forests throughout much of the last few thousand years. The aurochs is likely to have used riparian forests and wetlands along lakes.<ref name"vuure" /> Analysis of specimens found in Britain suggests that aurochs preferred inhabiting low lying relatively flat landscapes.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHall |firstS.J.G. |date2008 |titleA comparative analysis of the habitat of the extinct aurochs and other prehistoric mammals in Britain |journalEcography |volume31 |issue2 |pages187–190 |doi10.1111/j.0906-7590.2008.5193.x |bibcode2008Ecogr..31..187H}}</ref> Pollen of mostly small shrubs found in fossiliferous sediments with aurochs remains in China indicate that it preferred temperate grassy plains or grasslands bordering woodlands.<ref namezongg/> It may have also lived in open grasslands.<ref>{{cite journal |titleDie Großtierfauna Europas und ihr Einfluss auf Vegetation und Landschaft |firstA. |lastBeutler |year1996 |journalNatur und Kulturlandschaft |volume1 |pages51–106}}</ref> In the warm Atlantic period of the Holocene, it was restricted to remaining open country and forest margins, where competition with livestock and humans gradually increased leading to a successive decline of the aurochs.<ref nameSchulz2007>{{cite journal |last1Schulz |first1E. |last2Kaiser |first2T.M. |name-list-styleamp |year2007 |titleFeeding strategy of the Urus Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827 from the Holocene of Denmark |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/233781003 |journalCourier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg |volume259 |pages155–164}}</ref> Behaviour and ecology
(foreground) wild horse (left), the straight-tusked elephant (background centre-left), bison, (background centre) and the narrow-nosed rhinoceros (far right)]]
Aurochs formed small herds mainly in winter, but typically lived singly or in smaller groups during the summer.<ref nameGeptner1961/> If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendants, social status would have been gained through displays and fights, in which both cows and bulls engaged.<ref nameFrisch/> Since it has a hypsodont jaw, it has been suggested to have been a grazer, with a food selection very similar to domesticated cattle<ref namevVuure05/> feeding on grass, twigs and acorns.<ref nameGeptner1961/> Mesowear analysis of Holocene Danish aurochs premolar teeth indicates that it changed from an abrasion-dominated grazer in the Danish Preboreal to a mixed feeder in the Boreal, Atlantic and Subboreal periods.<ref nameSchulz2007/> Dental microwear and mesowear analysis of specimens from the Pleistocene of Britain has found these aurochs had mixed feeding to browsing diets, rather than being strict grazers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Rivals |first1F. |last2Lister |first2A.M. |date2016 |titleDietary flexibility and niche partitioning of large herbivores through the Pleistocene of Britain |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume146 |pages116–133 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.06.007 |bibcode2016QSRv..146..116R}}</ref>
Mating season was in September, and calves were born in spring.<ref nameGeptner1961/> Rutting bulls had violent fights, and evidence from the Jaktorów forest shows that they were fully capable of mortally wounding one another. In autumn, aurochs fed for the winter, gaining weight and possessing a shinier coat than during the rest of the year. Calves stayed with their mothers until they were strong enough to join and keep up with the herd on the feeding grounds. Aurochs calves would have been vulnerable to predation by grey wolves (Canis lupus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos), while the immense size and strength of healthy adult aurochs meant they likely did not need to fear most predators.<ref namevVuure05/> According to historical descriptions, the aurochs was swift despite its build, could be very aggressive if provoked, and was not generally fearful of humans.<ref name"vVuure05" /> In Middle Pleistocene Europe, aurochs were likely predated upon by the "European jaguar" Panthera gombaszoegensis and the scimitar toothed-cat (Homotherium latidens),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Domingo |first1L. |last2Rodríguez-Gómez |first2G. |last3Libano |first3I. |last4Gómez-Olivencia |first4A. |date2017 |titleNew insights into the Middle Pleistocene paleoecology and paleoenvironment of the Northern Iberian Peninsula (Punta Lucero Quarry site, Biscay): A combined approach using mammalian stable isotope analysis and trophic resource availability modeling |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume169 |pages243–262 |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.06.008 |bibcode2017QSRv..169..243D}}</ref> with evidence for the consumption of aurochs by cave hyenas (Crocuta (Crocuta) spelaea) having been found from Late Pleistocene Italy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Crezzini |first1J. |last2Boscato |first2P. |last3Ricci |first3S. |last4Ronchitelli |first4A. |last5Spagnolo |first5V. |last6Boschin |first6F. |date2016 |titleA spotted hyaena den in the Middle Palaeolithic of Grotta Paglicci (Gargano promontory, Apulia, Southern Italy) |journalArchaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume8 |issue2 |pages227–240 |doi10.1007/s12520-015-0273-0 |bibcode2016ArAnS...8..227C}}</ref> The lion (Panthera leo), tiger (Panthera tigris) and wolf are thought to have been the aurochs main predators during the Holocene.<ref name=vuure/>
During interglacial periods in the Middle Pleistocene and early Late Pleistocene in Europe, the aurochs occurred alongside other large temperate adapted megafauna species, including the straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus''), Merck's rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis), the narrow-nosed rhinoceros, (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus) and the Irish elk/giant deer (Megaloceros giganteus).<ref namePushkina2007>{{Cite journal |lastPushkina |firstD. |date2007 |titleThe Pleistocene easternmost distribution in Eurasia of the species associated with the Eemian Palaeoloxodon antiquus assemblage |journalMammal Review |volume37 |issue3 |pages224–245 |doi10.1111/j.1365-2907.2007.00109.x}}</ref>
Relationship with humans
In Asia
{{multiple image |perrow1 |image1Unicorn_with_object._Mohenjo-daro.jpg |caption1Seal from Mohenjo-daro |image2Berlín_-_Pergamon_-_Porta_d%27Ishtar_-_Ur.JPG |caption2=Relief on the Ishtar Gate on display at the Pergamon Museum}}
Acheulean layers in Hunasagi on India's southern Deccan Plateau yielded aurochs bones with cut marks.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Sathe, V. |name-list-styleamp |author2Paddayya, K. |year2012 |titleThe faunal background of the stone age cultures of Hunsgi and Baichbal Valleys, Southern Deccan |journalBulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume72 |pages79–97 |jstor43610690}}</ref> An aurochs bone with cut marks induced with flint was found in a Middle Paleolithic layer at the Nesher Ramla Homo site in Israel; it was dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5 about 120,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Prévost, M. |name-list-styleamp |author2Groman-Yaroslavski, I. |author3Gershtein, K.M.C. |author4Tejero, J.M. |author5Zaidner, Y. |year2021 |titleEarly evidence for symbolic behavior in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic: A 120 ka old engraved aurochs bone shaft from the open-air site of Nesher Ramla, Israel |journalQuaternary International |volumeearly view |issue |pages80–93 |doi10.1016/j.quaint.2021.01.002 |s2cid234236699}}</ref> An archaeological excavation in Israel found traces of a feast held by the Natufian culture around 12,000 years BP, in which three aurochs were eaten. This appears to be an uncommon occurrence in the culture and was held in conjunction with the burial of an older woman, presumably of some social status.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Munro |first1N.D. |last2Grosman |first2L. |date2010 |titleEarly evidence (ca. 12,000 B.P.) for feasting at a burial cave in Israel |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume107 |issue35 |pages15362–15366 |doi10.1073/pnas.1001809107 |pmid20805510 |pmc2932561 |bibcode2010PNAS..10715362M |doi-accessfree |name-list-styleamp}}</ref> Petroglyphs depicting aurochs in Gobustan Rock Art in Azerbaijan date to the Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic periods.<ref>{{cite journal |lastFarajova |firstM. |year2011 |titleGobustan: Rock Art Cultural Landscape |urlhttps://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/malahat_a11.pdf |url-statuslive |journalAdoranten |volume11 |pages41–66 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/malahat_a11.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09}}</ref>
Aurochs bones and skulls found at the settlements of Mureybet, Hallan Çemi and Çayönü indicate that people stored and shared food in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Bogaard, A. |name-list-styleamp |author2Charles, M. |author3Twiss, K.C. |author4Fairbairn, A. |author5Yalman, N. |author6Filipović, D. |author7Demirergi, G.A. |author8Ertuğ, F. |author9Russell, N. |author10Henecke, J. |year2009 |titlePrivate pantries and celebrated surplus: storing and sharing food at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia |journalAntiquity |volume83 |issue321 |pages649–668 |doi10.1017/S0003598X00098896 |s2cid162522860 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/236673285}}</ref>
Remains of an aurochs were also found in a necropolis in Sidon, Lebanon, dating to around 3,700 years BP; the aurochs was buried together with numerous animals, a few human bones and foods.<ref>{{cite news |lastMakarem |firstM. |date2012 |titleEt si Europe était sidonienne? |workL'Orient Le Jour |locationBeirut |urlhttp://www.lorientlejour.com/category/À+La+Une/article/767714/Et_si_Europe_etait_sidonienne_.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525112335/http://www.lorientlejour.com/category/%C3%80+La+Une/article/767714/Et_si_Europe_etait_sidonienne_.html |archive-date25 May 2013 |access-date3 January 2020 |languagefr}}</ref>
Seals dating to the Indus Valley civilisation found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro show an animal with curved horns like an aurochs.<ref>{{cite book |lastMackay |firstE.J.H. |author-linkErnest J. H. Mackay |titleThe Indus civilization |publisherLovat Dickson & Thompson Ltd. |year1935 |locationLondon |pagePlate J |chapterSteatite pectoral, once mounted in metal and filled with inlay |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22579/page/n229/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastGeer |firstA.A.E. |titleAnimals in stone: Indian mammals sculptured through time |publisherBrill |year2008 |isbn978-90-04-16819-0 |locationLeiden |pages111–114 |chapterBos primigenius. The Aurochs |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoQ3quxh9gsgC&pgPA111}}</ref> Aurochs figurines were made by the Maykop culture in the Western Caucasus.<ref>{{cite book |author1Reinhold, S. |name-list-styleamp |author2Gresky, J. |author3Berezina, N. |author4Kantorovich, A.R. |author5Knipper, C. |author6Maslov, V.E. |author7Petrenko, V.G. |author8Alt, K.W. |author9Belinsky, A.B. |year2017 |titleAppropriating Innovations. Entangled Knowledge in Eurasia, 5000-150 BCE |locationOxford |publisherOxbow Books |chapterContextualising Innovation: Cattle Owners and Wagon Drivers in the North Caucasus and Beyond |isbn9781785707247 |editor1Maran, J. |editor2Stockhammer, P. |pages78–97 |chapter-urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/321300884}}</ref>
The aurochs is denoted in the Akkadian words rīmu and rēmu, both used in the context of hunts by rulers such as Naram-Sin of Akkad, Tiglath-Pileser I and Shalmaneser III; in Mesopotamia, it symbolised power and sexual potency, was an epithet of the gods Enlil and Shamash, denoted prowess as an epithet of the king Sennacherib and the hero Gilgamesh. Wild bulls are frequently referred to in Ugaritic texts as hunted by and sacrificed to the god Baal.<ref>{{cite book |author1Wyatt, S. |author2Wyatt, N. |name-list-styleamp |date2013 |chapterThe longue durée in the beef business |pages417–450 |titleRitual, Religion, and Reason. Studies in the Ancient World in Honour of Paolo Xella |isbn9783868350876 |publisherUgarit-Verlag |locationMünster |editor1Loretz, O. |editor2Ribichini, S. |editor3Watson, W.G.E. |editor4Zamora, J.Á. |chapter-urlhttps://www.academia.edu/4038225}}</ref> An aurochs is depicted on Babylon's Ishtar Gate, constructed in the 6th century BC.<ref>{{Cite book |lastShugart, H.H. |date2014 |titleFoundations of the Earth |publisherColumbia University Press |isbn9780231537698 |chapterTaming the Unicorn, Yoking the Aurochs: Animal and Plant Domestication and the Consequent Alteration of the Surface of the Earth |pages35–70 |doi10.7312/shug16908-003}}</ref> In Africa Petroglyphs depicting aurochs found in Qurta in the upper Nile valley were dated to the Late Pleistocene about 19–15,000 years BP using luminescence dating and are the oldest engravings found to date in Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Huyge, D. |name-list-styleamp |author2Vandenberghe, D.A. |author3De Dapper, M. |author4Mees, F. |author5Claes, W. |author6Darnell, J.C. |year2011 |titleFirst evidence of Pleistocene rock art in North Africa: securing the age of the Qurta petroglyphs (Egypt) through OSL dating |journalAntiquity |volume85 |issue330 |pages1184–1193 |doi10.1017/S0003598X00061998 |s2cid130471822 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/1621581}}</ref> Aurochs are part of hunting scenes in reliefs in a tomb at Thebes, Egypt dating to the 20th century BC, and in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu dating to around 1175 BC. The latter is the youngest depiction of aurochs in Ancient Egyptian art to date.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBeierkuhnlein, C. |year2015 |titleBos primigenius in Ancient Egyptian art – historical evidence for the continuity of occurrence and ecology of an extinct key species |journalFrontiers of Biogeography |volume7 |issue3 |pages107–118 |doi10.21425/F5FBG21527 |s2cid55643283 |urlhttps://epub.uni-bayreuth.de/3177/1/eScholarship%20UC%20item%202cc00316.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://epub.uni-bayreuth.de/3177/1/eScholarship%20UC%20item%202cc00316.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In Europe
{{multiple image |perrow1 |image1Lascaux painting.jpg |caption1Aurochs in a cave painting in Lascaux |image2Gold cup Vafio 1500 to 1450 BC, NAMA 1758 080866.jpg |caption2A cup from Vaphio showing an aurochs hunt, 15th century BC|image3Moldavia's coat of Arms of 1481.jpg |caption3=Coat of arms of Moldavia from 1481 at Putna Monastery}}
Evidence has been found for the butchery of aurochs by archaic hominins in Europe during the Middle Palaeolithic, such as the Biache-Saint-Vaast site in northern France dating to around 240,000 years ago, where bones of aurochs have been found burnt by fire and with cut marks, thought to have been created by Neanderthals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Bahain |first1J.-J. |last2Falguères |first2C. |last3Laurent |first3M. |last4Dolo |first4J.-M. |last5Shao |first5Q. |last6Auguste |first6P. |last7Tuffreau |first7A. |date2015 |titleESR/U-series dating of faunal remains from the paleoanthropological site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais, France) |journalQuaternary Geochronology |volume30 |pages541–546 |doi10.1016/j.quageo.2015.02.020 |bibcode2015QuGeo..30..541B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hérisson |first1D. |last2Locht |first2J.-L. |last3Auguste |first3P. |last4Tuffreau |first4A. |date2013 |titleNéandertal et le feu au Paléolithique moyen ancien. Tour d'horizon des traces de son utilisation dans le Nord de la France |journalL'Anthropologie |languagefr |volume117 |issue5 |pages541–578 |doi10.1016/j.anthro.2013.10.002|urlhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01484022/file/Herisson_et_al_%202013_Feu_Saalien.pdf }}</ref> At the late Middle Palaeolithic Cueva Des-Cubierta site in Spain, Neanderthals are proposed to have kept the skulls of aurochs as hunting trophies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Baquedano |first1E. |last2Arsuaga |first2J. L. |last3Pérez-González |first3A. |last4Laplana |first4C. |last5Márquez |first5B. |last6Huguet |first6R. |last7Gómez-Soler |first7S. |last8Villaescusa |first8L. |last9Galindo-Pellicena |first9M. Ángeles |last10Rodríguez |first10Laura |last11García-González |first11R. |last12Ortega |first12M.-C. |last13Martín-Perea |first13D. M. |last14Ortega |first14A. I. |last15Hernández-Vivanco |first15L. |date2023 |titleA symbolic Neanderthal accumulation of large herbivore crania |journalNature Human Behaviour |volume7 |issue3 |pages342–352 |doi10.1038/s41562-022-01503-7 |pmc10038806 |pmid=36702939}}</ref>
The aurochs is widely represented in Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves in southern France dating to 36,000 and 21,000 years BP, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |lastGeneste, J.M.|year2017 |titleFrom Chauvet to Lascaux: 15,000 years of cave art |journalArchaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia |volume45 |issue3 |pages29–40 |doi10.17746/1563-0110.2017.45.3.029-040 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Two Paleolithic rock engravings in the Calabrian Romito Cave depict an aurochs.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Vacca, B.B. |year2012 |titleThe hunting of large mammals in the Upper Palaeolithic of southern Italy: A diachronic case study from Grotta del Romito |journalQuaternary International |volume252 |issue |pages155–164 |doi10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.054 |bibcode2012QuInt.252..155V |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/251636438}}</ref>
Palaeolithic engravings showing aurochs were also found in the Grotta del Genovese on the Italian island of Levanzo.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Di Maida, G. |name-list-styleamp |author2García-Diez, M. |author3Pastoors, A. |author4Terberger, T. |year2018 |titlePalaeolithic art at Grotta di Cala dei Genovesi, Sicily: a new chronology for mobiliary and parietal depictions |journalAntiquity |volume92 |issue361 |pages38–55 |doi10.15184/aqy.2017.209 |s2cid166147585 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/323045060}}</ref>
Upper Paleolithic rock engravings and paintings depicting the aurochs were also found in caves on the Iberian Peninsula dating from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian cultures.<ref>{{cite book |lastWeniger, G.C. |year1999 |titleArchäologie und Biologie des Aurochsen |locationBonn |publisherNeanderthal Museum |editor1Weniger, G.C. |isbn9783980583961 |pages133–140 |chapterRepresentations of the Aurochs in the Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic on the Iberian Peninsula |chapter-urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/271588425}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastFernandes, A.P.B. |year2008 |chapterAesthetics, ethics, and rock art conservation: How far can we go? The case of recent conservation tests carried out in un-engraved outcrops in the Côa Valley, Portugal |chapter-urlhttp://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/945/1/11_Batarda_Fernandes_offprint.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/945/1/11_Batarda_Fernandes_offprint.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |pages85–92 |titleAesthetics and Rock Art III: Symposium |editor1Heyd, T. |editor2Clegg, J. |publisherArchaeopress |seriesBritish Archaeological Reports |volume1818 |locationOxford |isbn9781407303048}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1Soares De Figueiredo, S. |name-list-styleamp |author2Botica, N. |author3Bueno Ramirez, P. |author4Tsoupra, A. |author5Mirao, J. |year2020 |titleAnalysis of portable rock art from Foz do Medal (Northwest Iberia): Magdalenian images of horses and aurochs |journalComptes Rendus Palevol |volume19 |issue4 |pages63–77 |doi10.5852/cr-palevol2020v19a4 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Aurochs bones with chop and cut marks were found at various Mesolithic hunting and butchering sites in France, Luxemburg, Germany, the Netherlands, England and Denmark.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Prummel, W. |name-list-styleamp |author2Niekus, M.J.L.T. |year2011 |titleLate Mesolithic hunting of a small female aurochs in the valley of the River Tjonger (the Netherlands) in the light of Mesolithic aurochs hunting in NW Europe |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume38 |issue7 |pages1456–1467 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2011.02.009|bibcode2011JArSc..38.1456P}}</ref> Aurochs bones were also found in Mesolithic settlements by the Narva and Emajõgi rivers in Estonia.<ref>{{cite journal |lastKriiska, A. |year2000 |titleSettlements of coastal Estonia and maritime hunter-gatherer economy |journalLietuvos Archeologija |volume19 |pages153–166 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/281345662}}</ref> Aurochs and human bones were uncovered from pits and burnt mounds at several Neolithic sites in England.<ref>{{cite journal |titleWhere the wild things are: Aurochs and Cattle in England |lastLynch, A.H. |author2Hamilton, J. |author3Hedges, R.E.M. |name-list-styleamp |year2008 |journalAntiquity |volume82 |issue318 |pages1025–1039 |doi10.1017/S0003598X00097751 |s2cid161079743 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237086645}}</ref>
A cup found in the Greek site of Vaphio shows a hunting scene, in which people try to capture an aurochs.<ref nameAjmone_al2010>{{cite journal |last1Ajmone-Marsan |first1P. |last2Garcia |first2J.F. |last3Lenstra |first3J.A. |year2010 |titleOn the origin of cattle: How Aurochs became cattle and colonized the World |journalEvolutionary Anthropology |volume19 |issue4 |pages148–157 |doi10.1002/evan.20267 |s2cid86035650 |name-list-styleamp}}</ref> One of the bulls throws one hunter on the ground while attacking the second with its horns. The cup seems to date to Mycenaean Greece.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Davis |first1E.N. |year1974 |titleThe Vapheio Cups: One Minoan and One Mycenean? |journalThe Art Bulletin |volume56 |issue4 |pages472–487 |doi10.1080/00043079.1974.10789932}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1De Grummond |first1W.W. |year1980 |titleHands and Tails on the Vapheio Cups |journalAmerican Journal of Archaeology |volume84 |issue3 |pages335–337 |doi10.2307/504710 |jstor504710}}</ref> Greeks and Paeonians hunted aurochs and used their huge horns as trophies, cups for wine, and offerings to the gods and heroes. The ox mentioned by Samus, Philippus of Thessalonica and Antipater as killed by Philip V of Macedon on the foothills of mountain Orvilos, was actually an aurochs; Philip offered the horns, which were {{cvt|105|cm}} long and the skin to a temple of Hercules.<ref>{{cite book |lastDouglas, N. |year1927 |titleBirds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology |locationFlorence |publisherB. Blom |chapter|chapter-url |isbn=9780405084614}}</ref>
The aurochs was described in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico.<ref name=gallicwars/>
Aurochs were occasionally captured and exhibited in venatio shows in Roman amphitheatres such as the Colosseum.<ref>{{cite book |lastKnight, C. |year1847 |titleThe National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge |volume(Volume III) |locationLondon |publisherLittle, Brown and Co. |chapterEuropean bison, or Aurochs |pages367–371 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSa7kjXr-SkAC&pgPA369}}</ref> Aurochs horns were often used by Romans as hunting horns.<ref name"vVuure05"/>
In the {{lang|de|Nibelungenlied}}, Sigurd kills four aurochs.<ref>{{cite book |titleDas Nibelungenlied und die Klage: Nach der Handschrift 857 der Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen |editorHeinzle, J. |publisherDeutscher Klassiker Verlag |isbn9783618661207 |year2013 |page300}}</ref> During the Middle Ages, aurochs horns were used as drinking horns including the horn of the last bull; many aurochs horn sheaths are preserved today.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1Bro-Jørgensen, M.H. |name-list-styleamp |author2Carøe, C. |author3Vieira, F.G. |author4Nestor, S. |author5Hallström, A. |author6Gregersen, K.M. |author7Etting, V. |author8Gilbert, M.T.P. |author9Sinding, M.H.S. |year2018 |titleAncient DNA analysis of Scandinavian medieval drinking horns and the horn of the last aurochs bull |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume99 |pages47–54 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.001 |bibcode2018JArSc..99...47B |s2cid133684586}}</ref> The aurochs drinking horn at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge was engraved with the college's coat of arms in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |lastOman, C. |titleCambridge and Cornelimünster |journalAachener Kunstblätter |volume43 |pages305–307 |date1972 |url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/akb/article/download/39767/33430}}</ref>
An aurochs head with a star between its horns and Christian iconographic elements represents the official coat of arms of Moldavia perpetuated for centuries.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBoutiuc, M. |author2Florescu, O. |name-list-styleamp |author3Vasilache, V. |author4Sandu, I. |year2020 |titleThe comparative study of the state of conservation of two medieval documents on parchment from different historical periods |journalMaterials |volume13 |issue21 |page4766 |doi10.3390/ma13214766 |pmid33114524 |pmc7662666 |bibcode2020Mate...13.4766H |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Aurochs were hunted with arrows, nets and hunting dogs, and its hair on the forehead was cut from the living animal; belts were made out of this hair and believed to increase the fertility of women. When the aurochs was slaughtered, the os cordis was extracted from the heart; this bone contributed to the mystique and magical powers that were attributed to it.<ref name=vVuure05/>
In eastern Europe, the aurochs has left traces in expressions like "behaving like an aurochs" for a drunken person behaving badly, and "a bloke like an aurochs" for big and strong people.<ref namevuure/> Domestication The earliest-known domestication of the aurochs dates to the Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent, where cattle hunted and kept by Neolithic farmers gradually decreased in size between 9800 and 7500 BC. Aurochs bones found at Mureybet and Göbekli Tepe are larger in size than cattle bones from later Neolithic settlements in northern Syria like Dja'de el-Mughara and Tell Halula.<ref>{{cite book |lastHelmer, D. |name-list-styleamp |author2Gourichon, L. |author3Monchot, H. |author4Peters, J. |author5Segui, M.S. |year2005 |titleThe first steps of animal domestication: new archeological approaches |chapterIdentifying early domestic cattle from pre-pottery Neolithic sites on the Middle Euphrates using sexual dimorphism |locationOxford |publisherOxbow Books |isbn1-84217-121-6 |editor1Vigne, J.D. |editor2Peters, J. |editor3Helmer, D. |pages86–95 |chapter-urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/235341120}}</ref>
In Late Neolithic sites of northern Iraq and western Iran dating to the sixth millennium BC, cattle remains are also smaller but more frequent, indicating that domesticated cattle were imported during the Halaf culture from the central Fertile Crescent region.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Arbuckle, B.S. |name-list-styleamp |author2Price, M.D. |author3Hongo, H. |author4Öksüz, B. |year2016 |titleDocumenting the initial appearance of domestic cattle in the Eastern Fertile Crescent (northern Iraq and western Iran) |journalJournal of Archaeological Science |volume72 |pages1–9 |doi10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.008 |bibcode2016JArSc..72....1A |s2cid85441215 |urlhttps://scholar.harvard.edu/files/maxprice/files/arbuckle_2016_cattle.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/maxprice/files/arbuckle_2016_cattle.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Results of genetic research indicate that the modern taurine cattle (Bos taurus) arose from 80 aurochs tamed in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria about 10,500 years ago.<ref name=Bollongino_al2012/>
Taurine cattle spread into the Balkans and northern Italy along the Danube River and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.<ref namePitt_al2019>{{cite journal |author1Pitt, D. |name-list-styleamp |author2Sevane, N. |author3Nicolazzi, E.L. |author4MacHugh, D.E. |author5Park, S.D. |author6Colli, L. |author7Martinez, R. |author8Bruford, M.W. |author9Orozco-terWengel, P. |year2019 |titleDomestication of cattle: Two or three events? |journalEvolutionary Applications |volume12 |issue1 |pages123–136 |doi10.1111/eva.12674 |pmid30622640 |pmc6304694 |doi-accessfree|bibcode2019EvApp..12..123P }}</ref>
Hybridisation between male aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred in central Europe between 9500 and 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Götherström, A. |name-list-styleamp |author2Anderung, C. |author3Hellborg, L. |author4Elburg, R. |author5Smith, C. |author6Bradley, D.G. |author7Ellegren, H. |year2005 |titleCattle domestication in the Near East was followed by hybridization with aurochs bulls in Europe |journalProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume272 |issue1579 |pages2345–2351 |doi10.1098/rspb.2005.3243 |doi-accessfree |pmid16243693 |pmc1559968}}</ref>
Analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences of Italian aurochs specimens dated to 17–7,000 years ago and 51 modern cattle breeds revealed some degree of introgression of aurochs genes into south European cattle, indicating that female aurochs had contact with free-ranging domestic cattle.<ref nameBeja2006>{{cite journal |last1Beja-Pereira |first1A. |last2Caramelli |first2D. |last3Lalueza-Fox |first3C. |last4Vernesi |first4C. |last5Ferrand |first5N. |last6Casoli |first6A. |last7Goyache |first7F. |last8Royo |first8L.J. |last9Conti |first9S. |last10Lari |first10M. |last11Martini |first11A. |last12Ouragh |first12L. |last13Magid |first13A. |last14Atash |first14A. |last15Zsolnai |first15A. |last16Boscato |first16P. |last17Triantaphylidis |first17C. |last18Ploumi |first18K. |last19Sineo |first19L. |last20Mallegni |first20F. |last21Taberlet |first21P. |last22Erhardt |first22G. |last23Sampietro |first23L. |last24Bertranpetit |first24J. |last25Barbujani |first25G. |last26Luikart |first26G. |last27Bertorelle |first27G. |date2006 |titleThe origin of European cattle: Evidence from modern and ancient DNA |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume103 |issue21 |pages8113–8118 |pmid16690747 |pmc1472438 |doi10.1073/pnas.0509210103 |bibcode2006PNAS..103.8113B |doi-accessfree |name-list-styleamp}}</ref> Cattle bones of various sizes found at a Chalcolithic settlement in the Kutná Hora District provide further evidence for hybridisation of aurochs and domestic cattle between 3000 and 2800 BC in the Bohemian region.<ref nameKysely2008/>
Whole genome sequencing of a 6,750-year-old aurochs bone found in England was compared with genome sequence data of 81 cattle and single-nucleotide polymorphism data of 1,225 cattle. Results revealed that British and Irish cattle breeds share some genetic variants with the aurochs specimen; early herders in Britain might have been responsible for the local gene flow from aurochs into the ancestors of British and Irish cattle.<ref namePark>{{cite journal |author1Park, S.D.E. |author2Magee, D.A. |author3McGettigan, P.A. |author4Teasdale, M.D.|author5Edwards, C.J. |author6Lohan, A.J. |author7Murphy, A. |author8Braud, M. |author9Donoghue, M.T. |author10Liu, Y. |author11Chamberlain, A.T.|author12Rue-Albrecht, K. |author13Schroeder, S. |author14Spillane, C. |author15Tai, S. |author16Bradley, D.G. |author17Sonstegard, T.S. |author18Loftus, B.J. |author19MacHugh, D.E. |titleGenome sequencing of the extinct Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates the phylogeography and evolution of cattle |journalGenome Biology |date2015 |volume16 |issue1 |page234 |doi10.1186/s13059-015-0790-2 |pmid26498365 |pmc4620651 |name-list-styleamp |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The Murboden cattle breed also exhibits sporadic introgression of female European aurochs into domestic cattle in the Alps.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Cubric-Curik, V. |name-list-styleamp |author2Novosel, D. |author3Brajkovic, V. |author4Rota Stabelli, O. |author5Krebs, S. |author6Sölkner, J. |author7Šalamon, D. |author8Ristov, S. |author9Berger, B. |author10Trivizaki, S. |author11Bizelis, I. |author12Ferenčaković, M. |author13Rothammer, S. |author14Kunz, E. |author15Simčič, M. |author16Dovč, P. |author17Bunevski, G. |author18Bytyqi, H. |author19Marković, B. |author20Brka, M. |author21Kume, K. |author22Stojanović, S. |author23Nikolov, V. |author24Zinovieva, N. |author25Schönherz, A.A. |author26Guldbrandtsen, B. |author27Čačić, M. |author28Radović, S. |author29Miracle, P. |author30Vernesi, C. |author31Curik, I. |author32Medugorac, I. |year2021 |titleLarge-scale mitogenome sequencing reveals consecutive expansions of domestic taurine cattle and supports sporadic Aurochs introgression |journalEvolutionary Applications |volume15 |issue4 |pages663–678 |doi10.1111/eva.13315 |pmid35505892 |pmc9046920 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> Domestic cattle continued to diminish in both body and horn size until the Middle Ages.<ref name=Ajmone_al2010/>
Comparative analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms and shared alleles revealed admixture between East Asian aurochs and introduced taurine cattle in ancient China, for example at Shimao. This suggested the incorporation of local aurochs into domestic cattle as far back as 4,000 years BP, either through spontaneous introgression, or the capture of different aurochs groups to supplement domestic stocks. The same study detected derived alleles shared by aurochs and modern taurine cattle in East Asia, especially among Tibetan breeds. Introgression with local aurochs could have facilitated rapid adaptation to new environments.<ref name = "Hou"/>
The Indian aurochs is thought to have been domesticated 10,000–8,000 years ago.<ref nameBradley1996>{{cite journal |last1Bradley |first1D.G. |last2MacHugh |first2D.E. |last3Cunningham |first3P. |last4Loftus |first4R.T. |name-list-styleamp |year1996 |titleMitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume93 |issue10 |pages5131–5135 |doi10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131 |pmid8643540 |pmc39419 |bibcode1996PNAS...93.5131B |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Aurochs fossils found at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan are dated to around 8,000 years BP and represent some of the earliest evidence for its domestication on the Indian subcontinent.<ref name"Turvey_al2021">{{cite journal |author1Turvey, S.T. |author2Sathe, V. |author3Crees, J.J. |author4Jukar, A.M. |author5Chakraborty, P. |author6Lister, A.M. |name-list-styleamp |year2021 |titleLate Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know? |urlhttps://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10116065/17/Turvey_India_megafauna_paper_Nov2020_revised.pdf |journalQuaternary Science Reviews |volume252 |page106740 |bibcode2021QSRv..25206740T |doi10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740 |s2cid234265221}}</ref> Female Indian aurochs contributed to the gene pool of zebu (Bos indicus) between 5,500 and 4,000 years BP during the expansion of pastoralism in northern India. The zebu initially spread eastwards to Southeast Asia.<ref name"Chen2010">{{cite journal |last1Chen |first1S. |last2Lin |first2B.-Z. |last3Baig |first3M. |last4Mitra |first4B. |last5Lopes |first5R. J. |last6Santos |first6A. M. |last7Magee |first7D. A. |last8Azevedo |first8M. |last9Tarroso |first9P. |last10Sasazaki |first10S. |last11Ostrowski |first11S. |last12Mahgoub |first12O. |last13Chaudhuri |first13T. K. |last14Zhang |first14Y.-p. |last15Costa |first15V. |date2010 |titleZebu Cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic |journalMolecular Biology and Evolution |volume27 |issue1 |pages1–6 |doi10.1093/molbev/msp213 |pmid19770222 |doi-accessfree |last16Royo |first16L. J. |last17Goyache |first17F. |last18Luikart |first18G. |last19Boivin |first19N. |last20Fuller |first20D. Q. |last21Mannen |first21H. |last22Bradley |first22D. G. |last23Beja-Pereira |first23=A.}}</ref>
Hybridisation between zebu and early taurine cattle occurred in the Near East after 4,000 years BP coinciding with the drought period during the 4.2-kiloyear event.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Verdugo, M.P. |name-list-styleamp |author2Mullin, V.E. |author3Scheu, A. |author4Mattiangeli, V. |author5Daly, K.G. |author6Delser, P.M. |author7Hare, A.J. |author8Burger, J. |author9Collins, M.J. |author10Kehati, R. |author11Hesse, P. |year2019 |titleAncient cattle genomics, origins, and rapid turnover in the Fertile Crescent |journalScience |volume365 |issue6449 |pages173–176 |doi10.1126/science.aav1002 |pmid31296769 |bibcode2019Sci...365..173V |s2cid195894128 |urlhttps://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/149232/1/Verdugo_Combined_for_resubmission_ACCEPTED_VERSION.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/149232/1/Verdugo_Combined_for_resubmission_ACCEPTED_VERSION.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The zebu was introduced to East Africa about 3,500–2,500 years ago,<ref namePitt_al2019/> and reached Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref>{{cite journal |lastMannen, H. |author2Kohno, M. |name-list-styleamp |author3Nagata, Y. |author4Tsuji, S. |author5Bradley, D.G. |author6Yeo, J.S. |author7Nyamsamba, D. |author8Zagdsuren, Y. |author9Yokohama, M. |author10Nomura, K. |author11Amano, T. |titleIndependent mitochondrial origin and historical genetic differentiation in North Eastern Asian cattle |journalMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume32 |issue2 |pages539–544 |date2004 |doi10.1016/j.ympev.2004.01.010 |pmid15223036 |bibcode2004MolPE..32..539M |urlhttp://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/CVT/105223/2008/References%20for%20BigBos%20proposal%20&#91;PTDC-CVT-105223-2008&#93;/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max30%20&#91;BigBos&#93;/Mannen%20et%20al%202004_MPE-%20Independent%20origin%20of%20Northeastern%20Asian%20cattle.pdf |access-date22 December 2021 |archive-date5 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305232344/http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/CVT/105223/2008/References%20for%20BigBos%20proposal%20%5BPTDC-CVT-105223-2008%5D/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max30%20%5BBigBos%5D/Mannen%20et%20al%202004_MPE-%20Independent%20origin%20of%20Northeastern%20Asian%20cattle.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
A third domestication event thought to have occurred in Egypt's Western Desert is not supported by results of an analysis of genetic admixture, introgression and migration patterns of 3,196 domestic cattle representing 180 populations. However, the same study supported extensive hybridization between taurine cattle in Africa, arrived from the Near East after domestication, and local wild African aurochs prior to the entry of the zebu in Africa.<ref namePitt_al2019/> The zebu was introduced through Ancient Egypt and started to spread comprehensively through West Africa in the last 1,400 years, along with Arabic cultural influences. Most modern African cattle breeds are hybridized to a variable extent with Indicine cattle, with introgression being most reduced in areas of West Africa where the tse-tse fly is present.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.fao.org/3/t1300t/t1300t0j.htm |titleGenetic characterization and West African cattle |first1C. |last1Meghen |first2D.E. |last2MacHugh |first3D.G. |last3Bradley |websitefao.org |access-date20 September 2021 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190226101512/http://www.fao.org:80/3/t1300t/t1300T0j.htm |archive-date26 February 2019 }}</ref>
Extinction
in Thebes, Egypt, depicting a North African aurochs bull, cow and calf being hunted with dogs and javelins.]]
The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) became extinct sometime during the Holocene period, likely due to habitat loss caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with the domestic zebu.<ref name"Chen2010" /><ref>{{cite book |lastRangarajan, M. |titleIndia's Wildlife History |publisherPermanent Black |year2001 |isbn978-81-7824-140-1 |locationDelhi, India |page4}}</ref> The timing of extinction of aurochs in the Indian subcontinent is unclear, due to difficulty distinguishing aurochs remains from those of domestic cattle, with a 2021 review suggesting remains from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, dating to around 8,000 years ago "might constitute the only dated and reliably identified evidence" of Holocene Indian aurochs.<ref name"Turvey_al2021" /> The extinction probably predates the historical period, due to a lack of references to the aurochs in Indian texts.<ref>{{Citation |lastvan Vuure |firstT. |titleAurochs Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827 |date2014-10-30 |workEcology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle |pages240–254 |editor-lastMelletti |editor-firstMario |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781139568098%23c15/type/book_part |access-date2024-11-02 |edition1 |publisherCambridge University Press |doi10.1017/cbo9781139568098.017 |isbn978-1-139-56809-8 |editor2-lastBurton |editor2-first=James}}</ref>
A 2014 review suggested that the youngest remains of African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) dated to around 6,000 years Before Present (BP),<ref>{{Cite journal |lastFaith |firstJ. Tyler |dateJanuary 2014 |titleLate Pleistocene and Holocene mammal extinctions on continental Africa |journalEarth-Science Reviews |volume128 |pages105–121 |doi10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.10.009|bibcode2014ESRv..128..105F}}</ref> though some authors suggest that it may have survived until at least to the Roman period, as indicated by remains found in Buto and Faiyum in the Nile Delta.<ref name"Linseele2004" />
In China, aurochs persisted until at least 3,600 BP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hou |first1Jiawen |last2Guan |first2Xiwen |last3Xia |first3Xiaoting |last4Lyu |first4Yang |last5Liu |first5Xin |last6Mazei |first6Yuri |last7Xie |first7Ping |last8Chang |first8Fengqin |last9Zhang |first9Xiaonan |last10Chen |first10Jialei |last11Li |first11Xinyi |last12Zhang |first12Fengwei |last13Jin |first13Liangliang |last14Luo |first14Xiaoyu |last15Sinding |first15Mikkel-Holger S. |dateSeptember 2024 |titleEvolution and legacy of East Asian aurochs |journalScience Bulletin |volume69 |issue21 |pages3425–3433 |doi10.1016/j.scib.2024.09.016|pmid39322456 |doi-accessfree|bibcode2024SciBu..69.3425H }}</ref>
The Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) was present in southern Sweden during the Holocene climatic optimum until at least 7,800 years BP.<ref>{{cite book |lastMagnell, O. |titleClimate Change and Human Responses |publisherSpringer |year2017 |isbn978-94-024-1105-8 |editor1Monks, G.G. |seriesVertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology |locationDordrecht |pages123–135 |chapterClimate Change at the Holocene Thermal Maximum and Its Impact on Wild Game Populations in South Scandinavia |doi10.1007/978-94-024-1106-5_7 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide-hyDgAAQBAJ&pgPA122}}</ref> In Denmark, the first-known local extinction of the aurochs occurred after the sea level rise on the newly formed Danish islands about 8,000–7,500 years BP, and the last documented aurochs lived in southern Jutland around 3,000 years BP.<ref name"Gravlund_al2012" /> The latest-known aurochs fossil in Great Britain dates to 3,245 years BP, and it was probably extinct by 3,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |lastClutton-Brock, J. |year1989 |titleFive thousand years of livestock in Britain |journalBiological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume38 |issue1 |pages31–37 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb01560.x}}</ref>
Excessive hunting began and continued until the aurochs was nearly extinct. The gradual extinction of the aurochs in Central Europe was concurrent with the clearcutting of large forest tracts between the 9th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Geptner1961" />
By the 13th century, the aurochs existed only in small numbers in Eastern Europe, and hunting it became a privilege of nobles and later royals.<ref name"vVuure05" /> The population in Hungary was declining from at least the 9th century and was extinct in the 13th century.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBartosiewicz, L. |year2006 |titleInterdisciplinary analysis of an Iron Age Aurochs horn core from Hungary: a case study |journalActa Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume57 |issue1–3 |pages153–163 |doi10.1556/AArch.57.2006.1-3.10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastBartosiewicz, L. |year1997 |titleA horn worth blowing? A stray find of Aurochs from Hungary |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/289813462 |journalAntiquity |volume71 |issue274 |pages1007–1010 |doi10.1017/S0003598X00085902 |s2cid=161722401}}</ref>
Findings from subfossil records indicate that wild aurochs might have survived in northwestern Transylvania until the 14th to 16th century, in western Moldavia until probably the early 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bejenaru |first1L. |last2Stanc |first2S. |last3Popovici |first3M. |last4Balasescu |first4A. |last5Cotiuga |first5V. |name-list-styleamp |year2013 |titleHolocene subfossil records of the auroch (Bos primigenius) in Romania |journalThe Holocene |volume23 |issue4 |pages603–614 |bibcode2013Holoc..23..603B |doi10.1177/0959683612465448 |s2cid131580290}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Németh |first1A. |last2Bárány |first2A. |last3Csorba |first3G. |last4Magyari |first4E. |last5Pazonyi |first5P. |last6Pálfy |first6J. |date2017 |titleHolocene mammal extinctions in the Carpathian Basin: a review |urlhttp://real.mtak.hu/47261/1/Nemeth_etal_2017_MammRev_Holocene_ext_preprint_u.pdf |url-statuslive |journalMammal Review |volume47 |issue1 |pages38–52 |doi10.1111/mam.12075 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://real.mtak.hu/47261/1/Nemeth_etal_2017_MammRev_Holocene_ext_preprint_u.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09}}</ref>
The last-known aurochs herd lived in a marshy woodland in Poland's Jaktorów Forest. It decreased from around 50 individuals in the mid 16th century to four individuals by 1601. The last aurochs cow died in 1627 from natural causes.<ref>{{cite journal |lastRokosz |firstM. |year1995 |titleHistory of the Aurochs (Bos taurus primigenius) in Poland |urlhttp://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/agtrweb/Documents/Library/docs/agri16_95.pdf |url-statusdead |journalAnimal Genetics Resources Information |volume16 |pages5–12 |doi10.1017/S1014233900004582 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130114152435/http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/agtrweb/Documents/Library/docs/agri16_95.pdf |archive-date14 January 2013}}</ref>
A 2021 study argued that the aurochs possibly survived in northeastern Bulgaria until at least the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBoev |firstZ. |year2016 |titleSubfossil vertebrate fauna from Forum Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria), 16–18th Century AD |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/308747936 |journalActa Zoologica Bulgarica |volume68 |issue3 |pages415–424}}</ref> A horn-core excavated in 2020 in Sofia was identified as being from an aurochs; the archaeological layer in which it was found was dated to the second half of the 17th or first half of the 18th century, suggesting that aurochs may have survived in Bulgaria until that date.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBoev |firstZ. |year2021 |titleThe last Bos primigenius survived in Bulgaria (Cetartiodactyla: Bovidae) |journalLynx |seriesNew Series |volume52 |pages139–142 |doi10.37520/lynx.2021.010 |s2cid246761121 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Breeding of aurochs-like cattle
{{multiple image |perrow1 |image1Hausrindlainz.jpg |caption1=Heck cattle in Lainzer Tiergarten}}
In the early 1920s, Heinz Heck initiated a selective breeding program in Hellabrunn Zoo attempting to breed back the aurochs using several cattle breeds; the result is called Heck cattle.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHeck |firstH. |titleThe breeding-back of the Aurochs |doi10.1017/S0030605300035286 |journalOryx |volume1 |issue3 |pages117–122 |year1951 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Herds of these cattle were released to Oostvaardersplassen, a polder in the Netherlands in the 1980s as aurochs surrogates for naturalistic grazing with the aim to restore prehistorical landscapes.<ref nameLorimer2>{{cite journal |author1Lorimer, J. |name-list-styleamp |author2Driessen, C. |year2016 |titleFrom "Nazi cows" to cosmopolitan "ecological engineers": specifying rewilding through a history of Heck cattle |journalAnnals of the American Association of Geographers |volume106 |issue3 |pages631–652 |doi10.1080/00045608.2015.1115332 |bibcode2016AAAG..106..631L |s2cid131547744}}</ref> Large numbers of them died of starvation during the cold winters of 2005 and 2010, and the project of no interference ended in 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |lastTheunissen |firstB. |year2019 |titleThe Oostvaardersplassen Fiasco |journalIsis |volume110 |issue2 |pages341–345 |doi10.1086/703338 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Starting in 1996, Heck cattle were crossed with southern European cattle breeds such as Sayaguesa Cattle, Chianina and to a lesser extent Spanish Fighting Bulls in the hope of creating a more aurochs-like animal. The resulting crossbreeds are called Taurus cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |lastBunzel-Drüke, M. |year2001 |titleEcological substitutes for Wild Horse (Equus ferus, Boddaert 1785 E. przewalskii, Poljakov 1881) and Aurochs (Bos primigenius, Bojanus 1827) |journalNatur- und Kulturlandschaft |volume4 |pages240–252 |citeseerx10.1.1.403.8349 }}</ref> Other breeding-back projects are the Tauros Programme and the Uruz Project.<ref name=Lorimer2/>
However, approaches aiming at breeding an aurochs-like phenotype do not equate to an aurochs-like genotype.<ref namesinding2016>{{cite journal |doi10.5334/oq.25 |titleThe draft genome of extinct European Aurochs and its implications for de-extinction |journalOpen Quaternary |volume2 |year2016 |author1Sinding, M.-H.S. |author2Gilbert, M.T.P. |doi-accessfree |name-list-styleamp}}</ref>
See also
{{Portal|Paleontology}}
*Ur (rune)
*Sacred bull
*Chillingham cattle
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{EB1911 poster|Aurochs}}
*[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/where-did-aurochs-live The Story of the Aurochs Is More Complicated Than We Thought], December 12, 2024. Article at Atlas Obscura
{{Taxonbar|from=Q168903}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Mammals described in 1827
Category:Bos
Category:Extinct mammals of Europe
Category:Extinct mammals
Category:Extinct mammals of Asia
Category:Extinct mammals of Africa
Category:Fossil taxa described in 1827
Category:Holocene extinctions
Category:Mammal extinctions since 1500
Category:Pleistocene Artiodactyla
Category:Pleistocene first appearances
Category:Pliocene Artiodactyla
Category:Prehistoric bovids
Category:Species made extinct by human activities
Category:Bovids of Africa
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode
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thumb|IBM Turboways ATM 155 PCI network interface card
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a telecommunications standard defined by the American National Standards Institute and International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly CCITT) for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s, ATM provides functionality that uses features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using asynchronous time-division multiplexing. ATM was seen in the 1990s as a competitor to Ethernet and networks carrying IP traffic as, unlike Ethernet, it was faster and designed with quality-of-service in mind, but it fell out of favor once Ethernet reached speeds of 1 gigabits per second.
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets) called cells. This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) (OSI layer 3) or Ethernet (also layer 2) that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the data exchange begins. ATM is a core protocol used in the synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH) backbone of the public switched telephone network and in the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.
Protocol architecture
To minimize queuing delay and packet delay variation (PDV), all ATM cells are the same small size. Reduction of PDV is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analog audio signal is an inherently real-time process. The decoder needs an evenly spaced stream of data items.
At the time of the design of ATM, synchronous digital hierarchy with payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to in the US, and 2 to in Europe.
At , a typical full-length 1,500 byte Ethernet frame would take 77.42 μs to transmit. On a lower-speed T1 line, the same packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over. This was considered unacceptable for speech traffic.
The design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. Cells were introduced to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all data packets and voice streams into 48-byte pieces, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. Being 1/30th the size reduced cell contention jitter by the same factor of 30.
The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice. Parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (4 ms of voice data) would avoid the need for echo cancellation on domestic voice calls. The United States, due to its larger size, already had echo cancellers widely deployed. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length.
48 bytes was chosen as a compromise, despite having all the disadvantages of both proposals and the additional inconvenience of not being a power of two in size. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information.
Cell structure
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. ATM defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI) and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
Diagram of a UNI ATM cell
7 4 3 0 GFC VPI VPI VCI VCI VCI PT CLP HEC
Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)
Diagram of an NNI ATM cell
7 4 3 0 VPI VPI VCI VCI VCI PT CLP HEC
Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)
GFC
The generic flow control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized, and the field is always set to 0000.
VPI
Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI)
VCI
Virtual channel identifier (16 bits)
PT
Payload type (3 bits)
Bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply:
Bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced
Bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries.
CLP
Cell loss priority (1-bit)
HEC
Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X8 + X2 + X + 1)
ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit (MSB) of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general-purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the MSB is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type: network management segment, network management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use.
Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found.
A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control and sub-multiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.
The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 212 VPs of up to almost 216 VCs each.
Service types
ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.
Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a network, reducing the motivation for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. The increased link speeds by themselves do not eliminate jitter due to queuing.
ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP, Ethernet VLANs, VxLAN, MPLS, and multi-protocol support over SONET.
Virtual circuits
An ATM network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. This is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. Call admission is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection.
Motivation
ATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using VCs. This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16-bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on a user-network interface (at the edge of the network), or if it is sent on a network-network interface (inside the network).
As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI/VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in Frame Relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X.25.
Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths.
Types
ATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes.
PVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service contract) and the two endpoints.
ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end station. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are interconnected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.
Routing
Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI is a link-state routing protocol like OSPF and IS-IS. PNNI also includes a very powerful route summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.
Traffic engineering
Another key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which quality of service (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.
CBR Constant bit rate: a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is specified, which is constant.
VBR Variable bit rate: an average or Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is specified, which can peak at a certain level, a PCR, for a maximum interval before being problematic.
ABR Available bit rate: a minimum guaranteed rate is specified.
UBR Unspecified bit rate: traffic is allocated to all remaining transmission capacity.
VBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and serves for bursty traffic. Non-real-time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr-nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of cell-delay variation tolerance (CDVT), which defines the clumping of cells in time.
Traffic policing
To maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user–network interfaces (UNIs) and network-to-network interfaces (NNIs) using usage/network parameter control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU-T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVT alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVT and an SCR and maximum burst size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR-SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells.
If the traffic on a virtual circuit exceeds its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or set the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit, allowing the cells to be dropped at a congestion point. Basic policing works on a cell-by-cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic as discarding a single cell will invalidate a packet's worth of cells. As a result, schemes such as partial packet discard (PPD) and early packet discard (EPD) have been developed to discard a whole packet's cells. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM user-to-ATM user (AUU) indication bit in the payload-type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR-SDU.
Traffic shaping
Traffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface controller (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate.
Reference model
The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI reference model. It specifies the following layers:
At the physical network level, ATM specifies a layer that is equivalent to the OSI physical layer.
The ATM layer 2 roughly corresponds to the OSI data link layer.
The OSI network layer is implemented as the ATM adaptation layer (AAL).
Deployment
thumb|ATM switch by FORE systems
ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price–performance ratio of Internet Protocol-based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real-time and bursty network traffic. Additionally, among cable companies using ATM there often would be discrete and competing management teams for telephony, video on demand, and broadcast and digital video reception, which adversely impacted efficiency. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot-com bubble, some still predicted that "ATM is going to dominate". However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum.
Wireless or mobile ATM
Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM, consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as a crossover switch, which is similar to the mobile switching center of GSM networks.
The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and high-speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high-speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs.
See also
VoATM
ATM25
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
ATM ChipWeb - Chip and NIC database
Category:ITU-T recommendations
Category:Link protocols
Category:Networking standards
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.481014
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2500
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Anus
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In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the anus (: anuses or ani; from Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is the external body orifice at the exit end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e. the opposite end from the mouth. Its function is to facilitate the expulsion of wastes that remain after digestion.
Bowel contents that pass through the anus include the gaseous flatus and the semi-solid feces, which (depending on the type of animal) include: indigestible matter such as bones, hair pellets, endozoochorous seeds and digestive rocks; residual food material after the digestible nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; excreted metabolites like bilirubin-containing bile; and dead mucosal epithelia or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Passage of feces through the anus is typically controlled by muscular sphincters, and failure to stop unwanted passages results in fecal incontinence.
Amphibians, reptiles and birds use a similar orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.
The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated "modules" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.
In comb jellies, there are species with one and sometimes two permanent anuses, species like the warty comb jelly grows an anus, which then disappear when it is no longer needed.
Development
In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (proto– meaning "first") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. Research from 2001 shows the edges of the dent close up in the middles of protosomes, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouths and anuses.
See also
References
External links
Category:Digestive system
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anus
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.487747
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Appendix
|
Appendix (: appendices or appendixes) may refer to:
__NOTOC__
In documents
Addendum, an addition made to a document by its author after its initial printing or publication
Bibliography, a systematic list of books and other works
Index (publishing), a list of words or phrases with pointers to where related material can be found in a document
Anatomy
Appendix (anatomy), a part of the human digestive system
A part of the spadix of certain plants within family Araceae
Arts and media
Appendix (band), a Finnish punk rock group
The Appendix, a quarterly journal of history and culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendix
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Acantharia
|
{{Short description|Class of single-celled organisms}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Haeckel_Acanthometra.jpg
| image_caption = Acantharea species
| taxon = Acantharea
| authority = Haeckel, 1881, emend. Mikrjukov, 2000
| subdivision_ranks = Order
| subdivision = * Acanthophractida
| synonyms = Acantharea
| synonyms_ref <ref>{{cite WoRMS |titleAcantharia |id586732 |access-date13 August 2024}}</ref>
}}
The Acantharia are a group of radiolarian<ref>{{Cite journal
| pmid = 15144058
| year = 2004
| last1 Polet | first1 S.
| last2 Berney | first2 C.
| last3 Fahrni | first3 J.
| last4 Pawlowski | first4 J.
| title = Small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences of Phaeodarea challenge the monophyly of Haeckel's Radiolaria
| volume = 155
| issue = 1
| pages = 53–63
| journal = Protist
| doi = 10.1078/1434461000164
}}</ref> protozoa, distinguished mainly by their strontium sulfate skeletons. Acantharians are heterotrophic marine microplankton that range in size from about 200 microns in diameter up to several millimeters. Some acantharians have photosynthetic endosymbionts and hence are considered mixotrophs.
Morphology
crystal]]
Acantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate, SrSO<sub>4</sub>,<ref name"Trace elements in acantharian skeletons">{{cite journal | last1 Brass | first1 G. W. | title Trace elements in acantharian skeletons | journal Limnology and Oceanography | volume 25 | issue 1 | pages 146–149 | year 1980 | doi 10.4319/lo.1980.25.1.0146 | bibcode 1980LimOc..25..146B | doi-access free }}</ref> in the form of mineral celestine crystal. Celestine is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals, and is the heaviest mineral in the ocean.<ref nameLeMoigne2019 /> The denseness of their celestite ensures acantharian shells function as mineral ballast, resulting in fast sedimentation to bathypelagic depths. High settling fluxes of acantharian cysts have been observed at times in the Iceland Basin and the Southern Ocean, as much as half of the total gravitational organic carbon flux.<ref nameMartin2010>{{cite journal |doi 10.4319/lo.2009.55.2.0604|title Sedimentation of acantharian cysts in the Iceland Basin: Strontium as a ballast for deep ocean particle flux, and implications for acantharian reproductive strategies|year 2010|last1 Martin|first1 Patrick|last2 Allen|first2 John T.|last3 Cooper|first3 Matthew J.|last4 Johns|first4 David G.|last5 Lampitt|first5 Richard S.|last6 Sanders|first6 Richard|last7 Teagle|first7 Damon A. H.|journal Limnology and Oceanography|volume 55|issue 2|pages 604–614|doi-access free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi 10.1007/s00227-018-3376-1|title Acantharian cysts: High flux occurrence in the bathypelagic zone of the Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean|year 2018|last1 Belcher|first1 Anna|last2 Manno|first2 Clara|last3 Thorpe|first3 Sally|last4 Tarling|first4 Geraint|journal Marine Biology|volume 165|issue 7| page117 | bibcode2018MarBi.165..117B |s2cid 90349921|url http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/520421/2/Supplementary%20material.pdf}}</ref><ref nameLeMoigne2019>{{cite journal |doi 10.3389/fmars.2019.00634|title Pathways of Organic Carbon Downward Transport by the Oceanic Biological Carbon Pump|year 2019|last1 Le Moigne|first1 Frédéric A. C.|journal Frontiers in Marine Science|volume 6|doi-access = free}} Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>
The strontium sulfate crystals<ref name"Trace elements in acantharian skeletons"/> are secreted by vacuoles surrounding each spicule or spine. Acantharians are unique among marine organisms for their ability to biomineralize strontium sulfate as the main component of their skeletons.<ref name":0">{{Citation|last1Decelle|first1Johan|titleAcantharia|date2015-11-16|workeLS|pages1–10|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd|languageen|doi10.1002/9780470015902.a0002102.pub2|isbn9780470015902|last2Not|first2Fabrice}}</ref> However, unlike other radiolarians whose skeletons are made of silica, acantharian skeletons do not fossilize, primarily because strontium sulfate is very scarce in seawater and the crystals dissolve after the acantharians die. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law in terms of lines of latitude and longitude – the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two tropical spines or one equatorial and two polar spines, in alternation.
The cell cytoplasm is divided into two regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm. The endoplasm, at the core of the cell, contains the main organelles, including many nuclei, and is delineated from the ectoplasm by a capsular wall made of a microfibril mesh. In symbiotic species, the algal symbionts are maintained in the endoplasm.<ref name":1">{{Cite journal|last1Decelle|first1Johan|last2Probert|first2Ian|last3Bittner|first3Lucie|last4Desdevises|first4Yves|last5Colin|first5Sébastien|last6Vargas|first6Colomban de|last7Galí|first7Martí|last8Simó|first8Rafel|last9Not|first9Fabrice|date2012-10-30|titleAn original mode of symbiosis in open ocean plankton|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|languageen|volume109|issue44|pages18000–18005|doi10.1073/pnas.1212303109|issn0027-8424|pmc3497740|pmid23071304|bibcode2012PNAS..10918000D|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Febvre|first1Jean|last2Febvre-Chevalier|first2Colette|dateFebruary 1979|titleUltrastructural study of zooxanthellae of three species of Acantharia (Protozoa: Actinopoda), with details of their taxonomic position in the prymnesiales (Prymnesiophyceae, Hibberd, 1976)|journalJournal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom|languageen|volume59|issue1|pages215–226|doi10.1017/S0025315400046294|bibcode1979JMBUK..59..215F |s2cid86040570 |issn1469-7769}}</ref><ref name":2">{{Cite journal|last1Mars Brisbin|first1Margaret|last2Mesrop|first2Lisa Y.|last3Grossmann|first3Mary M.|last4Mitarai|first4Satoshi|date2018|titleIntra-host Symbiont Diversity and Extended Symbiont Maintenance in Photosymbiotic Acantharea (Clade F)|journalFrontiers in Microbiology|languageen|volume9|pages1998|doi10.3389/fmicb.2018.01998|issn1664-302X|pmc6120437|pmid30210473|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The ectoplasm consists of cytoplasmic extensions used for prey capture and also contains food vacuoles for prey digestion. The ectoplasm is surrounded by a periplasmic cortex, also made up of microfibrils, but arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spicule projects. The cortex is linked to the spines by contractile myonemes, which assist in buoyancy control by allowing the ectoplasm to expand and contract, increasing and decreasing the total volume of the cell.<ref name":0" />
Taxonomy
The way that the spines are joined at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acantharians are classified. The skeletons are made up of either ten diametric or twenty radial spicules. Diametric spicules cross the center of the cell, whereas radial spicules terminate at the center of the cell where they either form a tight or flexible junction depending on species. Acantharians with diametric spicules or loosely attached radial spicules are able to rearrange or shed spicules and form cysts.<ref nameDecelle2013>{{Cite journal|last1Decelle|first1Johan|last2Martin|first2Patrick|last3Paborstava|first3Katsiaryna|last4Pond|first4David W.|last5Tarling|first5Geraint|last6Mahé|first6Frédéric|last7de Vargas|first7Colomban|last8Lampitt|first8Richard|last9Not|first9Fabrice|date2013-01-11|titleDiversity, Ecology and Biogeochemistry of Cyst-Forming Acantharia (Radiolaria) in the Oceans|journalPLOS ONE|languageen|volume8|issue1|pagese53598|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0053598|issn1932-6203|pmc3543462|pmid23326463|bibcode2013PLoSO...853598D|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
* Holacanthida – 10 diametric spicules, simply crossed, no central junction, capable of encystment
*Chaunacanthida – 20 radial spicules, loosely attached, capable of encystment
* Symphiacanthida – 20 radial spicules, tight central junction
* Arthracanthida – 20 radial spines, tight central junction
The morphological classification system roughly agrees with phylogenetic trees based on the alignment of ribosomal RNA genes, although the groups are mostly polyphyletic. Holacanthida seems to have evolved first and includes molecular clades A, B, and D. Chaunacanthida evolved second and includes only one molecular clade, clade C. Arthracanthida and Symphacanthida, which have the most complex skeletons, evolved most recently and constitute molecular clades E and F.<ref name":0" /> Symbiosis Many acantharians, including some in clade B (Holacanthida) and all in clades E & F (Symphiacanthida and Arthracanthida), host single-celled algae within their inner cytoplasm (endoplasm). By participating in this photosymbiosis, acantharians are essentially mixotrophs: they acquire energy through both heterotrophy and autotrophy. The relationship may make it possible for acantharians to be abundant in low-nutrient regions of the oceans and may also provide extra energy necessary to maintain their elaborate strontium sulfate skeletons. It is hypothesized that the acantharians provide the algae with nutrients (N & P) that they acquire by capturing and digesting prey in return for sugar that the algae produces during photosynthesis. It is not known, however, whether the algal symbionts benefit from the relationship or if they are simply being exploited and then digested by the acantharians.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastDecelle|firstJohan|date2013-07-30|titleNew perspectives on the functioning and evolution of photosymbiosis in plankton|journalCommunicative & Integrative Biology|languageen|volume6|issue4|pagese24560|doi10.4161/cib.24560|issn1942-0889|pmc3742057|pmid23986805}}</ref>
Symbiotic Holacanthida acantharians host diverse symbiont assemblages, including several genera of dinoflagellates (Pelagodinium, Heterocapsa, Scrippsiella, Azadinium) and a haptophyte (Chrysochromulina).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Decelle|first1Johan|last2Siano|first2Raffaele|last3Probert|first3Ian|last4Poirier|first4Camille|last5Not|first5Fabrice|date2012-10-27|titleMultiple microalgal partners in symbiosis with the acantharian Acanthochiasma sp. (Radiolaria)|journalSymbiosis|languageen|volume58|issue1–3|pages233–244|doi10.1007/s13199-012-0195-x|bibcode2012Symbi..58..233D |s2cid6142181|issn0334-5114|urlhttps://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00114/22493/21497.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00114/22493/21497.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Clade E & F acantharians have a more specific symbiosis and primarily host symbionts from the haptophyte genus Phaeocystis,<ref name":1" /> although they sometimes also host Chrysochromulina symbionts.<ref name":2" /> Clade F acantharians simultaneously host multiple species and strains of Phaeocystis and their internal symbiont community does not necessarily match the relative availability of potential symbionts in the surrounding environment. The mismatch between internal and external symbiont communities suggests that acantharians can be selective in choosing symbionts and probably do not continuously digest and recruit new symbionts, and maintain symbionts for extended periods of time instead.<ref name":2" />
Life cycle
Adults are usually multinucleated.<ref name":0" /> Earlier diverging clades are able to shed their spines and form cysts, which are often referred to as reproductive cysts.<ref nameDecelle2013 /> Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as "spores"), which may be flagellate, and cysts have been observed to release these swarmers. Non-encysted cells have also been seen releasing swarmers in laboratory conditions. Not all life cycle stages have been observed, however, and no one has witnessed the fusion of swarmers to produce a new acantharian. Cysts are often found in sediment traps and it is therefore believed that the cysts help acantharians sink into deep water.<ref name":4" /> Genetic data and some imaging suggests that non-cyst-forming acantharians may also sink to deep water to release swarmers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Brisbin|first1Margaret Mars|last2Brunner|first2Otis Davey|last3Grossmann|first3Mary Matilda|last4Mitarai|first4Satoshi|title Paired high-throughput, in situ imaging and high-throughput sequencing illuminate acantharian abundance and vertical distribution|journalLimnology and Oceanography|year2020|volume65 |issue12 |languageen|page2953|doi10.1002/lno.11567|bibcode2020LimOc..65.2953M|issn1939-5590|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Releasing swarmer cells in deeper water may improve the survival chances of juveniles.<ref name":4">{{Cite journal|last1Martin|first1Patrick|last2Allen|first2John T.|last3Cooper|first3Matthew J.|last4Johns|first4David G.|last5Lampitt|first5Richard S.|last6Sanders|first6Richard|last7Teagle|first7Damon A. H.|date2010|titleSedimentation of acantharian cysts in the Iceland Basin: Strontium as a ballast for deep ocean particle flux, and implications for acantharian reproductive strategies|journalLimnology and Oceanography|languageen|volume55|issue2|pages604–614|doi10.4319/lo.2010.55.2.0604|bibcode2010LimOc..55..604M|issn1939-5590|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to "close the lifecycle" and maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations.
{{clear}}
{{Wikispecies}}
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Rhizaria}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acantharia
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African National Congress
|
{{Short description|Political party in South Africa}}
{{redirect|ANC}}
{{for|the defunct political party in Trinidad and Tobago|African National Congress (Trinidad and Tobago)}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = African National Congress
| logo = African National Congress logo.svg
| logo_size = 150
| colorcode = {{party color|African National Congress}}
| abbreviation = ANC
| president = Cyril Ramaphosa
| secretary_general = Fikile Mbalula
| governing_body = National Executive Committee
| spokesperson = Mahlengi Bhengu
| leader1_title = Deputy President
| leader1_name = Paul Mashatile
| leader2_title = Chairperson
| leader2_name = Gwede Mantashe
| leader3_title = First Deputy Secretary-General
| leader3_name = Nomvula Mokonyane
| leader4_title = Second Deputy Secretary-General
| leader4_name = Maropene Ramokgopa
| leader5_title = Treasurer-General
| leader5_name = Gwen Ramokgopa
| founders = {{Plainlist|
* John Langalibalele Dube
* Pixley ka Isaka Seme
* Sol Plaatje
}}
| founded {{start date and age|1912|01|08|dfy}}
| legalised {{start date and age|1990|02|03|dfy}}
| headquarters = Luthuli House<br />54 Sauer Street<br />Johannesburg<br />Gauteng
| newspaper = ANC Today
| think_tank | student_wing
| youth_wing = ANC Youth League
| womens_wing = ANC Women's League
| wing1_title = Veterans' wing
| wing1 = ANC Veterans' League
| wing2_title = Paramilitary wing
| wing2 = uMkhonto we Sizwe (until 1993)
| membership_year = 2022
| membership {{decrease}} 661,489<ref>{{Cite web |lastHarper |firstPaddy |titleExistential crisis-ANC membership drops by more than one third in five years |urlhttps://mg.co.za/politics/2022-12-18-existential-crisis-anc-membership-drops-by-more-than-one-third-in-five-years/ |access-dateDecember 18, 2022|websiteMail and Guardian|date18 December 2022 }}</ref>
| ideology Social democracy{{refn|<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://africaelects.com/south-africa/ | titleSouth Africa • Africa Elects }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/248962779|titleHow Democratic is the African National Congress? &#124; Request PDF|accessdate16 February 2024}}</ref>}}<br>African nationalism{{refn|<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.18772/22012115737 | jstor10.18772/22012115737 |doi10.18772/22012115737 | titleOne Hundred Years of the ANC | date2012 | isbn978-1-77614-287-3 | editor-last1Lissoni | editor-last2Soske | editor-last3Erlank | editor-last4Nieftagodien | editor-last5Badsha | editor-first1Arianna | editor-first2JON | editor-first3Natasha | editor-first4Noor | editor-first5Omar }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/484771 | jstor484771 | titleThe African National Congress of South Africa: The Limitations of a Revolutionary Strategy | last1Fatton | first1Robert | journalCanadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines | date2 February 1984 | volume18 | issue3 | pages593–608 | doi=10.1080/00083968.1984.10804082 }}</ref>}}
| position Centre-left<ref>{{cite web |url https://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/docs/related_studies/SASAS_2014/sasas2014_a3_political_parties_e01_0.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/docs/related_studies/SASAS_2014/sasas2014_a3_political_parties_e01_0.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |title South Africa |workEuropean Social Survey |access-date12 March 2019}}</ref>
| national = Tripartite Alliance
| international Socialist International<ref namesocialistinternational>{{cite journal|urlhttp://www.anc1912.org.za/show.php?id2841|titleThe ANC and the Socialist International|firstVulindlela|lastMapekuka|journalUmrabulo|volume30|dateNovember 2007|publisherAfrican National Congress|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110924034626/http://anc.org.za/show.php?id2841|archive-date=24 September 2011}}</ref>
| affiliation1_title = African affiliation
| affiliation1 = Former Liberation Movements of Southern Africa
| colours = {{ubl|{{colourbox|Black}} Black|{{colourbox|Green}} Green|{{colourbox|Gold}} Gold}}
| slogan = ''South Africa's National Liberation Movement''
| anthem = "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika"<br />{{small|"Lord Bless Africa"}}
| seats1_title = National Assembly seats
| seats1 {{Composition bar|159|400|hex{{party color|African National Congress}}}}
| seats2_title = NCOP seats
| seats2 {{Composition bar|43|90|hex{{party color|African National Congress}}}}
| seats3_title = Control of NCOP delegations
| seats3 {{Composition bar|8|9|hex{{party color|African National Congress}}}}
| seats4_title = Pan-African Parliament
| seats4 {{Composition bar|3|5|hex{{party color|African National Congress}}}}<small>(South African seats)</small>
| seats5_title = Provincial Legislatures
| seats5 {{Composition bar|255|487|hex{{party color|African National Congress}}}}
| seats6_title = Cape Town City Council
| seats6 {{Composition bar|43|231|hex{{party colour|African National Congress}}}}
| symbol | flag Flag of the African National Congress.svg
| website = {{Official URL}}
| country = South Africa
| footnotes =
}}
The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa. Cyril Ramaphosa, the incumbent national President, has served as President of the ANC since 18 December 2017.<ref name":1">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/18/cyril-ramaphosa-chosen-to-lead-south-africas-ruling-anc-party|titleCyril Ramaphosa chosen to lead South Africa's ruling ANC party|lastBurke|firstJason|date2017-12-18|workThe Guardian|access-date19 December 2017|languageen-GB|issn0261-3077}}</ref>
Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans. When the National Party government came to power in 1948, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid. To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics, and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53. The ANC was banned by the South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990. During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island. Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom. However, it positioned itself as a key player in the negotiations to end apartheid, which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990. For much of that time, the ANC leadership, along with many of its most active members, operated from abroad. After the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the ANC remained committed to achieving its objectives through armed struggle, led by its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. These circumstances significantly shaped the ANC during its years in exile.<ref name=":1" />
In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, although it is also a registered political party. Partly due to its Tripartite Alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions, it had retained a comfortable electoral majority at the national level and in most provinces, and has provided each of South Africa's five presidents since 1994. South Africa is considered a dominant-party state. However, the ANC's electoral majority has declined consistently since 2004, and in the 2021 local elections, its share of the national vote dropped below 50% for the first time ever.<ref>{{Cite news |lastCele |firstS'thembile |date2021-11-04 |titleANC Support Falls Below 50% for First Time in South African Vote |languageen |workBloomberg |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-04/anc-support-falls-below-50-for-first-time-in-south-african-vote |access-date2022-07-25}}</ref> Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members.
Following the 2024 general election, the ANC lost its majority in parliament for the first time in South Africa's democratic history. However, it still remained the largest party, with just over 40% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2024/06/01/nx-s1-4987616/south-africa-election-results|titleIn a historic election, South Africa's ANC loses majority for the first time|publisherNPR|date1 June 2024|accessdate1 June 2024}}</ref> The party also lost its majority in Kwa-Zulu Natal, Gauteng and Northern Cape. Despite these setbacks, the ANC retained power at the national level through a grand coalition referred to as the Government of National Unity, including parties which together have 72% of the seats in Parliament.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8007w4vqveo|titleANC and DA agree on South Africa unity government|first1Farouk|last1Chothia|first2Danai Kesta|last2Kupemba|first3Barbra|last3Plett-Usher|publisherBBC News|date14 June 2024|accessdate14 June 2024}}</ref>
History
{{Main|History of the African National Congress}}
Origins
A successor of the Cape Colony's Imbumba Yamanyama organisation, the ANC was founded as the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein on 8 January 1912, and was renamed the African National Congress in 1923. Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Sol Plaatje, John Dube, and Walter Rubusana founded the organisation, who, like much of the ANC's early membership, were from the conservative, educated, and religious professional classes of black South African society.<ref name"Lodge-1983">{{Cite book |lastLodge |firstTom |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAY5tmwEACAAJ |titleBlack Politics in South Africa Since 1945 |date1983 |publisherRavan Press |isbn978-0-86975-152-7 |pages1–32 |languageen |chapterBlack protest before 1950 |access-date27 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044524/https://books.google.com/books?idAY5tmwEACAAJ |archive-date31 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Butler-2012">{{Cite book |lastButler |firstAnthony |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWHziM0wtGgkC |titleThe Idea of the ANC |date2012 |publisherJacana Media |isbn978-1-4314-0578-7 |languageen |access-date27 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044500/https://books.google.com/books?idWHziM0wtGgkC |archive-date31 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Although they would not take part, Xhosa chiefs would show huge support for the organisation; as a result, King Jongilizwe donated 50 cows to during its founding.{{cn|dateDecember 2023}} Around 1920, in a partial shift away from its early focus on the "politics of petitioning",<ref name"Suttner-2012">{{Cite journal |lastSuttner |firstRaymond |date2012 |titleThe African National Congress centenary: a long and difficult journey |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23255615 |url-statuslive |journalInternational Affairs |volume88 |issue4 |pages719–738 |doi10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01098.x |issn0020-5850 |jstor23255615 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227212113/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23255615 |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date27 December 2021}}</ref> the ANC developed a programme of passive resistance directed primarily at the expansion and entrenchment of pass laws.<ref name"Butler-2012" /><ref name"Clark-2016">{{Cite book |last1Clark |first1Nancy L. |titleSouth Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid |last2Worger |first2William H. |date2016 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-138-12444-8 |edition3rd |locationAbingdon, Oxon |languageEnglish |oclc883649263}}</ref> When Josiah Gumede took over as ANC president in 1927, he advocated for a strategy of mass mobilisation and cooperation with the Communist Party, but was voted out of office in 1930 and replaced with the traditionalist Seme, whose leadership saw the ANC's influence wane.<ref name"Lodge-1983" /><ref name"Suttner-2012" />
In the 1940s, Alfred Bitini Xuma revived some of Gumede's programmes, assisted by a surge in trade union activity and by the formation in 1944 of the left-wing ANC Youth League under a new generation of activists, among them Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela, and Oliver Tambo.<ref name"Lodge-1983" /><ref name"Butler-2012" /> After the National Party was elected into government in 1948 on a platform of apartheid, entailing the further institutionalisation of racial segregation, this new generation pushed for a Programme of Action which explicitly advocated African nationalism and led the ANC, for the first time, to the sustained use of mass mobilisation techniques like strikes, stay-aways, and boycotts.<ref name"Butler-2012" /><ref>{{Cite web |date1949-12-17 |title38th National Conference: Programme Of Action: Statement of Policy Adopted |urlhttps://www.anc1912.org.za/policy-documents-1949-38th-national-conference-programme-of-action-statement-of-policy-adopted/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227180035/https://www.anc1912.org.za/policy-documents-1949-38th-national-conference-programme-of-action-statement-of-policy-adopted/ |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date2021-12-27 |websiteAfrican National Congress |languageen-US}}</ref> This culminated in the 1952–53 Defiance Campaign, a campaign of mass civil disobedience organised by the ANC, the Indian Congress, and the coloured Franchise Action Council in protest of six apartheid laws.<ref name"Lodge-1983a">{{Cite book |lastLodge |firstTom |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAY5tmwEACAAJ |titleBlack Politics in South Africa Since 1945 |date1983 |publisherRavan Press |isbn978-0-86975-152-7 |pages33–66 |languageen |chapterThe creation of a mass movement: strikes and defiance, 1950-1952 |access-date27 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044556/https://books.google.com/books?idAY5tmwEACAAJ |archive-date31 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The ANC's membership swelled.<ref name"Suttner-2012"/> In June 1955, it was one of the groups represented at the multi-racial Congress of the People in Kliptown, Soweto, which ratified the Freedom Charter, from then onwards a fundamental document in the anti-apartheid struggle.<ref name"Suttner-2012" /> The Charter was the basis of the enduring Congress Alliance, but was also used as a pretext to prosecute hundreds of activists, among them most of the ANC's leadership, in the Treason Trial.<ref name"Lodge-1983b">{{Cite book |lastLodge |firstTom |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAY5tmwEACAAJ |titleBlack Politics in South Africa Since 1945 |date1983 |publisherRavan Press |isbn978-0-86975-152-7 |pages67–90 |languageen |chapterAfrican political organisations, 1953-1960}}</ref> Before the trial was concluded, the Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960. In the aftermath, the ANC was banned by the South African government. It was not unbanned until February 1990, almost three decades later. , Walter Rubusana, John Dube, Saul Msane, and Sol Plaatje.|left]] Exile in Lusaka After its banning in April 1960, the ANC was driven underground, a process hastened by a barrage of government banning orders, by an escalation of state repression, and by the imprisonment of senior ANC leaders pursuant to the Rivonia trial and Little Rivonia trial.<ref name"Ellis-1991">{{Cite journal |lastEllis |firstStephen |date1991 |titleThe ANC in Exile |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/722941 |url-statuslive |journalAfrican Affairs |volume90 |issue360 |pages439–447 |doi10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098442 |issn0001-9909 |jstor722941 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211226235211/https://www.jstor.org/stable/722941 |archive-date26 December 2021 |access-date26 December 2021}}</ref> From around 1963, the ANC effectively abandoned much of even its underground presence inside South Africa and operated almost entirely from its external mission, with headquarters first in Morogoro, Tanzania, and later in Lusaka, Zambia.<ref name"ANC-1997">{{Cite book |lastAfrican National Congress |urlhttps://www.justice.gov.za/trc/hrvtrans/submit/anc2.htm#Appendix%201 |titleFurther submissions and responses by the African National Congress to questions raised by the Commission for Truth and Reconciliation |publisherDepartment of Justice |year1997 |locationPretoria |chapterAppendix: ANC structures and personnel |access-date26 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211214114223/https://www.justice.gov.za/trc/hrvtrans/submit/anc2.htm#Appendix%201 |archive-date14 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref> For the entirety of its time in exile, the ANC was led by Tambo – first de facto, with president Albert Luthuli under house arrest in Zululand; then in an acting capacity, after Luthuli's death in 1967; and, finally, officially, after a leadership vote in 1985.<ref name"Ellis-2013">{{Cite book |lastEllis |firstStephen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYdlMAgAAQBAJ |titleExternal Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960–1990 |date2013 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-933061-4 |languageen |access-date27 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044551/https://books.google.com/books?idYdlMAgAAQBAJ |archive-date31 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Also notable about this period was the extremely close relationship between the ANC and the reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), which was also in exile.<ref name"Ellis-2013" />
uMkhonto we Sizwe
{{main|uMkhonto we Sizwe}}
In 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, leaders of the SACP and the ANC formed a military body, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK, Spear of the Nation), as a vehicle for armed struggle against the apartheid state. Initially, MK was not an official ANC body, nor had it been directly established by the ANC National Executive: it was considered an autonomous organisation, until such time as the ANC formally recognised it as its armed wing in October 1962.<ref name"Stevens-2019">{{Cite journal |lastStevens |firstSimon |date2019-11-01 |titleThe Turn to Sabotage by The Congress Movement in South Africa |journalPast & Present |issue245 |pages221–255 |doi10.1093/pastj/gtz030 |issn0031-2746 |doi-accessfree |hdl1814/75043 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref name"Ellis-1991"/>
In the first half of the 1960s, MK was preoccupied with a campaign of sabotage attacks, especially bombings of unoccupied government installations.<ref name"Stevens-2019" /> As the ANC reduced its presence inside South Africa, however, MK cadres were increasingly confined to training camps in Tanzania and neighbouring countries – with such exceptions as the Wankie Campaign, a momentous military failure.<ref name"Houston-2004">{{Cite book |last1Houston |first1Gregory |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/273455254 |titleThe Road to Democracy in South Africa |last2Ralinala |first2Rendani Moses |publisherZebra Press |year2004 |volume1 |pages435–492 |chapterThe Wankie and Sipolilo Campaigns |access-date27 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044547/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273455254_The_Wankie_and_Sipolilo_Campaigns |archive-date31 December 2021 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1969, Tambo was compelled to call the landmark Morogoro Conference to address the grievances of the rank-and-file, articulated by Chris Hani in a memorandum which depicted MK's leadership as corrupt and complacent.<ref name"Macmillan-2009">{{Cite journal |lastMacmillan |firstHugh |date2009-09-01 |titleAfter Morogoro: the continuing crisis in the African National Congress (of South Africa) in Zambia, 1969–1971 |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1080/02533950903076386 |url-statuslive |journalSocial Dynamics |volume35 |issue2 |pages295–311 |doi10.1080/02533950903076386 |issn0253-3952 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044529/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02533950903076386 |archive-date31 December 2021 |access-date26 December 2021 |s2cid143455223}}</ref> Although MK's malaise persisted into the 1970s, conditions for armed struggle soon improved considerably, especially after the Soweto uprising of 1976 in South Africa saw thousands of students – inspired by Black Consciousness ideas – cross the borders to seek military training.<ref name"Ellis-1994">{{Cite journal |lastEllis |firstStephen |date1994 |titleMbokodo: Security in ANC Camps, 1961–1990 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 |url-statuslive |journalAfrican Affairs |volume93 |issue371 |pages279–298 |doi10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098712 |issn0001-9909 |jstor723845 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227162526/https://www.jstor.org/stable/723845 |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date27 December 2021|hdl1887/9075 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> MK guerrilla activity inside South Africa increased steadily over this period, with one estimate recording an increase from 23 incidents in 1977 to 136 incidents in 1985.<ref name"Lodge-1987">{{Cite journal |lastLodge |firstTom |date1987 |titleState of Exile: The African National Congress of South Africa, 1976–86 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3991845 |url-statuslive |journalThird World Quarterly |volume9 |issue1 |pages1,282–310 |doi10.1080/01436598708419960 |issn0143-6597 |jstor3991845 |pmid12268882 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227113732/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3991845 |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date27 December 2021}}</ref> In the latter half of the 1980s, a number of South African civilians were killed in these attacks, a reversal of the ANC's earlier reluctance to incur civilian casualties.<ref name"Williams-2000">{{Cite journal |lastWilliams |firstRocky |date2000 |titleThe other armies: A brief historical overview of Umkhonto We Sizwe (MK), 1961–1994 |urlhttp://samilitaryhistory.org/vol115rw.html |url-statuslive |journalMilitary History Journal |volume11 |issue5 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004182018/http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol115rw.html |archive-date4 October 2018 |access-date27 December 2021}}</ref><ref name"Lodge-1987" /> Fatal attacks included the 1983 Church Street bombing, the 1985 Amanzimtoti bombing, the 1986 Magoo's Bar bombing, and the 1987 Johannesburg Magistrate's Court bombing. Partly in retaliation, the South African Defence Force increasingly crossed the border to target ANC members and ANC bases, as in the 1981 raid on Maputo, 1983 raid on Maputo, and 1985 raid on Gaborone.<ref name"Ellis-2013" />, ANC president in exile from 1967 to 1991.]]
During this period, MK activities led the governments of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to condemn the ANC as a terrorist organisation.<ref name"Waxman-2018">{{Cite magazine |lastWaxman |firstOlivia B. |date2018-07-18 |titleThe U.S. Government Had Nelson Mandela on Terrorist Watch Lists Until 2008. Here's Why |urlhttps://time.com/5338569/nelson-mandela-terror-list/ |url-statuslive |magazineTime |languageen |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227113735/https://time.com/5338569/nelson-mandela-terror-list/ |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date2021-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMcSmith |firstAndy |date2013-12-10 |titleMargaret Thatcher branded ANC 'terrorist' while urging Nelson Mandela's release |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/margaret-thatcher-branded-anc-terrorist-while-urging-nelson-mandela-s-release-8994191.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227113733/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/margaret-thatcher-branded-anc-terrorist-while-urging-nelson-mandela-s-release-8994191.html |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date2021-12-27 |websiteThe Independent |languageen}}</ref> In fact, neither the ANC nor Mandela were removed from the U.S. terror watch list until 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |lastWindrem |firstRobert |date2013-12-07 |titleUS government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |urlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-flna2D11708787 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227113737/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-flna2D11708787 |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date2021-12-27 |websiteNBC News |languageen}}</ref> The animosity of Western regimes was partly explained by the Cold War context, and by the considerable amount of support – both financial and technical – that the ANC received from the Soviet Union.<ref name"Shubin-1996">{{Cite journal |lastShubin |firstVladimir |date1996 |titleThe Soviet Union/Russian Federation's Relations with South Africa, with Special Reference to the Period since 1980 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/723723 |url-statuslive |journalAfrican Affairs |volume95 |issue378 |pages5–30 |doi10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007713 |issn0001-9909 |jstor723723 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227162524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/723723 |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date27 December 2021}}</ref><ref name"Ellis-2013" />
Negotiations to end apartheid
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}
From the mid-1980s, as international and internal opposition to apartheid mounted, elements of the ANC began to test the prospects for a negotiated settlement with the South African government, although the prudence of abandoning armed struggle was an extremely controversial topic within the organisation.<ref name"Ellis-2013"/> Following preliminary contact between the ANC and representatives of the state, business, and civil society,<ref name"Lodge-1987" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastBrits |firstJ. P. |date2008 |titleThabo Mbeki and the Afrikaners, 1986–2004 |urlhttp://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?scriptsci_abstract&pidS0018-229X2008000200004&lngen&nrmiso&tlngen |url-statuslive |journalHistoria |volume53 |issue2 |pages33–69 |issn0018-229X |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227161356/http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?scriptsci_abstract&pidS0018-229X2008000200004&lngen&nrmiso&tlngen |archive-date27 December 2021 |access-date27 December 2021}}</ref> President F. W. de Klerk announced in February 1990 that the government would unban the ANC and other banned political organisations, and that Mandela would be released from prison.<ref>{{cite news |last1Ottaway |first1David |date1990-02-03 |titleS. Africa Lifts Ban on ANC, Other Groups |newspaperThe Washington Post |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/s_africa/stories/anc020390.htm |access-date1 July 2016}}</ref> Some ANC leaders returned to South Africa from exile for so-called "talks about talks", which led in 1990 and 1991 to a series of bilateral accords with the government establishing a mutual commitment to negotiations. Importantly, the Pretoria Minute of August 1990 included a commitment by the ANC to unilaterally suspend its armed struggle.<ref name"Simpson-2009">{{Cite journal |lastSimpson |firstThula |date2009 |titleToyi-Toyi-ing to Freedom: The Endgame in the ANCs Armed Struggle, 1989–1990 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/40283245 |journalJournal of Southern African Studies |volume35 |issue2 |pages507–521 |doi10.1080/03057070902920015 |jstor40283245 |hdl2263/14707 |s2cid145785746 |issn0305-7070|hdl-access=free }}</ref> This made possible the multi-party Convention for a Democratic South Africa and later the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum, in which the ANC was regarded as the main representative of the interests of the anti-apartheid movement.
However, ongoing political violence, which the ANC attributed to a state-sponsored third force, led to recurrent tensions. Most dramatically, after the Boipatong massacre of June 1992, the ANC announced that it was withdrawing from negotiations indefinitely.<ref name"Keller-1992">{{Cite news |lastKeller |firstBill |date1992-06-24 |titleMandela, Stunned by Massacre, Pulls Out of Talks on Black Rule |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/24/world/mandela-stunned-by-massacre-pulls-out-of-talks-on-black-rule.html |access-date2022-07-23 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> It faced further casualties in the Bisho massacre, the Shell House massacre, and in other clashes with state forces and supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP).<ref name"Van Baalen-2014">{{Cite journal |lastVan Baalen |firstSebastian |date2014 |titleThe Microdynamics of Conflict Escalation : The Case of ANC-IFP Fighting in South Africa in 1990 |urlhttp://urn.kb.se/resolve?urnurn:nbn:se:uu:diva-324310 |url-statuslive |journalPax et Bellum Journal |volume1 |issue1 |pages14–20 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044542/http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?piddiva2%3A1109559&dswid4294 |archive-date31 December 2021 |access-date28 December 2021}}</ref> However, once negotiations resumed, they resulted in November 1993 in an interim Constitution, which governed South Africa's first democratic elections on 27 April 1994. In the elections, the ANC won an overwhelming 62.65% majority of the vote.<ref>{{Cite web |date2008-06-28 |titleElections '94 |urlhttp://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp |access-date2022-07-23 |websiteIndependent Electoral Commission|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080628132254/http://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp |archive-date28 June 2008 }}</ref> Mandela was elected president and formed a coalition Government of National Unity, which, under the provisions of the interim Constitution, also included the National Party and IFP.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDrogin |firstBob |date1994-05-07 |titleEx-Guerrillas, Exiles Named to Mandela Cabinet |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-05-07-mn-54878-story.html |access-date2022-07-23 |websiteLos Angeles Times |languageen-US}}</ref> The ANC has controlled the national government since then.
Breakaways
In the post-apartheid era, several significant breakaway groups have been formed by former ANC members. The first is the Congress of the People, founded by Mosiuoa Lekota in 2008 in the aftermath of the Polokwane elective conference, when the ANC declined to re-elect Thabo Mbeki as its president and instead compelled his resignation from the national presidency. The second breakaway is the Economic Freedom Fighters, founded in 2013 after youth leader Julius Malema was expelled from the ANC. Before these, the most important split in the ANC's history occurred in 1959, when Robert Sobukwe led a splinter faction of African nationalists to the new Pan Africanist Congress.
uMkhonto weSizwe rose to prominence in December 2023, when former president Jacob Zuma announced that, while planning to remain a lifelong member of the ANC, he would not be campaigning for the ANC in the 2024 South African general election, and would instead be voting for MK.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.polity.org.za/article/the-battle-for-the-soul-of-umkhonto-wesizwe-2023-12-18|title"The battle for the soul of uMkhonto weSizwe"}}</ref> In July 2024, Jacob Zuma was expelled from the ANC, because of campaigning for a rival party (MK party) in the 29 May general election.<ref>{{cite news |titleSouth Africa's ex-President Jacob Zuma expelled from ANC |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4kllkpwxo |workwww.bbc.com}}</ref> Current structure and composition was elected ANC president at the 2017 conference.]] Leadership {{See also|National Conference of the African National Congress|National Executive Committee of the African National Congress}}Under the ANC constitution, every member of the ANC belongs to a local branch, and branch members select the organisation's policies and leaders.<ref name"ANC-2017a">{{Cite web |date2017 |titleAfrican National Congress Constitution, as amended and adopted by the 54th National Conference |urlhttps://www.anc1912.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ANC-Constitution-2017.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.anc1912.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ANC-Constitution-2017.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websiteAfrican National Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDarracq |firstV. |date2008-08-18 |titleThe African National Congress (ANC) organization at the grassroots |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/afraf/adn059 |journalAfrican Affairs |languageen |volume107 |issue429 |pages589–609 |doi10.1093/afraf/adn059 |issn0001-9909}}</ref> They do so primarily by electing delegates to the National Conference, which is currently convened every five years. Between conferences, the organisation is led by its 86-member National Executive Committee, which is elected at each conference. The most senior members of the National Executive Committee are the so-called Top Six officials, the ANC president primary among them. A symmetrical process occurs at the subnational levels: each of the nine provincial executive committees and regional executive committees are elected at provincial and regional elective conferences respectively, also attended by branch delegates; and branch officials are elected at branch general meetings.<ref name"ANC-2017a" />
Leagues
The ANC has three leagues: the Women's League, the Youth League and the Veterans' League. Under the ANC constitution, the leagues are autonomous bodies with the scope to devise their own constitutions and policies; for the purpose of national conferences, they are treated somewhat like provinces, with voting delegates and the power to nominate leadership candidates.<ref name"ANC-2017a" /> Tripartite Alliance
{{main|Tripartite Alliance}}
The ANC is recognised as the leader of a three-way alliance, known as the Tripartite Alliance, with the SACP and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). The alliance was formalised in mid-1990, after the ANC was unbanned, but has deeper historical roots: the SACP had worked closely with the ANC in exile, and COSATU had aligned itself with the Freedom Charter and Congress Alliance in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Twala |first1Chitja |last2Kompi |first2Buti |date2012-06-01 |titleThe Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the Tripartite Alliance: a marriage of (in)convenience? |urlhttps://journals.co.za/doi/10.10520/EJC133152 |url-statuslive |journalJournal for Contemporary History |volume37 |issue1 |pages171–190 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231044535/https://journals.co.za/doi/10.10520/EJC133152 |archive-date31 December 2021 |access-date28 December 2021 |hdl10520/EJC133152}}</ref> The membership and leadership of the three organisations has traditionally overlapped significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Buhlungu |first1Sakhela |last2Ellis |first2Stephen |date2013-01-01 |titleThe trade union movement and the Tripartite Alliance: a tangled history |urlhttps://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004214606/B9789004214606-s013.xml |url-statuslive |journalCosatu's Contested Legacy |languageEN |pages259–282 |doi10.1163/9789004214606_013 |isbn9789004214606 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211228162802/https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004214606/B9789004214606-s013.xml |archive-date28 December 2021 |access-date28 December 2021}}</ref> The alliance constitutes a de facto electoral coalition: the SACP and COSATU do not contest in government elections, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy. However, the SACP, in particular, has frequently threatened to field its own candidates,<ref>{{Cite web |lastBandile |firstDineo |date2017-07-15 |titleSACP resolves to contest state power independently of the ANC |urlhttps://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-15-sacp-resolves-to-contest-state-power/ |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteThe Mail & Guardian |languageen-ZA}}</ref> and in 2017 it did so for the first time, running against the ANC in by-elections in the Metsimaholo municipality, Free State.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMailovich |firstClaudi |date2017-11-29 |titleSACP breaks alliance ranks in local election |urlhttps://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/politics/2017-11-29-sacp-breaks-alliance-ranks-in-local-election/ |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteBusiness Day |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2017-12-21 |titleSACP governs its first municipality |urlhttps://www.news24.com/News24/sacp-governs-its-first-municipality-20171221 |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref>
Electoral candidates
Under South Africa's closed-list proportional representation electoral system, parties have immense power in selecting candidates for legislative bodies. The ANC's internal candidate selection process is overseen by so-called "list committees" and tends to involve a degree of broad democratic participation, especially at the local level, where ANC branches vote to nominate candidates for the local government elections.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMac Giollabhui |firstShane |date2018-08-18 |titleBattleground: candidate selection and violence in Africa's dominant political parties |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2018.1451841 |journalDemocratization |languageen |volume25 |issue6 |pages978–995 |doi10.1080/13510347.2018.1451841 |s2cid218523954 |issn1351-0347}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastGiollabhuí |firstShane Mac |date2013 |titleHow things fall apart: Candidate selection and the cohesion of dominant parties in South Africa and Namibia |urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1354068811407599 |journalParty Politics |languageen |volume19 |issue4 |pages577–600 |doi10.1177/1354068811407599 |s2cid145444345 |issn1354-0688}}</ref> Between 2003 and 2008, the ANC also gained a significant number of members through the controversial floor crossing process, which occurred especially at the local level.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBooysen |firstSusan |date2006 |titleThe Will of the Parties Versus the Will of the People?: Defections, Elections and Alliances in South Africa |urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1354068806068598 |journalParty Politics |languageen |volume12 |issue6 |pages727–746 |doi10.1177/1354068806068598 |s2cid145011059 |issn1354-0688}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastMcLaughlin |firstEric |date2012 |titleElectoral regimes and party-switching: Floor-crossing in South Africa's local legislatures |urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1354068810389610 |journalParty Politics |languageen |volume18 |issue4 |pages563–579 |doi10.1177/1354068810389610 |s2cid143948206 |issn1354-0688}}</ref>
The leaders of the executive in each sphere of government – the president, the provincial premiers, and the mayors – are indirectly elected after each election. In practice, the selection of ANC candidates for these positions is highly centralised, with the ANC caucus voting together to elect a pre-decided candidate. Although the ANC does not always announce whom its caucuses intend to elect,<ref>{{Cite web |lastMyburgh |firstJames |date2009-03-06 |titleThe ANC's secret premier candidates |urlhttps://www.politicsweb.co.za/news-and-analysis/the-ancs-secret-premier-candidates |access-date2022-07-25 |websitePoliticsWeb |languageen}}</ref> the National Assembly has thus far always elected the ANC president as the national president.
Cadre deployment
The ANC has adhered to a formal policy of cadre deployment since 1985.<ref>{{Cite journal |date1999 |titleCadre Policy and Deployment Strategy |urlhttps://www.anc1912.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Umrabulo-Issue-No.6-1st-Quarter-1999.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.anc1912.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Umrabulo-Issue-No.6-1st-Quarter-1999.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalUmrabulo |volume6}}</ref> In the post-apartheid era, the policy includes but is not exhausted by selection of candidates for elections and government positions: it also entails that the central organisation "deploys" ANC members to various other strategic positions in the party, state, and economy.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastTwala |firstChitja |date2014 |titleThe African National Congress (ANC) and the Cadre Deployment Policy in the Postapartheid South Africa: A Product of Democratic Centralisation or a Recipe for a Constitutional Crisis? |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09718923.2014.11893352 |journalJournal of Social Sciences |languageen |volume41 |issue2 |pages159–165 |doi10.1080/09718923.2014.11893352 |s2cid73526447 |issn0971-8923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastSwanepoel |firstCornelis F. |date2021-12-14 |titleThe slippery slope to State capture: cadre deployment as an enabler of corruption and a contributor to blurred party-State lines |journalLaw, Democracy and Development |volume25 |pages1–23 |doi10.17159/2077-4907/2021/ldd.v25.15|s2cid245698431 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>Ideology and policies
saw the ANC expand and informally absorb other anti-apartheid groups.]]
The ANC prides itself on being a broad church,<ref name"Duarte-2018">{{Cite web |lastDuarte |firstJessie |author-linkJessie Duarte |date2018-10-30 |titleANC policy remains the broad church for all South Africans |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2018-10-31-anc-policy-remains-the-broad-church-for-all-south-africans/ |access-date2022-07-26 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref> and, like many dominant parties, resembles a catch-all party, accommodating a range of ideological tendencies.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSouthall |firstRoger |date2005 |titleThe 'Dominant Party Debate' in South Africa |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/40175055 |journalAfrica Spectrum |volume40 |issue1 |pages61–82 |jstor40175055 |issn0002-0397}}</ref><ref name"Butler-2005">{{Cite journal |lastButler |firstAnthony |date2005 |titleHow Democratic Is the African National Congress? |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25065043 |journalJournal of Southern African Studies |volume31 |issue4 |pages719–736 |doi10.1080/03057070500370472 |jstor25065043 |s2cid144481513 |issn0305-7070}}</ref><ref name"Darracq-2008">{{Cite journal |lastDarracq |firstVincent |date2008 |titleBeing a 'Movement of the People' and a Governing Party: Study of the African National Congress Mass Character |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/40283147 |journalJournal of Southern African Studies |volume34 |issue2 |pages429–449 |doi10.1080/03057070802038090 |jstor40283147 |s2cid143326762 |issn0305-7070}}</ref> As Mandela told the Washington Post in 1990:<blockquote>The ANC has never been a political party. It was formed as a parliament of the African people. Right from the start, up to now, the ANC is a coalition, if you want, of people of various political affiliations. Some will support free enterprise, others socialism. Some are conservatives, others are liberals. We are united solely by our determination to oppose racial oppression. That is the only thing that unites us. There is no question of ideology as far as the odyssey of the ANC is concerned, because any question approaching ideology would split the organization from top to bottom. Because we have no connection whatsoever except at this one, of our determination to dismantle apartheid.<ref>{{Cite news |date1990-06-27 |title'We'll never fold our arms in the face of the evil of... apartheid' |languageen-US |newspaperWashington Post |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/06/27/well-never-fold-our-arms-in-the-face-of-the-evil-of-apartheid/0cb37035-5254-4d79-8bb7-e1b2beaf7bd6/ |access-date2022-07-26 |issn0190-8286}}</ref> </blockquote>The post-apartheid ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, pursuing "the complete liberation of the country from all forms of discrimination and national oppression".<ref name"ANC-2017a" /> It also continues to claim the Freedom Charter of 1955 as "the basic policy document of the ANC".<ref>{{Cite web |titleWho We Are |urlhttps://www.anc1912.org.za/our-history/ |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteAfrican National Congress}}</ref><ref name"ANC-2017a" /> However, as NEC member Jeremy Cronin noted in 2007, the various broad principles of the Freedom Charter have been given different interpretations, and emphasised to differing extents, by different groups within the organisation.<ref name"Darracq-2008" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastSuttner |firstRaymond |author-linkRaymond Suttner |date2015 |titleThe Freedom Charter @ 60: Rethinking its democratic qualities |journalHistoria |volume60 |issue2 |pages1–23 |doi10.17159/2309-8392/2015/V60N2A1 |doi-access |s2cid148443043}}</ref> Nonetheless, some basic commonalities are visible in the policy and ideological preferences of the organisation's mainstream. Non-racialism
{{Main|Non-racialism}}
The ANC is committed to the ideal of non-racialism and to opposing "any form of racial, tribalistic or ethnic exclusivism or chauvinism".<ref name"ANC-2017a" /><ref name"Butler-2005" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastNdebele |firstNhlanhla |date2002-11-01 |titleThe African National Congress and the policy of non-racialism: A study of the membership issue |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1080/0258934022000027763 |journalPolitikon |volume29 |issue2 |pages133–146 |doi10.1080/0258934022000027763 |s2cid154036222 |issn0258-9346}}</ref>
National Democratic Revolution
The 1969 Morogoro Conference committed the ANC to a "national democratic revolution [which] – destroying the existing social and economic relationship – will bring with it a correction of the historical injustices perpetrated against the indigenous majority and thus lay the basis for a new – and deeper internationalist – approach".<ref>{{Cite web |date1969-04-26 |titleReport on the Strategy and Tactics of the African National Congress |urlhttps://renewal.anc1912.org.za/assets/Documents/Morogoro%20Conference%201969%20Strategy%20&%20Tactics%20Report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://renewal.anc1912.org.za/assets/Documents/Morogoro%20Conference%201969%20Strategy%20&%20Tactics%20Report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteAfrican National Congress}}</ref> For the movement's intellectuals, the concept of the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) was a means of reconciling the anti-apartheid and anti-colonial project with a second goal, that of establishing domestic and international socialism – the ANC is a member of the Socialist International,<ref name"socialistinternational" /> and its close partner the SACP traditionally conceives itself as a vanguard party.<ref name"Butler-2005" /> Specifically, and as implied by the 1969 document, NDR doctrine entails that the transformation of the domestic political system (national struggle, in Joe Slovo's phrase) is a precondition for a socialist revolution (class struggle).<ref name"Butler-2005" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastSlovo |firstJoe |date1988 |titleThe South African Working Class and the National Democratic Revolution |urlhttps://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/The%20South%20African%20Working%20Class%20and%20the%20National%20Democratic%20Revolution.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/The%20South%20African%20Working%20Class%20and%20the%20National%20Democratic%20Revolution.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalUmsebenzi Discussion Pamphlet |publisherSouth African Communist Party}}</ref> The concept remained important to ANC intellectuals and strategists after the end of apartheid.<ref>{{cite journal |lastNetshitenzhe |firstJoel |titleUnderstanding the tasks of the moment |urlhttp://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pubs/umrabulo/umrabulo25/tasks.html |url-statusdead |journalUmrabulo |volume25 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080622025249/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pubs/umrabulo/umrabulo25/tasks.html |archive-date22 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastMarwala |firstT |titleThe anatomy of capital and the national democratic revolution |urlhttp://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id2844 |url-statusdead |journalUmrabulo |volume29 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111018065656/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id2844 |archive-date18 October 2011}}</ref> Indeed, the pursuit of the NDR is one of the primary objectives of the ANC as set out in its constitution.<ref name"ANC-2017a" /> As with the Freedom Charter, the ambiguity of the NDR has allowed it to bear varying interpretations. For example, whereas SACP theorists tend to emphasise the anti-capitalist character of the NDR, some ANC policymakers have construed it as implying the empowerment of the black majority even within a market-capitalist scheme.<ref name"Butler-2005" /> Economic interventionism
{{Quote box
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Since 1994, consecutive ANC governments have held a strong preference for a significant degree of state intervention in the economy. The ANC's first comprehensive articulation of its post-apartheid economic policy framework was set out in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) document of 1994, which became its electoral manifesto and also, under the same name, the flagship policy of Nelson Mandela's government. The RDP aimed both to redress the socioeconomic inequalities created by colonialism and apartheid, and to promote economic growth and development; state intervention was judged a necessary step towards both goals.<ref name"ANC-1994">{{Cite web |date1994 |titleThe Reconstruction and Development Programme: A Policy Framework |urlhttps://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/the_reconstruction_and_development_programm_1994.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/the_reconstruction_and_development_programm_1994.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websiteAfrican National Congress}}</ref> Specifically, the state was to intervene in the economy through three primary channels: a land reform programme; a degree of economic planning, through industrial and trade policy; and state investments in infrastructure and the provision of basic services, including health and education.<ref name"ANC-1994" /><ref name"Seekings-2015">{{Cite journal |lastSeekings |firstJeremy |date2015 |titleThe 'Developmental' and 'Welfare' State in South Africa: Lessons for the Southern African Region |urlhttp://www.cssr.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/256/files/WP%20358.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cssr.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/256/files/WP%20358.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalCentre for Social Science Research Working Paper |issue358}}</ref> Although the RDP was abandoned in 1996, these three channels of state economic intervention have remained mainstays of subsequent ANC policy frameworks.
Neoliberal turn
{{See also|Thabo Mbeki#Economic policy}}
In 1996, Mandela's government replaced the RDP with the Growth Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) programme, which was maintained under President Thabo Mbeki, Mandela's successor. GEAR has been characterised as a neoliberal policy,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Adelzadeh |first1Asghar |date1996 |titleFrom the RDP to GEAR: The Gradual embracing of Neo-liberalism in economic policy |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/237782399 |journalOccasional Paper Series No. 3 |locationJohannesburg |publisherNational Institute for Economic Policy |access-date15 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Narsiah |first1Sagie |date2002 |titleNeoliberalism and privatisation in South Africa |urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1026022903276 |journalGeoJournal |volume57 |issue1–2 |pages3–13 |doi10.1023/A:1026022903276 |bibcode2002GeoJo..57....3N |access-date15 September 2021 |s2cid144352281}}</ref> and it was disowned by both COSATU and the SACP.<ref>{{cite web |lastNgonyama |firstPercy |date16 October 2006 |titleThe ideological differences within the Tripartite Alliance: What now for the left? |urlhttp://southafrica.indymedia.org/news/2006/10/11418.php |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624003332/http://southafrica.indymedia.org/news/2006/10/11418.php |archive-date24 June 2008 |websiteIndependent Media Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Southall |first1Roger J. |last2Wood |first2Geoffrey |date1999 |titleCOSATU, the ANC and the Election: Whither the Alliance? |urlhttps://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID189667516 |journalTransformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa |languageen |issue38 |pages68–81}}</ref> While some analysts viewed Mbeki's economic policy as undertaking the uncomfortable macroeconomic adjustments necessary for long-term growth,<ref name"Butler-2005" /> others – notably Patrick Bond – viewed it as a reflection of the ANC's failure to implement genuinely radical transformation after 1994.<ref>{{cite book |lastBond |firstPatrick |titleThe Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa |date2000 |publisherPluto Press |locationLondon |page53}}</ref> Debate about ANC commitment to redistribution on a socialist scale has continued: in 2013, the country's largest trade union, the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa, withdrew its support for the ANC on the basis that "the working class cannot any longer see the ANC or the SACP as its class allies in any meaningful sense".<ref name"NUMSA">{{cite news |lastPolgreen |firstLydia |date20 December 2013 |titleSouth Africa's Biggest Trade Union Pulls Its Support for A.N.C. |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/21/world/africa/south-africas-biggest-union-pulls-support-for-anc.html |url-accesslimited |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/21/world/africa/south-africas-biggest-union-pulls-support-for-anc.html |archive-date2022-01-01}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It is evident, however, that the ANC never embraced free-market capitalism, and continued to favour a mixed economy: even as the debate over GEAR raged, the ANC declared itself (in 2004) a social-democratic party,<ref>The Mail & Guardian A-Z of South African Politics by Barbara Ludman, Paul Stober, and Ferial Haffagee</ref> and it was at that time presiding over phenomenal expansions of its black economic empowerment programme and the system of social grants.<ref>{{Citation |lastSeekings |firstJeremy |titleOne Hundred Years of Social Protection: The Changing Social Question in Brazil, India, China, and South Africa |date2021 |work |pages263–300 |editor-lastLeisering |editor-firstLutz |chapter(Re)formulating the Social Question in Post-apartheid South Africa: Zola Skweyiya, Dignity, Development and the Welfare State |seriesGlobal Dynamics of Social Policy |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing |languageen |doi10.1007/978-3-030-54959-6_8 |isbn978-3-030-54959-6 |s2cid230608172 |doi-accessfree }}.</ref><ref name"Bundy-2016">{{Cite journal |lastBundy |firstColin |author-linkColin Bundy |date2016-09-06 |titleThe ANC and Social Security: The Good, the Bad and the Unacknowledged |urlhttp://www.povertyandinequality.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/95/2016/Seminars/ANC%20and%20Social%20Security.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.povertyandinequality.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/95/2016/Seminars/ANC%20and%20Social%20Security.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalPoverty & Inequality Initiative |publisherUniversity of Cape Town}}</ref>
Developmental state
As its name suggests, the RDP emphasised state-led development – that is, a developmental state – which the ANC has typically been cautious, at least in its rhetoric, to distinguish from the neighbouring concept of a welfare state.<ref name"ANC-2007">{{Cite web |date2007-12-20 |title52nd National Conference: Resolutions |urlhttps://www.anc1912.org.za/resolutions-2/ |access-date2022-07-26 |websiteAfrican National Congress |languageen-US}}</ref><ref name"Bundy-2016" /><ref name"Seekings-2015" /> In the mid-2000s, during Mbeki's second term, the notion of a developmental state was revived in South African political discourse when the national economy worsened;<ref name"Seekings-2015" /> and the 2007 National Conference whole-heartedly endorsed developmentalism in its policy resolutions, calling for a state "at the centre of a mixed economy... which leads and guides that economy and which intervenes in the interest of the people as a whole".<ref name"ANC-2007" /> The proposed developmental state was also central to the ANC's campaign in the 2009 elections,<ref name"Seekings-2015" /> and it remains a central pillar of the policy of the current government, which seeks to build a "capable and developmental" state.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRamaphosa |firstCyril |author-linkCyril Ramaphosa |date2022-02-14 |titleTo grow our economy we need both a developmental state AND vibrant private sector |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/columnists/cyrilramaphosa/cyril-ramaphosa-to-grow-our-economy-we-need-both-a-developmental-state-and-vibrant-private-sector-20220214 |access-date2022-07-26 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastKhambule |firstIsaac |date2021 |titleCapturing South Africa's developmental state: State-society relations and responses to state capture |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pad.1912 |journalPublic Administration and Development |languageen |volume41 |issue4 |pages169–179 |doi10.1002/pad.1912 |s2cid236273471 |issn0271-2075}}</ref> In this regard, ANC politicians often cite China as an aspirational example.<ref name"Duarte-2018" /><ref>{{Cite web |date2015-08-23 |titleMy Chinese dream: ANC brass put ideas to work |urlhttps://mg.co.za/article/2015-08-23-my-chinese-dream-anc-brass-put-ideas-to-work/ |access-date2022-07-26 |websiteThe Mail & Guardian |languageen-ZA}}</ref> A discussion document ahead of the ANC's 2015 National General Council proposed that:<blockquote>[[Chinese economic reform|China['s] economic development]] trajectory remains a leading example of the triumph of humanity over adversity. The exemplary role of the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China in this regard should be a guiding lodestar of our own struggle.<ref>{{Cite web |date2015 |titleInternational Relations: A Better Africa In A Better And Just World |urlhttp://www.anc.org.za/docs/umrabulo/2015/ngc_disc_docsy.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150827210636/http://www.anc.org.za/docs/umrabulo/2015/ngc_disc_docsy.pdf |archive-date27 August 2015 |access-date27 August 2015 |websiteUmrabulo |page161}}</ref> </blockquote>
Radical economic transformation
Towards the end of Jacob Zuma's presidency, an ANC faction aligned to Zuma pioneered a new policy platform referred to as radical economic transformation (RET). Zuma announced the new focus on RET during his February 2017 State of the Nation address,<ref>{{Cite web |lastMerten |firstMarianne |date2017-06-29 |titleANC policy, radical economic transformation and ideological proxy battles for control |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2017-06-29-analysis-anc-policy-radical-economic-transformation-and-ideological-proxy-battles-for-control/ |access-date2022-01-12 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref> and later that year, explaining that it had been adopted as ANC policy and therefore as government policy, defined it as entailing "fundamental change in the structures, systems, institutions and patterns of ownership and control of the economy, in favour of all South Africans, especially the poor".<ref name"Paton-2017">{{Cite web |lastPaton |firstCarol |date2017-12-07 |titleForeign investors in energy sector will have to partner with locals, Zuma says |urlhttps://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2017-12-07-foreign-investors-in-energy-sector-will-have-to-partner-with-locals-zuma-says/ |access-date2022-01-12 |websiteBusiness Day |languageen-ZA}}</ref> Arguments for RET were closely associated with the rhetorical concept of white monopoly capital.<ref name"Rudin-2017">{{Cite web |lastRudin |firstJeff |date2017-04-25 |titleZuma's plan for radical economic transformation is just BEE on steroids |urlhttps://mg.co.za/article/2017-04-25-zumas-plan-for-radical-economic-transformation-is-just-bee-on-steriods/ |access-date2022-01-12 |websiteMail & Guardian |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDesai |firstAshwin |date2018-10-02 |titleThe Zuma moment: between tender-based capitalists and radical economic transformation |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2018.1522424 |journalJournal of Contemporary African Studies |volume36 |issue4 |pages499–513 |doi10.1080/02589001.2018.1522424 |issn0258-9001 |s2cid158520517}}</ref> At the 54th National Conference in 2017, the ANC endorsed a number of policy principles advocated by RET supporters, including their proposal to pursue land expropriation without compensation as a matter of national policy.<ref name"Cilliers-2019">{{Cite web |date2019-06-06 |titleZuma 'reminds' ANC what they 'resolved' about the Reserve Bank at Nasrec |urlhttps://www.citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/politics/2140317/zuma-reminds-anc-what-they-resolved-about-the-reserve-bank-at-nasrec/ |access-date2021-12-07 |websiteThe Citizen |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMerten |firstMarianne |date2021-05-31 |titleExpropriation without compensation: ANC & EFF toenadering on state land custodianship — it's all about the politics |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-05-31-expropriation-without-compensation-anc-eff-toenadering-on-state-land-custodianship-its-all-about-the-politics/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210531131823/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-05-31-expropriation-without-compensation-anc-eff-toenadering-on-state-land-custodianship-its-all-about-the-politics/ |archive-date2021-05-31 |access-date2021-12-07 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMadia |firstTshidi |date2019-06-30 |titleANC resolutions on Sarb, land and other matters will be my legacy – Ace Magashule on party policies |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-resolutions-on-sarb-land-and-other-matters-will-be-my-legacy-ace-magashule-on-party-policies-20190630 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211207232523/https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-resolutions-on-sarb-land-and-other-matters-will-be-my-legacy-ace-magashule-on-party-policies-20190630 |archive-date2021-12-07 |access-date2021-12-07 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref> Foreign policy and relations
{{See also|Russian invasion of Ukraine|Israel and apartheid|Black-Palestinian solidarity}}
The ANC has long had close ties with China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the CCP having supported ANC's struggle of apartheid since 1961.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-12-25 |titleHow the political seeds of China's growing Africa ties were planted long ago |urlhttps://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3204290/how-political-seeds-chinas-growing-africa-ties-were-planted-long-ago |access-date2023-03-15 |websiteSouth China Morning Post |languageen}}</ref> In 2008, the two parties signed a memorandum of understanding to train ANC members in China.<ref>{{Cite web |lastSun |firstYun |date5 July 2016 |titlePolitical party training: China's ideological push in Africa? |urlhttps://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2016/07/05/political-party-training-chinas-ideological-push-in-africa/ |access-date2023-03-15 |websiteBrookings |languageen-US}}</ref>
President Cyril Ramaphosa and the ANC have not condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and have faced criticism from opposition parties,<ref>{{Cite web |titleUkraine: Someone needs to speak for SA |urlhttps://www.da.org.za/2022/05/ukraine-someone-needs-to-speak-for-sa |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteDemocratic Alliance |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastTonder |firstAnthony van |date2022-03-23 |titleSA Government's Position on Russia's Invasion of Ukraine Does Not Reflect the Views of ALL South Africans |urlhttps://www.actionsa.org.za/sa-governments-position-on-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-does-not-reflect-the-views-of-all-south-africans/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteActionSA |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMakhafola |firstGetrude |date2022-03-15 |title'Yes, I studied in Russia' – MPs heckle during debate on Russia war in Ukraine |urlhttps://www.citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/parliament/yes-i-studied-in-russia-mps-heckle-during-debate-on-russia-war-in-ukraine/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteThe Citizen |languageen}}</ref> public commentators,<ref>{{Cite web |lastFeldman |firstHoward |titleHoward Feldman {{!}} Ukraine crisis: The ANC is standing on the wrong side of history |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/opinions/columnists/howardfeldman/howard-feldman-the-anc-is-standing-on-the-wrong-side-of-history-20220302 |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Polakow-Suransky |first2Eusebius|last2McKaiser|first1 Sasha |titleSouth Africa's Self-Defeating Silence on Ukraine |urlhttps://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/18/south-africa-ukraine-russia-putin-ramaphosa-war-diplomacy-negotiation/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteForeign Policy |date18 March 2022 |languageen-US}}</ref> academics,<ref>{{Cite web |lastNathan |firstLaurie |titleRussia's war in Ukraine: how South Africa blew its chance as a credible mediator |urlhttp://theconversation.com/russias-war-in-ukraine-how-south-africa-blew-its-chance-as-a-credible-mediator-181101 |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteThe Conversation |date13 April 2022 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastHamill |firstJames |date2022-03-16 |titleSouth Africa Has Clearly Chosen a Side on the War in Ukraine |urlhttps://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/south-africa-has-chosen-a-side-on-ukraine-invasion-by-russia/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteWorld Politics Review |languageen-US}}</ref> civil society organisations,<ref>{{Cite web |last1Mills |first1Ray Hartley and Greg |date2022-03-06 |titleWAR IN EUROPE OP-ED: Cries of pain and anguish — why the ANC is on the wrong side of history over Ukraine |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-03-06-cries-of-pain-and-anguish-why-the-anc-is-on-the-wrong-side-of-history-over-ukraine/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastFritz |firstNicole |titleANC mirrors Poland's Law & Justice party in flirting with tyranny |urlhttps://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/opinion/columnists/2022-03-02-nicole-fritz-anc-mirrors-polands-law-justice-party-in-flirting-with-tyranny/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteBusinessLIVE |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Jurgens |first1Richard |date2022-07-04 |titleRussia in Ukraine: South Africa's unprincipled stance |urlhttps://gga.org/russia-in-ukraine-south-africas-unprincipled-stance/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteGood Governance Africa |languageen-US}}</ref> and former ANC members<ref>{{Cite web |last1Jurgens |first1Richard |date2022-07-05 |titleForeign Relations Op-Ed: ANC government's position on Ukraine invasion unprincipled, inconsistent with SA values |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-07-05-anc-governments-position-on-ukraine-invasion-unprincipled-inconsistent-with-sa-values/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref> due to this. The ANC youth wing has meanwhile condemned sanctions against Russia and denounced NATO's eastward expansion as "fascistic".<ref>{{cite news |date7 March 2022 |titleGerman Embassy slaps down Russian claim its troops are fighting Nazism |languageen |workThe Independent |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/german-embassy-russia-ukraine-nazism-b2029643.html |access-date17 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1Fabricius |first1Peter |date6 March 2022 |titleINTERVIEW WITH US DEPUTY SECRETARY OF STATE: United States slaps down Ramaphosa's criticism of Biden's pre-war Russia diplomacy |languageen |workDaily Maverick |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-03-06-united-states-slaps-down-ramaphosas-criticism-of-bidens-pre-war-russia-diplomacy/ |access-date17 April 2022}}</ref> Officials representing the ANC Youth League acted as international observers for Russia's staged referendum to annex Ukrainian territory conquered during the war.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Fabricius |first1Peter |date2022-09-25 |titleWAR IN EUROPE: ANC Youth League lends credibility to sham Moscow referendums in Ukraine |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-09-25-anc-youth-league-lends-credibility-to-sham-moscow-referendums-in-ukraine/ |access-date2022-09-28 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref> In February 2024 ANC Secretary-General Fikile Mbalula attend a "forum on combating Western neocolonialism"<ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastMasuabi |firstQueenin |date2024-02-13 |titleFikile Mbalula off to Moscow for forum on combating Western neocolonialism |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2024-02-14-fikile-mbalula-heads-to-moscow-for-forum-on-combating-western-neocolonialism/ |access-date2024-02-17 |websiteDaily Maverick |languageen}}</ref> hosted by Russia, thereby drawing further criticism for the party's perceived support for Russia's invasion.<ref name":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |lastCapa |firstSiyamtanda |titleSenior ANC delegation jets off to Moscow to join fight against 'new manifestation of colonialism' |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/politics/political-parties/senior-anc-delegation-jets-off-to-moscow-to-join-fight-against-new-manifestation-of-colonialism-20240214 |access-date2024-02-17 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref>
The ANC had received large donations from the Putin linked Russian oligarch Viktor Vekselberg, whilst the party's investment arm, Chancellor House, has a joint investment with Vekselberg in a South African manganese mine.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGerber |firstJan |titleLady R's cargo manifest is 'classified' claims ANC as opposition wants answers |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/lady-rs-cargo-manifest-is-classified-claims-anc-as-opposition-wants-answers-20230523 |access-date2024-03-17 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2023-06-15 |titleSouth African ties to Russia shadow Ukraine peace mission |urlhttps://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230615-south-african-ties-to-russia-shadow-ukraine-peace-mission |access-date2024-03-17 |websiteFrance 24 |languageen}}</ref>Symbols and media Flag and logo The logo of the ANC incorporates a spear and shield – symbolising the historical and ongoing struggle, armed and otherwise, against colonialism and racial oppression – and a wheel, which is borrowed from the 1955 Congress of the People campaign and therefore symbolises a united and non-racial movement for freedom and equality.<ref name"ANC-2017">{{cite web |titleThe Logo, Colours and Flag of the African National Congress |urlhttp://www.anc.org.za/content/anc-logo-colours-and-flag |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324052027/http://www.anc.org.za/content/anc-logo-colours-and-flag |archive-date24 March 2017 |access-date8 January 2017 |websiteAfrican National Congress |publisher |quote}}</ref> The logo uses the same colours as the ANC flag, which comprises three horizontal stripes of equal width in black, green and gold. The black symbolises the native people of South Africa; the green represents the land of South Africa; and the gold represents the country's mineral and other natural wealth.<ref name"ANC-2017" /> The black, green and gold tricolour also appeared on the flag of the KwaZulu bantustan and appears on the flag of the ANC's rival, the IFP; and all three colours appear in the post-apartheid South African national flag.
Publications
Since 1996, the ANC Department of Political Education has published the quarterly Umrabulo political discussion journal; and ANC Today, a weekly online newsletter, was launched in 2001 to offset the alleged bias of the press.<ref>{{Cite book |lastFourie |firstPieter J. |titleMedia Studies Volume 2: Policy, Management and Media Representation |publisherJuta and Company |year2008 |isbn978-0-7021-7675-3 |edition2nd |locationCape Town |page[https://books.google.com/books?id7531OTEpD_wC&pgPA44 44]}}</ref> In addition, since 1972, it has been traditional for the ANC president to publish annually a so-called January 8 Statement: a reflective letter sent to members on 8 January, the anniversary of the organisation's founding.<ref>{{Cite web |titleANC January 8th Statements |urlhttps://www.sahistory.org.za/article/anc-january-8th-statements |access-date2022-07-25 |websiteSouth African History Online}}</ref> In earlier years, the ANC published a range of periodicals, the most important of which was the monthly journal Sechaba (1967–1990), printed in the German Democratic Republic and banned by the apartheid government.<ref>{{Cite journal |date1990 |titleEditorial: A Friend to Sechaba |urlhttps://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/sechaba-volume-24-number-12-december-1990 |journalSechaba |volume24 |issue12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date1987-12-29 |titleQuoting the A.N.C. |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/29/us/washington-talk-briefing-quoting-the-anc.html |access-date2022-07-25 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> The ANC's Radio Freedom also gained a wide audience during apartheid.<ref>{{Cite news |lastUhlig |firstMark A. |date1986-10-12 |titleInside the African National Congress |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/12/magazine/inside-the-african-national-congress.html |access-date2022-07-25 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> Amandla "Amandla ngawethu", or the Sotho variant "Matla ke arona", is a common rallying call at ANC meetings, roughly meaning "power to the people".<ref name"ANC-2017" /> It is also common for meetings to sing so-called struggle songs, which were sung during anti-apartheid meetings and in MK camps. In the case of at least two of these songs – Dubula ibhunu and Umshini wami – this has caused controversy in recent years.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastLanga |firstRetha |date2018-01-02 |titleA 'Counter-Monument' to the Liberation Struggle: The Deployment of Struggle Songs in Post-Apartheid South Africa |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2018.1439523 |journalSouth African Historical Journal |volume70 |issue1 |pages215–233 |doi10.1080/02582473.2018.1439523 |s2cid149388558 |issn0258-2473}}</ref>
Criticism and controversy
The ANC has received criticism from both internal and external sources. Internally Mandela publicly criticized the party, following the conclusion of his presidency, for ignoring instances of corruption and mismanagement, whilst allowing for the growth of a culture of racial and ideological intolerance.<ref>{{Cite web |date2001-03-03 |titleMandela accuses ANC of racism and corruption |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1324909/Mandela-accuses-ANC-of-racism-and-corruption.html |access-date2024-03-23 |websiteThe Telegraph |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2001-03-03 |titleMandela says ANC racist and corrupt |urlhttps://www.independent.ie/world-news/africa/mandela-says-anc-racist-and-corrupt/26092140.html |access-date2024-03-23 |websiteIrish Independent |languageen}}</ref>
Corruption controversies
{{See also|Corruption in South Africa}}{{further|South African Arms Deal}}
The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to then Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik. Zuma, the former South African President, was charged with fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal, but the charges were subsequently withdrawn by the National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa due to their delay in prosecution.<ref>{{cite news |date9 October 2008 |titleOpposition hails challenge to ANC rule |urlhttp://www.pretorianews.co.za/?fSectionId&fArticleIdvn20081009055615571C284334}}</ref> The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolition of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik. Tony Yengeni, in his position as chief whip of the ANC and head of the Parliaments defence committee has recently been named as being involved in bribing the German company ThyssenKrupp over the purchase of four corvettes for the SANDF.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
Other corruption issues in the 2000s included the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince,<ref>{{cite news |lastBester |firstRonel |date5 May 2005 |titleAction against Prince 'a farce' |workDie Burger |urlhttp://www.news24.com/News24/South_Africa/News/0,,2-7-1442_1700232,00.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050507032712/http://www.news24.com/News24/South_Africa/News/0%2C%2C2-7-1442_1700232%2C00.html |archive-date7 May 2005}}</ref> and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were funnelled into ANC coffers.<ref>{{cite news |titleSpecial Report: Oilgate |workMail & Guardian |urlhttp://www.mg.co.za/specialreport.aspx?areaoilgate |url-statusdead |access-date27 April 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070814083114/http://www.mg.co.za/specialreport.aspx?areaoilgate |archive-date14 August 2007}}</ref>
The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance. The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor.<ref>{{cite web |date20 February 2008 |titleDA councillor's role in Delft is 'criminal' |urlhttp://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id1&click_id6&art_idvn20080220113540685C199776 |workCape Argus}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date28 February 2008 |titleDA's Delft councillor denies claims |workCape Argus |urlhttp://www.capeargus.co.za/index.php?fSectionId3571&fArticleIdvn20080228113641490C401174}}</ref> This has resulted in the "No Land! No House! No Vote!" Campaign which became very prominent during elections.<ref>{{cite news |date5 May 2005 |titleThe 'No Land, No House, No Vote' campaign still on for 2009 |workAbahlali baseMjondolo |urlhttp://libcom.org/library/the-no-land-no-house-no-vote-campaign-still-2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date12 December 2005 |titleIndyMedia Presents: No Land! No House! No Vote! |urlhttp://antieviction.org.za/2005/12/12/indymedia-presents-no-land-no-house-no-vote/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090425165902/http://antieviction.org.za/2005/12/12/indymedia-presents-no-land-no-house-no-vote/ |archive-date25 April 2009 |publisherAnti-Eviction Campaign}}</ref>
In 2018, the New York Times reported on the killings of ANC corruption whistleblowers.<ref>{{cite news |last1Norimitsu Onishi |last2Selam Gebrekidan |date30 September 2018 |titleHit Men and Power: South Africa's Leaders Are Killing One Another |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/30/world/africa/south-africa-anc-killings.html?streamworld |access-date2 October 2018 |quote="If you understand the Cosa Nostra, you don't only kill the person, but you also send a strong message," said Thabiso Zulu, another A.N.C. whistle-blower who, fearing for his life, is now in hiding. "We broke the rule of omertà," he added, saying that the party of Nelson Mandela had become like the Mafia.}}</ref>
During an address on 28 October 2021, former president Thabo Mbeki commented on the history of corruption within the ANC. He reflected that Mandela had already warned in 1997 that the ANC was attracting individuals who viewed the party as "a route to power and self-enrichment." He added that the ANC leadership "did not know how to deal with this problem."<ref>{{cite web |last1Maphanga |first1Canny |last2Gerber |first2Jan |date29 October 2021 |titleANC has failed to keep people seeking 'self-enrichment' out of party |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-has-failed-to-keep-people-seeking-self-enrichment-out-of-party-20211029 |access-date30 October 2021 |publisherNews24}}</ref> During a lecture on 10 December, Mbeki reiterated concerns about "careerists" within the party, and stressed the need to "purge itself of such members".<ref>{{cite web |lastMaphanga |firstCanny |date11 December 2021 |titleMany see their ANC membership as a ticket to power and resources – Thabo Mbeki |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/many-see-their-anc-membership-as-a-ticket-to-power-and-resources-thabo-mbeki-20211211 |access-date11 December 2021 |publisherNews24}}</ref>
In May 2024, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists in association with amaBhungane showed in documents that R200 million in the ANC's election fund was siphoned off to the church of controversial archbishop Bheki Lukhele in Eswatini; the Chief Financial Officer of the ANC, Bongani Mahlalela along with the Ambassador of Eswatini to Belgium, Sibusisiwe Mngomezulu, were implicated in the scheme.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTshwane |firstTebogo |date2024-04-30 |titleThe ANC, the megachurch and the mystery of the R200-million money flows |urlhttps://amabhungane.org/the-anc-the-megachurch-and-the-mystery-of-the-r200-million-money-flows/ |access-date2024-05-29 |websiteamaBhungane |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastTshwane |firstTebogo |date2024-05-08 |titleThe ANC, the megachurch, and the mystery money flows – Part Two: 'God's Laundry' |urlhttps://amabhungane.org/the-anc-the-megachurch-and-the-mystery-money-flows-part-two-gods-laundry/ |access-date2024-05-29 |websiteamaBhungane |languageen-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2024-05-26 |titleMillions in suspicious transactions tie South Africa's ruling party to a controversial Swazi archbishop, documents show – ICIJ |urlhttps://www.icij.org/investigations/swazi-secrets/millions-in-suspicious-transactions-tie-south-africas-ruling-party-to-a-controversial-swazi-archbishop-documents-show/ |access-date2024-05-29 |languageen-US}}</ref>Condemnation over Secrecy Bill
{{further|Protection of State Information Bill}}
In late 2011, the ANC was heavily criticised over the passage of the Protection of State Information Bill, which opponents claimed would improperly restrict the freedom of the press.<ref name"du Plessis-2011">{{cite news |lastdu Plessis |firstCharl |date22 November 2011 |titleSecrecy bill opposition reaching fever pitch |workTimes Live |urlhttp://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2011/11/22/secrecy-bill-opposition-reaching-fever-pitch}}</ref> Opposition to the bill included otherwise ANC-aligned groups such as COSATU. Notably, Nelson Mandela and other Nobel laureates Nadine Gordimer, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and F. W. de Klerk have expressed disappointment with the bill for not meeting standards of constitutionality and aspirations for freedom of information and expression.<ref>{{cite news |authorAFP |date22 November 2011 |titleMandela's office comments on S Africa's secrecy bill |workDawn |urlhttp://www.dawn.com/2011/11/22/mandelas-office-comments-on-s-africas-secrecy-bill.html}}</ref>
Role in the Marikana killings
{{further|Marikana massacre}}
The ANC have been criticised for its role in failing to prevent 16 August 2012 massacre of Lonmin miners at Marikana in the Northwest. Some{{who|dateJune 2024}} allege that Police Commissioner Riah Phiyega and Police Minister Nathi Mthethwa gave the go ahead for the police action against the miners on that day.<ref>{{cite news |date22 October 2012 |titleWho gave permission to kill?: Bizos |workBusiness Report |publisherIOL |urlhttp://www.iol.co.za/business/companies/who-gave-permission-to-kill-bizos-1.1408535#.UIbgQxLJX_g}}</ref>
Commissioner Phiyega of the ANC came under further criticism as being insensitive and uncaring when she was caught smiling and laughing during the Farlam Commission's video playback of the massacre.<ref>{{cite news |date24 October 2012 |titleMarikana families horrified at Phiyegas behaviour |publisherM&G |urlhttp://mg.co.za/article/2012-10-24-marikana-families-horrified-at-phiyegas-behaviour}}</ref>
In 2014, Archbishop Desmond Tutu announced that he could no longer bring himself to vote for the ANC, as it was no longer the party that he and Nelson Mandela fought for. He stated that the party had lost its way, and was in danger of becoming a corrupt entity in power.<ref>{{cite web |last1Smith |first1David |date25 April 2014 |titleDesmond Tutu: why I won't vote ANC |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/25/desmond-tutu-mandela-wont-vote-anc |access-date30 June 2016 |workThe Guardian}}</ref>Financial mismanagementSince at least 2017, the ANC has encountered significant problems related to financial mismanagement. According to a report filed by the former treasurer-general Zweli Mkhize in December 2017, the ANC was technically insolvent as its liabilities exceeded its assets.<ref>{{cite web |lastPaton |firstCarol |date20 December 2017 |titleANC is technically insolvent, financial report shows |urlhttps://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/politics/2017-12-20-zweli-mkhize-anc-is-technically-insolvent/ |access-date13 September 2021 |workBusinessLIVE}}</ref> These problems continued into the second half of 2021. By September 2021, the ANC had reportedly amassed a debt exceeding R200-million, including over R100-million owed to the South African Revenue Service.<ref>{{cite web |lastMahlaka |firstRay |date12 September 2021 |titleThe ANC, a tax evader? Massive debt, unpaid salaries, dry donation taps |urlhttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-09-12-the-anc-a-tax-evader-massive-debt-unpaid-salaries-dry-donation-taps/ |access-date13 September 2021 |work=Daily Maverick}}</ref>
Beginning in May 2021, the ANC failed to pay monthly staff salaries on time. Having gone without pay for three consecutive months, workers planned a strike in late August 2021.<ref>{{cite web |lastMadisa |firstKgothatso |date25 August 2021 |titleANC offices shut down as unpaid staff go on 'wildcat strike' |urlhttps://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2021-08-25-no-end-to-anc-money-woes-as-salaries-not-paid-for-third-straight-month/ |access-date13 September 2021 |workTimes LIVE}}</ref> In response, the ANC initiated a crowdfunding campaign to raise money for staff salaries.<ref>{{cite web |lastMthethwa |firstCebelihle |date28 August 2021 |titleANC resorts to crowdfunding to raise money to pay staff |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-resorts-to-crowdfunding-to-raise-money-to-pay-staff-20210828 |access-date13 September 2021 |workNews24 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210913073758/https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-resorts-to-crowdfunding-to-raise-money-to-pay-staff-20210828 |archive-dateSeptember 13, 2021 }}</ref> By November 2021, its Cape Town staff was approaching their fourth month without salaries, while medical aid and provident fund contributions had been suspended in various provinces.<ref name"lud1">{{cite news |last1Ludidi |first1Velani |date15 November 2021 |titleANC staff picket over unpaid salaries |publisherIOL |agencyWeekend Argus |urlhttps://www.iol.co.za/weekend-argus/news/anc-staff-picket-over-unpaid-salaries-8cd2a71d-aa4d-4076-9ab8-7e4b4ff5043b |access-date16 November 2021}}</ref> The party has countered that the Political Party Funding Act, which prohibits anonymous contributions, has dissuaded some donors who previously injected money for salaries.<ref name"teb1">{{cite news |last1Tebele |first1Karabo |date28 July 2022 |titleANC staff members to continue picket at Nasrec over unpaid salaries |agencyCapeTalk 567AM |urlhttps://www.capetalk.co.za/articles/450827/anc-staff-members-to-continue-picket-at-nasrec-over-unpaid-salaries |access-date4 August 2022 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220804100317/https://www.capetalk.co.za/articles/450827/anc-staff-members-to-continue-picket-at-nasrec-over-unpaid-salaries |archive-date4 August 2022 }}</ref>State capture
{{further|Zondo Commission}}
In January 2018, then-President Jacob Zuma established the Zondo Commission to investigate allegations of state capture, corruption, and fraud in the public sector.<ref>{{Cite web |date22 June 2018 |titleJudicial Commission of Inquiry Into Allegations of State Capture (Call for evidence/information) |urlhttps://pmg.org.za/call-for-comment/694/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190608130106/https://pmg.org.za/call-for-comment/694/ |archive-date8 June 2019 |access-date6 January 2022 |websitePMG |languageen}}</ref> Over the following four years, the Commission heard testimony from over 250 witnesses and collected more than 150,000 pages of evidence.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAmashabalala |firstMawande |date2020-12-21 |title'He was the president': Zondo says there's no place to hide for Zuma |urlhttps://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2020-12-21-he-was-the-president-zondo-says-theres-no-place-to-hide-for-zuma/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201221140115/https://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2020-12-21-he-was-the-president-zondo-says-theres-no-place-to-hide-for-zuma/ |archive-date21 December 2020 |access-date6 January 2022 |websiteSunday Times |languageen-ZA}}</ref> After several extensions, the first part of the final three-part report was published on 4 January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMahlati |firstZintle |date31 December 2021 |titleZondo to hand deliver State Capture Inquiry report to Ramaphosa on Tuesday |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/zondo-to-hand-deliver-state-capture-inquiry-report-to-ramaphosa-on-tuesday-20211231 |access-date6 January 2022 |websiteNews24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date4 January 2022 |titleJudicial Commission of Inquiry into State Capture Report: Part 1 |urlhttps://www.statecapture.org.za/site/files/announcements/638/Judicial_Commission_of_Inquiry_into_State_Capture_Report:_Part_1_Vol._1:_SAA_(18_MB).pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220105111952/https://www.statecapture.org.za/site/files/announcements/638/Judicial_Commission_of_Inquiry_into_State_Capture_Report:_Part_1_Vol._1:_SAA_%2818_MB%29.pdf |archive-date5 January 2022 |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
The report found that the ANC, including Zuma and his political allies, had benefited from the extensive corruption of state enterprises, including the South African Revenue Service.<ref>{{Cite web |lastFerreira |firstEmsie |date6 January 2022 |titleZondo: ANC was either incompetent or asleep on capture |urlhttps://mg.co.za/politics/2022-01-06-zondo-anc-was-either-incompetent-or-asleep-on-capture/ |access-date6 January 2022 |websiteMail & Guardian |languageen}}</ref> It also found that the ANC "simply did not care that state entities were in decline during state capture or they slept on the job – or they simply didn't know what to do."<ref>{{Cite web |lastHunter |firstQaanitah |date6 January 2022 |titleANC 'did not care or they slept on the job or they had no clue what to do' – Zondo Commission report |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/anc-did-not-care-or-they-slept-on-the-job-or-they-had-no-clue-what-to-do-zondo-commission-report-20220106 |access-date6 January 2022 |websiteNews24 |languageen}}</ref>
Electoral history
thumb|Proportion of votes cast for the ANC in the 2014 election, by ward.
{{legend|#edf8e9|0–20%}}
{{legend|#bae4b3|20–40%}}
{{legend|#74c476|40–60%}}
{{legend|#31a354|60–80%}}
{{legend|#006d2c|80–100%}}
.]]
National Assembly elections
{| classwikitable styletext-align:center
!Election
!Party leader
!Votes
!%
!Seats
!+/–
!Position
!Result
|-
|1994
|Nelson Mandela
|12,237,655
|62.65%
|{{Composition bar|252|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 252
|{{increase}} 1st
|{{yes2|ANC–NP–IFP coalition government}}
|-
|1999
| rowspan="2" |Thabo Mbeki
|10,601,330
|66.35%
|{{Composition bar|266|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 14
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|ANC–IFP coalition government}}
|-
|2004
|10,880,915
|69.69%
|{{Composition bar|279|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 13
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Supermajority government}}
|-
|2009
| rowspan="2" |Jacob Zuma
|11,650,748
|65.90%
|{{Composition bar|264|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 15
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Majority government}}
|-
|2014
|11,436,921
|62.15%
|{{Composition bar|249|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 15
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Majority government}}
|-
|2019
| rowspan="2" |Cyril Ramaphosa
|10,026,475
|57.50%
|{{Composition bar|230|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 19
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Majority government}}
|-
|2024
|6,459,683
|40.18%{{efn|From 2024, seats in the National Assembly are determined by a combination of the national ballot, and the nine regional ballots. Only the national ballot figures are shown here.}}
|{{Composition bar|159|400|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 71
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Government of National Unity}}
|}
{{Notelist}}
National Council of Provinces elections
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!Election
!Party leader
!Seats
!+/–
!Position
!Result
|-
|1994
|Nelson Mandela
|{{Composition bar|60|90|hex=Green}}
|{{increase}} 60
|{{increase}} 1st
|{{yes2|ANC–NP–IFP governing majority}}
|-
|1999
| rowspan="2" |Thabo Mbeki
|{{Composition bar|63|90|hex=Green}}
|{{increase}} 3
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|ANC–IFP governing majority}}
|-
|2004
|{{Composition bar|65|90|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 2
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Governing supermajority}}
|-
|2009
| rowspan="2" |Jacob Zuma
|{{Composition bar|62|90|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 3
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Governing supermajority}}
|-
|2014
|{{Composition bar|60|90|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 2
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Governing supermajority}}
|-
|2019
| rowspan="2" |Cyril Ramaphosa
|{{Composition bar|54|90|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 6
|{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Governing majority}}
|-
|2024
|{{Composition bar|43|90|hex={{party color|African National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 11
||{{steady}} 1st
|{{yes2|Government of National Unity}}
|}
Provincial legislatures
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
! rowspan"2" |Election<ref name"dash">{{Cite web |titleResults Dashboard |urlhttps://www.elections.org.za/NPEDashboard/app/dashboard.html |access-date2019-05-11 |websiteelections.org.za}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Eastern Cape
! colspan="2" |Free State
! colspan="2" |Gauteng
! colspan="2" |KwaZulu-Natal
! colspan="2" |Limpopo
! colspan="2" |Mpumalanga
! colspan="2" |North-West
! colspan="2" |Northern Cape
! colspan="2" |Western Cape
|-
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
|-
|1994
|84.35
|48/56
|76.65
|24/30
|57.60
|50/86
|32.23
|26/81
|91.63
|38/40
|80.69
|25/30
|83.33
|26/30
|49.74
|15/30
|33.01
|14/42
|-
|1999
|73.80
|47/63
|80.79
|25/30
|67.87
|50/73
|39.38
|32/80
|88.29
|44/49
|84.83
|26/30
|78.97
|27/33
|64.32
|20/30
|42.07
|18/42
|-
|2004
|79.27
|51/63
|81.78
|25/30
|68.40
|51/73
|46.98
|38/80
|89.18
|45/49
|86.30
|27/30
|80.71
|27/33
|68.83
|21/30
|45.25
|19/42
|-
|2009
|68.82
|44/63
|71.10
|22/30
|64.04
|47/73
|62.95
|51/80
|84.88
|43/49
|85.55
|27/30
|72.89
|25/33
|60.75
|19/30
|31.55
|14/42
|-
|2014
|70.09
|45/63
|69.85
|22/30
|53.59
|40/73
|64.52
|52/80
|78.60
|39/49
|78.23
|24/30
|67.39
|23/33
|64.40
|20/30
|32.89
|14/42
|-
|2019
|68.74
|44/63
|61.14
|19/30
|50.19
|37/73
|54.22
|44/80
|75.49
|38/49
|70.58
|22/30
|61.87
|21/33
|57.54
|18/30
|28.63
|12/42
|-
|2024<ref>{{Cite web |titleNPE Results Dashboard 2024 |urlhttps://results.elections.org.za/dashboards/npe/ |access-date2024-06-11 |websiteresults.elections.org.za}}</ref>
| 62.16 || 45/73
| 51.87 || 16/30
| 34.76 || 28/80
| 16.99 || 14/80
| 73.30 || 48/64
| 51.31 || 27/51
| 57.73 || 21/38
| 49.34 || 15/30
| 19.55 || 8/42
|}
Municipal elections
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!Election
!Votes
!%
!Change
|-
|1995–96
| align="right" |5,033,855
| align="right" |58%
| align="right" |
|-
|2000
| align="right" |None released
| align="right" |59.4%
| align="right" |{{increase}} 1.4%
|-
|2006
| align="right" |17,466,948
| align="right" |66.3%
| align="right" |{{increase}} 6.9%
|-
|2011
| align="right" |16,548,826
| align="right" |61.9%
| align="right" |{{decrease}} 4.4%
|-
|2016<ref name"iec_summary">{{cite web |titleResults Summary – All Ballots p |urlhttp://www.elections.org.za/content/LGEPublicReports/402/Detailed%20Results/National.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.elections.org.za/content/LGEPublicReports/402/Detailed%20Results/National.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |access-date11 August 2016 |publisherelections.org.za}}</ref>
| align="right" |21,450,332
| align="right" |55.7%
| align="right" |{{decrease}} 6.2%
|-
|2021
| align="right" |14,531,908
| align="right" |47.5%
| align="right" |{{decrease}} 8.2%
|}
See also
{{Portal|South Africa|Politics}}
* :Category:Members of the African National Congress
* Democratic Alliance
* Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College
* Step-aside rule
* State v. Ebrahim
* United Democratic Front
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|African National Congress}}
* {{official website}}
* [https://www.jstor.org/site/struggles-for-freedom/southern-africa/sechaba-28107673/ Sechaba archive]
* [https://www.jstor.org/site/struggles-for-freedom/southern-africa/mayibuye-28107646/ Mayibuye archive]
* [http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page1&casualties_type&casualties_max&perpetrator281&count100&charttypeline&chartovertime&obGTDID&oddesc&expandedyes#results-table Attacks attributed to the ANC on the START terrorism database]
* [https://anc-news.co.za List of articles & videos about the ANC] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115134325/http://anc-news.co.za/ |date15 January 2021 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041204081114/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2004/at48.htm#art2 Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004]
{{African National Congress |state=expanded}}
{{South Africa political parties}}
{{Former Liberation Movements}}
{{Politics of South Africa navbox}}
{{Political history of South Africa}}
{{South Africa topics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Anti-apartheid organisations
Category:Anti-Zionism in Africa
Category:Corruption in South Africa
Category:National liberation movements
Category:Organisations associated with apartheid
Category:Political parties based in Johannesburg
Category:Social democratic parties in South Africa
Category:Full member parties of the Socialist International
Category:Political parties established in 1912
Category:Organizations formerly designated as terrorist by the United States
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_National_Congress
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.587213
|
2504
|
Amphetamine
|
{{Short description|Central nervous system stimulant}}
{{About|mixtures of levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine|other uses}}
{{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{cs1 config |name-list-stylevanc |display-authors6}}
{{Infobox drug
| Watchedfields = correct
| Verifiedfields = correct
| verifiedrevid = 851154960r
| INN = Amfetamine
| image = Amphetamine.svg
| image_class = skin-invert-image
| width = 210
| alt = An image of the amphetamine compound
| image2 | width2 250
| alt2 = A 3d image of the D-amphetamine compound
| imageL = D-Amphetamine molecule ball from xtal.png
| altL | imageR Amphetamine-3d-CPK.png
| altR =
<!-- Clinical data -->
| pronounce {{IPAc-en|audioEn-us-amphetamine.ogg|æ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|ə|m|iː|n}}
| tradename = Evekeo, Adderall,{{#tag:ref|Adderall and other mixed amphetamine salts products such as Mydayis are not racemic amphetamine – they are a mixture composed of equal parts racemate and dextroamphetamine.<br />
See Mixed amphetamine salts for more information about the mixture, and this section for information about the various mixtures of amphetamine enantiomers marketed.|nameAdderallDiff|groupnote}} others
| MedlinePlus = a616004
| DailyMedID = Amphetamine
| Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|monograph|amphetamine-sulfate}}
| dependency_liability Physical: None<br />Psychological: Moderate<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" />
| addiction_liability = Moderate<!-- PLEASE NOTE: countless sources state that amphetamine has a "High" abuse liability. This term is not synonymous with "addiction liability", which is the relative risk (compared to other addictive drugs) of developing an addiction (aka "substance use disorder") when it's used as prescribed or recreationally. -->
| routes_of_administration Medical: Oral, intravenous<ref name"Amph Uses" /><br />Recreational: Oral, insufflation, rectal, intravenous, intramuscular
| class = {{plainlist|
*Stimulant,
*anorectic}}
| ATC_prefix = N06
| ATC_suffix = BA01
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N06|BA02}} {{ATC|N06|BA12}}
<!-- Legal status -->
| legal_AU = Schedule 8
| legal_BR = A3
| legal_BR_comment | legal_CA Schedule I
| legal_DE = Anlage III
| legal_NZ = Class B
| legal_UK = Class B
| legal_US Schedule II<ref name":USAS2">{{Cite web | vauthors Ingersoll J |dateJuly 7, 1971 |titleAmphetamine, Methamphetamine, and Optical Isomers |urlhttps://archives.federalregister.gov/issue_slice/1971/7/7/12730-12734.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-url https://archive.today/20241127164332/https://archives.federalregister.gov/issue_slice/1971/7/7/12730-12734.pdf |archive-dateNovember 27, 2024 |access-dateNovember 27, 2024 |websiteFederal Register|publisherBureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs}}</ref>
| legal_UN = Psychotropic Schedule II
| legal_status =
<!-- Physiological data -->
| target_tissues | receptors TAAR1, VMAT2, 5HT1A
<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->
| bioavailability Oral: {{nowrap|~90%}}<ref name"handbook2022" />
| protein_bound {{nowrap|20%}}<ref name"Drugbank-amph" />
| metabolism CYP2D6,<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> DBH,<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"DBH amph primary" /> FMO3<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"FMO" /><ref name="FMO3-Primary" />
| metabolites {{nowrap|4-hydroxyamphetamine}}, {{nowrap|4-hydroxynorephedrine}}, {{nowrap|4-hydroxyphenylacetone}}, benzoic acid, hippuric acid, norephedrine, phenylacetone<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name="Metabolites"/>
| onset {{abbr|IR|Immediate release}} dosing: {{nowrap|30–60}}&nbsp;minutes<ref name"Medscape Adderall Pharmacology">{{cite encyclopedia |titleamphetamine/dextroamphetamine |sectionPharmacology |section-urlhttp://reference.medscape.com/drug/adderall-amphetamine-%20%20dextroamphetamine-342997#10 |publisherMedscape - WebMD |access-date21 January 2016 |quote Onset of action: 30–60 min}}</ref><br />{{abbr|XR|Extended release}} dosing: {{nowrap|1.5–2}}&nbsp;hours<ref name"Millichap: onset, peak, and duration">{{cite book | vauthors Millichap JG | veditors Millichap JG | title Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD | year 2010 | publisher Springer | location New York | isbn 9781441913968 | pages 112 |edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD | quote <br />Table 9.2 Dextroamphetamine formulations of stimulant medication<br />Dexedrine [Peak:2–3&nbsp;h] [Duration:5–6&nbsp;h]&nbsp;...<br />Adderall [Peak:2–3&nbsp;h] [Duration:5–7&nbsp;h]<br />Dexedrine spansules [Peak:7–8&nbsp;h] [Duration:12&nbsp;h]&nbsp;...<br />Adderall XR [Peak:7–8&nbsp;h] [Duration:12&nbsp;h]<br />Vyvanse [Peak:3–4&nbsp;h] [Duration:12&nbsp;h]}}</ref><ref name"XR onset-duration">{{cite journal | vauthors Brams M, Mao AR, Doyle RL | title Onset of efficacy of long-acting psychostimulants in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journalPostgraduate Medicine| volume 120 | issue 3 | pages 69–88 | date September 2008 | pmid 18824827 | doi 10.3810/pgm.2008.09.1909| s2cid = 31791162 }}</ref>
| elimination_half-life {{nowrap|{{abbr|D-amph|dextroamphetamine}}}}: {{nowrap|9–11}}&nbsp;hours<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name"Adderall IR">{{cite web | titleAdderall- dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine aspartate, dextroamphetamine sulfate, and amphetamine sulfate tablet | websiteDailyMed | publisher Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. | date8 November 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setidf22635fe-821d-4cde-aa12-419f8b53db81 | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref><br />{{nowrap|{{abbr|L-amph|levoamphetamine}}}}: {{nowrap|11–14}}&nbsp;hours<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name"Adderall IR" /><br />pH-dependent: {{nowrap|7–34}}&nbsp;hours<ref name="HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record" />
| duration_of_action {{abbr|IR|Immediate release}} dosing: {{nowrap|3–6}}&nbsp;hours<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"Millichap: onset, peak, and duration" /><ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><br /> {{abbr|XR|Extended release}} dosing: {{nowrap|8–12}}&nbsp;hours<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"Millichap: onset, peak, and duration" /><ref name="Narcolepsy guide" />
| excretion Primarily renal;<br />pH-dependent {{nowrap|range: 1–75%}}<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" />
<!-- Identifiers -->
| IUPAC_name <div class"center">(RS)-1-phenylpropan-2-amine</div>
| synonyms = α-methylphenethylamine
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number = 300-62-9
| PubChem = 3007
| IUPHAR_ligand = 4804
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB00182
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 13852819
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = CK833KGX7E
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D07445
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 2679
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 405
| NIAID_ChemDB = 018564
| PDB_ligand =
<!-- Chemical and physical data -->
| C = 9
| H = 13
| N = 1
| chirality Racemic mixture<ref name"Proper definition" />
| density = .936
| density_notes at 25&nbsp;°C<ref name"PubChem - amphetamine density">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine | sectionDensity |urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/amphetamine |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/amphetamine#sectionDensity |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database |access-date9 November 2016 | date5 November 2016}}</ref>
| melting_point = 146
| melting_notes <ref name"CAS Common Chemistry - Amphetamine">{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn300-62-9 |publisherAmerican Chemical Society. CAS Common Chemistry |titleAmphetamine |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
| boiling_point = 203
| boiling_notes at 760&nbsp;mmHg<ref name"Properties" />
| SMILES = NC(C)Cc1ccccc1
| StdInChI = 1S/C9H13N/c1-8(10)7-9-5-3-2-4-6-9/h2-6,8H,7,10H2,1H3
| StdInChIKey = KWTSXDURSIMDCE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
}}
Amphetamine{{#tag:ref|Synonyms and alternate spellings include: {{nowrap|1-phenylpropan-2-amine}} (IUPAC name), {{nowrap|α-methylphenethylamine}}, amfetamine (International Nonproprietary Name [INN]), {{nowrap|β-phenylisopropylamine}}, thyramine, and speed.<ref name"PubChem Header" /><ref name"Drugbank-amph" /><ref name"Acute amph toxicity" />| group "note" }} (contracted from <u>a</u>lpha-<u>m</u>ethyl<u>ph</u>en<u>et</u>hyl<u>amine</u>) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity; it is also used to treat binge eating disorder in the form of its inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine. Amphetamine was discovered as a chemical in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu, and then as a drug in the late 1920s. It exists as two enantiomers:{{#tag:ref|Enantiomers are molecules that are mirror images of one another; they are structurally identical, but of the opposite orientation.<ref name"Enantiomers">{{cite book |titleIUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology |chapterEnantiomer |publisherInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. IUPAC Goldbook |year2009 |doi10.1351/goldbook.E02069 |isbn9780967855097 |chapter-urlhttp://goldbook.iupac.org/E02069.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130317002318/http://goldbook.iupac.org/E02069.html |access-date14 March 2014 |archive-date17 March 2013 |quoteOne of a pair of molecular entities which are mirror images of each other and non-superposable.}}</ref><br />Levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine are also known as {{nowrap|L-amph}} or levamfetamine (INN) and {{nowrap|D-amph}} or dexamfetamine (INN) respectively.<ref name"PubChem Header" />|group "note"}} levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. Amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical,<!-- REFS:<ref name"MeSHAmphetamine" /> --> the racemic free base,<!-- REFS:<ref name"WHO INN active moiety" /><ref name"Proper definition" /> --> which is equal parts of the two enantiomers in their pure amine forms. The term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers, or to either of them alone.<!-- REFS:<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /><ref name"MeSHAmphetamine" /><ref name"Proper definition" /> --> Historically, it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression. Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer, and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant. It is a prescription drug in many countries, and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rasmussen N | title Amphetamine-Type Stimulants: The Early History of Their Medical and Non-Medical Uses | journal International Review of Neurobiology | volume 120 | pages 9–25 | date January 2015 | pmid 26070751 | doi 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.001 | publisher Academic Press | veditors Taba P, Lees A, Sikk K | series The Neuropsychiatric Complications of Stimulant Abuse }}</ref><ref name"Proper definition">{{cite book | vauthors Yoshida T | veditors Klee H | title Amphetamine Misuse: International Perspectives on Current Trends | date 1997 | publisher Harwood Academic Publishers | location Amsterdam, Netherlands | isbn 9789057020810 | page [https://archive.org/details/amphetaminemisus0000unse/page/2 2] | chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idgVw_wzZU4x8C&pgPA2| chapter Chapter 1: Use and Misuse of Amphetamines: An International Overview | quote Amphetamine, in the singular form, properly applies to the racemate of 2-amino-1-phenylpropane.&nbsp;... In its broadest context, however, the term [amphetamines] can even embrace a large number of structurally and pharmacologically related substances. | url https://archive.org/details/amphetaminemisus0000unse/page/2 }}</ref><ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Ergogenics" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Benzedrine" /><ref name"UN Convention" /><ref name"Nonmedical" /><ref name"Libido" /><ref name"MeSHAmphetamine">{{cite web | title Amphetamine | url https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2009/MB_cgi?mode&termAmphetamine | website Medical Subject Headings | publisher United States National Library of Medicine | access-date 16 December 2013}}</ref><ref name"WHO INN active moiety">{{cite web | title Guidelines on the Use of International Nonproprietary Names (INNS) for Pharmaceutical Substances | url http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh1806e/2.4.html | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150109232455/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh1806e/2.4.html | archive-date 9 January 2015 | publisher World Health Organization | access-date 1 December 2014 | date 1997 | quote In principle, INNs are selected only for the active part of the molecule which is usually the base, acid or alcohol. In some cases, however, the active molecules need to be expanded for various reasons, such as formulation purposes, bioavailability or absorption rate. In 1975 the experts designated for the selection of INN decided to adopt a new policy for naming such molecules. In future, names for different salts or esters of the same active substance should differ only with regard to the inactive moiety of the molecule.&nbsp;... The latter are called modified INNs (INNMs).}}</ref><ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"BED rapid review" />|group"sources"}}
The first amphetamine pharmaceutical was Benzedrine, a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions. Pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine, Adderall,{{#tag:ref|The brand name Adderall is used throughout this article to refer to the amphetamine four-salt mixture it contains (dextroamphetamine sulfate 25%, dextroamphetamine saccharate 25%, amphetamine sulfate 25%, and amphetamine aspartate 25%). The nonproprietary name, which lists all four active constituent chemicals, is excessively lengthy.<ref name"NDCD">{{cite web | title National Drug Code Amphetamine Search Results | url https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/ndc/results.cfm?beginrow1&numberperpage160&searchfieldamphetamine&searchtypeActiveIngredient&OrderByProprietaryName | website National Drug Code Directory| publisherUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date 16 December 2013 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131216080856/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/ndc/results.cfm?beginrow1&numberperpage160&searchfieldamphetamine&searchtypeActiveIngredient&OrderByProprietaryName | archive-date16 December 2013 }}</ref>|name"UseOfAdderallName"| group"note"}} dextroamphetamine, or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine. Amphetamine increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmission in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmitter systems.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"Adderall IR" /><ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Benzedrine" /><ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Miller+Grandy 2016" />|group"sources"}}
At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness, and improved cognitive control. It induces physical effects such as improved reaction time, fatigue resistance, decreased appetite, elevated heart rate, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., hallucinations, delusions and paranoia) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Adderall IR" /><ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Ergogenics" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Libido" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"Cochrane" /><ref name"Amphetamine-induced psychosis" /><ref name"Stimulant Misuse" /><ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /><ref name"NHMH_3e-Addiction doses" /><ref name"Addiction risk" /><ref name"narcolepsy addiction" />|group"sources"}}
Amphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class. It is also the parent compound of its own structural class, the substituted amphetamines,{{#tag:ref|The term "amphetamines" also refers to a chemical class, but, unlike the class of substituted amphetamines,<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /> the "amphetamines" class does not have a standardized definition in academic literature.<ref name"Proper definition" /> One of the more restrictive definitions of this class includes only the racemate and enantiomers of amphetamine and methamphetamine.<ref name"Proper definition" /> The most general definition of the class encompasses a broad range of pharmacologically and structurally related compounds.<ref name"Proper definition" /><br />Due to confusion that may arise from use of the plural form, this article will only use the terms "amphetamine" and "amphetamines" to refer to racemic amphetamine, levoamphetamine, and dextroamphetamine and reserve the term "substituted amphetamines" for its structural class.|group"note"}} which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, MDMA, and methamphetamine. As a member of the phenethylamine class, amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators, specifically phenethylamine and {{nowrap|N-methylphenethylamine}}, both of which are produced within the human body. Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine, while {{nowrap|N-methylphenethylamine}} is a positional isomer of amphetamine that differs only in the placement of the methyl group.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"EMC">{{cite web | title Amphetamine | url http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/amphetamine | website European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction | access-date 19 October 2013}}</ref><ref name"Amphetamine - a substituted amphetamine" />|group="sources"}}
{{TOC limit|3}}
Uses
Medical
<noinclude>Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, obesity, and, in the form of lisdexamfetamine, binge eating disorder.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"BED rapid review" /> It is sometimes prescribed {{nowrap|off-label}} for its past medical indications, particularly for depression and chronic pain.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name="Benzedrine sulfate"/></noinclude>
<!-- section begin:ADHD -->
ADHD
Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage,<ref name"pmid22392347">{{cite journal |vauthorsCarvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, Carvalho F, Bastos Mde L |titleToxicity of amphetamines: an update |journalArchives of Toxicology|volume86 |issue8 |pages1167–1231 |dateAugust 2012 |pmid22392347 |doi10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5|bibcode2012ArTox..86.1167C |s2cid2873101 }}</ref><ref name"AbuseAndAbnormalities">{{cite journal|vauthorsBerman S, O'Neill J, Fears S, Bartzokis G, London ED | titleAbuse of amphetamines and structural abnormalities in the brain | journalAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences| date October 2008 | volume 1141 | issue1 | pages 195–220 | pmid18991959 | doi10.1196/annals.1441.031 | pmc2769923 | bibcode<!-- No --> }}</ref> but, in humans with ADHD, long-term use of pharmaceutical amphetamines at therapeutic doses appears to improve brain development and nerve growth.<ref name"Neuroplasticity 1">{{cite journal |vauthorsHart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K |titleMeta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects |journalJAMA Psychiatry|volume70 |issue2 |pages185–198 |dateFebruary 2013 |pmid23247506 |doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277|doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Neuroplasticity 2">{{cite journal |vauthorsSpencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J |titleEffect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies |journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume74 |issue9 |pages902–917 |dateSeptember 2013 |pmid24107764 |doi10.4088/JCP.12r08287 |pmc3801446}}</ref><ref name"Neuroplasticity 3">{{cite journal | titleMeta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects | journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica| dateFebruary 2012 | volume125 | issue2 | pages114–126 | pmid22118249 |vauthorsFrodl T, Skokauskas N | quote Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. | doi10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x| s2cid25954331| doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref> Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.<ref name"Neuroplasticity 1" /><ref name"Neuroplasticity 2" /><ref name"Neuroplasticity 3" />
Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications">{{cite journal |vauthorsHuang YS, Tsai MH | title Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge | journalCNS Drugs| volume 25 | issue 7 | pages 539–554 |dateJuly 2011 | pmid 21699268 | doi 10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000 | s2cid 3449435 | quote Several other studies,<sup>[97-101]</sup> including a meta-analytic review<sup>[98]</sup> and a retrospective study,<sup>[97]</sup> suggested that stimulant therapy in childhood is associated with a reduced risk of subsequent substance use, cigarette smoking and alcohol use disorders.&nbsp;... Recent studies have demonstrated that stimulants, along with the non-stimulants atomoxetine and extended-release guanfacine, are continuously effective for more than 2-year treatment periods with few and tolerable adverse effects. The effectiveness of long-term therapy includes not only the core symptoms of ADHD, but also improved quality of life and academic achievements. The most concerning short-term adverse effects of stimulants, such as elevated blood pressure and heart rate, waned in long-term follow-up studies.&nbsp;... The current data do not support the potential impact of stimulants on the worsening or development of tics or substance abuse into adulthood. In the longest follow-up study (of more than 10&nbsp;years), lifetime stimulant treatment for ADHD was effective and protective against the development of adverse psychiatric disorders.}}</ref><ref name"Millichap" /><ref name"Long-term 2015">{{cite journal | vauthors Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S | title Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review | journal PLOS ONE| volume 10 | issue 2 | pages e0116407 | date February 2015 | pmid 25714373 | pmc 4340791 | doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0116407 | quote The highest proportion of improved outcomes was reported with combination treatment (83% of outcomes). Among significantly improved outcomes, the largest effect sizes were found for combination treatment. The greatest improvements were associated with academic, self-esteem, or social function outcomes.| bibcode <!-- No --> | doi-access free | title-link doi }}<br />[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340791/figure/pone.0116407.g003/ Figure 3: Treatment benefit by treatment type and outcome group]</ref> Randomized controlled trials of continuous stimulant therapy for the treatment of ADHD spanning 2&nbsp;years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /><ref name"Millichap" /> Two reviews have indicated that long-term continuous stimulant therapy for ADHD is effective for reducing the core symptoms of ADHD (i.e., hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity), enhancing quality of life and academic achievement, and producing improvements in a large number of functional outcomes{{#tag:ref|The ADHD-related outcome domains with the greatest proportion of significantly improved outcomes from long-term continuous stimulant therapy include academics (≈55% of academic outcomes improved), driving (100% of driving outcomes improved), non-medical drug use (47% of addiction-related outcomes improved), obesity (≈65% of obesity-related outcomes improved), self-esteem (50% of self-esteem outcomes improved), and social function (67% of social function outcomes improved).<ref name"Long-term 2015" /><br /><br />The largest effect sizes for outcome improvements from long-term stimulant therapy occur in the domains involving academics (e.g., grade point average, achievement test scores, length of education, and education level), self-esteem (e.g., self-esteem questionnaire assessments, number of suicide attempts, and suicide rates), and social function (e.g., peer nomination scores, social skills, and quality of peer, family, and romantic relationships).<ref name"Long-term 2015" /><br /><br />Long-term combination therapy for ADHD (i.e., treatment with both a stimulant and behavioral therapy) produces even larger effect sizes for outcome improvements and improves a larger proportion of outcomes across each domain compared to long-term stimulant therapy alone.<ref name"Long-term 2015" /> These findings were further supported by a 2025 review of interventions for adolescents, which concluded that medications and cognitive-behavioral treatments (CBT) provide complementary benefits. Medications demonstrated strong short-term efficacy on core symptoms, while CBT contributed modest to strong, and sometimes long-lasting, improvements in functional impairments and executive skills when used as part of combination therapy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sibley MH, Flores S, Murphy M, Basu H, Stein MA, Evans SW, Zhao X, Manzano M, van Dreel S | title Research Review: Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder - a systematic review of the literature | journal Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume 66 | issue 1 | pages 132–149 | date January 2025 | pmid 39370392 | doi 10.1111/jcpp.14056 | quote The main efficacy-related conclusions of this review are: (a) medications demonstrated the strongest and most consistent effects on core ADHD symptoms (especially inattention), (b) heterogeneous C/BTs demonstrated inconsistent effects on ADHD symptoms, strong consistent effects on impairment and executive function skills, and modest consistent effects on internalizing symptoms and analogue note-taking performance, (c) C/BTs demonstrated consistent maintenance effects for executive function skills and impairment up to 6 months and possibly 3 years post-treatment, (d) though comparing the efficacy of two C/BTs rarely led to significant differences, which C/BT worked best for whom could be reliably predicted from patient- and provider-level moderators&nbsp;...<br />Thus, maximal therapeutic benefit (in terms of breadth of response and maintenance of effects) might be achieved by combining medication and C/BTs, a recommendation generally reflected in current practice parameters (AACAP, 2007; AADPA, 2022; NICE, 2018; Wolraich et al., 2019). }}</ref>|group"note"}} across 9&nbsp;categories of outcomes related to academics, antisocial behavior, driving, non-medicinal drug use, obesity, occupation, self-esteem, service use (i.e., academic, occupational, health, financial, and legal services), and social function.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /><ref name"Long-term 2015" /> Additionally, a 2024 meta-analytic systematic review reported moderate improvements in quality of life when amphetamine treatment is used for ADHD.<ref name"2024 QOL meta-analysis">{{Cite journal |vauthorsBellato A, Perrott NJ, Marzulli L, Parlatini V, Coghill D, Cortese S |date2024-05-30 |titleSystematic Review and Meta-Analysis: Effects of Pharmacological Treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on Quality of Life |journalJournal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |pagesS0890–8567(24)00304–6 |doi10.1016/j.jaac.2024.05.023 |pmid38823477 |quoteWe conducted the first systematic review and meta-analysis investigating the effects of medication for ADHD on quality of life (QoL) in parallel or crossover RCTs. Overall, we found that methylphenidate, amphetamines, and atomoxetine were significantly more efficacious than placebo in improving QoL in people with ADHD.&nbsp;...<br /> Four studies on amphetamines (950 participants with ADHD in total; 45% adults) reported relevant data for effect sizes to be computed. The meta-analysis on 14 effect sizes showed that amphetamines led to better QoL than placebo in individuals with ADHD. |doi-accessfree | title-link doi |volume64 |issue3 |hdl11586/524122 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> One review highlighted a nine-month randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in children that found an average increase of 4.5&nbsp;IQ points, continued increases in attention, and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity.<ref name"Millichap">{{cite book | vauthors Millichap JG | veditors Millichap JG | title Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD | year 2010 | publisher Springer | location New York, US | isbn 9781441913968 | pages 121–123, 125–127 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD | quote Ongoing research has provided answers to many of the parents' concerns, and has confirmed the effectiveness and safety of the long-term use of medication.}}</ref> Another review indicated that, based upon the longest follow-up studies conducted to date, lifetime stimulant therapy that begins during childhood is continuously effective for controlling ADHD symptoms and reduces the risk of developing a substance use disorder as an adult.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /> A 2025 meta-analytic systematic review of 113 randomized controlled trials demonstrated that stimulant medications significantly improved core ADHD symptoms in adults over a three-month period, with good acceptability compared to other pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthorsOstinelli EG, Schulze M, Zangani C, Farhat LC, Tomlinson A, Del Giovane C, Chamberlain SR, Philipsen A, Young S, Cowen PJ, Bilbow A, Cipriani A, Cortese S |year2025 |titleComparative efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological, psychological, and neurostimulatory interventions for ADHD in adults: a systematic review and component network meta-analysis |journalThe Lancet. Psychiatry |volume12 |issue1 |pages32–43 |doi10.1016/S2215-0366(24)00360-2 |pmid39701638 |quoteOur findings were based on 113 RCTs, including 14 887 participants, and indicated that stimulants were the only intervention that was supported by evidence of efficacy in the short term (ie, at timepoints closest to 12 weeks) for core symptoms of ADHD in adults (both self-reported and clinician-reported) and was associated with good acceptability (all-cause discontinuation). |doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref>
Models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems;<ref name"Malenka_2009_03" /> these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus to the prefrontal cortex.<ref name"Malenka_2009_03" /> Stimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Malenka_2009_03">{{cite book |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | pages 154–157 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin }}</ref><ref name"cognition enhancers">{{cite journal |vauthorsBidwell LC, McClernon FJ, Kollins SH | title Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD | journalPharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior| volume 99 | issue 2 | pages 262–274 |dateAugust 2011 | pmid 21596055 | pmc 3353150 | doi 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.05.002 }}</ref> Approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms.<ref name"Long-term 36">{{cite journal | vauthors Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V | title The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | journal Psychology Research and Behavior Management| volume 6 | pages 87–99 | date September 2013 | pmid 24082796 | pmc 3785407 | doi 10.2147/PRBM.S49114 | quote Only one paper<sup>53</sup> examining outcomes beyond 36 months met the review criteria.&nbsp;... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases compared with placebo controls, in the short term. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans.<ref name"Millichap_3">{{cite book | vauthors Millichap JG | veditors Millichap JG | title Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD | year 2010 | publisher Springer | location New York, US | isbn 9781441913968 | pages 111–113 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 9: Medications for ADHD}}</ref><ref name"ADHD">{{cite web | titleStimulants for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | urlhttp://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/stimulants-for-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder | website WebMD | publisher Healthwise | date 12 April 2010 | access-date12 November 2013 }}</ref> The Cochrane reviews{{#tag:ref|Cochrane reviews are high quality meta-analytic systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials.<ref name"pmid16052183">{{cite journal |vauthorsScholten RJ, Clarke M, Hetherington J |titleThe Cochrane Collaboration |journalEuropean Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume59 |issueSuppl 1 |pagesS147–S149; discussion S195–S196 |dateAugust 2005 |pmid16052183 |doi10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602188|s2cid29410060 |doi-accessfree | title-link doi }}</ref>| group "note" }} on the treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that short-term studies have demonstrated that these drugs decrease the severity of symptoms, but they have higher discontinuation rates than non-stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects.<ref name"Cochrane Amphetamines ADHD">{{cite journal | vauthors Castells X, Blanco-Silvente L, Cunill R | title Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults | journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| volume 2018 | pages CD007813 | date August 2018 | issue 8 | pmid 30091808 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub3 | pmc 6513464 }}</ref><ref name"pmid26844979">{{cite journal | vauthors Punja S, Shamseer L, Hartling L, Urichuk L, Vandermeer B, Nikles J, Vohra S | title Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents | journal Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| volume 2016 | pages CD009996 | date February 2016 | issue 2 | pmid 26844979 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD009996.pub2| pmc 10329868 }}</ref> A Cochrane review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse, but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals.<ref name"pmid29944175">{{cite journal | vauthors Osland ST, Steeves TD, Pringsheim T | title Pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with comorbid tic disorders | journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| volume 2018 | pages CD007990 | date June 2018 | issue 6 | pmid 29944175 | pmc 6513283 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007990.pub3 }}</ref>
<!-- section end:ADHD -->
<!-- Section begin:BED -->
Binge eating disorder
<!-- BED content is not transcluded to Adderall and dextroamphetamine articles because unlike LDX, those formulations are not recognised their use in treating BED -->
Binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by recurrent and persistent episodes of compulsive binge eating.<ref name"BED definition">{{cite journal | vauthors Giel KE, Bulik CM, Fernandez-Aranda F, Hay P, Keski-Rahkonen A, Schag K, Schmidt U, Zipfel S | title Binge eating disorder | journal Nature Reviews. Disease Primers | volume 8 | issue 1 | pages 16 | date March 2022 | pmid 35301358 | pmc 9793802 | doi 10.1038/s41572-022-00344-y }}</ref> These episodes are often accompanied by marked distress and a feeling of loss of control over eating.<ref name"BED definition" /> The pathophysiology of BED is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve dysfunctional dopaminergic reward circuitry along the cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop.<ref name"BED ADHD overlap">{{cite journal | vauthors Heal DJ, Smith SL | title Prospects for new drugs to treat binge-eating disorder: Insights from psychopathology and neuropharmacology | journal Journal of Psychopharmacology | volume 36 | issue 6 | pages 680–703 | date June 2022 | pmid 34318734 | pmc 9150143 | doi 10.1177/02698811211032475 | quote BED subjects have substantial decrements in their ventral striatal reward pathways and diminished ability to recruit fronto-cortical impulse-control circuits to implement dietary restraint.&nbsp;...<br /> There is not only substantial overlap between the psychopathology of BED and ADHD but also a clear association between these two disorders. Lisdexamfetamine's ability to reduce impulsivity and increase cognitive control in ADHD supports the hypothesis that efficacy in BED is dependent on treating its core obsessive, compulsive and impulsive behaviours. }}</ref><ref name"BED secondary outcomes">{{cite journal | vauthors McElroy SL | title Pharmacologic Treatments for Binge-Eating Disorder | journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume 78 | issue Suppl 1 | pages 14–19 | date 2017 | pmid 28125174 | doi 10.4088/JCP.sh16003su1c.03 | quote Genetic polymorphisms associated with abnormal dopaminergic signaling have been found in individuals who exhibit binge-eating behavior, and the binge-eating episodes, which often involve the consumption of highly palatable food, further stimulate the dopaminergic system. This ongoing stimulation may contribute to progressive impairments in dopamine signaling. Lisdexamfetamine is hypothesized to reduce binge-eating behavior by normalizing dopaminergic activity.&nbsp;...<br /> After 12 weeks, both studies found significant reductions in the number of binge-eating days per week in the active treatment group compared with placebo (P < .001 for both studies; Figure 1). Lisdexamfetamine was also found to be superior to placebo on a number of secondary outcome measures including global improvement, binge-eating cessation for 4 weeks, and reduction of obsessive-compulsive binge-eating symptoms, body weight, and triglycerides. }}</ref> As of July 2024, lisdexamfetamine is the only USFDA- and TGA-approved pharmacotherapy for BED.<ref name"BED rapid review">{{cite journal | vauthors Rodan SC, Bryant E, Le A, Maloney D, Touyz S, McGregor IS, Maguire S | title Pharmacotherapy, alternative and adjunctive therapies for eating disorders: findings from a rapid review | journal Journal of Eating Disorders | volume 11 | issue 1 | pages 112 | date July 2023 | pmid 37415200 | pmc 10327007 | doi 10.1186/s40337-023-00833-9 | quote LDX is commonly used in the treatment of ADHD, and is the only treatment for BED that is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). LDX, like all amphetamine stimulants, has direct appetite suppressant effects that may be therapeutically useful in BED, although long-term neuroadaptations in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems caused by LDX may also be relevant, leading to improved regulation of eating behaviours, attentional processes and goal-directed behaviours.&nbsp;...<br /> Evidently, there is a substantial volume of trials with high-quality evidence supporting the efficacy of LDX in reducing binge eating frequency in treatment of adults with moderate to severe BED at 50–70 mg/day. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"BED neuroplasticity">{{cite journal | vauthors Boswell RG, Potenza MN, Grilo CM | title The Neurobiology of Binge-eating Disorder Compared with Obesity: Implications for Differential Therapeutics | journal Clinical Therapeutics | volume 43 | issue 1 | pages 50–69 | date January 2021 | pmid 33257092 | pmc 7902428 | doi 10.1016/j.clinthera.2020.10.014 | quote Stimulant medications may be especially effective for individuals with BED because of dual effects on reward and executive function systems. Indeed, the only FDA-approved pharmacotherapy for BED is LDX, a d-amphetamine prodrug.&nbsp;...<br /> In humans, RCTs found that LDX reduced binge eating and impulsivity/compulsivity symptoms. Notably, there is a strong correlation between compulsivity symptoms and severity/frequency of binge eating episodes observed in LDX trials. Further, in individuals with BED, changes in prefrontal brain systems associated with LDX treatment were related to treatment outcome. }}</ref> Evidence suggests that lisdexamfetamine's treatment efficacy in BED is underpinned at least in part by a psychopathological overlap between BED and ADHD, with the latter conceptualized as a cognitive control disorder that also benefits from treatment with lisdexamfetamine.<ref name"BED ADHD overlap" /><ref name="BED secondary outcomes" />
activation induces incretin-like effects through the release of gastrointestinal hormones and influences food intake, blood glucose levels, and insulin release.<ref name"Berry hTAAR pharmacology December 2017 review" /> TAAR1 expression in the periphery is indicated with "x".<ref name"Berry hTAAR pharmacology December 2017 review" />]]
Lisdexamfetamine's therapeutic effects for BED primarily involve direct action in the central nervous system after conversion to its pharmacologically active metabolite, dextroamphetamine.<ref name"BED neuroplasticity" /> Centrally, dextroamphetamine increases neurotransmitter activity of dopamine and norepinephrine in prefrontal cortical regions that regulate cognitive control of behavior.<ref name"BED ADHD overlap" /><ref name"BED neuroplasticity" /> Similar to its therapeutic effect in ADHD, dextroamphetamine enhances cognitive control and may reduce impulsivity in patients with BED by enhancing the cognitive processes responsible for overriding prepotent feeding responses that precede binge eating episodes.<ref name"BED ADHD overlap" /><ref>{{Cite book |titleMolecular neuropharmacology: a foundation for clinical neuroscience |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM |publisherMcGraw-Hill Medical |year2015 |isbn9780071827706 |edition3rd |locationNew York |chapterChapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control |quoteBecause behavioral responses in humans are not rigidly dictated by sensory inputs and drives, behavioral responses can instead be guided in accordance with short- or long-term goals, prior experience, and the environmental context. The response to a delicious-looking dessert is different depending on whether a person is alone staring into his or her refrigerator, is at a formal dinner party attended by his or her punctilious boss, or has just formulated the goal of losing 10 lb.&nbsp;...<br /> Adaptive responses depend on the ability to inhibit automatic or prepotent responses (eg, to ravenously eat the dessert or run from the snake) given certain social or environmental contexts or chosen goals and, in those circumstances, to select more appropriate responses. In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 16), or inattention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result.}}</ref><ref name"BED systematic review">{{cite journal | vauthors Schneider E, Higgs S, Dourish CT | title Lisdexamfetamine and binge-eating disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the preclinical and clinical data with a focus on mechanism of drug action in treating the disorder | journal European Neuropsychopharmacology | volume 53 | pages 49–78 | date December 2021 | pmid 34461386 | doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.08.001 | url http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/147133958/LDX_final_pure.pdf | quote Our meta-analysis of the four RCT data sets (Guerdjikova et al., 2016; McElroy et al., 2015b; McElroy et al., 2016a) showed an overall significant effect of LDX on binge-eating symptom change.&nbsp;...<br /> BED has been described as an impulse control disorder since one of the key symptoms of the disorder is a lack of control over eating (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and it is possible that LDX may be effective in treating BED at least in part by reducing impulsivity, compulsivity, and the repetitive nature of binge eating. There is extensive evidence that loss of impulse control in BED is a causal factor in provoking bingeing symptoms (Colles et al., 2008; Galanti et al., 2007; Giel et al., 2017; McElroy et al., 2016a; Nasser et al., 2004; Schag et al., 2013). More specifically, BED is associated with motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity which could initiate and maintain binge eating (Nasser et al., 2004). Neuroimaging studies using the Stroop task to measure impulse control have shown that BED patients have decreased BOLD fMRI activity in brain areas involved in self-regulation and impulse control including VMPFC, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and insula during performance of the task compared to lean and obese controls (Balodis et al., 2013b).&nbsp;...<br /> It is conceivable that in BED patients a low 30 mg dose of LDX could reduce food intake by suppressing appetite or enhancing satiety and higher (50 and 70 mg) doses of the drug may have a dual suppressant effect on food intake and binge-eating frequency. }}</ref> In addition, dextroamphetamine's actions outside of the central nervous system may also contribute to its treatment effects in BED. Peripherally, dextroamphetamine triggers lipolysis through noradrenergic signaling in adipose fat cells, leading to the release of triglycerides into blood plasma to be utilized as a fuel substrate.<ref name"BED secondary outcomes" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Branis NM, Wittlin SD | title Amphetamine-Like Analogues in Diabetes: Speeding towards Ketogenesis | journal Case Reports in Endocrinology | volume 2015 | pages 917869 | date 2015 | pmid 25960894 | pmc 4417573 | doi 10.1155/2015/917869 | quote Peripheral norepinephrine concentration rises as well. As demonstrated after Dextroamphetamine administration, plasma norepinephrine can rise up to 400 pg/mL, a level comparable to that achieved during mild physical activity. Cumulative effect on norepinephrine concentration is likely when amphetamine-type medications are given in the setting of acute illness or combined with activities leading to catecholamine release, such as exercise.&nbsp;... The primary effect of norepinephrine on ketogenesis is mediated through increased substrate availability. As shown by Krentz et al., at high physiological concentrations, norepinephrine induces accelerated lipolysis and increases NEFA formation significantly. Secondly, norepinephrine stimulates ketogenesis directly at the hepatocyte level. As reported by Keller et al., norepinephrine infusion increased ketone bodies concentration to a greater degree when compared to NEFA concentration (155 ± 30 versus 57 ± 16%), suggesting direct hepatic ketogenic effect. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Dextroamphetamine also activates TAAR1 in peripheral organs along the gastrointestinal tract that are involved in the regulation of food intake and body weight.<ref name"Berry hTAAR pharmacology December 2017 review">{{cite journal | vauthors Berry MD, Gainetdinov RR, Hoener MC, Shahid M | title Pharmacology of human trace amine-associated receptors: Therapeutic opportunities and challenges | journal Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume 180 | pages 161–180 | date December 2017 | pmid 28723415 | doi 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.07.002 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Together, these actions confer an anorexigenic effect that promotes satiety in response to feeding and may decrease binge eating as a secondary effect.<ref name"BED systematic review" /><ref name"Berry hTAAR pharmacology December 2017 review" /> While lisdexamfetamine's anorexigenic effects contribute to its efficacy in BED, evidence indicates that the enhancement of cognitive control is necessary and sufficient for addressing the disorder's underlying psychopathology.<ref name"BED ADHD overlap"/><ref name"Heal 2024 BED">{{Cite book |vauthorsHeal DJ, Gosden J, Smith SL |titlePharmacological Advances in Central Nervous System Stimulants |date2024 |chapterStimulant prodrugs: A pharmacological and clinical assessment of their role in treating ADHD and binge-eating disorder |chapter-urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38467483/ |seriesAdvances in Pharmacology (San Diego, Calif.) |volume99 |pages251–286 |doi10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.002 |pmid38467483 |isbn978-0-443-21933-7 |quoteTogether, the findings indicate that LDX has independent actions to tackle the underlying psychopathology of BED to inhibit binge-eating and produce weight-loss by reducing food intake through appetite suppression or enhanced satiety.&nbsp;... Although BED is a predisposing factor for the development of obesity, it is unresponsive to appetite suppressants or anti-obesity drugs, emphasizing their different pathophysiological causes.}}</ref> This view is supported by the failure of anti-obesity medications and other appetite suppressants to significantly reduce BED symptom severity, despite their capacity to induce weight loss.<ref name="Heal 2024 BED"/>
Medical reviews of randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that lisdexamfetamine, at doses between 50–70&nbsp;mg, is safe and effective for the treatment of moderate-to-severe BED in adults.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"BED secondary outcomes" /><ref name"BED rapid review" /><ref name"BED systematic review" /><ref name"BED neuroplasticity" /><ref name"BED review">{{cite journal | vauthors Muratore AF, Attia E | title Psychopharmacologic Management of Eating Disorders | journal Current Psychiatry Reports | volume 24 | issue 7 | pages 345–351 | date July 2022 | pmid 35576089 | pmc 9233107 | doi 10.1007/s11920-022-01340-5 | quote An 11-week, double-blind RCT examined the effects of three doses of lisdexamfetamine (30 mg/day, 50 mg/day, 70 mg/day) and placebo on binge eating frequency. Results indicated that 50 mg and 70 mg doses were superior to placebo in reducing binge eating. Two follow-up 12-week RCTs confirmed the superiority of 50 and 70 mg doses to placebo in improving binge eating and secondary outcome measures, including obsessive–compulsive symptoms, body weight, and global improvement. ... Subsequent studies of lisdexamfetamine provided further support for the medication’s safety and efficacy and provided additional evidence that continued use may be better than placebo in preventing relapse. While it is considered safe and effective, lisdexamfetamine’s side effect profile and risk for misuse may make it inappropriate for certain patients. }}</ref>|group"sources"|name"BED efficacy"}} These reviews suggest that lisdexamfetamine is persistently effective at treating BED and is associated with significant reductions in the number of binge eating days and binge eating episodes per week.<ref name"BED efficacy" group"sources" /> Furthermore, a meta-analytic systematic review highlighted an open-label, 12-month extension safety and tolerability study that reported lisdexamfetamine remained effective at reducing the number of binge eating days for the duration of the study.<ref name"BED systematic review" /> In addition, both a review and a meta-analytic systematic review found lisdexamfetamine to be superior to placebo in several secondary outcome measures, including persistent binge eating cessation, reduction of obsessive-compulsive related binge eating symptoms, reduction of body-weight, and reduction of triglycerides.<ref name"BED secondary outcomes" /><ref name"BED systematic review" /> Lisdexamfetamine, like all pharmaceutical amphetamines, has direct appetite suppressant effects that may be therapeutically useful in both BED and its comorbidities.<ref name"BED rapid review" /><ref name"BED systematic review" /> Based on reviews of neuroimaging studies involving BED-diagnosed participants, therapeautic neuroplasticity in dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways from long-term use of lisdexamfetamine may be implicated in lasting improvements in the regulation of eating behaviors that are observed.<ref name"BED rapid review" /><ref name"BED neuroplasticity" /><ref name"BED systematic review" />
<!-- Section end:BED -->
<!-- Section begin: Narcolepsy -->
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep-wake disorder that is associated with excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, and sleep paralysis.<ref name"Autoimmune basis review">{{cite journal | vauthors Mahlios J, De la Herrán-Arita AK, Mignot E | title The autoimmune basis of narcolepsy | journal Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume 23 | issue 5 | pages 767–773 | date October 2013 | pmid 23725858 | pmc 3848424 | doi 10.1016/j.conb.2013.04.013 }}</ref> Patients with narcolepsy are diagnosed as either type 1 or type 2, with only the former presenting cataplexy symptoms.<ref name"Barateau_2022">{{cite journal |vauthorsBarateau L, Pizza F, Plazzi G, Dauvilliers Y |dateAugust 2022 |titleNarcolepsy |journalJournal of Sleep Research |volume31 |issue4 |pagese13631 |doi10.1111/jsr.13631 |pmid35624073 |quoteNarcolepsy type 1 was called “narcolepsy with cataplexy” before 2014 (AASM, 2005), but was renamed NT1 in the third and last international classification of sleep disorders (AASM, 2014).&nbsp;... A low level of Hcrt-1 in the CSF is very sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of NT1.&nbsp;...<br /> All patients with low CSF Hcrt-1 levels are considered as NT1 patients, even if they report no cataplexy (in about 10–20% of cases), and all patients with normal CSF Hcrt-1 levels (or without cataplexy when the lumbar puncture is not performed) as NT2 patients (Baumann et al., 2014).&nbsp;...<br /> In patients with NT1, the absence of Hcrt leads to the inhibition of regions that suppress REM sleep, thus allowing the activation of descending pathways inhibiting motoneurons, leading to cataplexy.}}</ref> Type 1 narcolepsy results from the loss of approximately 70,000 orexin-releasing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus, leading to significantly reduced cerebrospinal orexin levels;<ref name"Narcolepsy guide">{{cite journal |vauthorsMignot EJ |dateOctober 2012 |titleA practical guide to the therapy of narcolepsy and hypersomnia syndromes |journalNeurotherapeutics |volume9 |issue4 |pages739–752 |doi10.1007/s13311-012-0150-9 |pmc3480574 |pmid23065655 |quoteAt the pathophysiological level, it is now clear that most narcolepsy cases with cataplexy, and a minority of cases (5–30 %) without cataplexy or with atypical cataplexy-like symptoms, are caused by a lack of hypocretin (orexin) of likely an autoimmune origin. In these cases, once the disease is established, the majority of the 70,000 hypocretin-producing cells have been destroyed, and the disorder is irreversible.&nbsp;...<br /> Amphetamines are exceptionally wake-promoting, and at high doses also reduce cataplexy in narcoleptic patients, an effect best explained by its action on adrenergic and serotoninergic synapses.&nbsp;...<br /> The D-isomer is more specific for DA transmission and is a better stimulant compound. Some effects on cataplexy (especially for the L-isomer), secondary to adrenergic effects, occur at higher doses.&nbsp;...<br /> Numerous studies have shown that increased dopamine release is the main property explaining wake-promotion, although norepinephrine effects also contribute.}}</ref><ref name"Malenka_2015b">{{Cite book |titleMolecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM |publisherMcGraw-Hill Medical |year2015 |isbn9780071827706 |edition3rd |locationNew York |pages456–457 |chapterChapter 10: Neural and Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu |quoteMore recently, the lateral hypothalamus was also found to play a central role in arousal. Neurons in this region contain cell bodies that produce the orexin (also called hypocretin) peptides (Chapter 6). These neurons project widely throughout the brain and are involved in sleep, arousal, feeding, reward, aspects of emotion, and learning. In fact, orexin is thought to promote feeding primarily by promoting arousal. Mutations in orexin receptors are responsible for narcolepsy in a canine model, knockout of the orexin gene produces narcolepsy in mice, and humans with narcolepsy have low or absent levels of orexin peptides in cerebrospinal fluid (Chapter 13). Lateral hypothalamus neurons have reciprocal connections with neurons that produce monoamine neurotransmitters (Chapter 6).}}</ref> this reduction is a diagnostic biomarker for type 1 narcolepsy.<ref name"Barateau_2022" /> Lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons innervate every component of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which includes noradrenergic, dopaminergic, histaminergic, and serotonergic nuclei that promote wakefulness.<ref name"Malenka_2015b" /><ref name"Malenka_2015a">{{Cite book |titleMolecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM |publisherMcGraw-Hill Medical |year2015 |isbn9780071827706 |edition3rd |pages521 |chapterChapter 13: Sleep and Arousal |quote=The ARAS consists of several different circuits including the four main monoaminergic pathways discussed in Chapter 6. The norepinephrine pathway originates from the LC and related brainstem nuclei; the serotonergic neurons originate from the RN within the brainstem as well; the dopaminergic neurons originate in the ventral tegmental area (VTA); and the histaminergic pathway originates from neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus. As discussed in Chapter 6, these neurons project widely throughout the brain from restricted collections of cell bodies. Norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and histamine have complex modulatory functions and, in general, promote wakefulness. The PT in the brainstem is also an important component of the ARAS. Activity of PT cholinergic neurons (REM-on cells) promotes REM sleep, as noted earlier. During waking, REM-on cells are inhibited by a subset of ARAS norepinephrine and serotonin neurons called REM-off cells.}}</ref>
Amphetamine’s therapeutic mode of action in narcolepsy primarily involves increasing monoamine neurotransmitter activity in the ARAS.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><ref name"Amphetamine ARAS textbook">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkWxWEdqvue4C&pgPA81 |titleSleep medicine a guide to sleep and its disorders |vauthorsShneerson JM |date2009 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn9781405178518 |edition2nd |page81 |quoteAll the amphetamines enhance activity at dopamine, noradrenaline and 5HT synapses. They cause presynaptic release of preformed transmitters, and also inhibit the re-uptake of dopamine and noradrenaline. These actions are most prominent in the brainstem ascending reticular activating system and the cerebral cortex.}}</ref><ref name"Narcolepsy - Amphetamine and the ARAS" /> This includes noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus, dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area, histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus, and serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus.<ref name"Malenka_2015a" /><ref name"Narcolepsy - Amphetamine and the ARAS">{{cite journal |vauthorsSchwartz JR, Roth T |year2008 |titleNeurophysiology of sleep and wakefulness: basic science and clinical implications |journalCurrent Neuropharmacology |volume6 |issue4 |pages367–378 |doi10.2174/157015908787386050 |pmc2701283 |pmid19587857 |quoteAlertness and associated forebrain and cortical arousal are mediated by several ascending pathways with distinct neuronal components that project from the upper brain stem near the junction of the pons and the midbrain.&nbsp;...<br /> Key cell populations of the ascending arousal pathway include cholinergic, noradrenergic, serotoninergic, dopaminergic, and histaminergic neurons located in the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (PPT/LDT), locus coeruleus, dorsal and median raphe nucleus, and tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN), respectively.&nbsp;...<br /> The mechanism of action of sympathomimetic alerting drugs (eg, dextro- and methamphetamine, methylphenidate) is direct or indirect stimulation of dopaminergic and noradrenergic nuclei, which in turn heightens the efficacy of the ventral periaqueductal grey area and locus coeruleus, both components of the secondary branch of the ascending arousal system.&nbsp;...<br />Sympathomimetic drugs have long been used to treat narcolepsy}}</ref> Dextroamphetamine, the more dopaminergic enantiomer of amphetamine, is particularly effective at promoting wakefulness because dopamine release has the greatest influence on cortical activation and cognitive arousal, relative to other monoamines.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /> In contrast, levoamphetamine may have a greater effect on cataplexy, a symptom more sensitive to the effects of norepinephrine and serotonin.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /> Noradrenergic and serotonergic nuclei in the ARAS are involved in the regulation of the REM sleep cycle and function as "REM-off" cells, with amphetamine's effect on norepinephrine and serotonin contributing to the suppression of REM sleep and a possible reduction of cataplexy at high doses.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><ref name"Barateau_2022" /><ref name"Malenka_2015a" />
The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) 2021 clinical practice guideline conditionally recommends dextroamphetamine for the treatment of both type 1 and type 2 narcolepsy.<ref name"narcolepsy efficacy">{{cite journal | vauthors Maski K, Trotti LM, Kotagal S, Robert Auger R, Rowley JA, Hashmi SD, Watson NF | title Treatment of central disorders of hypersomnolence: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline | journal Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine | volume 17 | issue 9 | pages 1881–1893 | date September 2021 | pmid 34743789 | pmc 8636351 | doi 10.5664/jcsm.9328 | quote The TF identified 1 double-blind RCT, 1 single-blind RCT, and 1 retrospective observational long-term self-reported case series assessing the efficacy of dextroamphetamine in patients with narcolepsy type 1 and narcolepsy type 2. These studies demonstrated clinically significant improvements in excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy. }}</ref> Treatment with pharmaceutical amphetamines is generally less preferred relative to other stimulants (e.g., modafinil) and is considered a third-line treatment option.<ref name"narcolepsy addiction">{{cite journal |vauthorsBarateau L, Lopez R, Dauvilliers Y |dateOctober 2016 |titleManagement of Narcolepsy |journalCurrent Treatment Options in Neurology |volume18 |issue10 |pages43 |doi10.1007/s11940-016-0429-y |pmid27549768 |quoteThe usefulness of amphetamines is limited by a potential risk of abuse, and their cardiovascular adverse effects (Table 1). That is why, even though they are cheaper than other drugs, and efficient, they remain third-line therapy in narcolepsy. Three class II studies showed an improvement of EDS in that disease.&nbsp;...<br /> Despite the potential for drug abuse or tolerance using stimulants, patients with narcolepsy rarely exhibit addiction to their medication.&nbsp;...<br /> Some stimulants, such as mazindol, amphetamines, and pitolisant, may also have some anticataplectic effects.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dauvilliers Y, Barateau L | title Narcolepsy and Other Central Hypersomnias | journal Continuum | volume 23 | issue 4, Sleep Neurology | pages 989–1004 | date August 2017 | pmid 28777172 | doi 10.1212/CON.0000000000000492 | quote Recent clinical trials and practice guidelines have confirmed that stimulants such as modafinil, armodafinil, or sodium oxybate (as first line); methylphenidate and pitolisant (as second line [pitolisant is currently only available in Europe]); and amphetamines (as third line) are appropriate medications for excessive daytime sleepiness. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Thorpy MJ, Bogan RK | title Update on the pharmacologic management of narcolepsy: mechanisms of action and clinical implications | journal Sleep Medicine | volume 68 | pages 97–109 | date April 2020 | pmid 32032921 | doi 10.1016/j.sleep.2019.09.001 | quote The first agents used to treat EDS (ie, amphetamines, methylphenidate) are now considered second- or third-line options because newer medications have been developed with improved tolerability and lower abuse potential (eg, modafinil/armodafinil, solriamfetol, pitolisant) }}</ref> Medical reviews indicate that amphetamine is safe and effective for the treatment of narcolepsy.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><ref name"narcolepsy addiction" /><ref name"narcolepsy efficacy" /> Amphetamine appears to be most effective at improving symptoms associated with hypersomnolence, with three reviews finding clinically significant reductions in daytime sleepiness in patients with narcolepsy.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><ref name"narcolepsy addiction" /><ref name"narcolepsy efficacy" /> Additionally, these reviews suggest that amphetamine may dose-dependently improve cataplexy symptoms.<ref name"Narcolepsy guide" /><ref name"narcolepsy addiction" /><ref name"narcolepsy efficacy" /> However, the quality of evidence for these findings is low and is consequently reflected in the AASM's conditional recommendation for dextroamphetamine as a treatment option for narcolepsy.<ref name"narcolepsy efficacy" />
<!-- Section end: Narcolepsy -->
<!-- Obesity
Topics to cover:
Amphetamine's MoA in the periphery:
* cover amphetamine-triggered induction of lipolysis via peripheral (nor-)adrenergic signaling in adipose fat cells which induces the release of triglycerides into blood plasma
* cover amphetamine-induced TAAR1 signaling in peripheral organs (i.e., cover "File:TAAR1 organ-specific expression and function.jpg" in the context of amphetamine's MoA for treating obesity), provided that I can find a review mentioning amphetamine+TAAR1+obesity at some point
Amphetamine's MoA in the CNS:
* indicate that every monoamine neurotransmitter is involved in energy homeostasis, specify how, and mention which DA/NE-ergic projections are involved [cite PMID 22547886 and the refs I added to the "energy homeostasis" article]
** cover the systems neurobiology of monoaminergic regulation of feeding behavior
* amphetamine-induced hypothalamic CART induction probably plays some role in the mechanism of action, but would need to find a source once its GPCR has been IDed
**quotes on CART's physiological/cognitive effects: "CART promotes physical activity and wakefulness" [PMID 22547886] and markedly inhibits hunger [pubchem amphetamine entry] (pubchem quote: "this anorectic peptide inhibits both normal and starvation-induced feeding and completely blocks the feeding response induced by neuropeptide Y and regulated by leptin in the hypothalamus")
:Note: PMID 22547886 contains material relevant to both narcolepsy and obesity as well as covers CART; doesn't mention amphetamine though
-->
Enhancing performance
Cognitive performance
In 2015, a systematic review and a meta-analysis of high quality clinical trials found that, when used at low (therapeutic) doses, amphetamine produces modest yet unambiguous improvements in cognition, including working memory, long-term episodic memory, inhibitory control, and some aspects of attention, in normal healthy adults;<ref name"Unambiguous PFC D1 A2">{{cite journal | vauthors Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW | title The Cognition-Enhancing Effects of Psychostimulants Involve Direct Action in the Prefrontal Cortex | journalBiological Psychiatry| volume 77 | issue 11 | pages 940–950 | date June 2015 | pmid 25499957 | doi 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013 | quote The procognitive actions of psychostimulants are only associated with low doses. Surprisingly, despite nearly 80 years of clinical use, the neurobiology of the procognitive actions of psychostimulants has only recently been systematically investigated. Findings from this research unambiguously demonstrate that the cognition-enhancing effects of psychostimulants involve the preferential elevation of catecholamines in the PFC and the subsequent activation of norepinephrine α2 and dopamine D1 receptors.&nbsp;... This differential modulation of PFC-dependent processes across dose appears to be associated with the differential involvement of noradrenergic α2 versus α1 receptors. Collectively, this evidence indicates that at low, clinically relevant doses, psychostimulants are devoid of the behavioral and neurochemical actions that define this class of drugs and instead act largely as cognitive enhancers (improving PFC-dependent function).&nbsp;... In particular, in both animals and humans, lower doses maximally improve performance in tests of working memory and response inhibition, whereas maximal suppression of overt behavior and facilitation of attentional processes occurs at higher doses. | pmc4377121| url https://rdw.rowan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1056&contextsom_facpub }}</ref><ref name"Cognitive and motivational effects">{{cite journal | vauthors Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ | title Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis | journal Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience| pages 1069–1089 | date June 2015 | pmid 25591060 | doi 10.1162/jocn_a_00776 | volume27 | issue 6 | s2cid 15788121 | url https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/130 | quote Specifically, in a set of experiments limited to high-quality designs, we found significant enhancement of several cognitive abilities.&nbsp;... The results of this meta-analysis&nbsp;... do confirm the reality of cognitive enhancing effects for normal healthy adults in general, while also indicating that these effects are modest in size.}}</ref> these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through the indirect activation of both dopamine D<sub>1</sub> receptor and α<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptor in the prefrontal cortex.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /> A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information.<ref name"Cognition enhancement 2014 systematic review">{{cite journal | vauthors Bagot KS, Kaminer Y | title Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review | journalAddiction| volume 109 | issue 4 | pages 547–557 | date April 2014 | pmid 24749160 | pmc 4471173 | doi 10.1111/add.12460 | quote Amphetamine has been shown to improve consolidation of information (0.02&nbsp;≥&nbsp;P&nbsp;≤&nbsp;0.05), leading to improved recall.}}</ref> Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"pmid11337538">{{cite journal |vauthorsDevous MD, Trivedi MH, Rush AJ |titleRegional cerebral blood flow response to oral amphetamine challenge in healthy volunteers |journalJournal of Nuclear Medicine |volume42 |issue4 |pages535–542 |dateApril 2001 |pmid11337538}}</ref> Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and increase arousal (wakefulness), in turn promoting goal-directed behavior.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Malenka NAcc">{{cite book |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | page 266 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 10: Neural and Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu | quote Dopamine acts in the nucleus accumbens to attach motivational significance to stimuli associated with reward.}}</ref><ref name"Continuum">{{cite journal |vauthorsWood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG |titlePsychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation |journalPharmacological Reviews|volume66 |issue1 |pages193–221 |dateJanuary 2014 |pmid24344115 |pmc3880463 |doi10.1124/pr.112.007054}}</ref> Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid.<ref name"Malenka_2009">{{cite book|vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | pages 318, 321 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control | quote Therapeutic (relatively low) doses of psychostimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine, improve performance on working memory tasks both in normal subjects and those with ADHD.&nbsp;... stimulants act not only on working memory function, but also on general levels of arousal and, within the nucleus accumbens, improve the saliency of tasks. Thus, stimulants improve performance on effortful but tedious tasks&nbsp;... through indirect stimulation of dopamine and norepinephrine receptors.&nbsp;...<br />Beyond these general permissive effects, dopamine (acting via D1 receptors) and norepinephrine (acting at several receptors) can, at optimal levels, enhance working memory and aspects of attention.}}</ref><ref name"Continuum" /><ref name"Test taking aid">{{cite web | website JS Online | author Twohey M | date 26 March 2006 | title Pills become an addictive study aid | access-date 2 December 2007 | url http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id410902 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070815200239/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id410902 | archive-date 15 August 2007}}</ref> Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, {{nowrap|5–35%}} of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs.<ref name"pmid16999660">{{cite journal |vauthorsTeter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ | title Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration | journalPharmacotherapy| volume 26 | issue 10 | pages 1501–1510 |dateOctober 2006 | pmid 16999660 | pmc 1794223 | doi 10.1592/phco.26.10.1501 }}</ref><ref name"Diversion prevalence 1">{{cite journal | vauthors Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Marraccini ME, Gudmundsdottir BG, Munro BA, Zavras BM, Kuhar B | title Pharmacological interventions for adolescents and adults with ADHD: stimulant and nonstimulant medications and misuse of prescription stimulants | journal Psychology Research and Behavior Management| volume 7 | pages 223–249 | date September 2014 | pmid 25228824 | pmc 4164338 | doi 10.2147/PRBM.S47013 | quote misuse of prescription stimulants has become a serious problem on college campuses across the US and has been recently documented in other countries as well.&nbsp;... Indeed, large numbers of students claim to have engaged in the nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, which is reflected in lifetime prevalence rates of prescription stimulant misuse ranging from 5% to nearly 34% of students. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Diversion prevalence 2">{{cite journal | vauthors Clemow DB, Walker DJ | title The potential for misuse and abuse of medications in ADHD: a review | journalPostgraduate Medicine| volume 126 | issue 5 | pages 64–81 | date September 2014 | pmid 25295651 | doi 10.3810/pgm.2014.09.2801 | s2cid 207580823 | quote Overall, the data suggest that ADHD medication misuse and diversion are common health care problems for stimulant medications, with the prevalence believed to be approximately 5% to 10% of high school students and 5% to 35% of college students, depending on the study.}}</ref> However, high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /><ref name"Continuum" />
Physical performance
<!-- Do not change this section header to "Physical"; there is already a "Physical" heading located under the "Side effects" section, so changing the heading here will affect section linking. -->
Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance-enhancing effects, such as increased endurance and alertness;<ref name"Ergogenics">{{cite journal |vauthorsLiddle DG, Connor DJ | title Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS | journalPrimary Care: Clinics in Office Practice| volume 40 | issue 2 | pages 487–505 |dateJune 2013 | pmid 23668655 | doi 10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009 |quoteAmphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training&nbsp;...<br />Physiologic and performance effects<br />{{•}}Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation<br />{{•}}Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40<br />{{•}}Improved reaction time<br />{{•}}Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue<br />{{•}}Increased acceleration<br />{{•}}Increased alertness and attention to task}}</ref><ref name"Westfall">{{cite book |veditorsBrunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC | title Goodman & Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics | year 2010 | publisher McGraw-Hill | location New York, US | isbn 9780071624428 | vauthorsWestfall DP, Westfall TC | section Miscellaneous Sympathomimetic Agonists | edition 12th }}</ref> however, non-medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate, national, and international anti-doping agencies.<ref name"NCAA">{{cite web |dateJanuary 2012 | vauthors Bracken NM | titleNational Study of Substance Use Trends Among NCAA College Student-Athletes | urlhttp://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/SAHS09.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/SAHS09.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive | websiteNCAA Publications | publisher National Collegiate Athletic Association | access-date8 October 2013}}</ref><ref name"WADA & AD regulation">{{cite journal | author Docherty JR | title Pharmacology of stimulants prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) | journalBritish Journal of Pharmacology| volume 154 | issue 3 | pages 606–622 | date June 2008 | pmid 18500382 | pmc 2439527 | doi 10.1038/bjp.2008.124}}</ref> In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> acceleration,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> athletic performance in anaerobic conditions,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> and endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of fatigue),<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" & "Roelands_2013" --> while improving reaction time.<ref name"Ergogenics" /><ref name"Ergogenics2" /><ref name"Roelands_2013" /> Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and release of dopamine in the central nervous system.<ref name"Ergogenics2" /><ref name"Roelands_2013">{{cite journal |vauthorsRoelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R | title Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing | journal Sports Medicine| volume 43 | issue 5 | pages 301–311 |dateMay 2013 | pmid 23456493 | doi 10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4 | s2cid 30392999 | quote In high-ambient temperatures, dopaminergic manipulations clearly improve performance. The distribution of the power output reveals that after dopamine reuptake inhibition, subjects are able to maintain a higher power output compared with placebo.&nbsp;... Dopaminergic drugs appear to override a safety switch and allow athletes to use a reserve capacity that is 'off-limits' in a normal (placebo) situation.}}</ref><ref name"Amph-DA reaction time">{{cite journal |vauthorsParker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS | title Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits | journal Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience| volume 7 | page 75 | date October 2013 | pmid 24198770 | pmc 3813949 | doi 10.3389/fnint.2013.00075 | quote Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a "safety switch", allowing the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off-limits.<ref name"Roelands_2013" /><ref name"Central mechanisms affecting exertion">{{cite journal | vauthors Rattray B, Argus C, Martin K, Northey J, Driller M | title Is it time to turn our attention toward central mechanisms for post-exertional recovery strategies and performance? | journal Frontiers in Physiology| volume 6 | pages 79 | date March 2015 | pmid 25852568 | pmc 4362407 | doi 10.3389/fphys.2015.00079 | quote Aside from accounting for the reduced performance of mentally fatigued participants, this model rationalizes the reduced RPE and hence improved cycling time trial performance of athletes using a glucose mouthwash (Chambers et al., 2009) and the greater power output during a RPE matched cycling time trial following amphetamine ingestion (Swart, 2009).&nbsp;... Dopamine stimulating drugs are known to enhance aspects of exercise performance (Roelands et al., 2008)| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Monoamine+drug effects on exercise - fatigue and heat">{{cite journal | vauthors Roelands B, De Pauw K, Meeusen R | title Neurophysiological effects of exercise in the heat | journalScandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports| volume 25 |issueSuppl 1 | pages 65–78 | date June 2015 | pmid 25943657 | doi 10.1111/sms.12350 | s2cid 22782401 | quote This indicates that subjects did not feel they were producing more power and consequently more heat. The authors concluded that the "safety switch" or the mechanisms existing in the body to prevent harmful effects are overridden by the drug administration (Roelands et al., 2008b). Taken together, these data indicate strong ergogenic effects of an increased DA concentration in the brain, without any change in the perception of effort.| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> At therapeutic doses, the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance;<ref name"Ergogenics" /><ref name"Ergogenics2" /> however, at much higher doses, amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance, such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature.<ref name"FDA">{{cite web | titleAdderall XR- dextroamphetamine sulfate, dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine sulfate and amphetamine aspartate capsule, extended release | websiteDailyMed | publisher Shire US Inc. | date17 July 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setidaff45863-ffe1-4d4f-8acf-c7081512a6c0 | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref><ref name"Ergogenics2">{{cite journal |authorParr JW |titleAttention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding |journalClinics in Sports Medicine|volume30 |issue3 |pages591–610 |dateJuly 2011 |pmid21658550 |doi10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007 |quoteIn 1980, Chandler and Blair<sup>47</sup> showed significant increases in knee extension strength, acceleration, anaerobic capacity, time to exhaustion during exercise, pre-exercise and maximum heart rates, and time to exhaustion during maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) testing after administration of 15 mg of dextroamphetamine versus placebo. Most of the information to answer this question has been obtained in the past decade through studies of fatigue rather than an attempt to systematically investigate the effect of ADHD drugs on exercise.}}</ref>RecreationalAmphetamine, specifically the more dopaminergic dextrorotatory enantiomer (dextroamphetamine), is also used recreationally as a euphoriant and aphrodisiac, and like other amphetamines; is used as a club drug for its energetic and euphoric high. Dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) is considered to have a high potential for misuse in a recreational manner since individuals typically report feeling euphoric, more alert, and more energetic after taking the drug.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/commonly-abused-drugs/commonly-abused-prescription-drugs-chart |titleCommonly Abused Prescription Drugs Chart |publisherNational Institute on Drug Abuse|access-date7 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/infofacts/stimulant-adhd-medications-methylphenidate-amphetamines |titleStimulant ADHD Medications – Methylphenidate and Amphetamines |publisherNational Institute on Drug Abuse |access-date7 May 2012 |archive-date2 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120502072325/http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/infofacts/stimulant-adhd-medications-methylphenidate-amphetamines |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"NIDA ADHD stimulants" /> A notable part of the 1960s mod subculture in the UK was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs like Manchester's Twisted Wheel. Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a.m. with dilated pupils.<ref name"mixing the medicine">{{cite journal | vauthors Wilson A |titleMixing the Medicine: The Unintended Consequence of Amphetamine Control on the Northern Soul Scene |year2008 |journalThe Internet Journal of Criminology |ssrn1339332 |urlhttp://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Wilson%20-%20Mixing%20the%20Medicine.pdf |url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110713045851/http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Wilson%20-%20Mixing%20the%20Medicine.pdf|archive-date13 July 2011 }}</ref> Mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs.<ref name"mixing the medicine" /> Dr. Andrew Wilson argues that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool image" and that they sought "stimulation not intoxication [...] greater awareness, not escape" and "confidence and articulacy" rather than the "drunken rowdiness of previous generations."<ref name"mixing the medicine" /> Dextroamphetamine's dopaminergic (rewarding) properties affect the mesocorticolimbic circuit; a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience (i.e., "wanting"; desire or craving for a reward and motivation), positive reinforcement and positively-valenced emotions, particularly ones involving pleasure.<ref nameSchultz>{{cite journal | vauthors Schultz W | year 2015 | title Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data | journal Physiological Reviews | volume 95 | issue 3 | pages 853–951 | pmid 26109341 | pmc 4491543 | doi10.1152/physrev.00023.2014 | quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers.&nbsp;... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions.&nbsp;... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort.&nbsp;... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, sexual behavior, and consummatory behavior.&nbsp;... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward.&nbsp;... Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory)&nbsp;... Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses. The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning)&nbsp;... Third, rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in, nor explained by, the sensory and attentional components. This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters. Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward. It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing, approach generating, and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism’s survival and reproduction, whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions.&nbsp;... Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior. They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards.&nbsp;... Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward.&nbsp;... These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.}}</ref> Large recreational doses of dextroamphetamine may produce symptoms of dextroamphetamine overdose.<ref name"NIDA ADHD stimulants" /> Recreational users sometimes open dexedrine capsules and crush the contents in order to insufflate (snort) it or subsequently dissolve it in water and inject it.<ref name"NIDA ADHD stimulants">{{cite web|titleNational Institute on Drug Abuse. 2009. Stimulant ADHD Medications – Methylphenidate and Amphetamines|urlhttps://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/misuse-prescription-drugs/overview|publisherNational Institute on Drug Abuse|access-date27 February 2013}}</ref> Immediate-release formulations have higher potential for abuse via insufflation (snorting) or intravenous injection due to a more favorable pharmacokinetic profile and easy crushability (especially tablets).<ref name"CADDRA_2018">{{cite book |titleCanadian ADHD Practice Guidelines |date2018 |publisherCanadian ADHD Resource Alliance |page67 |editionFourth |urlhttps://www.caddra.ca/wp-content/uploads/CADDRA-Guidelines-4th-Edition_-Feb2018.pdf |access-date2 May 2023 |archive-date2 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230502204112/https://www.caddra.ca/wp-content/uploads/CADDRA-Guidelines-4th-Edition_-Feb2018.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Bright2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Bright GM | title Abuse of medications employed for the treatment of ADHD: results from a large-scale community survey | journal Medscape Journal of Medicine | volume 10 | issue 5 | pages 111 | date May 2008 | pmid 18596945 | pmc 2438483 }}</ref> Injection into the bloodstream can be dangerous because insoluble fillers within the tablets can block small blood vessels.<ref name"NIDA ADHD stimulants" /> Chronic overuse of dextroamphetamine can lead to severe drug dependence, resulting in withdrawal symptoms when drug use stops.<ref name"NIDA ADHD stimulants" />
Contraindications
<noinclude>{{See also|Amphetamine#Drug interactions}}</noinclude>
According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),{{#tag:ref|The statements supported by the USFDA come from prescribing information, which is the copyrighted intellectual property of the manufacturer and approved by the USFDA. USFDA contraindications are not necessarily intended to limit medical practice but limit claims by pharmaceutical companies.<ref name"pmid8545689">{{cite journal | vauthors Kessler S | title Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder | journalSouthern Medical Journal| volume 89 | issue 1 | pages 33–38 | date January 1996 | pmid 8545689 |quote statements on package inserts are not intended to limit medical practice. Rather they are intended to limit claims by pharmaceutical companies.&nbsp;... the FDA asserts explicitly, and the courts have upheld that clinical decisions are to be made by physicians and patients in individual situations. | doi10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005| s2cid 12798818 }}</ref>|group"note"}} amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse,{{#tag:ref|According to one review, amphetamine can be prescribed to individuals with a history of abuse provided that appropriate medication controls are employed, such as requiring daily pick-ups of the medication from the prescribing physician.<ref name"Amph Uses" />|group"note"}} cardiovascular disease, severe agitation, or severe anxiety.<ref name"Evekeo">{{cite web | titleEvekeo- amphetamine sulfate tablet | websiteDailyMed | publisherArbor Pharmaceuticals, LLC | date14 August 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setidf469fb38-0380-4621-9db3-a4f429126156 | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref><ref name"FDA"/><ref name"International" /> It is also contraindicated in individuals with advanced arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), glaucoma (increased eye pressure), hyperthyroidism (excessive production of thyroid hormone), or moderate to severe hypertension.<ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"International"/> These agencies indicate that people who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) should not take amphetamine,<ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"International" /> although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented.<ref name"Review MAOI-amph">{{cite journal | vauthors Feinberg SS | title Combining stimulants with monoamine oxidase inhibitors: a review of uses and one possible additional indication | journal The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry| volume 65 | issue 11 | pages 1520–1524 | date November 2004 | pmid 15554766 | doi10.4088/jcp.v65n1113}}</ref><ref name"Primary MAOI-amph">{{cite journal | vauthors Stewart JW, Deliyannides DA, McGrath PJ | title How treatable is refractory depression? | journal Journal of Affective Disorders| volume 167 | pages 148–152 | date June 2014 | pmid 24972362 | doi 10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.047}}</ref> These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa, bipolar disorder, depression, hypertension, liver or kidney problems, mania, psychosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, seizures, thyroid problems, tics, or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"International" /> Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in the fetus or newborns (i.e., it is not a human teratogen), but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus.<ref name"International" /> Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk, so the IPCS and the FDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"International" /> Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments,{{#tag:ref|In individuals who experience sub-normal height and weight gains, a rebound to normal levels is expected to occur if stimulant therapy is briefly interrupted.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /><ref name"Millichap" /><ref name"pmid18295156" /> The average reduction in final adult height from 3&nbsp;years of continuous stimulant therapy is 2&nbsp;cm.<ref name"pmid18295156" />|group"note"}} the FDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical.<ref name"FDA" />Adverse effects<noinclude>The adverse side effects of amphetamine are many and varied, and the amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of adverse effects.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /> Amphetamine products such as Adderall, Dexedrine, and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the U.S. FDA for long-term therapeutic use.<ref name"NDCD" /><ref name"FDA" /> Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses, which have a greater risk of serious adverse drug effects than dosages used for therapeutic purposes.<ref name"Westfall" /></noinclude>
Physical
Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response, Raynaud's phenomenon (reduced blood flow to the hands and feet), and tachycardia (increased heart rate).<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"pmid18295156">{{cite journal | author Vitiello B | title Understanding the risk of using medications for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with respect to physical growth and cardiovascular function | journalChild and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America| volume 17 | issue 2 | pages 459–474 |dateApril 2008 | pmid 18295156 | pmc 2408826 | doi 10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.010 }}</ref> Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction, frequent erections, or prolonged erections.<ref name"FDA" /> Gastrointestinal side effects may include abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, and nausea.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Dyanavel">{{cite web |titleDyanavel XR- amphetamine suspension, extended release |urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setida8a7eb93-4192-4826-bbf1-82c06634f553 |websiteDailyMed |publisher Tris Pharma, Inc. |access-date22 December 2019 |date6 February 2019 |quoteDYANAVEL XR contains d-amphetamine and l-amphetamine in a ratio of 3.2 to 1&nbsp;... The most common (≥2% in the DYANAVEL XR group and greater than placebo) adverse reactions reported in the Phase 3 controlled study conducted in 108 patients with ADHD (aged 6 to 12 years) were: epistaxis, allergic rhinitis and upper abdominal pain.&nbsp;... <br />DOSAGE FORMS AND STRENGTHS<br />Extended-release oral suspension contains 2.5 mg amphetamine base equivalents per mL.}}</ref> Other potential physical side effects include appetite loss, blurred vision, dry mouth, excessive grinding of the teeth, nosebleed, profuse sweating, rhinitis medicamentosa (drug-induced nasal congestion), reduced seizure threshold, tics (a type of movement disorder), and weight loss.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"pmid18295156" /><ref name"Dyanavel" /><ref name"rhinitis">{{cite journal | vauthors Ramey JT, Bailen E, Lockey RF | title Rhinitis medicamentosa | journalJournal of Investigational Allergology & Clinical Immunology| volume 16 | issue 3 | pages 148–155 | year 2006 | pmid 16784007 | access-date 29 April 2015 | url https://www.jiaci.org/issues/vol16issue03/1.pdf | quote Table 2. Decongestants Causing Rhinitis Medicamentosa<br /> – Nasal decongestants:<br />&nbsp;– Sympathomimetic:<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • Amphetamine}}</ref>|group"sources"}} Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses.<ref name"Westfall" />
Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers, producing faster and deeper breaths.<ref name"Westfall"/> In a normal person at therapeutic doses, this effect is usually not noticeable, but when respiration is already compromised, it may be evident.<ref name"Westfall" /> Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter, the muscle which controls urination, which can result in difficulty urinating.<ref name"Westfall" /> This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control.<ref name"Westfall" /> The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable.<ref name"Westfall" /> If intestinal activity is high, amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility (the rate at which content moves through the digestive system);<ref name"Westfall" /> however, amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed.<ref name"Westfall" /> Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology">{{cite book | vauthorsStahl SM | titlePrescriber's Guide: Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology | dateMarch 2017 | publisherCambridge University Press | locationCambridge, United Kingdom | isbn9781108228749 | pages45–51 | edition6th | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9hssDwAAQBAJ&pgPA45 | chapterAmphetamine (D,L) | access-date5 August 2017 }}</ref><ref name"Westfall" />
FDA-commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children, young adults, and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, heart attack, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"FDA - cardiovascular effects in young individuals">{{cite web | titleFDA Drug Safety Communication: Safety Review Update of Medications used to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children and young adults | date1 November 2011 | urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-safety-review-update-medications-used-treat-attention | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date24 December 2019 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190825032123/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-safety-review-update-medications-used-treat-attention | archive-date25 August 2019 | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"pmid22043968">{{cite journal |vauthorsCooper WO, Habel LA, Sox CM, Chan KA, Arbogast PG, Cheetham TC, Murray KT, Quinn VP, Stein CM, Callahan ST, Fireman BH, Fish FA, Kirshner HS, O'Duffy A, Connell FA, Ray WA | title ADHD drugs and serious cardiovascular events in children and young adults | journal New England Journal of Medicine| volume 365 | issue 20 | pages 1896–1904 |dateNovember 2011 | pmid 22043968 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1110212 | pmc4943074}}</ref><ref name"FDA - cardiovascular effects in adults">{{cite web | titleFDA Drug Safety Communication: Safety Review Update of Medications used to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults | date12 December 2011 | urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-safety-review-update-medications-used-treat-attention-0 | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date24 December 2013 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191214114954/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-safety-review-update-medications-used-treat-attention-0 | archive-date14 December 2019 | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"pmid22161946">{{cite journal |vauthorsHabel LA, Cooper WO, Sox CM, Chan KA, Fireman BH, Arbogast PG, Cheetham TC, Quinn VP, Dublin S, Boudreau DM, Andrade SE, Pawloski PA, Raebel MA, Smith DH, Achacoso N, Uratsu C, Go AS, Sidney S, Nguyen-Huynh MN, Ray WA, Selby JV | title ADHD medications and risk of serious cardiovascular events in young and middle-aged adults |dateDecember 2011 | journalJAMA| volume 306 | issue 24 | pages 2673–2683 | pmid 22161946 | pmc 3350308 | doi 10.1001/jama.2011.1830 }}</ref>|group"sources"}} However, amphetamine pharmaceuticals are contraindicated in individuals with cardiovascular disease.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"International">{{cite web |vauthorsHeedes G, Ailakis J | titleAmphetamine (PIM 934) | urlhttp://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim934.htm | websiteINCHEM | publisherInternational Programme on Chemical Safety | access-date24 June 2014 }}</ref><ref name"FDA - cardiovascular effects in young individuals" /><ref name"FDA - cardiovascular effects in adults" />|group"sources"}}
Psychological
At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /> Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness;{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Libido">{{cite journal | author Montgomery KA | title Sexual desire disorders | journalPsychiatry | volume 5 | issue 6 | pages 50–55 |dateJune 2008 | pmid 19727285 | pmc 2695750}}</ref><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"Merck_Manual_Amphetamines">{{cite web | url http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special_subjects/drug_use_and_dependence/amphetamines.html | author O'Connor PG | title Amphetamines | website Merck Manual for Health Care Professionals | publisher Merck |dateFebruary 2012 | access-date 8 May 2012 }}</ref>|group"sources"}} these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state.<ref name"Westfall" /> Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Cochrane">{{cite journal | veditors Shoptaw SJ, Ali R |vauthorsShoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W | title Treatment for amphetamine psychosis | journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| issue 1 | pages CD003026 | date January 2009 |volume2009 | pmid 19160215 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3 |pmc7004251 | quoteA minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention&nbsp;...<br />About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983)&nbsp;...<br />Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.<br />psychotic symptoms of individuals with amphetamine psychosis may be due exclusively to heavy use of the drug or heavy use of the drug may exacerbate an underlying vulnerability to schizophrenia.}}</ref><ref name"Amphetamine-induced psychosis">{{cite journal | vauthors Bramness JG, Gundersen ØH, Guterstam J, Rognli EB, Konstenius M, Løberg EM, Medhus S, Tanum L, Franck J | title Amphetamine-induced psychosis—a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable? | journalBMC Psychiatry| volume 12 | pages 221 | date December 2012 | pmid 23216941 | pmc 3554477 | doi 10.1186/1471-244X-12-221 | quote In these studies, amphetamine was given in consecutively higher doses until psychosis was precipitated, often after 100–300 mg of amphetamine&nbsp;... Secondly, psychosis has been viewed as an adverse event, although rare, in children with ADHD who have been treated with amphetamine | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Amphetamine-induced psychosis" /><ref name"Stimulant Misuse">{{cite web | author Greydanus D | titleStimulant Misuse: Strategies to Manage a Growing Problem | typeReview Article | urlhttp://www.acha.org/prof_dev/ADHD_docs/ADHD_PDprogram_Article2.pdf | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131103155156/http://www.acha.org/prof_dev/ADHD_docs/ADHD_PDprogram_Article2.pdf | websiteAmerican College Health Association | publisherACHA Professional Development Program | access-date2 November 2013 | archive-date3 November 2013 | page20}}</ref> According to the FDA, "there is no systematic evidence" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility.<ref name="FDA" />
Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses,<ref name"Cochrane Amphetamines ADHD" /><ref name"Human CPP">{{cite journal | vauthors Childs E, de Wit H | title Amphetamine-induced place preference in humans | journal Biological Psychiatry| volume 65 | issue 10 | pages 900–904 | date May 2009 | pmid 19111278 | pmc 2693956 | doi 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.11.016 | quote This study demonstrates that humans, like nonhumans, prefer a place associated with amphetamine administration. These findings support the idea that subjective responses to a drug contribute to its ability to establish place conditioning.}}</ref> meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine.<ref name"Human CPP" /><ref name"Addiction glossary" />Reinforcement disordersAddiction{{Addiction glossary|collapsey|width=610px}}
{{Transcription factor glossary|collapsey|width610px}}
{{Psychostimulant addiction|alignright|headerSignaling cascade in the nucleus accumbens that results in amphetamine addiction}}
Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses;<ref name"NHMH_3e-Addiction doses">{{cite book | vauthors Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2015 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York | isbn 9780071827706 | edition 3rd | chapter Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders | quote Such agents also have important therapeutic uses; cocaine, for example, is used as a local anesthetic (Chapter 2), and amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction, especially when they are rapidly administered or when high-potency forms are given.}}</ref><ref name"Addiction risk">{{cite journal | vauthors Kollins SH | title A qualitative review of issues arising in the use of psycho-stimulant medications in patients with ADHD and co-morbid substance use disorders | journalCurrent Medical Research and Opinion| volume 24 | issue 5 | pages 1345–1357 | date May 2008 | pmid 18384709 | doi 10.1185/030079908X280707 | s2cid 71267668 | quote When oral formulations of psychostimulants are used at recommended doses and frequencies, they are unlikely to yield effects consistent with abuse potential in patients with ADHD.}}</ref><ref name"narcolepsy addiction" /> in fact, lifetime stimulant therapy for ADHD that begins during childhood reduces the risk of developing substance use disorders as an adult.<ref name"Long-Term Outcomes Medications" /> {{if pagename | LisdexamfetamineCompared to other amphetamine pharmaceuticals, lisdexamfetamine may have a lower liability for abuse as a recreational drug.<ref name"LDX abuse">{{cite journal | vauthors Coghill DR, Caballero B, Sorooshian S, Civil R | title A systematic review of the safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate | journal CNS Drugs| volume 28 | issue 6 | pages 497–511 | date June 2014 | pmid 24788672 | pmc 4057639 | doi 10.1007/s40263-014-0166-2 | quote The prodrug formulation of LDX may also lead to reduced abuse potential of LDX compared with immediate-release d-AMP. }}</ref>| other}} Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway, a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens, plays a central role in amphetamine addiction.<ref name"Amphetamine KEGG – ΔFosB">{{cite web | titleAmphetamine – Homo sapiens (human) | urlhttp://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05031 | websiteKEGG Pathway | access-date31 October 2014 | authorKanehisa Laboratories | date10 October 2014}}</ref><ref name"Magnesium" /> Individuals who frequently self-administer high doses of amphetamine have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction, since chronic use at high doses gradually increases the level of accumbal ΔFosB, a "molecular switch" and "master control protein" for addiction.<ref name"Cellular basis" /><ref name"What the ΔFosB?" /><ref name"Nestler" /> Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior (i.e., compulsive drug-seeking) with further increases in its expression.<ref name"What the ΔFosB?">{{cite journal | author Ruffle JK | title Molecular neurobiology of addiction: what's all the (Δ)FosB about? | journal The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse| volume 40 | issue 6 | pages 428–437 | date November 2014 | pmid 25083822 | doi 10.3109/00952990.2014.933840 | s2cid 19157711 | quote ΔFosB is an essential transcription factor implicated in the molecular and behavioral pathways of addiction following repeated drug exposure. }}</ref><ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /> While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction, regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction.<ref name"Running vs addiction" /><ref name"Exercise, addiction prevention, and ΔFosB">{{cite journal | vauthors Zhou Y, Zhao M, Zhou C, Li R | title Sex differences in drug addiction and response to exercise intervention: From human to animal studies | journal Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology| date July 2015 | pmid 26182835 | doi 10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.07.001 | volume40 | pages24–41 | quote Collectively, these findings demonstrate that exercise may serve as a substitute or competition for drug abuse by changing ΔFosB or cFos immunoreactivity in the reward system to protect against later or previous drug use.&nbsp;... The postulate that exercise serves as an ideal intervention for drug addiction has been widely recognized and used in human and animal rehabilitation.| pmc 4712120 }}</ref> Exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as an adjunct therapy with behavioral therapies for addiction.<ref name"Running vs addiction" /><ref name"Exercise Rev 3" /><ref name"Exercise therapy" group"sources" />
Biomolecular mechanisms
Chronic use of amphetamine at excessive doses causes alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection, which arise through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms.<ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"Nestler, Hyman, and Malenka 2">{{cite journal |vauthorsHyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ |titleNeural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory |journalAnnual Review of Neuroscience|volume29 |pages565–598 |dateJuly 2006 |pmid16776597 |doi10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009|s2cid15139406 }}</ref><ref name"Addiction genetics" /> The most important transcription factors{{#tag:ref|Transcription factors are proteins that increase or decrease the expression of specific genes.<ref name"NHM-Transcription factor">{{cite book |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | page 94 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 4: Signal Transduction in the Brain | quote <!-- All living cells depend on the regulation of gene expression by extracellular signals for their development, homeostasis, and adaptation to the environment. Indeed, many signal transduction pathways function primarily to modify transcription factors that alter the expression of specific genes. Thus, neurotransmitters, growth factors, and drugs change patterns of gene expression in cells and in turn affect many aspects of nervous system functioning, including the formation of long-term memories. Many drugs that require prolonged administration, such as antidepressants and antipsychotics, trigger changes in gene expression that are thought to be therapeutic adaptations to the initial action of the drug. -->}}</ref>|group"note"}} that produce these alterations are Delta FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (ΔFosB), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB).<ref name"Nestler" /> ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because ΔFosB overexpression (i.e., an abnormally high level of gene expression which produces a pronounced gene-related phenotype) in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient{{#tag:ref|In simpler terms, this necessary and sufficient relationship means that ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens and addiction-related behavioral and neural adaptations always occur together and never occur alone.|group"note"}} for many of the neural adaptations and regulates multiple behavioral effects (e.g., reward sensitization and escalating drug self-administration) involved in addiction.<ref name"Cellular basis" /><ref name"What the ΔFosB?" /><ref name"Nestler" /> Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression.<ref name"Cellular basis" /><ref name"What the ΔFosB?" /> It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol, cannabinoids, cocaine, methylphenidate, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidine, propofol, and substituted amphetamines, among others.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"What the ΔFosB?" /><!--Preceding review covers ΔFosB in propofol addiction --><ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"Alcoholism ΔFosB">{{cite web | titleAlcoholism – Homo sapiens (human) | urlhttp://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05034+2354 | websiteKEGG Pathway | access-date31 October 2014 | authorKanehisa Laboratories | date29 October 2014}}</ref><ref name"MPH ΔFosB">{{cite journal | vauthors Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P | title Methylphenidate-induced dendritic spine formation and DeltaFosB expression in nucleus accumbens | journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume 106 | issue 8 | pages 2915–2920 | date February 2009 | pmid 19202072 | pmc 2650365 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0813179106 | quote <!-- Despite decades of clinical use of methylphenidate for ADHD, concerns have been raised that long-term treatment of children with this medication may result in subsequent drug abuse and addiction. However, meta analysis of available data suggests that treatment of ADHD with stimulant drugs may have a significant protective effect, reducing the risk for addictive substance use (36, 37). Studies with juvenile rats have also indicated that repeated exposure to methylphenidate does not necessarily lead to enhanced drug-seeking behavior in adulthood (38). However, the recent increase of methylphenidate use as a cognitive enhancer by the general public has again raised concerns because of its potential for abuse and addiction (3, 6–10). Thus, although oral administration of clinical doses of methylphenidate is not associated with euphoria or with abuse problems, nontherapeutic use of high doses or i.v. administration may lead to addiction (39, 40). --> | bibcode 2009PNAS..106.2915K| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>|group"sources"}}
ΔJunD, a transcription factor, and G9a, a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression.<ref name"Cellular basis" /><ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"Nestler 2014 epigenetics">{{cite journal | vauthors Nestler EJ | title Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction | journalNeuropharmacology| volume 76 | issue Pt B | pages 259–268 | date January 2014 | pmid 23643695 | pmc 3766384 | doi 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004 | quote <!-- Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors.&nbsp;... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010).<br />G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a).&nbsp;... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation. -->}}</ref> Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).<ref name"Nestler" /> Similarly, accumbal G9a hyperexpression results in markedly increased histone 3 lysine residue 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2) and blocks the induction of ΔFosB-mediated neural and behavioral plasticity by chronic drug use,{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"G9a reverses ΔFosB plasticity">{{cite journal | vauthors Biliński P, Wojtyła A, Kapka-Skrzypczak L, Chwedorowicz R, Cyranka M, Studziński T | title Epigenetic regulation in drug addiction | journal Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine | volume 19 | issue 3 | pages 491–496 | year 2012 | pmid 23020045 | url http://www.aaem.pl/Epigenetic-regulation-in-drug-addiction,71809,0,2.html }}</ref><ref name"HDACi-induced G9a+H3K9me2 primary source">{{cite journal | vauthors Kennedy PJ, Feng J, Robison AJ, Maze I, Badimon A, Mouzon E, Chaudhury D, Damez-Werno DM, Haggarty SJ, Han MH, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN, Nestler EJ | title Class I HDAC inhibition blocks cocaine-induced plasticity by targeted changes in histone methylation | journal Nature Neuroscience | volume 16 | issue 4 | pages 434–440 | date April 2013 | pmid 23475113 | pmc 3609040 | doi 10.1038/nn.3354 }}</ref><ref name"A feat of epigenetic engineering">{{cite journal | vauthors Whalley K | title Psychiatric disorders: a feat of epigenetic engineering | journal Nature Reviews. Neuroscience | volume 15 | issue 12 | pages 768–769 | date December 2014 | pmid 25409693 | doi 10.1038/nrn3869 | s2cid 11513288 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>|group"sources"}} which occurs via H3K9me2-mediated repression of transcription factors for ΔFosB and H3K9me2-mediated repression of various ΔFosB transcriptional targets (e.g., CDK5).<ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"Nestler 2014 epigenetics" /><ref name"G9a reverses ΔFosB plasticity" /> ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Nestler" /><ref name"ΔFosB reward">{{cite journal |vauthorsBlum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M | title Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms | journal Journal of Psychoactive Drugs | volume 44 | issue 1 | pages 38–55 | date March 2012 | pmid 22641964 | pmc 4040958 | doi 10.1080/02791072.2012.662112| quote It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus.&nbsp;... these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance.&nbsp;... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.}}</ref> Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce the expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause the brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Nestler">{{cite journal |vauthorsRobison AJ, Nestler EJ | title Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction | journal Nature Reviews Neuroscience| volume 12 | issue 11 | pages 623–637 |dateNovember 2011 | pmid 21989194 | pmc 3272277 | doi 10.1038/nrn3111 | quote ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors&nbsp;... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure<sup>14,22–24</sup>. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption<sup>14,26–30</sup>. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.&nbsp;... ΔFosB serves as one of the master control proteins governing this structural plasticity.}}</ref> Consequently, ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sexual addictions, which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Amph-Sex X-sensitization through D1 signaling"><!-- Supplemental primary source -->{{cite journal |vauthorsPitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM | title Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator | journalThe Journal of Neuroscience | volume 33 | issue 8 | pages 3434–3442 |dateFebruary 2013 | pmid 23426671 | pmc 3865508 | doi 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013}}</ref><ref name"Amph-Sex X-sensitization through NMDA signaling"><!-- Supplemental primary source -->{{cite journal | vauthors Beloate LN, Weems PW, Casey GR, Webb IC, Coolen LM | title Nucleus accumbens NMDA receptor activation regulates amphetamine cross-sensitization and deltaFosB expression following sexual experience in male rats | journal Neuropharmacology| volume 101 | pages 154–164 | date February 2016 | pmid 26391065 | doi 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.023| s2cid 25317397 }}</ref> These sexual addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="ΔFosB reward" />
The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route-dependent.<ref name"Addiction genetics">{{cite journal |vauthorsSteiner H, Van Waes V | titleAddiction-related gene regulation: risks of exposure to cognitive enhancers vs. other psychostimulants | journalProgress in Neurobiology| volume100 | pages60–80 | dateJanuary 2013 | pmid23085425 | pmc3525776 | doi10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.10.001 }}</ref> Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses.<ref name"Addiction genetics" /> The few studies that have used equivalent (weight-adjusted) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes, if they occur, are relatively minor.<ref name"Addiction genetics" /> This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation.<ref name"Addiction genetics" />Pharmacological treatments
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{{Further|Addiction#Research}}
{{As of|December 2019|post,}} there is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction.<ref name"NHMH_3e-Physical dependence + psychostimulant addiction treatment">{{cite book | vauthors Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2015 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York | isbn 9780071827706 | edition 3rd | chapter Chapter 16: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders | quote Pharmacologic treatment for psychostimulant addiction is generally unsatisfactory. As previously discussed, cessation of cocaine use and the use of other psychostimulants in dependent individuals does not produce a physical withdrawal syndrome but may produce dysphoria, anhedonia, and an intense desire to reinitiate drug use.}}</ref><ref name"SystRev-Meta analysis amphetamine addiction pharmacotherapy" /><ref name"pmid24716825">{{cite journal | vauthors Stoops WW, Rush CR | title Combination pharmacotherapies for stimulant use disorder: a review of clinical findings and recommendations for future research | journalExpert Review of Clinical Pharmacology| volume 7 | issue 3 | pages 363–374 | date May 2014 | pmid 24716825 | doi 10.1586/17512433.2014.909283 | quote Despite concerted efforts to identify a pharmacotherapy for managing stimulant use disorders, no widely effective medications have been approved. | pmc 4017926 }}</ref> Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1-selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions;<ref name"Miller+Grandy 2016" /><ref name"TAAR1 addiction 2015" /> however, {{As of|February 2016|lcy|post,}} the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1-selective agonists are experimental drugs.<ref name"Miller+Grandy 2016">{{cite journal | vauthors Grandy DK, Miller GM, Li JX | title "TAARgeting Addiction"-The Alamo Bears Witness to Another Revolution: An Overview of the Plenary Symposium of the 2015 Behavior, Biology and Chemistry Conference | journalDrug and Alcohol Dependence| volume 159 | pages 9–16 | date February 2016 | pmid 26644139 | doi 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.014 | quote When considered together with the rapidly growing literature in the field a compelling case emerges in support of developing TAAR1-selective agonists as medications for preventing relapse to psychostimulant abuse.| pmc 4724540 }}</ref><ref name"TAAR1 addiction 2015">{{cite journal | vauthors Jing L, Li JX | title Trace amine-associated receptor 1: A promising target for the treatment of psychostimulant addiction | journal European Journal of Pharmacology| volume 761 | pages 345–352 | date August 2015 | pmid 26092759 | doi 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.06.019 | quote Existing data provided robust preclinical evidence supporting the development of TAAR1 agonists as potential treatment for psychostimulant abuse and addiction. | pmc4532615}}</ref> Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and {{nowrap|co-localized}} NMDA receptors{{#tag:ref|NMDA receptors are voltage-dependent ligand-gated ion channels that requires simultaneous binding of glutamate and a co-agonist ({{nowrap|{{smallcaps all|D}}-serine}} or glycine) to open the ion channel.<ref name"NHM-NMDA">{{cite book |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | pages 124–125 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 5: Excitatory and Inhibitory Amino Acids | quote <!-- At membrane potentials more negative than approximately −50 mV, the Mg<sup>2+</sup> in the extracellular fluid of the brain virtually abolishes ion flux through NMDA receptor channels, even in the presence of glutamate.&nbsp;... The NMDA receptor is unique among all neurotransmitter receptors in that its activation requires the simultaneous binding of two different agonists. In addition to the binding of glutamate at the conventional agonist-binding site, the binding of glycine appears to be required for receptor activation. Because neither of these agonists alone can open this ion channel, glutamate and glycine are referred to as coagonists of the NMDA receptor. The physiologic significance of the glycine binding site is unclear because the normal extracellular concentration of glycine is believed to be saturating. However, recent evidence suggests that D-serine may be the endogenous agonist for this site. -->}}</ref>|group"note"}} in the nucleus accumbens;<ref name"Magnesium" /> magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel.<ref name"Magnesium" /><ref name"NHM-NMDA" /> One review suggested that, based upon animal testing, pathological (addiction-inducing) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain.<ref name"Magnesium" /> Supplemental magnesium{{#tag:ref|The review indicated that magnesium {{nowrap|L-aspartate}} and magnesium chloride produce significant changes in addictive behavior;<ref name"Magnesium" /> other forms of magnesium were not mentioned.|group"note"}} treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self-administration (i.e., doses given to oneself) in humans, but it is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction.<ref name"Magnesium">{{cite journal |author Nechifor M |titleMagnesium in drug dependences |journalMagnesium Research|volume21 |issue1 |pages5–15 |dateMarch 2008 |pmid18557129 |doi10.1684/mrh.2008.0124|doi-broken-date1 November 2024 |url=https://www.jle.com/10.1684/mrh.2008.0124}}</ref>
A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed the efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction;<ref name"SystRev-Meta analysis amphetamine addiction pharmacotherapy" /> it found only low-strength evidence that methylphenidate might reduce amphetamine or methamphetamine self-administration.<ref name"SystRev-Meta analysis amphetamine addiction pharmacotherapy">{{cite journal | vauthors Chan B, Freeman M, Kondo K, Ayers C, Montgomery J, Paynter R, Kansagara D | title Pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine/amphetamine use disorder-a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal Addiction | volume 114 | issue 12 | pages 2122–2136 | date December 2019 | pmid 31328345 | doi 10.1111/add.14755 | s2cid 198136436 }}</ref> There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of the other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine, sertraline), antipsychotics (aripiprazole), anticonvulsants (topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin), naltrexone, varenicline, citicoline, ondansetron, prometa, riluzole, atomoxetine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil.<ref name"SystRev-Meta analysis amphetamine addiction pharmacotherapy" />Behavioral treatmentsA 2018 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 50 trials involving 12 different psychosocial interventions for amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine addiction found that combination therapy with both contingency management and community reinforcement approach had the highest efficacy (i.e., abstinence rate) and acceptability (i.e., lowest dropout rate).<ref name"Psychosocial interventions network meta-analysis">{{cite journal | vauthors De Crescenzo F, Ciabattini M, D'Alò GL, De Giorgi R, Del Giovane C, Cassar C, Janiri L, Clark N, Ostacher MJ, Cipriani A | title Comparative efficacy and acceptability of psychosocial interventions for individuals with cocaine and amphetamine addiction: A systematic review and network meta-analysis | journal PLOS Medicine | volume 15 | issue 12 | pages e1002715 | date December 2018 | pmid 30586362 | pmc 6306153 | doi 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002715 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Other treatment modalities examined in the analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy, 12-step programs, non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy, and other combination therapies involving these.<ref name="Psychosocial interventions network meta-analysis" />
Additionally, research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running), prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy (i.e., a supplemental treatment) for amphetamine addiction.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Running vs addiction" /><ref name"Exercise, addiction prevention, and ΔFosB" /><ref name"Exercise Rev 3" /><ref name"Addiction review 2016" />|group"sources"|name"Exercise therapy"}} Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment, particularly for psychostimulant addictions.<ref name"Running vs addiction">{{cite journal |vauthorsLynch WJ, Peterson AB, Sanchez V, Abel J, Smith MA | title Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: a neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis | journal Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews| volume 37 | issue 8 | pages 1622–1644 |dateSeptember 2013 | pmid 23806439 | pmc 3788047 | doi 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.011 | quote These findings suggest that exercise may "magnitude"-dependently prevent the development of an addicted phenotype possibly by blocking/reversing behavioral and neuroadaptive changes that develop during and following extended access to the drug.&nbsp;... Exercise has been proposed as a treatment for drug addiction that may reduce drug craving and risk of relapse. Although few clinical studies have investigated the efficacy of exercise for preventing relapse, the few studies that have been conducted generally report a reduction in drug craving and better treatment outcomes&nbsp;... Taken together, these data suggest that the potential benefits of exercise during relapse, particularly for relapse to psychostimulants, may be mediated via chromatin remodeling and possibly lead to greater treatment outcomes.}}</ref><ref name"Exercise Rev 3">{{cite journal | vauthors Linke SE, Ussher M | title Exercise-based treatments for substance use disorders: evidence, theory, and practicality | journal The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse| volume 41 | issue 1 | pages 7–15 | date January 2015 | pmid 25397661 | doi 10.3109/00952990.2014.976708 | quote The limited research conducted suggests that exercise may be an effective adjunctive treatment for SUDs. In contrast to the scarce intervention trials to date, a relative abundance of literature on the theoretical and practical reasons supporting the investigation of this topic has been published.&nbsp;... numerous theoretical and practical reasons support exercise-based treatments for SUDs, including psychological, behavioral, neurobiological, nearly universal safety profile, and overall positive health effects. | pmc4831948}}</ref><ref name"Addiction review 2016">{{cite journal | vauthors Carroll ME, Smethells JR | title Sex Differences in Behavioral Dyscontrol: Role in Drug Addiction and Novel Treatments | journal Frontiers in Psychiatry| volume 6 | pages 175 | date February 2016 | pmid 26903885 | pmc 4745113 | doi 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00175 | quote Physical Exercise<br />There is accelerating evidence that physical exercise is a useful treatment for preventing and reducing drug addiction&nbsp;... In some individuals, exercise has its own rewarding effects, and a behavioral economic interaction may occur, such that physical and social rewards of exercise can substitute for the rewarding effects of drug abuse.&nbsp;... The value of this form of treatment for drug addiction in laboratory animals and humans is that exercise, if it can substitute for the rewarding effects of drugs, could be self-maintained over an extended period of time. Work to date in [laboratory animals and humans] regarding exercise as a treatment for drug addiction supports this hypothesis.&nbsp;... Animal and human research on physical exercise as a treatment for stimulant addiction indicates that this is one of the most promising treatments on the horizon.| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> In particular, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces the reinstatement (i.e., relapse) of drug-seeking, and induces increased dopamine receptor D<sub>2</sub> (DRD2) density in the striatum.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name"Addiction review 2016" /> This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use, which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density.<ref name"Natural and drug addictions">{{cite journal | author Olsen CM | title Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions | journalNeuropharmacology| volume 61 | issue 7 | pages 1109–1122 | date December 2011 | pmid 21459101 | pmc 3139704 | doi 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010 | quote Similar to environmental enrichment, studies have found that exercise reduces self-administration and relapse to drugs of abuse (Cosgrove et al., 2002; Zlebnik et al., 2010). There is also some evidence that these preclinical findings translate to human populations, as exercise reduces withdrawal symptoms and relapse in abstinent smokers (Daniel et al., 2006; Prochaska et al., 2008), and one drug recovery program has seen success in participants that train for and compete in a marathon as part of the program (Butler, 2005).&nbsp;... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al., 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008). }}</ref> One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or {{nowrap|c-Fos}} immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system.<ref name="Exercise, addiction prevention, and ΔFosB" />
{{FOSB addiction table|Table titleSummary of addiction-related plasticity}}Dependence and withdrawalDrug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse (i.e., recreational amphetamine use), so periods of extended abuse require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect.<ref name"Cochrane 2013 treatments">{{cite journal | vauthors Perez-Mana C, Castells X, Torrens M, Capella D, Farre M | title Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence | journal Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| volume 2013 | issue 9 | pages CD009695 | date September 2013 | pmid 23996457 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2 | pmc 11521360 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse | website Merck Manual Home Edition | publisher Merck | url http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/special_subjects/drug_use_and_abuse/amphetamines.html | access-date 28 February 2007 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070217053619/http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec07/ch108/ch108g.html |dateFebruary 2003 | archive-date 17 February 2007}}</ref>
According to a Cochrane review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use, many report a time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24&nbsp;hours of their last dose."<ref name"Cochrane Withdrawal">{{cite journal |vauthorsShoptaw SJ, Kao U, Heinzerling K, Ling W | title Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal | journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews| issue 2 | pages CD003021 | date April 2009 | volume 2009 | pmid 19370579 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003021.pub2 | veditors Shoptaw SJ | quote The prevalence of this withdrawal syndrome is extremely common (Cantwell 1998; Gossop 1982) with 87.6% of 647 individuals with amphetamine dependence reporting six or more signs of amphetamine withdrawal listed in the DSM when the drug is not available (Schuckit 1999)&nbsp;... The severity of withdrawal symptoms is greater in amphetamine dependent individuals who are older and who have more extensive amphetamine use disorders (McGregor 2005). Withdrawal symptoms typically present within 24&nbsp;hours of the last use of amphetamine, with a withdrawal syndrome involving two general phases that can last 3 weeks or more. The first phase of this syndrome is the initial "crash" that resolves within about a week (Gossop 1982;McGregor 2005)&nbsp;... | pmc 7138250}}</ref> This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in roughly 88% of cases, and persist for {{nowrap|3–4}}&nbsp;weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week.<ref name"Cochrane Withdrawal" /> Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, drug craving, depressed mood, fatigue, increased appetite, increased movement or decreased movement, lack of motivation, sleeplessness or sleepiness, and lucid dreams.<ref name"Cochrane Withdrawal" /> The review indicated that the severity of withdrawal symptoms is positively correlated with the age of the individual and the extent of their dependence.<ref name"Cochrane Withdrawal" /> Mild withdrawal symptoms from the discontinuation of amphetamine treatment at therapeutic doses can be avoided by tapering the dose.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" />OverdoseAn amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms, but is rarely fatal with appropriate care.<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"International" /><ref name"Amphetamine toxidrome">{{cite journal |vauthorsSpiller HA, Hays HL, Aleguas A | title Overdose of drugs for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: clinical presentation, mechanisms of toxicity, and management | journal CNS Drugs| volume 27| issue 7| pages 531–543|dateJune 2013 | pmid 23757186 | doi 10.1007/s40263-013-0084-8 | s2cid 40931380 |quoteAmphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methylphenidate act as substrates for the cellular monoamine transporter, especially the dopamine transporter (DAT) and less so the norepinephrine (NET) and serotonin transporter. The mechanism of toxicity is primarily related to excessive extracellular dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine.<ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"International" /> Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5&nbsp;grams of amphetamine in a day, which is roughly 100&nbsp;times the maximum daily therapeutic dose.<ref name"International" /> Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /> In 2013, overdose on amphetamine, methamphetamine, and other compounds implicated in an "amphetamine use disorder" resulted in an estimated 3,788&nbsp;deaths worldwide ({{nowrap|3,425–4,145}}&nbsp;deaths, 95%&nbsp;confidence).{{#tag:ref|The 95%&nbsp;confidence interval indicates that there is a 95%&nbsp;probability that the true number of deaths lies between 3,425 and 4,145.|group"note"}}<ref nameGDB2013>{{cite journal | vauthors ((GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators)) | title Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal The Lancet| volume 385 | issue 9963 | pages 117–171 | date January 2015 | pmid 25530442 | pmc 4340604 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 | hdl 11655/15525 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
{| class"wikitable center" style"margin: 1em auto;"
|+ Overdose symptoms by system
! scope"col" style"text-align:center"| System
! scope"col" style"width: 40%;"| Minor or moderate overdose<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name="International" />
! scope"col" style"width: 50%;"| Severe overdose{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Acute amph toxicity">{{cite journal |vauthorsGreene SL, Kerr F, Braitberg G | title Review article: amphetamines and related drugs of abuse | journalEmergency Medicine Australasia| volume 20 | issue 5 | pages 391–402 | date October 2008 | pmid 18973636 | doi 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01114.x | s2cid 20755466 }}</ref><ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"Amphetamine toxidrome" /><ref name"Albertson_2011">{{cite book|veditorsOlson KR, Anderson IB, Benowitz NL, Blanc PD, Kearney TE, Kim-Katz SY, Wu AH | title Poisoning & Drug Overdose | author Albertson TE| year 2011 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York | isbn 9780071668330 | chapter Amphetamines | pages 77–79 | edition 6th }}</ref>| group "sources"}}
|-
! scope="row"| Cardiovascular
|
* Abnormal heartbeat
* High or low blood pressure
|
* Cardiogenic shock (heart not pumping enough blood)
* Cerebral hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain)
* Circulatory collapse (partial or complete failure of the circulatory system)
|-
! scope="row"| Central nervous<br />system
|
* Confusion
* Abnormally fast reflexes
* Severe agitation
* Tremor (involuntary muscle twitching)
|
* Acute amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia)
* Compulsive and repetitive movement
* Serotonin syndrome (excessive serotonergic nerve activity)
* Sympathomimetic toxidrome (excessive adrenergic nerve activity)
|-
! scope="row"| Musculoskeletal
|
* Muscle pain
|
* Rhabdomyolysis (rapid muscle breakdown)
|-
! scope="row"| Respiratory
|
* Rapid breathing
|
* Pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs)
* Pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the arteries of the lung)
* Respiratory alkalosis (reduced blood CO<sub>2</sub>)
|-
! scope="row"| Urinary
|
* Painful urination
* Urinary retention (inability to urinate)
|
* No urine production
* Kidney failure
|-
! scope="row"| Other
|
* Elevated body temperature
* Mydriasis (dilated pupils)
|
* Elevated or low blood potassium
* Hyperpyrexia (extremely elevated core body temperature)
* Metabolic acidosis (excessively acidic bodily fluids)
|}
Toxicity
In rodents and primates, sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity, or damage to dopamine neurons, which is characterized by dopamine terminal degeneration and reduced transporter and receptor function.<ref name"Humans&Animals">{{cite journal| vauthors Advokat C| titleUpdate on amphetamine neurotoxicity and its relevance to the treatment of ADHD | journalJournal of Attention Disorders| date July 2007 | volume 11 | issue1 | pages 8–16 | pmid17606768 | doi10.1177/1087054706295605| s2cid7582744 }}</ref><ref name"Amph-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity review" /> There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans.<ref>{{cite web | titleAmphetamine | urlhttp://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+@rel+300-62-9 | websiteUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– Toxicology Data Network | publisherHazardous Substances Data Bank | access-date2 October 2017 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171002194327/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/cgi-bin/sis/search2/f?.%2Ftemp%2F~mdjW95%3A1%3AFULL | archive-date2 October 2017 | quoteDirect toxic damage to vessels seems unlikely because of the dilution that occurs before the drug reaches the cerebral circulation. }}</ref><ref name "Malenka_2009_02">{{cite book |vauthorsMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditorsSydor A, Brown RY | title Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year 2009 | publisher McGraw-Hill Medical | location New York, US | isbn 9780071481274 | page 370 | edition 2nd | chapter Chapter 15: Reinforcement and addictive disorders | quote Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.}}</ref> However, large doses of amphetamine may indirectly cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity as a result of hyperpyrexia, the excessive formation of reactive oxygen species, and increased autoxidation of dopamine.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"pmid22392347"/><ref name"Amph-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity review" /><ref name"Autoxidation1">{{cite journal |vauthorsSulzer D, Zecca L | title Intraneuronal dopamine-quinone synthesis: a review | journalNeurotoxicity Research| volume 1 | issue 3 | pages 181–195 |dateFebruary 2000 | pmid 12835101 | doi 10.1007/BF03033289 | s2cid 21892355 }}</ref><ref name"Autoxidation2">{{cite journal |vauthorsMiyazaki I, Asanuma M | title Dopaminergic neuron-specific oxidative stress caused by dopamine itself | journal Acta Medica Okayama| volume 62 | issue 3 | pages 141–150 |dateJune 2008 | pmid 18596830| url http://ousar.lib.okayama-u.ac.jp/files/public/3/30980/20160528022138672578/fulltext.pdf | doi10.18926/AMO/30942}}</ref>|group"sources"}} Animal models of neurotoxicity from high-dose amphetamine exposure indicate that the occurrence of hyperpyrexia (i.e., core body temperature&nbsp;≥&nbsp;40&nbsp;°C) is necessary for the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity.<ref name"Amph-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity review">{{cite journal | vauthors Bowyer JF, Hanig JP | title Amphetamine- and methamphetamine-induced hyperthermia: Implications of the effects produced in brain vasculature and peripheral organs to forebrain neurotoxicity | journal Temperature| volume 1 | issue 3 | pages 172–182 | date November 2014 | pmid 27626044 | pmc 5008711 | doi 10.4161/23328940.2014.982049 | quote Hyperthermia alone does not produce amphetamine-like neurotoxicity but AMPH and METH exposures that do not produce hyperthermia (≥40&nbsp;°C) are minimally neurotoxic. Hyperthermia likely enhances AMPH and METH neurotoxicity directly through disruption of protein function, ion channels and enhanced ROS production.&nbsp;... The hyperthermia and the hypertension produced by high doses amphetamines are a primary cause of transient breakdowns in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) resulting in concomitant regional neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in laboratory animals.&nbsp;... In animal models that evaluate the neurotoxicity of AMPH and METH, it is quite clear that hyperthermia is one of the essential components necessary for the production of histological signs of dopamine terminal damage and neurodegeneration in cortex, striatum, thalamus and hippocampus.}}</ref> Prolonged elevations of brain temperature above 40&nbsp;°C likely promote the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in laboratory animals by facilitating the production of reactive oxygen species, disrupting cellular protein function, and transiently increasing blood–brain barrier permeability.<ref name"Amph-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity review" />
Psychosis
{{See also|Stimulant psychosis}}
An amphetamine overdose can result in a stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms, such as delusions and paranoia.<ref name"Cochrane" /><ref name"Amphetamine-induced psychosis"/> A Cochrane review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine psychosis states that about {{nowrap|5–15%}} of users fail to recover completely.<ref name"Cochrane"/><ref name"Hofmann">{{cite book | author Hofmann FG | title A Handbook on Drug and Alcohol Abuse: The Biomedical Aspects | publisher Oxford University Press | isbn 9780195030570 | location New York, US | year 1983 | page [https://archive.org/details/handbookondrugal0002hofm/page/329 329] | edition 2nd | url https://archive.org/details/handbookondrugal0002hofm/page/329 }}</ref> According to the same review, there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.<ref name"Cochrane"/> Psychosis rarely arises from therapeutic use.<ref name"FDA" /><ref name"Amphetamine-induced psychosis" /><ref name"Stimulant Misuse" />Drug interactions{{anchor|Interactions}}
{{See also|Amphetamine#Contraindications|Amphetamine#Pharmacokinetics}}
Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine, resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine, the interacting substance, or both.<ref name"FDA" /> Inhibitors of enzymes that metabolize amphetamine (e.g., CYP2D6 and FMO3) will prolong its elimination half-life, meaning that its effects will last longer.<ref name"FMO" /><ref name"FDA"/> Amphetamine also interacts with {{abbr|MAOIs|monoamine oxidase inhibitors}}, particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines (i.e., norepinephrine and dopamine);<ref name"FDA" /> therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous.<ref name"FDA" /> Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs. In particular, amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants.<ref name"FDA" /> Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively.<ref name"FDA" /> Zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used for the treatment of ADHD.{{#tag:ref|The human dopamine transporter (hDAT) contains a high-affinity, extracellular, and allosteric Zn<sup>2+</sup> (zinc ion) binding site which, upon zinc binding, inhibits dopamine reuptake, inhibits amphetamine-induced hDAT internalization, and amplifies amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux.<ref name"Allosteric Zn2+ regulation of hDAT 2019 Review">{{cite journal | vauthors Hasenhuetl PS, Bhat S, Freissmuth M, Sandtner W | title Functional Selectivity and Partial Efficacy at the Monoamine Transporters: A Unified Model of Allosteric Modulation and Amphetamine-Induced Substrate Release | journal Molecular Pharmacology | volume 95 | issue 3 | pages 303–312 | date March 2019 | pmid 30567955 | doi 10.1124/mol.118.114793 | s2cid 58557130 | quote Although the monoamine transport cycle has been resolved in considerable detail, kinetic knowledge on the molecular actions of synthetic allosteric modulators is still scarce. Fortunately, the DAT catalytic cycle is allosterically modulated by an endogenous ligand (namely, Zn<sup>2+</sup>; Norregaard et al., 1998). It is worth consulting Zn<sup>2+</sup> as an instructive example, because its action on the DAT catalytic cycle has been deciphered to a large extent&nbsp;... Zn+ binding stabilizes the outward-facing conformation of DAT&nbsp;... This potentiates both the forward-transport mode (i.e., DA uptake; Li et al., 2015) and the substrate-exchange mode (i.e., amphetamine-induced DA release; Meinild et al., 2004; Li et al., 2015). Importantly, the potentiating effect on substrate uptake is only evident when internal Na<sup>+</sup> concentrations are low&nbsp;... If internal Na<sup>+</sup> concentrations rise during the experiment, the substrate-exchange mode dominates and the net effect of Zn<sup>2+</sup> on uptake is inhibitory. Conversely, Zn<sup>2+</sup> accelerates amphetamine-induced substrate release via DAT.&nbsp;... t is important to emphasize that Zn<sup>2+</sup> has been shown to reduce dopamine uptake under conditions that favor intracellular Na<sup>+</sup> accumulation<br />—Fig. 3. Functional selectivity by conformational selection. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Zinc binding sites + ADHD review">{{cite journal | vauthors Krause J | title SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics| volume 8 | issue 4 | pages 611–625 | date April 2008 | pmid 18416663 | doi 10.1586/14737175.8.4.611 | s2cid 24589993 | quote Zinc binds at&nbsp;... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm.}}</ref><ref name"Primary 2002 amph-zinc study">{{cite journal | vauthors Scholze P, Nørregaard L, Singer EA, Freissmuth M, Gether U, Sitte HH | title The role of zinc ions in reverse transport mediated by monoamine transporters | journal Journal of Biological Chemistry| volume 277 | issue 24 | pages 21505–21513 | date June 2002 | pmid 11940571 | doi 10.1074/jbc.M112265200 | s2cid 10521850 | quote The human dopamine transporter (hDAT) contains an endogenous high affinity Zn<sup>2+</sup> binding site with three coordinating residues on its extracellular face (His193, His375, and Glu396).&nbsp;... Although Zn<sup>2+</sup> inhibited uptake, Zn<sup>2+</sup> facilitated [3H]MPP+ release induced by amphetamine, MPP+, or K+-induced depolarization specifically at hDAT but not at the human serotonin and the norepinephrine transporter (hNET).&nbsp;... Surprisingly, this amphetamine-elicited efflux was markedly enhanced, rather than inhibited, by the addition of 10&nbsp;μM Zn<sup>2+</sup> to the superfusion buffer (Fig. 2 A, open squares).&nbsp;... The concentrations of Zn<sup>2+</sup> shown in this study, required for the stimulation of dopamine release (as well as inhibition of uptake), covered this physiologically relevant range, with maximum stimulation occurring at 3–30&nbsp;μM.&nbsp;... Thus, when Zn<sup>2+</sup> is co-released with glutamate, it may greatly augment the efflux of dopamine.| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"pmid16684900">{{cite journal | vauthors Kahlig KM, Lute BJ, Wei Y, Loland CJ, Gether U, Javitch JA, Galli A | title Regulation of dopamine transporter trafficking by intracellular amphetamine | journal Molecular Pharmacology| volume 70 | issue 2 | pages 542–548 | date August 2006 | pmid 16684900 | doi 10.1124/mol.106.023952 | s2cid 10317113 | quote Coadministration of Zn(2+) and AMPH consistently reduced WT-hDAT trafficking}}</ref> The human serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter do not contain zinc binding sites.<ref name"Primary 2002 amph-zinc study" />|name"zinc"|group"note"}}<ref name"Zinc and PEA">{{cite journal |vauthorsScassellati C, Bonvicini C, Faraone SV, Gennarelli M | title Biomarkers and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses | journalJournal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry| volume 51 | issue 10 | pages 1003–1019.e20 | date October 2012 | pmid 23021477 | doi 10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.015 | quote With regard to zinc supplementation, a placebo controlled trial reported that doses up to 30&nbsp;mg/day of zinc were safe for at least 8&nbsp;weeks, but the clinical effect was equivocal except for the finding of a 37% reduction in amphetamine optimal dose with 30&nbsp;mg per day of zinc.<sup>110</sup>}}</ref> Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) like atomoxetine prevent norepinephrine release induced by amphetamines and have been found to reduce the stimulant, euphoriant, and sympathomimetic effects of dextroamphetamine in humans.<ref name"TreuerGauMéndez2013">{{cite journal | vauthors Treuer T, Gau SS, Méndez L, Montgomery W, Monk JA, Altin M, Wu S, Lin CC, Dueñas HJ | title A systematic review of combination therapy with stimulants and atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including patient characteristics, treatment strategies, effectiveness, and tolerability | journal J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol | volume 23 | issue 3 | pages 179–193 | date April 2013 | pmid 23560600 | pmc 3696926 | doi 10.1089/cap.2012.0093 | url }}</ref><ref name"HealSmithFindling2012">{{cite book | vauthors Heal DJ, Smith SL, Findling RL | title Behavioral Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Its Treatment | chapter ADHD: current and future therapeutics | series Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences | volume 9 | pages 361–390 | date 2012 | pmid 21487953 | doi 10.1007/7854_2011_125 | isbn 978-3-642-24611-1 | chapter-url | quote Adjunctive therapy with DL-methylphenidate in atomoxetine partial responders has been successful (Wilens et al. 2009), but this also increases the rates of insomnia, irritability and loss of appetite (Hammerness et al. 2009). This combination therapy has not included amphetamine because blockade of NET by atomoxetine prevents entry of amphetamine into presynaptic noradrenergic terminals (Sofuoglu et al. 2009). }}</ref><ref name"SofuogluPolingHill2009">{{cite journal | vauthors Sofuoglu M, Poling J, Hill K, Kosten T | title Atomoxetine attenuates dextroamphetamine effects in humans | journal Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse | volume 35 | issue 6 | pages 412–416 | date 2009 | pmid 20014909 | pmc 2796580 | doi 10.3109/00952990903383961 | url }}</ref>
In general, there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food, but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine, respectively.<ref name"FDA" /> Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion, and alkaline substances do the opposite.<ref name"FDA" /> Due to the effect pH has on absorption, amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H<sub>2</sub> antihistamines, which increase gastrointestinal pH (i.e., make it less acidic).<ref name"FDA" />PharmacologyPharmacodynamics
{{For|a simpler and less technical explanation of amphetamine's mechanism of action|Adderall#Mechanism of action}}
{{Amphetamine pharmacodynamics}}
Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain, primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of the brain.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"cognition enhancers" /> The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning, dopamine and norepinephrine, increase dramatically in a dose-dependent manner by amphetamine because of its effects on monoamine transporters.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"cognition enhancers" /><ref name"E Weihe" /> The reinforcing and motivational salience-promoting effects of amphetamine are due mostly to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway.<ref name"Malenka_2009" /> The euphoric and locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine are dependent upon the magnitude and speed by which it increases synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations in the striatum.<ref name="Amph Uses" />
Amphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a {{nowrap|G<sub>s</sub>-coupled}} and {{nowrap|G<sub>q</sub>-coupled}} G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) discovered in 2001, which is important for regulation of brain monoamines.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"TAAR1 IUPHAR">{{cite web|titleTA<sub>1</sub> receptor|urlhttp://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/ObjectDisplayForward?objectId364|websiteIUPHAR database|publisherInternational Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|access-date8 December 2014|vauthorsMaguire JJ, Davenport AP|date2 December 2014|quote<!-- Comments: Tyramine causes an increase in intracellular cAMP in HEK293 or COS-7 cells expressing the TA1 receptor in vitro [4,6,18]. In addition, coupling to a promiscuous Gαq has been observed, resulting in increased intracellular calcium concentration [24]. -->|archive-date29 June 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150629065449/http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/ObjectDisplayForward?objectId364|url-statusdead}}</ref> Activation of {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}} increases {{abbrlink|cAMP|cyclic adenosine monophosphate}} production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"pmid11459929">{{cite journal |vauthorsBorowsky B, Adham N, Jones KA, Raddatz R, Artymyshyn R, Ogozalek KL, Durkin MM, Lakhlani PP, Bonini JA, Pathirana S, Boyle N, Pu X, Kouranova E, Lichtblau H, Ochoa FY, Branchek TA, Gerald C | title Trace amines: identification of a family of mammalian G protein-coupled receptors | journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume 98 | issue 16 | pages 8966–8971 |dateJuly 2001 | pmid 11459929 | pmc 55357 | doi 10.1073/pnas.151105198 | bibcode 2001PNAS...98.8966B| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Monoamine autoreceptors (e.g., D<sub>2</sub> short, presynaptic α<sub>2</sub>, and presynaptic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub>) have the opposite effect of TAAR1, and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Miller+Grandy 2016" /> Notably, amphetamine and trace amines possess high binding affinities for TAAR1, but not for monoamine autoreceptors.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Miller+Grandy 2016" /> Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 {{nowrap|co-localization}} in the associated monoamine neurons.<ref name="Miller" />
In addition to the neuronal monoamine transporters, amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters, VMAT1 and VMAT2, as well as SLC1A1, SLC22A3, and SLC22A5.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"EAAT3">{{cite journal |vauthorsUnderhill SM, Wheeler DS, Li M, Watts SD, Ingram SL, Amara SG | title Amphetamine modulates excitatory neurotransmission through endocytosis of the glutamate transporter EAAT3 in dopamine neurons | journal Neuron| volume 83 | issue 2 | pages 404–416 | date July 2014 | pmid 25033183 | pmc 4159050 | doi 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.043 | quote AMPH also increases intracellular calcium (Gnegy et al., 2004) that is associated with calmodulin/CamKII activation (Wei et al., 2007) and modulation and trafficking of the DAT (Fog et al., 2006; Sakrikar et al., 2012).&nbsp;... For example, AMPH increases extracellular glutamate in various brain regions including the striatum, VTA and NAc (Del Arco et al., 1999; Kim et al., 1981; Mora and Porras, 1993; Xue et al., 1996), but it has not been established whether this change can be explained by increased synaptic release or by reduced clearance of glutamate.&nbsp;... DHK-sensitive, EAAT2 uptake was not altered by AMPH (Figure 1A). The remaining glutamate transport in these midbrain cultures is likely mediated by EAAT3 and this component was significantly decreased by AMPH}}</ref><ref name"IUPHAR VMATs">{{cite web|titleSLC18 family of vesicular amine transporters|urlhttp://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/FamilyDisplayForward?familyId193|websiteIUPHAR database|publisherInternational Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|access-date13 November 2015}}</ref><ref name"SLC1A1">{{cite web | titleSLC1A1 solute carrier family 1 (neuronal/epithelial high affinity glutamate transporter, system Xag), member 1 [ Homo sapiens (human) ] | urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/6505 | websiteNCBI Gene | publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information | access-date11 November 2014 | quote Amphetamine modulates excitatory neurotransmission through endocytosis of the glutamate transporter EAAT3 in dopamine neurons.&nbsp;... internalization of EAAT3 triggered by amphetamine increases glutamatergic signaling and thus contributes to the effects of amphetamine on neurotransmission.}}</ref><ref name"SLC22A3">{{cite journal |vauthorsZhu HJ, Appel DI, Gründemann D, Markowitz JS | title Interaction of organic cation transporter 3 (SLC22A3) and amphetamine | journal Journal of Neurochemistry| volume 114 | issue 1 | pages 142–149 |dateJuly 2010 | pmid 20402963 | pmc 3775896 | doi 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06738.x}}</ref><ref name"SLC22A5">{{cite journal |vauthorsRytting E, Audus KL | s2cid 31465243 | title Novel organic cation transporter 2-mediated carnitine uptake in placental choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells | journal Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics| volume 312 | issue 1 | pages 192–198 |dateJanuary 2005 | pmid 15316089 | doi 10.1124/jpet.104.072363}}</ref><ref name"pmid13677912">{{cite journal |vauthorsInazu M, Takeda H, Matsumiya T | title [The role of glial monoamine transporters in the central nervous system] | language ja | journalNihon Shinkei Seishin Yakurigaku Zasshi | volume 23 | issue 4 | pages 171–178 |dateAugust 2003 | pmid 13677912}}</ref>|group"sources"|name"Reuptake inhibition"}} SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a glutamate transporter located in neurons, SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter.<ref name"Reuptake inhibition" group"sources"/> Amphetamine is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) gene expression,<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /><ref name"CART NAcc">{{cite journal |vauthorsVicentic A, Jones DC | title The CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) system in appetite and drug addiction | journalJournal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics| volume 320 | issue 2 | pages 499–506 |dateFebruary 2007 | pmid 16840648 | doi 10.1124/jpet.105.091512 | s2cid 14212763 | quote The physiological importance of CART was further substantiated in numerous human studies demonstrating a role of CART in both feeding and psychostimulant addiction.&nbsp;... Colocalization studies also support a role for CART in the actions of psychostimulants.&nbsp;... CART and DA receptor transcripts colocalize (Beaudry et al., 2004). Second, dopaminergic nerve terminals in the NAc synapse on CART-containing neurons (Koylu et al., 1999), hence providing the proximity required for neurotransmitter signaling. These studies suggest that DA plays a role in regulating CART gene expression possibly via the activation of CREB.}}</ref> a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior, stress, and reward, which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival in vitro.<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /><ref name"CART functions">{{cite journal |vauthorsZhang M, Han L, Xu Y | title Roles of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the central nervous system | journal Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology| volume 39 | issue 6 | pages 586–592 |dateJune 2012 | pmid 22077697 | doi 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05642.x | s2cid 25134612 | quote Recently, it was demonstrated that CART, as a neurotrophic peptide, had a cerebroprotective against focal ischaemic stroke and inhibited the neurotoxicity of β-amyloid protein, which focused attention on the role of CART in the central nervous system (CNS) and neurological diseases.&nbsp;... The literature indicates that there are many factors, such as regulation of the immunological system and protection against energy failure, that may be involved in the cerebroprotection afforded by CART}}</ref><ref name"CART">{{cite journal |vauthorsRogge G, Jones D, Hubert GW, Lin Y, Kuhar MJ |titleCART peptides: regulators of body weight, reward and other functions |journalNature Reviews Neuroscience |volume9 |issue10 |pages747–758 |dateOctober 2008 |pmid18802445 |pmc4418456 |doi10.1038/nrn2493 |quoteSeveral studies on CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript)-peptide-induced cell signalling have demonstrated that CART peptides activate at least three signalling mechanisms. First, CART 55–102 inhibited voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channels&nbsp;...}}</ref> The CART receptor has yet to be identified, but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique {{nowrap|G<sub>i</sub>/G<sub>o</sub>-coupled}} {{abbr|GPCR|G protein-coupled receptor}}.<ref name"CART" /><ref name"pmid21855138">{{cite journal |vauthorsLin Y, Hall RA, Kuhar MJ |titleCART peptide stimulation of G protein-mediated signaling in differentiated PC12 cells: identification of PACAP 6–38 as a CART receptor antagonist |journalNeuropeptides |volume45 |issue5 |pages351–358 |dateOctober 2011 |pmid21855138 |pmc3170513 |doi10.1016/j.npep.2011.07.006}}</ref> Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidases at very high doses, resulting in less monoamine and trace amine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines.<ref name"PubChem Header">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid3007 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database |access-date17 April 2015 |date11 April 2015 |sectionCompound Summary}}</ref><ref name"BRENDA MAO Homo sapiens">{{cite encyclopedia |titleMonoamine oxidase (Homo sapiens)|urlhttp://www.brenda-enzymes.info/enzyme.php?ecno1.4.3.4&Suchword&organism%5B%5DHomo+sapiens&show_tm0 |publisherTechnische Universität Braunschweig. BRENDA |access-date4 May 2014 |date1 January 2014}}</ref> In humans, the only post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the {{nowrap|5-HT1A}} receptor, where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity.<ref name"5HT1A secondary" /><ref name="5HT1A Primary" />
The full profile of amphetamine's short-term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine,<ref name"Miller">{{cite journal | vauthors Miller GM |titleThe emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity | journalJournal of Neurochemistry |volume116 |issue2 |pages164–176 |dateJanuary 2011 |pmid21073468 |pmc3005101 |doi10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x}}</ref> serotonin,<ref name"Miller" /> norepinephrine,<ref name"Miller" /> epinephrine,<ref name"E Weihe">{{cite journal |vauthorsEiden LE, Weihe E |titleVMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse | journal Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences| volume 1216 |issue 1 | pages 86–98 | dateJanuary 2011 | pmid 21272013 | pmc4183197 | doi 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x | quote VMAT2 is the CNS vesicular transporter for not only the biogenic amines DA, NE, EPI, 5-HT, and HIS, but likely also for the trace amines TYR, PEA, and thyronamine (THYR)&nbsp;... [Trace aminergic] neurons in mammalian CNS would be identifiable as neurons expressing VMAT2 for storage, and the biosynthetic enzyme aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC).&nbsp;... AMPH release of DA from synapses requires both an action at VMAT2 to release DA to the cytoplasm and a concerted release of DA from the cytoplasm via "reverse transport" through DAT.| bibcode <!-- No --> }}</ref> histamine,<ref name"E Weihe" /> CART peptides,<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /><ref name"CART NAcc" /> endogenous opioids,<ref name"Amphetamine-induced endogenous opioid release review">{{cite journal | vauthors Finnema SJ, Scheinin M, Shahid M, Lehto J, Borroni E, Bang-Andersen B, Sallinen J, Wong E, Farde L, Halldin C, Grimwood S | title Application of cross-species PET imaging to assess neurotransmitter release in brain | journal Psychopharmacology| volume 232 | issue 21–22 | pages 4129–4157 | date November 2015 | pmid 25921033 | pmc 4600473 | doi 10.1007/s00213-015-3938-6 | quote More recently, Colasanti and colleagues reported that a pharmacologically induced elevation in endogenous opioid release reduced [<sup>11</sup>C]carfentanil binding in several regions of the human brain, including the basal ganglia, frontal cortex, and thalamus (Colasanti et al. 2012). Oral administration of d-amphetamine, 0.5&nbsp;mg/kg, 3&nbsp;h before [<sup>11</sup>C]carfentanil injection, reduced BPND values by 2–10%. The results were confirmed in another group of subjects (Mick et al. 2014). However, Guterstam and colleagues observed no change in [<sup>11</sup>C]carfentanil binding when d-amphetamine, 0.3&nbsp;mg/kg, was administered intravenously directly before injection of [<sup>11</sup>C]carfentanil (Guterstam et al. 2013). It has been hypothesized that this discrepancy may be related to delayed increases in extracellular opioid peptide concentrations following amphetamine-evoked monoamine release (Colasanti et al. 2012; Mick et al. 2014).}}</ref><ref name"Opioids">{{cite journal | vauthors Loseth GE, Ellingsen DM, Leknes S | title State-dependent μ-opioid modulation of social motivation | journal Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience| volume 8 | pages 430 | date December 2014 | pmid 25565999 | pmc 4264475 | doi 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00430 | quote Similar MOR activation patterns were reported during positive mood induced by an amusing video clip (Koepp et al., 2009) and following amphetamine administration in humans (Colasanti et al., 2012). | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Opioids cited primary source">{{cite journal | vauthors Colasanti A, Searle GE, Long CJ, Hill SP, Reiley RR, Quelch D, Erritzoe D, Tziortzi AC, Reed LJ, Lingford-Hughes AR, Waldman AD, Schruers KR, Matthews PM, Gunn RN, Nutt DJ, Rabiner EA | title Endogenous opioid release in the human brain reward system induced by acute amphetamine administration | journalBiological Psychiatry| volume 72 | issue 5 | pages 371–377 | date September 2012 | pmid 22386378 | doi 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.027| s2cid 18555036 }}</ref> adrenocorticotropic hormone,<ref name"Human amph effects" /><ref name"Primary: Human HPA axis" /> corticosteroids,<ref name"Human amph effects" /><ref name"Primary: Human HPA axis" /> and glutamate,<ref name"EAAT3" /><ref name"SLC1A1" /> which it affects through interactions with {{abbr|CART|cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript}}, {{nowrap|{{abbr|5-HT1A|serotonin receptor 1A}}}}, {{abbr|EAAT3|excitatory amino acid transporter 3}}, {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}}, {{abbr|VMAT1|vesicular monoamine transporter 1}}, {{abbr|VMAT2|vesicular monoamine transporter 2}}, and possibly other biological targets.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"IUPHAR VMATs" /><ref name"SLC1A1" /><ref name"CART NAcc" /><ref name"5HT1A secondary" />|group"sources"}} Amphetamine also activates seven human carbonic anhydrase enzymes, several of which are expressed in the human brain.<ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}} than levoamphetamine.<ref name"TAAR1 stereoselective" /> Consequently, dextroamphetamine produces greater {{abbr|CNS|central nervous system}} stimulation than levoamphetamine, roughly three to four times more, but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects.<ref name"Westfall" /><ref name"TAAR1 stereoselective">{{cite journal |vauthorsLewin AH, Miller GM, Gilmour B | titleTrace amine-associated receptor 1 is a stereoselective binding site for compounds in the amphetamine class | journalBioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry|dateDecember 2011 | volume19 | issue23 | pages7044–7048 | pmid22037049 | doi 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.007 | pmc3236098}}</ref>DopamineIn certain brain regions, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft.<ref name"Miller" /> Amphetamine can enter the presynaptic neuron either through {{abbr|DAT|dopamine transporter}} or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly.<ref name"Miller" /> As a consequence of DAT uptake, amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter.<ref name"Miller" /> Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine activates {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}} which, through protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, causes DAT phosphorylation.<ref name"Miller" /> Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ({{nowrap|non-competitive}} reuptake inhibition), but {{nowrap|PKC-mediated}} phosphorylation alone induces the reversal of dopamine transport through DAT (i.e., dopamine efflux).<ref name"zinc" group"note" /><ref name"Miller" /><ref name"TAAR1 Review">{{cite journal |vauthorsMaguire JJ, Parker WA, Foord SM, Bonner TI, Neubig RR, Davenport AP | title International Union of Pharmacology. LXXII. Recommendations for trace amine receptor nomenclature | journalPharmacological Reviews| volume 61 | issue 1 | pages 1–8 |dateMarch 2009 | pmid 19325074 | pmc 2830119 | doi 10.1124/pr.109.001107 }}</ref> Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux.<ref name"TAAR1 IUPHAR" /><ref name"EAAT3" /><ref name"DAT regulation review">{{cite journal |vauthorsVaughan RA, Foster JD | title Mechanisms of dopamine transporter regulation in normal and disease states | journal Trends in Pharmacological Sciences| volume 34 | issue 9 | pages 489–496 | date September 2013 | pmid 23968642 | pmc 3831354 | doi 10.1016/j.tips.2013.07.005 | quote AMPH and METH also stimulate DA efflux, which is thought to be a crucial element in their addictive properties [80], although the mechanisms do not appear to be identical for each drug [81]. These processes are PKCβ– and CaMK–dependent [72, 82], and PKCβ knock-out mice display decreased AMPH-induced efflux that correlates with reduced AMPH-induced locomotion [72].}}</ref> Through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine associated receptor 1}} reduces the firing rate of dopamine neurons, preventing a hyper-dopaminergic state.<ref name"GIRK">{{cite journal |vauthorsLedonne A, Berretta N, Davoli A, Rizzo GR, Bernardi G, Mercuri NB | title Electrophysiological effects of trace amines on mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons | journal Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience| volume 5 | pages 56 | date July 2011 | pmid 21772817 | pmc 3131148 | doi 10.3389/fnsys.2011.00056 | quote Three important new aspects of TAs action have recently emerged: (a) inhibition of firing due to increased release of dopamine; (b) reduction of D2 and GABAB receptor-mediated inhibitory responses (excitatory effects due to disinhibition); and (c) a direct TA1 receptor-mediated activation of GIRK channels which produce cell membrane hyperpolarization. | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Genatlas TAAR1">{{cite web | url http://genatlas.medecine.univ-paris5.fr/fiche.php?symbolTAAR1 | title TAAR1 | date 28 January 2012 | website GenAtlas | publisher University of Paris | access-date 29 May 2014 | quote{{•}} tonically activates inwardly rectifying K(+) channels, which reduces the basal firing frequency of dopamine (DA) neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) }}</ref><ref name"TAAR1-Paradoxical">{{cite journal |vauthorsRevel FG, Moreau JL, Gainetdinov RR, Bradaia A, Sotnikova TD, Mory R, Durkin S, Zbinden KG, Norcross R, Meyer CA, Metzler V, Chaboz S, Ozmen L, Trube G, Pouzet B, Bettler B, Caron MG, Wettstein JG, Hoener MC |titleTAAR1 activation modulates monoaminergic neurotransmission, preventing hyperdopaminergic and hypoglutamatergic activity |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume108 |issue20 |pages8485–8490 |dateMay 2011 |pmid21525407 |pmc3101002 |doi10.1073/pnas.1103029108|bibcode<!-- No --> |doi-accessfree | title-link = doi }}</ref>
Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter, {{abbr|VMAT2|vesicular monoamine transporter 2}}.<ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"Amphetamine VMAT2 pH gradient">{{cite journal | vauthors Sulzer D, Cragg SJ, Rice ME | title Striatal dopamine neurotransmission: regulation of release and uptake | journal Basal Ganglia| volume 6 | issue 3 | pages 123–148 | date August 2016 | pmid 27141430 | pmc 4850498 | doi 10.1016/j.baga.2016.02.001 | quote Despite the challenges in determining synaptic vesicle pH, the proton gradient across the vesicle membrane is of fundamental importance for its function. Exposure of isolated catecholamine vesicles to protonophores collapses the pH gradient and rapidly redistributes transmitter from inside to outside the vesicle.&nbsp;... Amphetamine and its derivatives like methamphetamine are weak base compounds that are the only widely used class of drugs known to elicit transmitter release by a non-exocytic mechanism. As substrates for both DAT and VMAT, amphetamines can be taken up to the cytosol and then sequestered in vesicles, where they act to collapse the vesicular pH gradient.}}</ref> Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2, amphetamine induces the collapse of the vesicular pH gradient, which results in the release of dopamine molecules from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol via dopamine efflux through VMAT2.<ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"Amphetamine VMAT2 pH gradient" /> Subsequently, the cytosolic dopamine molecules are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft via reverse transport at {{abbr|DAT|dopamine transporter}}.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"Amphetamine VMAT2 pH gradient" />
Norepinephrine
Similar to dopamine, amphetamine dose-dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine, the direct precursor of epinephrine.<ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"cognition enhancers" /> Based upon neuronal {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}} {{abbr|mRNA|messenger RNA}} expression, amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"E Weihe" /><ref name"TAAR1 Review" /> In other words, amphetamine induces TAAR1-mediated efflux and {{nowrap|non-competitive}} reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated {{abbr|NET|norepinephrine transporter}}, competitive NET reuptake inhibition, and norepinephrine release from {{abbr|VMAT2|vesicular monoamine transporter 2}}.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"E Weihe" />SerotoninAmphetamine exerts analogous, yet less pronounced, effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"cognition enhancers" /> Amphetamine affects serotonin via {{abbr|VMAT2|vesicular monoamine transporter 2}} and, like norepinephrine, is thought to phosphorylate {{abbr|SERT|serotonin transporter}} via {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}}.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"E Weihe" /> Like dopamine, amphetamine has low, micromolar affinity at the human 5-HT1A receptor.<ref name"5HT1A secondary">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine |urlhttp://www.t3db.ca/toxins/T3D2706 |publisherUniversity of Alberta: T3DB |access-date24 February 2015 |sectionTargets}}</ref><ref name"5HT1A Primary">{{cite journal |vauthorsToll L, Berzetei-Gurske IP, Polgar WE, Brandt SR, Adapa ID, Rodriguez L, Schwartz RW, Haggart D, O'Brien A, White A, Kennedy JM, Craymer K, Farrington L, Auh JS |titleStandard binding and functional assays related to medications development division testing for potential cocaine and opiate narcotic treatment medications |journalNIDA Research Monograph|volume178 |pages440–466 |dateMarch 1998 |pmid9686407}}</ref>Other neurotransmitters, peptides, hormones, and enzymes{| class"wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: 8px; float:right; text-align:center"
|+ Human carbonic anhydrase<br />activation potency
! Enzyme
! K<sub>A</sub> ({{abbrlink|nM|nanomolar}})
! class="unsortable" | <small>Sources</small>
|-
| hCA4 || 94 ||<ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
|-
| hCA5A || 810 ||<ref name"Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms">{{cite journal | vauthors Angeli A, Vaiano F, Mari F, Bertol E, Supuran CT | title Psychoactive substances belonging to the amphetamine class potently activate brain carbonic anhydrase isoforms VA, VB, VII, and XII | journal Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry | volume 32 | issue 1 | pages 1253–1259 | date December 2017 | pmid 28936885 | pmc 6009978 | doi 10.1080/14756366.2017.1375485 | quote Here, we report the first such study, showing that amphetamine, methamphetamine, phentermine, mephentermine, and chlorphenteramine, potently activate several CA isoforms, some of which are highly abundant in the brain, where they play important functions connected to cognition and memory, among others26,27.&nbsp;... We investigated psychotropic amines based on the phenethylamine scaffold, such as amphetamine 5, methamphetamine 6, phentermine 7, mephentermine 8, and the structurally diverse chlorphenteramine 9, for their activating effects on 11 CA isoforms of human origin&nbsp;... The widespread hCA I and II, the secreted hCA VI, as well as the cytosolic hCA XIII and membrane-bound hCA IX and XIV were poorly activated by these amines, whereas the extracellular hCA IV, the mitochondrial enzymes hCA VA/VB, the cytosolic hCA VII, and the transmembrane isoform hCA XII were potently activated. Some of these enzymes (hCA VII, VA, VB, XII) are abundant in the brain, raising the possibility that some of the cognitive effects of such psychoactive substances might be related to the activation of these enzymes.&nbsp;... CAAs started to be considered only recently for possible pharmacologic applications in memory/cognition therapy27. This work may bring new lights on the intricate relationship between CA activation by this type of compounds and the multitude of pharmacologic actions that they can elicit.<br /> —Table 1: CA activation of isoforms hCA I, II, IV, VII, and XIII [5: amphetamine]<br /> —Table 2: CA activation of isoforms hCA VA, VB, VI, IX, XII, and XIV [5: amphetamine]}}</ref><ref name"IUPHAR Amphetamine">{{cite web | titleAmphetamine: Biological activity | urlhttps://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/LigandDisplayForward?tabbiology&ligandId4804 | websiteIUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology | publisherInternational Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology | access-date31 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| hCA5B || 2560 || <ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
|-
| hCA7 || 910 || <ref name"Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" /><ref name"IUPHAR Amphetamine" />
|-
| hCA12 || 640 || <ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
|-
| hCA13 || 24100 || <ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
|-
| hCA14 || 9150 || <ref name="Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" />
|-
|}
Acute amphetamine administration in humans increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system.<ref name"Amphetamine-induced endogenous opioid release review" /><ref name"Opioids" /><ref name"Opioids cited primary source" /> Extracellular levels of glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase in the striatum following exposure to amphetamine.<ref name"EAAT3" /> This increase in extracellular glutamate presumably occurs via the amphetamine-induced internalization of EAAT3, a glutamate reuptake transporter, in dopamine neurons.<ref name"EAAT3" /><ref name"SLC1A1" /> Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through {{abbr|VMAT2|vesicular monoamine transporter 2}}.<ref name"E Weihe" /> Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.<ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"Human amph effects">{{cite book | vauthors Gunne LM | titleDrug Addiction II: Amphetamine, Psychotogen, and Marihuana Dependence | date2013 | publisherSpringer | locationBerlin, Germany; Heidelberg, Germany | isbn9783642667091 | pages247–260 | access-date4 December 2015 | chapterEffects of Amphetamines in Humans | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgb_uCAAAQBAJ&pgPA247}}</ref><ref name"Primary: Human HPA axis">{{cite journal | vauthors Oswald LM, Wong DF, McCaul M, Zhou Y, Kuwabara H, Choi L, Brasic J, Wand GS | title Relationships among ventral striatal dopamine release, cortisol secretion, and subjective responses to amphetamine | journal Neuropsychopharmacology| volume 30 | issue 4 | pages 821–832 | date April 2005 | pmid 15702139 | doi 10.1038/sj.npp.1300667 | s2cid 12302237 | quote Findings from several prior investigations have shown that plasma levels of glucocorticoids and ACTH are increased by acute administration of AMPH in both rodents and humans| doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref><!--
Amphetamine has no direct effect on acetylcholine neurotransmission, but several studies have noted that acetylcholine release increases after its use.<ref name"Acetylcholine">{{cite journal |vauthorsHutson PH, Tarazi FI, Madhoo M, Slawecki C, Patkar AA | title Preclinical pharmacology of amphetamine: implications for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders | journalPharmacol Ther| volume 143 | issue 3 | pages 253–264 | date September 2014 | pmid 24657455 | doi 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.03.005}}</ref> In lab animals, amphetamine increases acetylcholine levels in certain brain regions as a downstream effect.<ref name="Acetylcholine" /> -->
In December 2017, the first study assessing the interaction between amphetamine and human carbonic anhydrase enzymes was published;<ref name"Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" /> of the eleven carbonic anhydrase enzymes it examined, it found that amphetamine potently activates seven, four of which are highly expressed in the human brain, with low nanomolar through low micromolar activating effects.<ref name"Amphetamine-induced activation of 7 hCA isoforms" /> Based upon preclinical research, cerebral carbonic anhydrase activation has cognition-enhancing effects;<ref name"Carbonic anhydrase modulators 2019 Review" /> but, based upon the clinical use of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, carbonic anhydrase activation in other tissues may be associated with adverse effects, such as ocular activation exacerbating glaucoma.<ref name"Carbonic anhydrase modulators 2019 Review">{{cite journal | vauthors Bozdag M, Altamimi AA, Vullo D, Supuran CT, Carta F | title State of the Art on Carbonic Anhydrase Modulators for Biomedical Purposes | journal Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume 26 | issue 15 | pages 2558–2573 | date 2019 | pmid 29932025 | doi 10.2174/0929867325666180622120625 | s2cid 49345601 | quote CARBONIC ANHYDRASE INHIBITORS (CAIs). The design and development of CAIs represent the most prolific area within the CA research field. Since the introduction of CAIs in the clinical use in the 40', they still are the first choice for the treatment of edema [9], altitude sickness [9], glaucoma [7] and epilepsy [31].&nbsp;... CARBONIC ANHYDRASE ACTIVATORS (CAAs)&nbsp;... The emerging class of CAAs has recently gained attraction as the enhancement of the kinetic properties in hCAs expressed in the CNS were proved in animal models to be beneficial for the treatment of both cognitive and memory impairments. Thus, CAAs have enormous potentiality in medicinal chemistry to be developed for the treatment of symptoms associated to aging, trauma or deterioration of the CNS tissues.}}</ref>PharmacokineticsThe oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH;<ref name"FDA" /> it is well absorbed from the gut, and bioavailability is typically 90%.<ref name"handbook2022">{{Cite book |titleHandbook of Substance Misuse and Addictions |publisherSpringer International Publishing |year2022 |isbn978-3-030-92391-4 |veditorsPatel VB, Preedy VR |locationCham |page2006 |doi10.1007/978-3-030-92392-1 |quoteAmphetamine is usually consumed via inhalation or orally, either in the form of a racemic mixture (levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine) or dextroamphetamine alone (Childress et al. 2019). In general, all amphetamines have high bioavailability when consumed orally, and in the specific case of amphetamine, 90% of the consumed dose is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, with no significant differences in the rate and extent of absorption between the two enantiomers (Carvalho et al. 2012; Childress et al. 2019). The onset of action occurs approximately 30 to 45 minutes after consumption, depending on the ingested dose and on the degree of purity or on the concomitant consumption of certain foods (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction 2021a; Steingard et al. 2019). It is described that those substances that promote acidification of the gastrointestinal tract cause a decrease in amphetamine absorption, while gastrointestinal alkalinization may be related to an increase in the compound’s absorption (Markowitz and Patrick 2017).}}</ref> Amphetamine is a weak base with a pK<sub>a</sub> of 9.9;<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> consequently, when the pH is basic, more of the drug is in its lipid soluble free base form, and more is absorbed through the lipid-rich cell membranes of the gut epithelium.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name"FDA" /> Conversely, an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water-soluble cationic (salt) form, and less is absorbed.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> Approximately {{nowrap|20%}} of amphetamine circulating in the bloodstream is bound to plasma proteins.<ref name"Drugbank-amph">{{cite DrugBank|drugAmphetamine|idDB00182}}</ref> Following absorption, amphetamine readily distributes into most tissues in the body, with high concentrations occurring in cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue.<ref name"HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine |sectionMetabolism/Pharmacokinetics |urlhttp://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+@rel+300-62-9 |publisherHazardous Substances Data Bank. United States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– Toxicology Data Network |access-date2 October 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171002194327/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/cgi-bin/sis/search2/f?.%2Ftemp%2F~mdjW95%3A1%3AFULL |archive-date2 October 2017 |quoteDuration of effect varies depending on agent and urine pH. Excretion is enhanced in more acidic urine. Half-life is 7 to 34&nbsp;hours and is, in part, dependent on urine pH (half-life is longer with alkaline urine).&nbsp;... Amphetamines are distributed into most body tissues with high concentrations occurring in the brain and CSF. Amphetamine appears in the urine within about 3&nbsp;hours following oral administration.&nbsp;... Three days after a dose of (+ or -)-amphetamine, human subjects had excreted 91% of the (14)C in the urine}}</ref>
The half-lives of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> At normal urine pH, the half-lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are {{nowrap|9–11}}&nbsp;hours and {{nowrap|11–14}}&nbsp;hours, respectively.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> Highly acidic urine will reduce the enantiomer half-lives to 7&nbsp;hours;<ref name"HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record" /> highly alkaline urine will increase the half-lives up to 34&nbsp;hours.<ref name"HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record" /> The immediate-release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach peak plasma concentrations at 3&nbsp;hours and 7&nbsp;hours post-dose respectively.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> Amphetamine is eliminated via the kidneys, with {{nowrap|30–40%}} of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> When the urinary pH is basic, amphetamine is in its free base form, so less is excreted.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> When urine pH is abnormal, the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1% to a high of 75%, depending mostly upon whether urine is too basic or acidic, respectively.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> Following oral administration, amphetamine appears in urine within 3&nbsp;hours.<ref name"HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record" /> Roughly 90% of ingested amphetamine is eliminated 3&nbsp;days after the last oral dose.<ref name"HSDB Toxnet October 2017 Full archived record" />{{if pagename|Adderall|Dextroamphetamine|other=&nbsp;
Lisdexamfetamine is a prodrug of dextroamphetamine.<ref name"pmid27021968" /><ref nameUSVyvanselabel /> It is not as sensitive to pH as amphetamine when being absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract.<ref nameUSVyvanselabel>{{cite web | titleVyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate capsule Vyvanse- lisdexamfetamine dimesylate tablet, chewable | websiteDailyMed | publisher Shire US Inc. | date30 October 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid704e4378-ca83-445c-8b45-3cfa51c1ecad | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref> Following absorption into the blood stream, lisdexamfetamine is completely converted by red blood cells to dextroamphetamine and the amino acid <small>L</small>-lysine by hydrolysis via undetermined aminopeptidase enzymes.<ref nameUSVyvanselabel/><ref name"pmid27021968" /><ref name"pmid28936175">{{cite journal | vauthors Dolder PC, Strajhar P, Vizeli P, Hammann F, Odermatt A, Liechti ME | title Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Lisdexamfetamine Compared with D-Amphetamine in Healthy Subjects | journal Front Pharmacol | volume 8 | issue | pages 617 | date 2017 | pmid 28936175 | pmc 5594082 | doi 10.3389/fphar.2017.00617 | quote Inactive lisdexamfetamine is completely (>98%) converted to its active metabolite D-amphetamine in the circulation (Pennick, 2010; Sharman and Pennick, 2014). When lisdexamfetamine is misused intranasally or intravenously, the pharmacokinetics are similar to oral use (Jasinski and Krishnan, 2009b; Ermer et al., 2011), and the subjective effects are not enhanced by parenteral administration in contrast to D-amphetamine (Lile et al., 2011) thus reducing the risk of parenteral misuse of lisdexamfetamine compared with D-amphetamine. Intravenous lisdexamfetamine use also produced significantly lower increases in "drug liking" and "stimulant effects" compared with D-amphetamine in intravenous substance users (Jasinski and Krishnan, 2009a).| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> This is the rate-limiting step in the bioactivation of lisdexamfetamine.<ref name"pmid27021968" /> The elimination half-life of lisdexamfetamine is generally less than 1&nbsp;hour.<ref nameUSVyvanselabel /><ref name"pmid27021968" /> Due to the necessary conversion of lisdexamfetamine into dextroamphetamine, levels of dextroamphetamine with lisdexamfetamine peak about one hour later than with an equivalent dose of immediate-release dextroamphetamine.<ref name"pmid27021968">{{cite journal | vauthors Ermer JC, Pennick M, Frick G | title Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy | journal Clinical Drug Investigation | volume 36 | issue 5 | pages 341–356 | date May 2016 | pmid 27021968 | pmc 4823324 | doi 10.1007/s40261-015-0354-y }}</ref><ref name"pmid28936175" /> Presumably due to its rate-limited activation by red blood cells, intravenous administration of lisdexamfetamine shows greatly delayed time to peak and reduced peak levels compared to intravenous administration of an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine.<ref name"pmid27021968" /> The pharmacokinetics of lisdexamfetamine are similar regardless of whether it is administered orally, intranasally, or intravenously.<ref name"pmid27021968" /><ref name"pmid28936175" /> Hence, in contrast to dextroamphetamine, parenteral use does not enhance the subjective effects of lisdexamfetamine.<ref name"pmid27021968" /><ref name"pmid28936175" /> Because of its behavior as a prodrug and its pharmacokinetic differences, lisdexamfetamine has a longer duration of therapeutic effect than immediate-release dextroamphetamine and shows reduced misuse potential.<ref name"pmid27021968" /><ref name"pmid28936175" />
}}
CYP2D6, dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), butyrate-CoA ligase (XM-ligase), and glycine N-acyltransferase (GLYAT) are the enzymes known to metabolize amphetamine or its metabolites in humans.<ref name"amphetamine metabolism" group "sources" /> Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products, including {{nowrap|4-hydroxyamphetamine}}, {{nowrap|4-hydroxynorephedrine}}, {{nowrap|4-hydroxyphenylacetone}}, benzoic acid, hippuric acid, norephedrine, and phenylacetone.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name"Metabolites" /> Among these metabolites, the active sympathomimetics are {{nowrap|4-hydroxyamphetamine}},<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titlep-Hydroxyamphetamine. PubChem Compound Database|section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid3651 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information | access-date15 October 2013 |sectionCompound Summary}}</ref> {{nowrap|4-hydroxynorephedrine}},<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titlep-Hydroxynorephedrine. PubChem Compound Database |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid11099 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date15 October 2013 |sectionCompound Summary}}</ref> and norephedrine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titlePhenylpropanolamine. PubChem Compound Database |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid26934 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date15 October 2013 |sectionCompound Summary}}</ref> The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, N-oxidation, N-dealkylation, and deamination.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name"Pubchem Kinetics">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine. Pubchem Compound Database |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid3007#sectionPharmacology-and-Biochemistry |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date12 October 2013 |section=Pharmacology and Biochemistry}}</ref> The known metabolic pathways, detectable metabolites, and metabolizing enzymes in humans include the following:
{{Amphetamine pharmacokinetics|captionThe primary active metabolites of amphetamine are {{nowrap|4-hydroxyamphetamine}} and norephedrine;<ref name"Metabolites" /> at normal urine pH, about {{nowrap|30–40%}} of amphetamine is excreted unchanged and roughly 50% is excreted as the inactive metabolites (bottom row).<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> The remaining {{nowrap|10–20%}} is excreted as the active metabolites.<ref name"FDA Pharmacokinetics" /> Benzoic acid is metabolized by {{abbr|XM-ligase|butyrate-CoA ligase}} into an intermediate product, benzoyl-CoA, which is then metabolized by {{abbr|GLYAT|glycine N-acyltransferase}} into hippuric acid.<ref name="Glycine conjugation review" />}}
{{clear}}
Pharmacomicrobiomics
The human metagenome (i.e., the genetic composition of an individual and all microorganisms that reside on or within the individual's body) varies considerably between individuals.<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics">{{cite journal | vauthors ElRakaiby M, Dutilh BE, Rizkallah MR, Boleij A, Cole JN, Aziz RK | title Pharmacomicrobiomics: the impact of human microbiome variations on systems pharmacology and personalized therapeutics | journalOmics | volume 18 | issue 7 | pages 402–414 | date July 2014 | pmid 24785449 | pmc 4086029 | doi 10.1089/omi.2014.0018 | quote The hundred trillion microbes and viruses residing in every human body, which outnumber human cells and contribute at least 100 times more genes than those encoded on the human genome (Ley et al., 2006), offer an immense accessory pool for inter-individual genetic variation that has been underestimated and largely unexplored (Savage, 1977; Medini et al., 2008; Minot et al., 2011; Wylie et al., 2012).&nbsp;... Meanwhile, a wealth of literature has long been available about the biotransformation of xenobiotics, notably by gut bacteria (reviewed in Sousa et al., 2008; Rizkallah et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2012; Haiser and Turnbaugh, 2013). This valuable information is predominantly about drug metabolism by unknown human-associated microbes; however, only a few cases of inter-individual microbiome variations have been documented [e.g., digoxin (Mathan et al., 1989) and acetaminophen (Clayton et al., 2009)].}}</ref><ref name"Human microbiome">{{cite journal | vauthors Cho I, Blaser MJ | title The human microbiome: at the interface of health and disease | journalNature Reviews Genetics| volume 13 | issue 4 | pages 260–270 | date March 2012 | pmid 22411464 | doi 10.1038/nrg3182 | quoteThe composition of the microbiome varies by anatomical site (Figure 1). The primary determinant of community composition is anatomical location: interpersonal variation is substantial<sup>23,24</sup> and is higher than the temporal variability seen at most sites in a single individual<sup>25</sup>.&nbsp;... How does the microbiome affect the pharmacology of medications? Can we "micro-type" people to improve pharmacokinetics and/or reduce toxicity? Can we manipulate the microbiome to improve pharmacokinetic stability?| pmc 3418802 }}</ref> Since the total number of microbial and viral cells in the human body (over 100&nbsp;trillion) greatly outnumbers human cells (tens of trillions),{{#tag:ref|There is substantial variation in microbiome composition and microbial concentrations by anatomical site.<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics" /><ref name"Human microbiome" /> Fluid from the human colon&nbsp;– which contains the highest concentration of microbes of any anatomical site&nbsp;– contains approximately one trillion (10^12) bacterial cells/ml.<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics" />|group"note"}}<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics" /><ref name"Gut feeling">{{cite journal | vauthors Hutter T, Gimbert C, Bouchard F, Lapointe FJ | title Being human is a gut feeling | journal Microbiome| volume 3 | pages 9 | pmid 25774294 | doi 10.1186/s40168-015-0076-7 | pmc 4359430 | quoteSome metagenomic studies have suggested that less than 10% of the cells that comprise our bodies are Homo sapiens cells. The remaining 90% are bacterial cells. The description of this so-called human microbiome is of great interest and importance for several reasons. For one, it helps us redefine what a biological individual is. We suggest that a human individual is now best described as a super-individual in which a large number of different species (including Homo sapiens) coexist.| year 2015 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> there is considerable potential for interactions between drugs and an individual's microbiome, including: drugs altering the composition of the human microbiome, drug metabolism by microbial enzymes modifying the drug's pharmacokinetic profile, and microbial drug metabolism affecting a drug's clinical efficacy and toxicity profile.<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics" /><ref name"Human microbiome" /><ref name"Microbial amphetamine metabolism - E. coli" /> The field that studies these interactions is known as pharmacomicrobiomics.<ref name"Pharmacomicrobiomics" />
Similar to most biomolecules and other orally administered xenobiotics (i.e., drugs), amphetamine is predicted to undergo promiscuous metabolism by human gastrointestinal microbiota (primarily bacteria) prior to absorption into the blood stream.<ref name"Microbial amphetamine metabolism - E. coli" /> The first amphetamine-metabolizing microbial enzyme, tyramine oxidase from a strain of E. coli commonly found in the human gut, was identified in 2019.<ref name"Microbial amphetamine metabolism - E. coli" /> This enzyme was found to metabolize amphetamine, tyramine, and phenethylamine with roughly the same binding affinity for all three compounds.<ref name"Microbial amphetamine metabolism - E. coli">{{cite journal | vauthors Kumar K, Dhoke GV, Sharma AK, Jaiswal SK, Sharma VK | title Mechanistic elucidation of amphetamine metabolism by tyramine oxidase from human gut microbiota using molecular dynamics simulations | journalJournal of Cellular Biochemistry| date January 2019 | pmid 30701587 | doi 10.1002/jcb.28396 | quote<!-- Numerous microorganisms reside with the human host in a symbiotic relationship and play an important role in the host metabolic processes and health.<sup>1,2</sup> Several studies in the recent past have reported that there are compositional differences in the human microbiome due to factors such as geographical location, diet, age, and genetic variations.<sup>3</sup> --> Particularly in the case of the human gut, which harbors a large diversity of bacterial species, the differences in microbial composition can significantly alter the metabolic activity in the gut lumen.<sup>4</sup> The differential metabolic activity due to the differences in gut microbial species has been recently linked with various metabolic disorders and diseases.<sup>5–12</sup> In addition to the impact of gut microbial diversity or dysbiosis in various human diseases, there is an increasing amount of evidence which shows that the gut microbes can affect the bioavailability and efficacy of various orally administrated{{sic}} drug molecules through promiscuous enzymatic metabolism.<sup>13,14</sup>&nbsp;... The present study on the atomistic details of amphetamine binding and binding affinity to the tyramine oxidase along with the comparison with two natural substrates of this enzyme namely tyramine and phenylalanine provides strong evidence for the promiscuity-based metabolism of amphetamine by the tyramine oxidase enzyme of E. coli. The obtained results will be crucial in designing a surrogate molecule for amphetamine that can help either in improving the efficacy and bioavailability of the amphetamine drug via competitive inhibition or in redesigning the drug for better pharmacological effects. This study will also have useful clinical implications in reducing the gut microbiota caused variation in the drug response among different populations. | volume120 | issue 7 | pages11206–11215| s2cid 73413138 }}</ref>
Related endogenous compounds
{{Further|topic=related compounds|Trace amine}}
Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines, which are naturally occurring neuromodulator molecules produced in the human body and brain.<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"Human trace amines and hTAARs October 2016 review">{{cite journal | vauthors Khan MZ, Nawaz W | title The emerging roles of human trace amines and human trace amine-associated receptors (hTAARs) in central nervous system | journalBiomedicine & Pharmacotherapy| volume 83 | pages 439–449 | date October 2016 | pmid 27424325 | doi 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.07.002 }}</ref> Among this group, the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine, the parent compound of amphetamine, and {{nowrap|N-methylphenethylamine}}, a structural isomer of amphetamine (i.e., it has an identical molecular formula).<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"Renaissance GPCR">{{cite journal |vauthorsLindemann L, Hoener MC |titleA renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family |journalTrends in Pharmacological Sciences|volume26 |issue5 |pages274–281 |dateMay 2005 |pmid15860375 |doi10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007 | quote <!-- In addition to the main metabolic pathway, TAs can also be converted by nonspecific N-methyltransferase (NMT) [22] and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) [23] to the corresponding secondary amines (e.g. synephrine [14], N-methylphenylethylamine and N-methyltyramine [15]), which display similar activities on TAAR1 (TA1) as their primary amine precursors. -->}}</ref> In humans, phenethylamine is produced directly from {{nowrap|L-phenylalanine}} by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme, which converts {{nowrap|L-DOPA}} into dopamine as well.<ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"Renaissance GPCR" /> In turn, {{nowrap|N-methylphenethylamine}} is metabolized from phenethylamine by phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase, the same enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine into epinephrine.<ref name"Trace Amines">{{cite journal | author Broadley KJ | title The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines | journalPharmacology & Therapeutics| volume 125 | issue 3 | pages 363–375 |dateMarch 2010 | pmid 19948186 | doi 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.11.005 | quote <!-- Fig. 2. Synthetic and metabolic pathways for endogenous and exogenously administered trace amines and sympathomimetic amines&nbsp;...<br /> Trace amines are metabolized in the mammalian body via monoamine oxidase (MAO; EC 1.4.3.4) (Berry, 2004) (Fig. 2)&nbsp;... It deaminates primary and secondary amines that are free in the neuronal cytoplasm but not those bound in storage vesicles of the sympathetic neurone&nbsp;...<br />Thus, MAO inhibitors potentiate the peripheral effects of indirectly acting sympathomimetic amines&nbsp;... this potentiation occurs irrespective of whether the amine is a substrate for MAO. An α-methyl group on the side chain, as in amphetamine and ephedrine, renders the amine immune to deamination so that they are not metabolized in the gut. Similarly, β-PEA would not be deaminated in the gut as it is a selective substrate for MAO-B which is not found in the gut&nbsp;...<br /> Brain levels of endogenous trace amines are several hundred-fold below those for the classical neurotransmitters noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin but their rates of synthesis are equivalent to those of noradrenaline and dopamine and they have a very rapid turnover rate (Berry, 2004). Endogenous extracellular tissue levels of trace amines measured in the brain are in the low nanomolar range. These low concentrations arise because of their very short half-life&nbsp;... -->}}</ref><ref name"Renaissance GPCR" /> Like amphetamine, both phenethylamine and {{nowrap|N-methylphenethylamine}} regulate monoamine neurotransmission via {{abbr|TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1}};<ref name"Miller" /><ref name"Human trace amines and hTAARs October 2016 review" /><ref name"Renaissance GPCR" /> unlike amphetamine, both of these substances are broken down by monoamine oxidase B, and therefore have a shorter half-life than amphetamine.<ref name"Trace Amines" /><ref name"Renaissance GPCR" />Chemistry<div class"skin-invert-image">
{{Annotated image 4
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| caption = The skeletal structures of {{nowrap|{{abbr|L-amph|levoamphetamine}}}} and {{nowrap|{{abbr|D-amph|dextroamphetamine}}}}
| header = Racemic amphetamine
| header_align = center
| alt = Graphical representation of Amphetamine stereoisomers
| image = Racemic_amphetamine.svg
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{{Annotation|5|60|Levoamphetamine}}
{{Annotation|170|60|Dextroamphetamine}}
}}</div>
{{Multiple image
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| image1=Amphetamine Freebase.png
| caption1=A vial of the colorless amphetamine free base
| alt1=An image of amphetamine free base
| image2=Amphetamine and P2P.png
| caption2=Amphetamine hydrochloride (left bowl)<br />{{nowrap|Phenyl-2-nitropropene}} (right cups)
| alt2=An image of phenyl-2-nitropropene and amphetamine hydrochloride
}}
Amphetamine is a methyl homolog of the mammalian neurotransmitter phenethylamine with the chemical formula {{Chem2|C9H13N|autoyes}}. The carbon atom adjacent to the primary amine is a stereogenic center, and amphetamine is composed of a racemic 1:1 mixture of two enantiomers.<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /> This racemic mixture can be separated into its optical isomers:{{#tag:ref|Enantiomers are molecules that are mirror images of one another; they are structurally identical, but of the opposite orientation.<ref name"Enantiomers" />|group "note"}} levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.<ref name"Drugbank-amph" /> At room temperature, the pure free base of amphetamine is a mobile, colorless, and volatile liquid with a characteristically strong amine odor, and acrid, burning taste.<ref name"Properties">{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid3007#sectionChemical-and-Physical-Properties |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database |access-date13 October 2013 |sectionChemical and Physical Properties}}</ref> Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine adipate,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2003/11/10/03-28193/determination-that-delcobese-amphetamine-adipate-amphetamine-sulfate-dextroamphetamine-adipate|titleDetermination That Delcobese (Amphetamine Adipate, Amphetamine Sulfate, Dextroamphetamine Adipate, Dextroamphetamine Sulfate) Tablets and Capsules Were Not Withdrawn From Sale for Reasons of Safety or Effectiveness|date10 November 2003|websiteFederal Register|access-date3 January 2020}}</ref> aspartate,<ref name"FDA" /> hydrochloride,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine Hydrochloride |urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid92939 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. Pubchem Compound Database |access-date8 November 2013}}</ref> phosphate,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleAmphetamine Phosphate |urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid62885 |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. Pubchem Compound Database |access-date8 November 2013}}</ref> saccharate,<ref name"FDA" /> sulfate,<ref name"FDA" /> and tannate.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsCavallito J |date23 August 1960|titleAmphetamine Tannate. Patent Application No. 2,950,309. |urlhttps://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/23/7a/08/1e7b613dc61b17/US2950309.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/23/7a/08/1e7b613dc61b17/US2950309.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|journalUnited States Patent Office}}</ref> Dextroamphetamine sulfate is the most common enantiopure salt.<ref name"EMC" /> Amphetamine is also the parent compound of its own structural class, which includes a number of psychoactive derivatives.<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"Drugbank-amph" /> In organic chemistry, amphetamine is an excellent chiral ligand for the stereoselective synthesis of {{nowrap|1,1'-bi-2-naphthol}}.<ref name"Chiral Ligand">{{cite journal |vauthorsBrussee J, Jansen AC | date May 1983 | title A highly stereoselective synthesis of s(−)-[1,1'-binaphthalene]-2,2'-diol | journal Tetrahedron Letters | volume 24 | issue 31 | pages 3261–3262 | doi 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)88151-4 }}</ref>Substituted derivatives
{{Main list|Substituted amphetamine}}
The substituted derivatives of amphetamine, or "substituted amphetamines", are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a "backbone";<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"Amphetamine - a substituted amphetamine">{{cite journal | vauthors Hagel JM, Krizevski R, Marsolais F, Lewinsohn E, Facchini PJ | title Biosynthesis of amphetamine analogs in plants | journal Trends in Plant Science| volume 17 | issue 7 | pages 404–412 | date 2012 | pmid 22502775 | doi 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.03.004 | bibcode 2012TPS....17..404H | quote Substituted amphetamines, which are also called phenylpropylamino alkaloids, are a diverse group of nitrogen-containing compounds that feature a phenethylamine backbone with a methyl group at the α-position relative to the nitrogen (Figure 1).&nbsp;... Beyond (1R,2S)-ephedrine and (1S,2S)-pseudoephedrine, myriad other substituted amphetamines have important pharmaceutical applications.&nbsp;... For example, (S)-amphetamine (Figure 4b), a key ingredient in Adderall and Dexedrine, is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [79].&nbsp;... <br />[Figure 4](b) Examples of synthetic, pharmaceutically important substituted amphetamines.}}</ref><ref name"Schep">{{cite journal |vauthorsSchep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Beasley DM | titleThe clinical toxicology of metamfetamine | journalClinical Toxicology| volume48 | issue7 | pages675–694 |dateAugust 2010 | pmid20849327 | doi10.3109/15563650.2010.516752 | s2cid42588722 | issn1556-3650}}</ref> specifically, this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents.<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"Amphetamine - a substituted amphetamine" /><ref name"pmid1855720">{{cite journal | vauthors Lillsunde P, Korte T | title Determination of ring- and N-substituted amphetamines as heptafluorobutyryl derivatives | journal Forensic Science International| volume 49 | issue 2 | pages 205–213 | date March 1991 | pmid 1855720 | doi10.1016/0379-0738(91)90081-s}}</ref> The class includes amphetamine itself, stimulants like methamphetamine, serotonergic empathogens like MDMA, and decongestants like ephedrine, among other subgroups.<ref name"Substituted amphetamines, FMO, and DBH" /><ref name"Amphetamine - a substituted amphetamine" /><ref name"Schep" />
Synthesis
{{Further|topic=illicit amphetamine synthesis|History and culture of substituted amphetamines#Illegal synthesis}}
Since the first preparation was reported in 1887,<ref name"Vermont"/> numerous synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed.<ref name"Allen_Ely_2009">{{cite journal | url http://www.nwafs.org/newsletters/2011_Spring.pdf | title Review: Synthetic Methods for Amphetamine | vauthors Allen A, Ely R | publisher Northwest Association of Forensic Scientists | volume 37 | issue 2 | date April 2009 | pages 15–25 | journal Crime Scene | access-date 6 December 2014 | archive-date 2 March 2014 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140302003354/http://www.nwafs.org/newsletters/2011_Spring.pdf | url-status dead }}</ref><ref name"Allen_Cantrell_1989">{{cite journal |vauthorsAllen A, Cantrell TS | title Synthetic reductions in clandestine amphetamine and methamphetamine laboratories: A review | journal Forensic Science International| date August 1989 | volume 42 | issue 3 | pages 183–199 | doi 10.1016/0379-0738(89)90086-8 }}</ref> The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non-metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction (method&nbsp;1).<ref name"EMC"/><ref name"Amph Synth" /> In the first step, a reaction between phenylacetone and formamide, either using additional formic acid or formamide itself as a reducing agent, yields {{nowrap|N-formylamphetamine}}. This intermediate is then hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid, and subsequently basified, extracted with organic solvent, concentrated, and distilled to yield the free base. The free base is then dissolved in an organic solvent, sulfuric acid added, and amphetamine precipitates out as the sulfate salt.<ref name"Amph Synth" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi 10.1021/jo01145a001 | title The Mechanism of the Leuckart Reaction |dateMay 1951 |vauthorsPollard CB, Young DC | journalThe Journal of Organic Chemistry| volume 16 | issue 5 | pages = 661–672}}</ref>
A number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine.<ref name "Allen_Ely_2009"/> For example, racemic amphetamine can be treated with {{nowrap|d-tartaric acid}} to form a diastereoisomeric salt which is fractionally crystallized to yield dextroamphetamine.<ref name "US2276508">{{ cite patent | country US | number 2276508 | status patent | title Method for the separation of optically active alpha-methylphenethylamine | pubdate 17 March 1942 | fdate 3 November 1939 | pridate 3 November 1939 | inventor Nabenhauer FP | assign1 Smith Kline French }}</ref> Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale.<ref name "Gray_2007"/> In addition, several enantioselective syntheses of amphetamine have been developed. In one example, optically pure {{nowrap|(R)-1-phenyl-ethanamine}} is condensed with phenylacetone to yield a chiral Schiff base. In the key step, this intermediate is reduced by catalytic hydrogenation with a transfer of chirality to the carbon atom alpha to the amino group. Cleavage of the benzylic amine bond by hydrogenation yields optically pure dextroamphetamine.<ref name "Gray_2007">{{Cite book |veditorsJohnson DS, Li JJ | author Gray DL | title The Art of Drug Synthesis | chapter Approved Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Amphetamine (Adderall), Methylphenidate (Ritalin), and Atomoxetine (Straterra) | chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idzvruBDAulWEC&qThe%20Art%20of%20Drug%20Synthesis%20(Wiley%20Series%20on%20Drug%20Synthesis)&pgSA17-PA4 | year 2007 | publisher Wiley-Interscience | location New York, US | isbn 9780471752158 | page 247 }}</ref>
A large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions.<ref name"Allen_Ely_2009"/><ref name"Allen_Cantrell_1989"/> One example is the Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene by allyl chloride to yield beta chloropropylbenzene which is then reacted with ammonia to produce racemic amphetamine (method&nbsp;2).<ref name"pmid20985610">{{cite journal |vauthorsPatrick TM, McBee ET, Hass HB | title Synthesis of arylpropylamines; from allyl chloride | journalJournal of the American Chemical Society| volume 68 | issue 6 | pages 1009–1011 | date June 1946 | pmid 20985610 | doi 10.1021/ja01210a032 | bibcode 1946JAChS..68.1009P }}</ref> Another example employs the Ritter reaction (method&nbsp;3). In this route, allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate.<ref name"pmid18105933">{{cite journal |vauthorsRitter JJ, Kalish J | title A new reaction of nitriles; synthesis of t-carbinamines | journal Journal of the American Chemical Society| volume 70 | issue 12 | pages 4048–4050 | date December 1948 | pmid 18105933 | doi 10.1021/ja01192a023 | bibcode 1948JAChS..70.4048R }}</ref><ref nameKrimen_Cota_1969>{{Cite book | chapterThe Ritter Reaction | vauthorsKrimen LI, Cota DJ | date March 2011 | volume 17 | page 216 | doi 10.1002/0471264180.or017.03 | titleOrganic Reactions | isbn9780471264187 }}</ref> A third route starts with {{nowrap|ethyl 3-oxobutanoate}} which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into {{nowrap|2-methyl-3-phenyl-propanoic}} acid. This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement (method&nbsp;4).<ref name "US2413493">{{ cite patent | country US | number 2413493 | status patent | title Synthesis of isomer-free benzyl methyl acetoacetic methyl ester | pubdate 31 December 1946 | fdate 3 June 1943 | pridate 3 June 1943 | inventor Bitler WP, Flisik AC, Leonard N | assign1 = Kay Fries Chemicals Inc. }}</ref>
A significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro, imine, oxime, or other nitrogen-containing functional groups.<ref name "Allen_Cantrell_1989"/> In one such example, a Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with nitroethane yields {{nowrap|phenyl-2-nitropropene}}. The double bond and nitro group of this intermediate is reduced using either catalytic hydrogenation or by treatment with lithium aluminium hydride (method&nbsp;5).<ref name"Amph Synth">{{cite web | url http://www.unodc.org/pdf/scientific/stnar34.pdf | title Recommended methods of the identification and analysis of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and their ring-substituted analogues in seized materials | pages 9–12 | access-date 14 October 2013 | year 2006 | website United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | publisher United Nations}}</ref><ref name"Delta Isotope">{{cite journal |vauthorsCollins M, Salouros H, Cawley AT, Robertson J, Heagney AC, Arenas-Queralt A | title δ<sup>13</sup>C and δ<sup>2</sup>H isotope ratios in amphetamine synthesized from benzaldehyde and nitroethane | journal Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry| volume 24 | issue 11 | pages 1653–1658 |dateJune 2010 | pmid 20486262 | doi 10.1002/rcm.4563 | bibcode <!-- No --> }}</ref> Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia, producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride (method&nbsp;6).<ref name="Amph Synth" />
<!--Table of chemical synthesis diagrams -->
{| style="margin: 1em auto;"
|+Amphetamine synthetic routes
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|<!--Left cell: nested table -->
{|
|<div class="skin-invert-image">{{multiple image
<!-- Essential parameters -->
| align = center
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| width = 372
|image1=Amphetamine Leukart synthesis.svg
|caption1=Method&nbsp;1: Synthesis by the Leuckart reaction&nbsp;
|alt1=Diagram of amphetamine synthesis by the Leuckart reaction
|image2=Amphetamine resolution and chiral synthesis.svg
|caption2=Top: Chiral resolution of amphetamine&nbsp;<br />Bottom: Stereoselective synthesis of amphetamine&nbsp;
|alt2=Diagram of a chiral resolution of racemic amphetamine and a stereoselective synthesis
|image3=Amphetamine Friedel-Crafts alkylation.svg
|caption3=Method&nbsp;2: Synthesis by Friedel–Crafts alkylation&nbsp;
|alt3=Diagram of amphetamine synthesis by Friedel–Crafts alkylation
}}</div>
|}
|<!--Right cell: nested table -->
{|
|<div class="skin-invert-image">{{multiple image
<!-- Essential parameters -->
| align = center
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|image1=Amphetamine Ritter Synthesis.svg
|caption1=Method&nbsp;3: Ritter synthesis
|alt1=Diagram of amphetamine via Ritter synthesis
|image2=Amphetamine Hofmann Curtius Synthesis.svg
|caption2=Method&nbsp;4: Synthesis via Hofmann and Curtius rearrangements
|alt2=Diagram of amphetamine synthesis via Hofmann and Curtius rearrangements
|image3=Amphetamine Knoevenagel synthesis.svg
|caption3=Method&nbsp;5: Synthesis by Knoevenagel condensation
|alt3=Diagram of amphetamine synthesis by Knoevenagel condensation
|image4=Amphetamine p2p ammonia synthesis.svg
|caption4=Method&nbsp;6: Synthesis using phenylacetone and ammonia
|alt4=Diagram of amphetamine synthesis from phenylacetone and ammonia
}}</div>
|}
|}
{{clear}}
Detection in body fluids
Amphetamine is frequently measured in urine or blood as part of a drug test for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics.{{#tag:ref|<ref name"Ergogenics" /><ref name"pmid9700558">{{cite journal |vauthorsKraemer T, Maurer HH | title Determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine and amphetamine-derived designer drugs or medicaments in blood and urine | journal Journal of Chromatography B | volume 713 | issue 1 | pages 163–187 |dateAugust 1998 | pmid 9700558 | doi 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00515-X }}</ref><ref name"pmid17468860">{{cite journal |vauthorsKraemer T, Paul LD | title Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in blood | journal Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry| volume 388 | issue 7 | pages 1415–1435 |dateAugust 2007 | pmid 17468860 | doi 10.1007/s00216-007-1271-6 | s2cid 32917584 }}</ref><ref name"pmid8075776">{{cite journal |vauthorsGoldberger BA, Cone EJ | title Confirmatory tests for drugs in the workplace by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry | journalJournal of Chromatography A| volume 674 | issue 1–2 | pages 73–86 |dateJuly 1994 | pmid 8075776 | doi 10.1016/0021-9673(94)85218-9 }}</ref>|group"sources"}} Techniques such as immunoassay, which is the most common form of amphetamine test, may cross-react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs.<ref name"NAHMSA_testing" /> Chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine are employed to prevent false positive results.<ref name"pmid15516295" /> Chiral separation techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug, whether prescription amphetamine, prescription amphetamine prodrugs, (e.g., selegiline), over-the-counter drug products that contain levomethamphetamine,{{#tag:ref|The active ingredient in some OTC inhalers in the United States is listed as levmetamfetamine, the INN and USAN of levomethamphetamine.<ref name"FDA levmetamfetamine">{{cite encyclopedia |titleCode of Federal Regulations Title 21: Subchapter D – Drugs for human use |sectionPart 341 – cold, cough, allergy, bronchodilator, and antiasthmatic drug products for over-the-counter human use |section-urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr341.80 |publisherUnited States Food and Drug Administration |access-date24 December 2019 |date1 April 2019 |quoteTopical nasal decongestants --(i) For products containing levmetamfetamine identified in 341.20(b)(1) when used in an inhalant dosage form. The product delivers in each 800 milliliters of air 0.04 to 0.150 milligrams of levmetamfetamine. |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191225081836/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr341.80 |archive-date25 December 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleLevomethamphetamine |sectionIdentification |section-urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid36604#sectionIdentification |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine&nbsp;– National Center for Biotechnology Information. Pubchem Compound Database |access-date2 January 2014}}</ref>|name"OTC levmetamfetamine"|group"note"}} or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines.<ref name"pmid15516295">{{cite journal |vauthorsPaul BD, Jemionek J, Lesser D, Jacobs A, Searles DA |titleEnantiomeric separation and quantitation of (±)-amphetamine, (±)-methamphetamine, (±)-MDA, (±)-MDMA, and (±)-MDEA in urine specimens by GC-EI-MS after derivatization with (R)-(−)- or (S)-(+)-α-methoxy-α-(trifluoromethyl)phenylacetyl chloride (MTPA) | journal Journal of Analytical Toxicology| volume 28 | issue 6 |pages 449–455 |dateSeptember 2004 | pmid 15516295 | doi 10.1093/jat/28.6.449 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"pmid16105261">{{cite journal |vauthorsVerstraete AG, Heyden FV | title Comparison of the sensitivity and specificity of six immunoassays for the detection of amphetamines in urine | journal Journal of Analytical Toxicology| volume 29 | issue 5 | pages 359–364 | date August 2005 | pmid 16105261 | doi 10.1093/jat/29.5.359 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Baselt_2011">{{cite book | author Baselt RC | title Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man | year 2011 | publisher Biomedical Publications | locationSeal Beach, US | isbn 9780962652387 | pages 85–88 | edition 9th }}</ref> Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite, including benzphetamine, clobenzorex, famprofazone, fenproporex, lisdexamfetamine, mesocarb, methamphetamine, prenylamine, and selegiline, among others.<ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"pmid10711406">{{cite journal | author Musshoff F | title Illegal or legitimate use? Precursor compounds to amphetamine and methamphetamine | journal Drug Metabolism Reviews| volume 32 |issue 1 | pages 15–44 |dateFebruary 2000 | pmid 10711406 | doi 10.1081/DMR-100100562 | s2cid 20012024 }}</ref><ref name"pmid12024689">{{cite journal | author Cody JT | title Precursor medications as a source of methamphetamine and/or amphetamine positive drug testing results | journalJournal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine| volume 44 | issue 5 | pages 435–450 |dateMay 2002 | pmid 12024689 | doi 10.1097/00043764-200205000-00012 | s2cid 44614179 }}</ref> These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests.<ref name"pmid10711406" /><ref name"pmid12024689" /> Amphetamine is generally only detectable by a standard drug test for approximately 24&nbsp;hours, although a high dose may be detectable for {{nowrap|2–4}}&nbsp;days.<ref name"NAHMSA_testing">{{cite web | titleClinical Drug Testing in Primary Care | urlhttp://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/PublicHealth/research/centers/CHWE/Documents/SAMHSA_drugtesting.pdf | websiteUniversity of Colorado Denver | publisherUnited States Department of Health and Human Services&nbsp;– Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration | seriesTechnical Assistance Publication Series 32 | year2012 | page55 | access-date31 October 2013 | quoteA single dose of amphetamine or methamphetamine can be detected in the urine for approximately 24 hours, depending upon urine pH and individual metabolic differences. People who use chronically and at high doses may continue to have positive urine specimens for 2–4 days after last use (SAMHSA, 2010b). |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180514022358/http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/PublicHealth/research/centers/CHWE/Documents/SAMHSA_drugtesting.pdf | archive-date14 May 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref>
For the assays, a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry.<ref name"pmid16105261" /> Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the derivatizing agent {{nowrap|(S)-(−)-trifluoroacetylprolyl}} chloride allows for the detection of methamphetamine in urine.<ref name"pmid15516295" /> GC–MS of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the chiral derivatizing agent Mosher's&nbsp;acid chloride allows for the detection of both dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in urine.<ref name"pmid15516295" /> Hence, the latter method may be used on samples that test positive using other methods to help distinguish between the various sources of the drug.<ref name"pmid15516295" />
History, society, and culture
{{Main|History and culture of substituted amphetamines}}
{{Global estimates of illegal drug users}}
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu who named it phenylisopropylamine;<ref name"Vermont">{{cite web |urlhttp://healthvermont.gov/adap/meth/brief_history.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121005022228/http://healthvermont.gov/adap/meth/brief_history.aspx |archive-date5 October 2012 |titleHistorical overview of methamphetamine | websiteVermont Department of Health | publisherGovernment of Vermont | access-date29 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author Rassool GH | titleAlcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals | year2009 | publisherRoutledge | locationLondon, England | isbn9780203871171 | page113}}</ref><ref name"SynthHistory" /> its stimulant effects remained unknown until 1927, when it was independently resynthesized by Gordon Alles and reported to have sympathomimetic properties.<ref name"SynthHistory">{{cite journal |vauthorsSulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A |titleMechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review |journalProgress in Neurobiology|volume75 |issue6 |pages406–433 |dateApril 2005 |pmid15955613 |doi10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003|s2cid2359509 }}</ref> Amphetamine had no medical use until late 1933, when Smith, Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the brand name Benzedrine as a decongestant.<ref name"Benzedrine">{{cite journal | vauthors Rasmussen N | titleMaking the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950 | journalJournal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences| volume61 | issue3 | pages288–323 | dateJuly 2006 | pmid16492800 | doi10.1093/jhmas/jrj039 | s2cid24974454 | quote However the firm happened to discover the drug, SKF first packaged it as an inhaler so as to exploit the base's volatility and, after sponsoring some trials by East Coast otolaryngological specialists, began to advertise the Benzedrine Inhaler as a decongestant in late 1933.}}</ref> Benzedrine sulfate was introduced 3&nbsp;years later and was used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions, including narcolepsy, obesity, low blood pressure, low libido, and chronic pain, among others.<ref name"Benzedrine sulfate">{{cite journal | vauthors Bett WR | title Benzedrine sulphate in clinical medicine; a survey of the literature | journal Postgraduate Medical Journal| volume 22 | issue 250 | pages 205–218 | date August 1946 | pmid 20997404 | pmc 2478360 | doi 10.1136/pgmj.22.250.205}}</ref><ref name"Benzedrine" /> During World War II, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects.<ref name"Vermont" /><ref>{{cite journal | author Rasmussen N | titleMedical science and the military: the Allies' use of amphetamine during World War II | journalJournal of Interdisciplinary History| dateAugust 2011 | volume42 | issue2 | pages205–233 | pmid22073434 | doi10.1162/JINH_a_00212 | s2cid34332132 }}</ref><ref name"pmid22849208">{{cite journal |vauthorsDefalque RJ, Wright AJ | title Methamphetamine for Hitler's Germany: 1937 to 1945 | journalBulletin of Anesthesia History| volume 29 | issue 2 | pages 21–24, 32 | dateApril 2011 | pmid 22849208 | doi 10.1016/s1522-8649(11)50016-2}}</ref> As the addictive properties of the drug became known, governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine.<ref name"Vermont" /> For example, during the early 1970s in the United States, amphetamine became a schedule&nbsp;II controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act.<ref name":USAS2" /> In spite of strict government controls, amphetamine has been used legally or illicitly by people from a variety of backgrounds, including authors,<ref>{{cite web | author Gyenis A | website wordsareimportant.com | publisher DHARMA beat | title Forty Years of On the Road 1957–1997| url http://www.wordsareimportant.com/ontheroad.htm | access-date 18 March 2008 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080214171739/http://www.wordsareimportant.com/ontheroad.htm | archive-date 14 February 2008}}</ref> musicians,<ref>{{cite journal|titleMixing the Medicine: The unintended consequence of amphetamine control on the Northern Soul Scene | vauthors Wilson A |urlhttp://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Wilson%20-%20Mixing%20the%20Medicine.pdf |journalInternet Journal of Criminology |year2008 |access-date25 May 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110713045851/http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Wilson%20-%20Mixing%20the%20Medicine.pdf |archive-date13 July 2011 }}</ref> mathematicians,<ref>{{cite web | title Paul Erdos, Mathematical Genius, Human (In That Order) |url http://www.untruth.org/~josh/math/Paul%20Erd%F6s%20bio-rev2.pdf | author Hill J | access-date 2 November 2013 | date 4 June 2004}}</ref> and athletes.<ref name="Ergogenics" />
Amphetamine is illegally synthesized in clandestine labs and sold on the black market, primarily in European countries.<ref name"WDR2014">{{cite web | title World Drug Report 2014 | veditors Mohan J | date June 2014 | page 3 | website United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | url https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2014/World_Drug_Report_2014_web.pdf | access-date 18 August 2014 }}</ref> Among European Union (EU) member states {{As of|altin 2018|2018|post,}} 11.9&nbsp;million adults of ages {{nowrap|15–64}} have used amphetamine or methamphetamine at least once in their lives and 1.7&nbsp;million have used either in the last year.<ref name"Bulletin2018">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.emcdda.europa.eu/data/stats2018/gps_en|titleStatistical Bulletin 2018&nbsp;− prevalence of drug use|publisherEuropean Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |access-date5 February 2019}}</ref> During 2012, approximately 5.9&nbsp;metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states;<ref name"EMCDDA 2014">{{cite report|dateMay 2014|titleEuropean drug report 2014: Trends and developments|urlhttp://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_228272_EN_TDAT14001ENN.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_228272_EN_TDAT14001ENN.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|locationLisbon, Portugal|publisherEuropean Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction|pages13, 24|doi10.2810/32306|issn2314-9086|access-date18 August 2014|quote1.2 million or 0.9% of young adults (15–34) used amphetamines in the last year|author1European Monitoring Centre for Drugs Drug Addiction }}</ref> the "street price" of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from {{nowrap|€6–38}}&nbsp;per gram during the same period.<ref name"EMCDDA 2014" /> Outside Europe, the illicit market for amphetamine is much smaller than the market for methamphetamine and MDMA.<ref name"WDR2014" />
Legal status
As a result of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, amphetamine became a schedule&nbsp;II controlled substance, as defined in the treaty, in all 183 state parties.<ref name"UN Convention">{{cite web|titleConvention on psychotropic substances |urlhttp://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?srcTREATY&mtdsg_noVI-16&chapter6&langen |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160331074842/https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?srcTREATY&mtdsg_noVI-16&chapter6&langen |archive-date31 March 2016 |websiteUnited Nations Treaty Collection |publisherUnited Nations |access-date11 November 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Consequently, it is heavily regulated in most countries.<ref name"UNODC2007">{{cite book | author United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | title Preventing Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use Among Young People: A Policy and Programming Guide | publisher United Nations | location New York, US | year 2007 | isbn 9789211482232 | url http://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/ATS.pdf | access-date 11 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title List of psychotropic substances under international control | website International Narcotics Control Board | publisher United Nations | url http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf | access-date 19 November 2005 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20051205125434/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf | archive-date5 December 2005 |dateAugust 2003}}</ref> Some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use.<ref name"urlMoving to Korea brings medical, social changes">{{cite web | url https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/10/319_111757.html | title Moving to Korea brings medical, social changes | website The Korean Times | date 25 May 2012 | access-date 14 November 2013 | author Park Jin-seng}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/import/ | title Importing or Bringing Medication into Japan for Personal Use | website Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare | access-date3 November 2013 | date1 April 2004}}</ref> In other nations, such as Brazil (class A3),<ref>{{Cite web |authorAnvisa |author-linkBrazilian Health Regulatory Agency |date31 March 2023 |titleRDC Nº 784 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial |trans-titleCollegiate Board Resolution No. 784 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control |urlhttps://www.in.gov.br/en/web/dou/-/resolucao-rdc-n-784-de-31-de-marco-de-2023-474904992 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230803143925/https://www.in.gov.br/en/web/dou/-/resolucao-rdc-n-784-de-31-de-marco-de-2023-474904992 |archive-date3 August 2023 |access-date3 August 2023 |publisherDiário Oficial da União |languagept-BR |publication-date4 April 2023}}</ref> Canada (schedule&nbsp;I drug),<ref name"Canada Control">{{cite web|urlhttp://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/page-24.html#h-28 |titleControlled Drugs and Substances Act |websiteCanadian Justice Laws Website |publisherGovernment of Canada |access-date11 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131122143804/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/page-24.html |archive-date22 November 2013 }}</ref> the Netherlands (List I drug),<ref name"Opiumwet">{{cite web | url http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001941/geldigheidsdatum_03-08-2009 | title Opiumwet | publisher Government of the Netherlands | access-date 3 April 2015 }}</ref> the United States (schedule II drug),<ref name":USAS2" /> Australia (schedule&nbsp;8),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title Poisons Standard | section Schedule 8 | section-url https://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2015L01534/Html/Text#_Toc420496378 | url https://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2015L01534/Html/Text | publisher Australian Government Department of Health | access-date 15 December 2015 | date October 2015}}</ref> Thailand (category&nbsp;1 narcotic),<ref>{{cite web | url http://narcotic.fda.moph.go.th/faq/upload/Thai%20Narcotic%20Act%202012.doc._37ef.pdf | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140308001155/http://narcotic.fda.moph.go.th/faq/upload/Thai%20Narcotic%20Act%202012.doc._37ef.pdf | title Table of controlled Narcotic Drugs under the Thai Narcotics Act | website Thailand Food and Drug Administration | date 22 May 2013 | access-date 11 November 2013 | archive-date8 March 2014 }}</ref> and United Kingdom (class&nbsp;B drug),<ref>{{cite web | title Class A, B and C drugs | website Home Office, Government of the United Kingdom | url http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/drugs/drugs-law/Class-a-b-c/ | access-date 23 July 2007 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070804233232/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/drugs/drugs-law/Class-a-b-c/ | archive-date 4 August 2007 }}</ref> amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment.<ref name"WDR2014" /><ref name"Nonmedical">{{cite journal |vauthorsWilens TE, Adler LA, Adams J, Sgambati S, Rotrosen J, Sawtelle R, Utzinger L, Fusillo S | title Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature | journalJournal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry| volume 47 | issue 1 | pages 21–31 |dateJanuary 2008 | pmid 18174822 | doi 10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56f1 | quoteStimulant misuse appears to occur both for performance enhancement and their euphorogenic effects, the latter being related to the intrinsic properties of the stimulants (e.g., IR versus ER profile)&nbsp;...<br /><br />Although useful in the treatment of ADHD, stimulants are controlled II substances with a history of preclinical and human studies showing potential abuse liability.}}</ref>Pharmaceutical productsSeveral currently marketed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers, including those marketed under the brand names Adderall, Adderall&nbsp;XR, Mydayis,<ref groupnote nameAdderallDiff /> Adzenys&nbsp;ER, {{nowrap|Adzenys XR-ODT}}, Dyanavel&nbsp;XR, Evekeo, and Evekeo&nbsp;ODT. Of those, Evekeo (including Evekeo&nbsp;ODT) is the only product containing only racemic amphetamine (as amphetamine sulfate), and is therefore the only one whose active moiety can be accurately referred to simply as "amphetamine".<ref name"Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology" /><ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"Dyanavel" /> Dextroamphetamine, marketed under the brand names Dexedrine and Zenzedi, is the only enantiopure amphetamine product currently available. A prodrug form of dextroamphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, is also available and is marketed under the brand name Vyvanse. As it is a prodrug, lisdexamfetamine is structurally different from dextroamphetamine, and is inactive until it metabolizes into dextroamphetamine.<ref name"NDCD" /><ref nameUSVyvanselabel/> The free base of racemic amphetamine was previously available as Benzedrine, Psychedrine, and Sympatedrine.<ref name"Amph Uses" /> Levoamphetamine was previously available as Cydril.<ref name"Amph Uses" /> Many current amphetamine pharmaceuticals are salts due to the comparatively high volatility of the free base.<ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"NDCD" /><ref name"EMC" /> However, oral suspension and orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) dosage forms composed of the free base were introduced in 2015 and 2016, respectively.<ref name"Dyanavel" /><ref name"FDA Dyanavel approval date" /><ref name"Adzenys" /> Some of the current brands and their generic equivalents are listed below.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Amphetamine pharmaceuticals
! scope="col" | Brand<br />name
! scope="col" | United&nbsp;States<br />Adopted&nbsp;Name
! scope"col" class"unsortable" style="text-align:center" | (D:L)&nbsp;ratio<br />
! scope="col"| Dosage<br />form
! scope"col" class"unsortable" | Marketing<br />start&nbsp;date
! scope"col" class"unsortable" | <small>Sources</small>
|-
| Adderall || – || 3:1&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> <!--DO NOT CHANGE THIS RATIO: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3666194/table/table1-0269881113482532/ -->|| tablet || 1996 || <ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"NDCD" />
|-
| Adderall&nbsp;XR || – || 3:1&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || capsule || 2001 || <ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"NDCD" />
|-
| Mydayis || – || 3:1&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || capsule || 2017 || <ref name"Mydayis">{{cite web | titleMydayis- dextroamphetamine sulfate, dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine aspartate monohydrate, and amphetamine sulfate capsule, extended release | websiteDailyMed | publisher Shire US Inc. | date11 October 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid141a7970-3f06-44ea-9ab7-aeece2c085fc | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | titleDrug Approval Package: Mydayis (mixed salts of a single-entity amphetamine product) | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | date6 June 2018 | urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2017/022063Orig1s000TOC.cfm | access-date=22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Adzenys&nbsp;ER || amphetamine || 3:1&nbsp;<small>(base)</small> || suspension || 2017 || <ref name"Adzenys ER">{{cite web | titleAdzenys ER- amphetamine suspension, extended release | websiteDailyMed | date8 December 2017 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setideb1cc8d0-4231-41ea-8535-4fd872129713 | access-date25 December 2019 | publisher Neos Therapeutics, Inc. }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|Adzenys XR-ODT}} || amphetamine || 3:1&nbsp;<small>(base)</small> || ODT || 2016 || <ref name"Adzenys">{{cite web | titleAdzenys XR-ODT- amphetamine tablet, orally disintegrating | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setidc1179269-00b5-48ea-972d-31e614e99b7e | website DailyMed | publisher Neos Therapeutics, Inc. | access-date22 December 2019 | date9 February 2018 | quote ADZENYS XR-ODT (amphetamine extended-release orally disintegrating tablet) contains a 3 to 1 ratio of d- to l-amphetamine, a central nervous system stimulant.}}</ref><ref name"FDA Adzenys approval date">{{cite web | titleDrug Approval Package: Adzenys XR-ODT (amphetamine)| urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2016/204326Orig1_toc.cfm | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Dyanavel&nbsp;XR || amphetamine || 3.2:1&nbsp;<small>(base)</small> || suspension || 2015 || <ref name"Dyanavel" /><ref name"FDA Dyanavel approval date">{{cite web | titleDrug Approval Package: Amphetamine (Amphetamine) | urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2015/208147Orig1DyanavelTOC.cfm | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Evekeo || amphetamine&nbsp;sulfate || 1:1&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || tablet || 2012 || <ref name"Evekeo" /><ref name"Racemic amph - FDA Evekeo status">{{cite web | titleEvekeo | urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?eventoverview.process&applno200166 | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | access-date11 August 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Evekeo&nbsp;ODT|| amphetamine&nbsp;sulfate || 1:1&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || ODT || 2019 || <ref name"Evekeo ODT">{{cite web | titleEvekeo ODT- amphetamine sulfate tablet, orally disintegrating | websiteDailyMed | date7 June 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid1e25f905-6c0b-4b19-a3b6-b2a386afa1c3 | access-date25 December 2019 | publisher Arbor Pharmaceuticals, LLC }}</ref>
|-
| Dexedrine || dextroamphetamine&nbsp;sulfate || 1:0&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || capsule || 1976 || <ref name"Amph Uses" /><ref name"NDCD" />
|-
| Zenzedi || dextroamphetamine&nbsp;sulfate || 1:0&nbsp;<small>(salts)</small> || tablet || 2013 || <ref name"NDCD" /><ref>{{cite web | titleZenzedi- dextroamphetamine sulfate tablet | websiteDailyMed | publisher Arbor Pharmaceuticals, LLC | date14 August 2019 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setidd6394df5-f2c9-47eb-b57e-f3e9cfd94f84 | access-date22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan2 | Vyvanse || rowspan2 | lisdexamfetamine&nbsp;dimesylate || rowspan2 | 1:0&nbsp;<small>(prodrug)</small> || capsule || rowspan2 | 2007 || rowspan2 | <ref name"Amph Uses">{{cite journal |vauthorsHeal DJ, Smith SL, Gosden J, Nutt DJ | title Amphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective | journal Journal of Psychopharmacology| volume 27 | issue 6 | pages 479–496 | dateJune 2013 | pmid 23539642 | pmc 3666194 | doi 10.1177/0269881113482532 | quote The intravenous use of d-amphetamine and other stimulants still pose major safety risks to the individuals indulging in this practice. Some of this intravenous abuse is derived from the diversion of ampoules of d-amphetamine, which are still occasionally prescribed in the UK for the control of severe narcolepsy and other disorders of excessive sedation.&nbsp;... For these reasons, observations of dependence and abuse of prescription d-amphetamine are rare in clinical practice, and this stimulant can even be prescribed to people with a history of drug abuse provided certain controls, such as daily pick-ups of prescriptions, are put in place (Jasinski and Krishnan, 2009b).}}</ref><ref nameUSVyvanselabel/><ref>{{cite web | titleDrug Approval Package: Vyvanse (Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate) NDA #021977 | websiteUnited States Food and Drug Administration | date24 December 1999 | urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2007/021977s000TOC.cfm | access-date=22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| tablet
|-
| Xelstrym || dextroamphetamine || 1:0&nbsp;<small>(base)</small> || patch || 2022 || <ref name"US-Xelstrym-Label">{{cite web | titleXelstrym- dextroamphetamine patch, extended release | websiteDailyMed | date28 March 2023 | urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid0862f02a-72a8-41cc-8845-57cf4974bb6f | access-date=3 May 2023}}</ref>
|}
{{Amphetamine base in marketed amphetamine medications}}
Notes
<!--Notes list -->
{{Reflist|group=note}}
;Image legend
{{Reflist|groupColor legend}}Reference notes{{Reflist|groupsources|2}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
<!-- List of external links -->
* {{PubChem|5826}}&nbsp;– Dextroamphetamine
* {{PubChem|32893}}&nbsp;– Levoamphetamine
* [https://ctdbase.org/query.go?typeixn&chemqtequals&chemname%3AAmphetamine&actionDegreeTypesincreases&actionDegreeTypesdecreases&actionDegreeTypesaffects&actionTypesANY&geneqtequals&gene&pathwayqtequals&pathway&taxonqtequals&taxonTAXON%3A9606&goqtequals&go&sortchemNmSort&perPage500&actionSearch Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: Amphetamine]
* [https://ctdbase.org/detail.go?typegene&acc9607&qid=2119242 Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: CARTPT]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine
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Asynchronous communication
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In telecommunications, asynchronous communication is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols.
The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits.
Physical layer
In asynchronous serial communication in the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits. A variable length space can be inserted between the code words. No bit synchronization signal is required. This is sometimes called character oriented communication. Examples include MNP2 and modems older than V.2.
Data link layer and higher
Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). In this case, the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells. The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH.
The packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times. Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication. Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols.
Application layer
An asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate. Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web. An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IPTV and video conferencing.
Electronically mediated communication
Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently. Examples include email
and bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times than they read them. The term "asynchronous communication" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations.
See also
Synchronization in telecommunications
Asynchronous serial communication
Asynchronous system
Asynchronous circuit
Anisochronous
Baud rate
Plesiochronous
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
References
Category:Synchronization
Category:Telecommunications techniques
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_communication
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Artillery
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{{short description|Long-ranged guns for land warfare}}
{{Redirect|Artilleryman|the racehorse|Artilleryman (horse)}}
{{other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2019}}
test fire an M777 Lightweight 155-millimeter Howitzer at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms (2005)]]
{{War|weapons|width=220px}}
Artillery are ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery cannons developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility generally providing the largest share of an army's total firepower.
Originally, the word "artillery" referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, "artillery" has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, and mortars (collectively called barrel artillery, cannon artillery or gun artillery) and rocket artillery. In common speech, the word "artillery" is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called "equipment". However, there is no generally recognized generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses "artillery piece", but most English-speaking armies use "gun" and "mortar". The projectiles fired are typically either "shot" (if solid) or "shell" (if not solid). Historically, variants of solid shot including canister, chain shot and grapeshot were also used. "Shell" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.
By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies, the artillery arm has operated field, coastal, anti-aircraft, and anti-tank artillery; in others these have been separate arms, and with some nations coastal has been a naval or marine responsibility.
In the 20th century, target acquisition devices (such as radar) and techniques (such as sound ranging and flash spotting) emerged, primarily for artillery. These are usually utilized by one or more of the artillery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, and in some armies, provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery.<ref namebellamy>{{cite book|first Christopher |last Bellamy|title Oxford Companion to Military History|chapter artillery|chapter-url https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198606963.001.0001/acref-9780198606963-e-97 |date 2004|publisher Oxford University Press|isbn 978-0-19-860696-3}}</ref> In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was "the god of war".<ref namebellamy/>
Artillery piece
1870–71]]
Although not called by that name, siege engines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first known catapult was developed in Syracuse in 399 BC.<ref>{{cite book|title The Catapult: A History|first Tracey Elizabeth|last Rihll|date 2007|publisher Westholme Publishing|isbn 9781594160356}}</ref> Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy, which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, but also required the construction of very large engines to accumulate sufficient energy. A 1st-century BC Roman catapult launching {{cvt|6.55|kg|lb}} stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16 kilojoules, compared to a mid-19th-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a {{cvt |4.1|kg|lb}} round, with a kinetic energy of 240 kilojoules, or a 20th-century US battleship that fired a {{cvt|1225|kg|lb}} projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350 megajoules.
From the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation. These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns; the largest of these large-calibre guns ever conceived – Project Babylon of the Supergun affair – was theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit. Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles generally replacing guns in surface warfare.
Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties. The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today.
In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called "serving the gun" by the "detachment" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history, this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.
Crew<!-- Gunner (artillery) links here. Pls do not change -->
Some armed forces use the term "gunners" for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery.
, War in Afghanistan, 2009]]
The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either "crews" or "detachments". Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company. In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with "1" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command. "Gunner" is also the lowest rank, and junior non-commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artillery arms.
Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps.
The term "artillery" also designates a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons.
Tactics
, Switzerland. The illuminated mountain is Mount Fletschhorn, 9 km from the photographer's position.]]
During military operations, field artillery has the role of providing support to other arms in combat or of attacking targets, particularly in-depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, aiming either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and from blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.
Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or another observer, including crewed and uncrewed aircraft, or called onto map coordinates.
Military doctrine has had a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between the delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.
The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. Two distinct forms of artillery were developed: the towed gun, used primarily to attack or defend a fixed-line; and the self-propelled gun, intended to accompany a mobile force and to provide continuous fire support and/or suppression. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organizations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100&nbsp;m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part is close-quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.<ref>{{cite web|last1Šotnar|first1Jiří|last2Carbol|first2Michal|last3Blaha|first3Martin|titleModernization of artillery reconnaissance|urlhttp://inase.org/library/2014/varna/bypaper/AMCSE/AMCSE-17.pdf|websiteINASE|publisherApplied Mathematics, Computational Science and Engineering|access-dateMarch 17, 2015|archive-date April 17, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180417100510/http://inase.org/library/2014/varna/bypaper/AMCSE/AMCSE-17.pdf|url-statusdead}}
</ref>
Etymology
The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from French atelier, meaning the place where manual work is done.
Another suggestion is that it originates from the 13th century and the Old French artillier, designating craftsmen and manufacturers of all materials and warfare equipments (spears, swords, armor, war machines); and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company, which was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century.
Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian arte de tirare (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia. The term was used by Girolamo Ruscelli (died 1566) in his Precepts of Modern Militia published posthumously in 1572.
History
{{see also|History of cannons|History of gunpowder}}
.]]
Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as "engines of war", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.
Medieval
During medieval times, more types of artillery were developed, most notably the counterweight trebuchet. Traction trebuchets, using manpower to launch projectiles, have been used in ancient China since the 4th century as anti-personnel weapons. The much more powerful counterweight trebuchet was invented in the eastern Mediterranean region in the 12th century, with the earliest definite attestation in 1187.<ref>{{Cite web |date2006-09-05 |titleArms and Men: The Trebuchet |urlhttps://www.historynet.com/weaponry-the-trebuchet/ |access-date2022-02-28 |websiteHistorynet |languageen-US}}</ref>
Invention of gunpowder
{{see also|Gunpowder artillery in the Song dynasty}}
Early Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This includes the "long range awe inspiring" cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming dynasty treatise Huolongjing.<ref name"needham314316">{{Harvnb|Needham|1987|pages314–16}}</ref> With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon", an early example of field artillery.<ref name"Science and Civilisation in China">{{cite book|firstJoseph|lastNeedham|year1987|publisherCambridge University Press|titleScience & Civilisation in China, volume 7: The Gunpowder Epic|isbn978-0-521-30358-3|pages317–19}}</ref> These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the madfaa'') and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner.
In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out.
As small smooth-bore barrels, these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247.{{Citation needed|dateMay 2008}} They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannons were always muzzle-loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders.Expansion of use
{{main|Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages}}
<ref>{{cite web|lastunknown |urlhttp://warfare.uphero.com/Moghul/Baburnama/1526-First_Battle_of_Panipat-Ibrahim_Lodhi_and_Babur.htm |title1526, First Battle of Panipat, Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur |date1590s |work=Baburnama}}</ref>]]
<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm|titleBullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort|date1590–95|work The Akbarnama |access-dateMay 19, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140519132308/http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm |archive-dateMay 19, 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>]]
In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely bombardas, colebratas, and falconetes. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Marinids brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers.<ref>Cook, Weston F., Jr. 1993 Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth century Morocco, 1400–1492.</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2011}} It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.
The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish.<ref>(Sieges of Stirling Castle)</ref> However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower.<ref>{{cite book|last1Lee|first1T.W.|titleMilitary Technologies of the World|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-nrZqzQs3jMC&qBattle%20of%20Breteuil%20cannon&pgPA242|access-date17 November 2017|isbn978-0-275-99536-2|date2008-12-30|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> By the end of the 14th century, cannons were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.
However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. Cannons during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before.<ref>{{cite journal
|title = The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years' War
|last = Rogers
|first = Clifford J.
|journal = The Journal of Military History
|issn = 1543-7795
|volume = 57
|issue = 2
|year = 1993
|pages = 241–78
|doi = 10.2307/2944058
|jstor = 2944058
}}</ref> These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.
, the earliest extant large-calibre gun<ref>{{harvnb|Schmidtchen|1977|p=162}}</ref>]]
Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves.<ref>DeVries, K: The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry By and Against Joan or Arc During the Hundred Years' War. 1996</ref> As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.
. Very heavy 15th-C bronze muzzle-loading cannon of type used by Ottomans in siege of Constantinople (1453), showing ornate decoration. Taken by The Land Feb 07 at Fort Nelson, Hampshire.]]
The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons.<ref nameNicolle2>{{cite book|lastNicolle|firstDavid|author-linkDavid Nicolle|titleConstantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium|urlhttps://archive.org/details/constantinopleen00nico_981|url-accesslimited|publisherOsprey Publishing|year2000|pages[https://archive.org/details/constantinopleen00nico_981/page/n66 29]–30|isbn978-1-84176-091-9|locationLondon}}</ref> The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.<ref nameNicolle3>{{cite book|lastNicolle|firstDavid|titleArmies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774|publisherOsprey Publishing|year1983|pages29–30|isbn978-0-85045-511-3}}</ref> Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444. Early cannon were not always reliable; King James II of Scotland was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon, imported from Flanders, at the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460.
The able use of artillery supported to a large measure the expansion and defense of the Portuguese Empire, as it was a necessary tool that allowed the Portuguese to face overwhelming odds both on land and sea from Morocco to Asia.<ref name"peers"/> In great sieges and in sea battles, the Portuguese demonstrated a level of proficiency in the use of artillery after the beginning of the 16th century unequalled by contemporary European neighbours, in part due to the experience gained in intense fighting in Morocco, which served as a proving ground for artillery and its practical application, and made Portugal a forerunner in gunnery for decades.<ref name"peers"/> During the reign of King Manuel (1495–1521) at least 2017 cannon were sent to Morocco for garrison defense, with more than 3000 cannon estimated to have been required during that 26-year period.<ref name"peers">Douglas M. Peers: [https://books.google.com/books?idfKpYEAAAQBAJ&dqWarfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pgPP64 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures], Routledge, 2022</ref> An especially noticeable division between siege guns and anti-personnel guns enhanced the use and effectiveness of Portuguese firearms above contemporary powers, making cannon the most essential element in the Portuguese arsenal.<ref name="peers"/>
The three major classes of Portuguese artillery were anti-personnel guns with a high borelength (including: rebrodequim, berço, falconete, falcão, sacre, áspide, cão, serpentina and passavolante); bastion guns which could batter fortifications (camelete, leão, pelicano, basilisco, águia, camelo, roqueira, urso); and howitzers that fired large stone cannonballs in an elevated arch, weighted up to 4000 pounds and could fire incendiary devices, such as a hollow iron ball filled with pitch and fuse, designed to be fired at close range and burst on contact.<ref name"peers1">Douglas M. Peers: [https://books.google.com/books?idfKpYEAAAQBAJ&dqWarfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pgPP68 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures], Routledge, 2022</ref> The most popular in Portuguese arsenals was the berço, a 5&nbsp;cm, one pounder bronze breech-loading cannon that weighted 150&nbsp;kg with an effective range of 600 meters.<ref name="peers1"/>
A tactical innovation the Portuguese introduced in fort defense was the use of combinations of projectiles against massed assaults.<ref name"peers2"/> Although canister shot had been developed in the early 15th century, the Portuguese were the first to employ it extensively, and Portuguese engineers invented a canister round which consisted of a thin lead case filled with iron pellets, that broke up at the muzzle and scattered its contents in a narrow pattern.<ref name"peers2"/> An innovation which Portugal adopted in advance of other European powers was fuse-delayed action shells, and were commonly used in 1505.<ref name"peers2"/> Although dangerous, their effectiveness meant a sixth of all rounds used by the Portuguese in Morocco were of the fused-shell variety.<ref name"peers2">Douglas M. Peers: [https://books.google.com/books?idfKpYEAAAQBAJ&dqWarfare%20and%20Empires%3A%20Contact%20and%20Conflict%20Between%20European%20and%20Non-European%20Military%20and%20Maritime%20Forces%20and%20Cultures%20morocco&pg=PP69 Warfare and Empires: Contact and Conflict Between European and Non-European Military and Maritime Forces and Cultures], Routledge, 2022</ref>
in the Jinju National Museum. These cannons were made in the mid 16th century. The closest is a "Cheonja chongtong"(천자총통, 天字銃筒), the second is a "Jija chongtong"(지자총통, 地字銃筒), and the third is a "Hyeonja chongtong"(현자총통, 玄字銃筒).]]
The new Ming Dynasty established the "Divine Engine Battalion" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, "the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation".<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOt6rDwAAQBAJ&pgPA178 |title Enotenplato, the Chronicle of Military Doctrine |date August 23, 2019 |publisher Lulu.com |isbn = 978-0-35980699-7}}</ref>
When the Portuguese and Spanish arrived at Southeast Asia, they found that the local kingdoms were already using cannons. Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on occasion.<ref>{{cite book|titleChanges of regime and social dynamics in West Java : society, state, and the outer world of Banten, 1750–1830 |last1 Atsushi |first1Ota|date2006|publisherBrill|isbn978-90-04-15091-1|locationLeiden}}</ref> Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They made many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. In all aspects the Javanese were considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.<ref>{{Cite book|lastJones|firstJohn Winter|urlhttps://archive.org/details/travelsofludovic00vartrich/page/254/mode/2up?q|titleThe travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508|publisherHakluyt Society|year1863}}</ref>{{Rp|254}}<ref>{{Cite book|lastStanley|firstHenry Edward John|urlhttps://archive.org/details/descriptionofcoa00barbrich/page/n7/mode/2up|titleA Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century by Duarte Barbosa |publisherThe Hakluyt Society|year1866}}</ref>{{Rp|198}}<ref>{{Cite book |lastPartington |first J. R.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfNZBSqd2cToC&pgPA224|titleA History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder|date1999|publisherJHU Press|isbn978-0-8018-5954-0|languageen}}</ref>{{Rp |224}} In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, over and above what they have in India".<ref name":022">{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXNsk7tLkMU4C |titleAnthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past |publisherInstitute of Southeast Asian Studies |year2012 |isbn978-981-4311-96-0 |editor-lastWade |editor-firstGeoff |locationSingapore |editor-last2Tana |editor-first2Li}}</ref>{{Rp |162}}<ref name":222">{{Cite book |lastCrawfurd |firstJohn |urlhttps://archive.org/details/adescriptivedic00crawgoog/page/n8/mode/2up?q|titleA Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries |publisherBradbury and Evans |year1856}}</ref>{{Rp|23}} By the early 16th century, the Javanese had already started locally-producing large guns, which were dubbed "sacred cannon[s]" or "holy cannon[s]" and have survived up to the present day - though in limited numbers. These cannons varied between 180 and 260 pounders, weighing anywhere between 3–8 tons, measuring between 3–6 m.<ref>Modern Asian Studies. Vol. 22, No. 3, Special Issue: Asian Studies in Honour of Professor Charles Boxer (1988), pp. 607–28.</ref>
Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used Kunikuzushi (国崩し – Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and Ōzutsu (大筒 – large size Tanegashima) as their largest firearms.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://sillok.history.go.kr/url.jsp?idkna_13806007_002 |title조선왕조실록 |website History | place KR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://sillok.history.go.kr/url.jsp?idkna_12610022_001|title조선왕조실록 |websiteHistory | place KR}}</ref>
In the 16th century Ottoman Empire, Humbaracıs were founded.<ref>{{cite book |last1Uyar |first1Mesut |last2Erickson |first2Edward |date2009 |titleA Military History of the Ottomans}}</ref>
Smoothbores
fortification]]
<!--Article Tower of St. Olav refers to this heading. Do not change it-->
Bombards were of value mainly in sieges. A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons{{Vague|which tons?|date=February 2009}}, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.<ref>Holmes, p. 70</ref>
Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.<ref name"WARKEEGAN">{{cite book |author-linkJohn Keegan|last Keegan|first John|title A History of Warfare|date 1993 |publisher Hutchinson|isbn 978-0-09174527-1|title-link A History of Warfare}}</ref>{{Page needed |date April 2011}}
The use of the word "cannon" marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber—this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in the siege and static defenses. The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of trunnions—projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast—allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier.<ref name="WARKEEGAN"/>
(caliber 890 mm), cast in 1586 in Moscow. It is the largest bombard in the world.]]
The first land-based mobile weapon is usually credited to Jan Žižka, who deployed his oxen-hauled cannon during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418–1424). However, cannons were still large and cumbersome. With the rise of musketry in the 16th century, cannon were largely (though not entirely) displaced from the battlefield—the cannon were too slow and cumbersome to be used and too easily lost to a rapid enemy advance.
The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool—a worm—was introduced to remove them. Gustavus Adolphus is identified as the general who made cannon an effective force on the battlefield—pushing the development of much lighter and smaller weapons and deploying them in far greater numbers than previously. The outcome of battles was still determined by the clash of infantry.
Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were in use by the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNPS Interpretive Series: Artillery Through the Ages - Explosive Shells |date1955 |urlhttps://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/source/is3/is3d1.htm |access-date2023-05-14 |websiteNational Park Service |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230514204212/https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/source/is3/is3d1.htm |archive-date 2023-05-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleShell {{!}} ammunition |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/technology/shell-ammunition |access-date2023-05-14 |websiteBritannica |languageen}}</ref> The development of specialized pieces—shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars—was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ribauldequin (known as "organ guns"), were also produced.{{dubious |dateOctober 2018}}
The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima<ref>Ordway, Vice-Commander of Artillery of the Polish king, Wladyslaw IV, Great Art of Artillery, the First Part, also known as The Complete Art of Artillery, pp. 407–16.</ref> was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual.<ref>{{Cite web|titleLithuanian Art Fund|urlhttps://lithuanianart.com/artwork/44 |access-date=2021-01-28}}</ref>
One of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect—by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building.<ref name"WARKEEGAN"/> This led, among other things, to a frenzy of new bastion-style fortifications to be built all over Europe and in its colonies, but also had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were able to use their newfound artillery superiority to force any local dukes or lords to submit to their will, setting the stage for the absolutist kingdoms to come.<ref name "WARKEEGAN"/>
Modern rocket artillery can trace its heritage back to the Mysorean rockets of Mysore. Their first recorded use was in 1780 during the battles of the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars. The wars fought between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore in India made use of the rockets as a weapon. In the Battle of Pollilur, the Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and in Battle of Seringapatam in 1799, these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.<ref namer&ms>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1357360/rocket-and-missile-system/ |titleRocket and missile system| first1Frederick C. III | last1 Durant | first2Stephen Oliver | last2 Fought | first3 John F. Jr. | last3 Guilmartin |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |access-dateDecember 19, 2011}}</ref> After the wars, several Mysore rockets were sent to England, but experiments with heavier payloads were unsuccessful. In 1804 William Congreve, considering the Mysorian rockets to have too short a range (less than 1,000 yards) developed rockets in numerous sizes with ranges up to 3,000 yards and eventually utilizing iron casing as the Congreve rocket which were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.<ref>{{cite news|titleTipu's missile launch pad in shambles|urlhttp://www.hindu.com/2005/06/23/stories/2005062310360300.htm|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071001030520/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/23/stories/2005062310360300.htm |url-statusdead|archive-dateOctober 1, 2007|access-dateDecember 16, 2011|dateJune 23, 2005 |newspaperThe Hindu|locationKarnataka, India}}</ref>
Napoleonic
to commemorate the city's resistance to the 1799 siege by Napoleon's troops.]]
With the Napoleonic Wars, artillery experienced changes in both physical design and operation. Rather than being overseen by "mechanics", artillery was viewed as its own service branch with the capability of dominating the battlefield. The success of the French artillery companies was at least in part due to the presence of specially trained artillery officers leading and coordinating during the chaos of battle.<ref>{{Cite book|titleTactics and Grand Tactics of the Napoleonic Wars|lastJeffery|firstGeorge|publisherCourier|year=1982}}</ref> Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault.
Physically, cannons continued to become smaller and lighter. During the Seven Years War, King Frederick II of Prussia used these advances to deploy horse artillery that could move throughout the battlefield. Frederick also introduced the reversible iron ramrod, which was much more resistant to breakage than older wooden designs. The reversibility aspect also helped increase the rate of fire, since a soldier would no longer have to worry about what end of the ramrod they were using.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBattle of Kolin|urlhttps://www.britishbattles.com/frederick-the-great-wars/seven-years-war/battle-of-kolin/|access-date2022-02-24|websitewww.britishbattles.com}}</ref>
Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid-18th century. He developed a 6-inch (150&nbsp;mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. While the Gribeauval system made for more efficient production and assembly, the carriages used were heavy and the gunners were forced to march on foot (instead of riding on the limber and gun as in the British system).<ref>{{Cite book|titleFrench Napoleonic Artillery|lastHead|firstMichael|publisherAlmark Publishing Co. Ltd|year1970|location Middlesex}}</ref> Each cannon was named for the weight of its projectiles, giving us variants such as 4, 8, and 12, indicating the weight in pounds. The projectiles themselves included solid balls or canister containing lead bullets or other material. These canister shots acted as massive shotguns, peppering the target with hundreds of projectiles at close range.<ref>{{Cite book|titleWeapons and Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars|lastHaythornwaite|firstPhilip J.|publisherBlanford Press|year1979}}</ref> The solid balls, known as round shot, was most effective when fired at shoulder-height across a flat, open area. The ball would tear through the ranks of the enemy or bounce along the ground breaking legs and ankles.<ref>{{Cite book|titleArtillery Equipments of the Napoleonic Wars|lastWise|firstTerence|publisherOsprey|year1979|isbn9780850453362}}</ref>Modern
{{See also|Field artillery in the American Civil War}}
n artillery at the Battle of Langensalza (1866)]]
The development of modern artillery occurred in the mid to late 19th century as a result of the convergence of various improvements in the underlying technology. Advances in metallurgy allowed for the construction of breech-loading rifled guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity.
After the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars, the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked the birth of modern artillery.<ref>{{cite journal
|title = From Breechloaders to Monster Guns: Sir William Armstrong and the Invention of Modern Artillery, 1854–1880
|last = Bastable
|first = Marshall J.
|journal = Technology and Culture
|issn = 1097-3729
|volume = 33
|issue = 2
|year = 1992
|pages = 213–47
|doi = 10.2307/3105857
|jstor = 3105857
|s2cid = 112105821
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.gracesguide.co.uk/William_Armstrong|titleWilliam Armstrong|website Grace's Guide to British Industrial History|date 4 October 2018}}</ref> Three of its features particularly stand out.
(1868–69)|left]]
First, the piece was rifled, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery was not available until the mid-19th century. Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr001b.htm |title The Emergence of Modern War|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190701173545/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr001b.htm|archive-date 1 July 2019}}</ref> The cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's rifling grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of windage as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.
, Fort Fisher, 1865]]
His gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism could not withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in metallurgy and precision engineering capabilities during the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.
What made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The "built-up" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/local/rbl6.htm |titleArmstrong Rifled Breech Loading (RBL) 6-Pounder |url-statusdead |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20020220090540/http://riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/local/rbl6.htm |archive-date=February 20, 2002}}</ref> The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube. When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the gun which was directed inward against the outward forces that the gun's firing exerted on the barrel.<ref>Holley states that Daniel Treadwell first patented the concept of a central steel tube kept under compression by wrought-iron coils.. and that Armstrong's assertion that he (Armstrong) first used a wrought-iron A-tube and hence did not infringe the patent, was disingenuous, as the main point in Treadwell's patent was the tension exerted by the wrought-iron coils, which Armstrong used in exactly the same fashion. Holley, Treatise on Ordnance and Armour, 1865, pp. 863–70</ref>
Another innovative feature, more usually associated with 20th-century guns, was what Armstrong called its "grip", which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.
, the first modern artillery piece]]
Armstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initially for "special service in the field" and initially he produced only smaller artillery pieces, 6-pounder (2.5 in/64&nbsp;mm) mountain or light field guns, 9-pounder (3 in/76&nbsp;mm) guns for horse artillery, and 12-pounder (3 inches /76 mm) field guns.
The first cannon to contain all 'modern' features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897.<ref>Chris Bishop, [https://books.google.com/books?idMuGsf0psjvcC&pgPA137 "Canon de 75 modèle 1897"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221126000655/https://books.google.com/books?idMuGsf0psjvcC&pgPA137 |dateNovember 26, 2022 }}, The encyclopedia of weapons of World War II, p. 137</ref><ref nameroberts>Priscilla Mary Roberts, [https://books.google.com/books?idTogXVHTlxG4C&pgPA726 "French 75 gun"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221126000657/https://books.google.com/books?idTogXVHTlxG4C&pgPA726 |dateNovember 26, 2022 }}, World War One, p. 726</ref> The gun used cased ammunition, was breech-loading, had modern sights, and a self-contained firing mechanism. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 5 miles (8,500 m) away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew. These were rates that contemporary bolt action rifles could not match.Indirect fire
{{Main|Indirect fire}}
Indirect fire, the firing of a projectile without relying on direct line of sight between the gun and the target, possibly dates back to the 16th century.<ref>Hogg, O. F. G. (1970). Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline. C. Hurst.</ref> Early battlefield use of indirect fire may have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when the Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees,<ref>Christopher Bellamy, Red God of War: Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces, London, 1986, p.16, quoted in {{cite book|titleThe Dynamics of Military Revolution|last1Knox|first1MacGregor|last2Murray|first2Williamson|year2001|publisherCambridge University Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-521-80079-2|page135}}</ref> and at the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of the Royal Horse Artillery fired shrapnel indirectly against advancing French troops.<ref>Against All Odds!: Dramatic Last Stand Actions; Perret, Brian; Cassell 2000; {{ISBN|978-0-304-35456-6}}: discussed during the account of the Hougoumont action.</ref>
In 1882, Russian Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published Indirect Fire for Field Artillery, which provided a practical method of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, "all the essentials of aiming points, crest clearance, and corrections to fire by an observer".<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Dynamics of Military Revolution|last1Knox|first1MacGregor|last2Murray|first2Williamson|year2001|publisherCambridge University Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-521-80079-2|page136}}</ref>
A few years later, the Richtfläche (lining-plane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect laying in azimuth, complementing the clinometers for indirect laying in elevation which already existed. Despite conservative opposition within the German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by the 1890s. In the early 1900s, Goertz in Germany developed an optical sight for azimuth laying. It quickly replaced the lining-plane; in English, it became the 'Dial Sight' (UK) or 'Panoramic Telescope' (US).
The British halfheartedly experimented with indirect fire techniques since the 1890s, but with the onset of the Boer War, they were the first to apply the theory in practice in 1899, although they had to improvise without a lining-plane sight.<ref name"Evolution">{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5dmYQPNfGFsC&pgPA30|titleThe Evolution of Indirect Fire|authorFrank W. Sweet|pages28–33|isbn978-0-939479-20-7|publisherBackintyme|year2000}}</ref>
In the next 15 years leading up to World War I, the techniques of indirect fire became available for all types of artillery.<!--To make indirect fire really effective required telegraph or telephone communication...--> Indirect fire was the defining characteristic of 20th-century artillery and led to undreamt of changes in the amount of artillery, its tactics, organisation, and techniques, most of which occurred during World War I.
An implication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target, this increased the time of flight and the vertex of the trajectory. The result was decreasing accuracy (the increasing distance between the target and the mean point of impact of the shells aimed at it) caused by the increasing effects of non-standard conditions. Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions including a specific muzzle velocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propellant temperature. In practice, this standard combination of conditions almost never existed, they varied throughout the day and day to day, and the greater the time of flight, the greater the inaccuracy. An added complication was the need for survey to accurately fix the coordinates of the gun position and provide accurate orientation for the guns. Of course, targets had to be accurately located, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniques enabled this, and ground survey techniques could sometimes be used.
during World War I]]
In 1914, the methods of correcting firing data for the actual conditions were often convoluted, and the availability of data about actual conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, the assumption was that fire would always be ranged (adjusted). British heavy artillery worked energetically to progressively solve all these problems from late 1914 onwards, and by early 1918, had effective processes in place for both field and heavy artillery. These processes enabled 'map-shooting', later called 'predicted fire'; it meant that effective fire could be delivered against an accurately located target without ranging. Nevertheless, the mean point of impact was still some tens of yards from the target-centre aiming point. It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages. These processes remain in use into the 21st century with refinements to calculations enabled by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.
The British Major General Henry Hugh Tudor pioneered armour and artillery cooperation at the breakthrough Battle of Cambrai. The improvements in providing and using data for non-standard conditions (propellant temperature, muzzle velocity, wind, air temperature, and barometric pressure) were developed by the major combatants throughout the war and enabled effective predicted fire.<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Dynamics of Military Revolution|last1Knox|first1MacGregor|last2Murray|first2Williamson|year2001|publisherCambridge University Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-521-80079-2|page141}}.</ref> The effectiveness of this was demonstrated by the British in 1917 (at Cambrai) and by Germany the following year (Operation Michael).
Major General J.B.A. Bailey, British Army (retired) wrote:
{{blockquote|From the middle of the eighteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth, artillery is judged to have accounted for perhaps 50% of battlefield casualties. In the sixty years preceding 1914, this figure was probably as low as 10 percent. The remaining 90 percent fell to small arms, whose range and accuracy had come to rival those of artillery. ... [By WWI] The British Royal Artillery, at over one million men, grew to be larger than the Royal Navy. Bellamy (1986), pp. 1–7, cites the percentage of casualties caused by artillery in various theaters since 1914: in the First World War, 45 percent of Russian casualties and 58 percent of British casualties on the Western Front; in the Second World War, 75 percent of British casualties in North Africa and 51 percent of Soviet casualties (61 percent in 1945) and 70 percent of German casualties on the Eastern Front; and in the Korean War, 60 percent of US casualties, including those inflicted by mortars.<ref>{{citation|firstJonathan B.A.|lastBailey|year2004|titleField artillery and firepower|publisherNaval Institute Press|isbn978-1-59114-029-0}}{{page needed|date=May 2012}}</ref>|J.B.A. Bailey (2004). Field artillery and firepower}}
An estimated 75,000 French soldiers were casualties of friendly artillery fire in the four years of World War I.<ref>General Percin, 1921 Le massacre de notre infanterie, 1914–1918. Percin supports his claim with hundreds of items of battlefield correspondence from all parts of the Western Front.</ref>
Precision-guidance
guided artillery shell]]
Modern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its long range, firing an explosive shell or rocket and a mobile carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights. Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I.<!--To make indirect fire really effective required telegraph or telephone communication...--> However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitable for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression. Nevertheless, by the late 1970s precision-guided munitions started to appear, notably the US 155&nbsp;mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152&nbsp;mm Krasnopol equivalent that had success in Indian service. These relied on laser designation to 'illuminate' the target that the shell homed onto. However, in the early 21st century, the Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled relatively cheap and accurate guidance for shells and missiles, notably the US 155&nbsp;mm Excalibur and the 227&nbsp;mm GMLRS rocket. The introduction of these led to a new issue, the need for very accurate three dimensional target coordinates—the mensuration process.<ref name= tmo >Ms. Marie Berberea (TRADOC) [https://www.army.mil/article/191808/fort_sill_working_to_install_new_digital_imaging_program (3 August 2017) Fort Sill working to install new digital imaging program]</ref>
can be added to unguided projectiles]]
Weapons covered by the term 'modern artillery' include "cannon" artillery (such as howitzer, mortar, and field gun) and rocket artillery. Certain smaller-caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms. This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.
The term "artillery" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, preferring the term "missilery", though some modern artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large-caliber guided projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.<ref>{{Cite book|lastChikammadu|firstAli Caleb|titleEnotenplato The Chronicle of Military Doctrine|publisherLulu.com|dateSeptember 3, 2019|isbn9780359806997|pages196}}</ref> See Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF), Joint terminal attack controllerAmmunition
One of the most important roles of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage (ammunition dump, arsenal, magazine
) and the provision of fuzes, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell.
A round of artillery ammunition comprises four components:
# Fuze
# Projectile
# Propellant
# Primer
Fuzes
{{Main|Artillery fuze}}
Fuzes are the devices that initiate an artillery projectile, either to detonate its High Explosive (HE) filling or eject its cargo (illuminating flare or smoke canisters being examples). The official military spelling is "fuze".<ref>http://nso.nato.int/nso/zPublic/ap/aap6/AAP-6.pdf{{dead link|dateJune 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Broadly there are four main types:
* impact (including graze and delay)
* mechanical time including airburst
* proximity sensor including airburst<!--proximity has also been used against ground troops & barges...-->
* programmable electronic detonation including airburst
Most artillery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used with armor-piercing shells and for squash head (High-Explosive Squash Head (HESH) or High Explosive, Plastic (HEP) anti-tank shells). At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base.
Impact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, the standard fuze for HE projectiles. Their default action is normally 'superquick', some have had a 'graze' action which allows them to penetrate light cover and others have 'delay'. Delay fuzes allow the shell to penetrate the ground before exploding. Armor or Concrete-Piercing (AP or CP) fuzes are specially hardened. During World War I and later, ricochet fire with delay or graze fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat angle of descent, was used to achieve airburst.
HE shells can be fitted with other fuzes. Airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function. However, until the introduction of proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions—for example, shrapnel, illumination, and smoke. The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst. Airburst fuzes have to have the fuze length (running time) set on them. This is done just before firing using either a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to the required fuze length.
Early airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which lasted into the second half of the 20th century. Mechanical time fuzes appeared in the early part of the century. These required a means of powering them. The Thiel mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e. 'clockwork'), Junghans used centrifugal force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugal force and balls. From about 1980, electronic time fuzes started replacing mechanical ones for use with cargo munitions.
Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar. The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery 'unrotated projectiles' (rockets) in World War II. Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (time) fuzes which they replaced. Mechanical time fuzes required an accurate calculation of their running time, which was affected by non-standard conditions. With HE (requiring a burst 20 to {{convert|30|ft|m}} above the ground), if this was very slightly wrong the rounds would either hit the ground or burst too high. Accurate running time was less important with cargo munitions that burst much higher.
The first radar proximity fuzes (perhaps originally codenamed 'VT' and later called Variable Time (VT)) were invented by the British and developed by the US and initially used against aircraft in World War II. Their ground use was delayed for fear of the enemy recovering 'blinds' (artillery shells which failed to detonate) and copying the fuze. The first proximity fuzes were designed to detonate about {{convert|30|ft|m}} above the ground. These air-bursts are much more lethal against personnel than ground bursts because they deliver a greater proportion of useful fragments and deliver them into terrain where a prone soldier would be protected from ground bursts.
However, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds. This led to 'Controlled Variable Time' (CVT) after World War II. These fuzes have a mechanical timer that switched on the radar about 5 seconds before expected impact, they also detonated on impact.
The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. They have become known as the U.S. Artillery's "Christmas present", and were much appreciated when they arrived during the Battle of the Bulge. They were also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles in the Pacific against kamikaze as well as in Britain against V-1 flying bombs.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/science-service-historical-images-collection|titleScience Service Historical Images Collection|dateApril 19, 2018|websiteNational Museum of American History}}</ref>
Electronic multi-function fuzes started to appear around 1980. Using solid-state electronics they were relatively cheap and reliable, and became the standard fitted fuze in operational ammunition stocks in some western armies. The early versions were often limited to proximity airburst, albeit with height of burst options, and impact. Some offered a go/no-go functional test through the fuze setter.
Later versions introduced induction fuze setting and testing instead of physically placing a fuze setter on the fuze. The latest, such as Junghan's DM84U provide options giving, superquick, delay, a choice of proximity heights of burst, time and a choice of foliage penetration depths.
Projectiles
{{Main|Shell (projectile)}}
, as seen in this 1953 nuclear test.]]
The projectile is the munition or "bullet" fired downrange. This may be an explosive device. Projectiles have traditionally been classified as "shot" or "shell", the former being solid and the latter having some form of "payload".
Shells can be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection. The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I. Base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes. Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time.
Payloads have included:
* Bursting: high-explosive, white phosphorus, coloured marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high-explosive anti-tank and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell.
* Nose ejection: shrapnel, star, incendiary and flechette (a more modern version of shrapnel).
* Base ejection: Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition bomblets, which arm themselves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from the projectile (this produces unexploded sub-munitions, or "duds", which remain dangerous), scatterable mines, illuminating, coloured flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff<ref>p. 266, Browne & Thurbon</ref> (foil to jam radars)<ref>p. 262, International
Aeronautic Federation</ref> and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions.
Stabilization
* Rifled: Artillery projectiles have traditionally been spin-stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling, which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a "driving band" (UK) or "rotating band" (U.S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have been used.
* Smoothbore/fin-stabilized: In modern artillery, smoothbore barrels have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns.
* Rifled/fin-stabilized: A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6779754-fulltext.html |titleFin-stabilized artillery shell |publisherpatentstorm.us |dateAugust 24, 2004 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080209222127/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6779754-fulltext.html |archive-dateFebruary 9, 2008 }}</ref> guidance{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2023}} or gliding.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6748871-fulltext.html |titleGuided artillery missile with extremely long range |publisherpatentstorm.us |dateAugust 24, 2004 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080209222122/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6748871-fulltext.html |archive-dateFebruary 9, 2008 }}</ref>Propellant
during the Iran–Iraq War]]
Most forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile to the target. Propellant is always a low explosive, which means it deflagrates, rather than detonating like high explosives. The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant. This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor.
Until the late 19th century, the only available propellant was black powder. It had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns, and make aiming impossible. In 1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitroglycerin was discovered at nearly the same time. Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless. Early guncotton was unstable, however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear. Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant.
Many other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant – low temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Modern gun propellants are broadly divided into three classes: single-base propellants that are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants consisting of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine.
Artillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways:
* Rocket-assisted projectiles enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base.
* Base bleed uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag.
* Ramjet-assisted, similar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120-mm mortar shell could reach a range of {{convert|22|mi|km|abbron}}.<ref>{{cite book|lastMcNab|firstChris|author2Hunter Keeter|titleTools of Violence: Guns, Tanks and Dirty Bombs|publisherOsprey Publishing|year2008|page[https://archive.org/details/toolsofviolenceg0000mcna/page/145 145]|isbn978-1-84603-225-7|urlhttps://archive.org/details/toolsofviolenceg0000mcna/page/145}}</ref>
Propelling charges for barrel artillery can be provided either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases. Generally, anti-aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to 3" or 76.2&nbsp;mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered, depending on the range to the target. It also makes handling of larger shells easier. Cases and bags require totally different types of breech. A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech; this is called obturation. With bagged charges, the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer. In either case, the primer is usually percussion, but electrical is also used, and laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155&nbsp;mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech.
Artillery ammunition has four classifications according to use:
* Service: ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as "warshot" ammunition.
* Practice: Ammunition with a non- or minimally-explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high-explosive charge.
* Dummy: Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display.
* Blank: Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder), and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use.
Field artillery system
{{unreferenced section |date=May 2017}}
, Belgium, September 5, 1917]]
Because modern field artillery mostly uses indirect fire, the guns have to be part of a system that enables them to attack targets invisible to them, in accordance with the combined arms plan.
The main functions in the field artillery system are:
* Communications
* Command: authority to allocate resources;
* Target acquisition: detect, identify and deduce the location of targets;
* Control: authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack;
* Computation of firing data – to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target;
* Fire units: guns, launchers or mortars grouped together;
* Specialist services: produce data to support the production of accurate firing data;
* Logistic services: to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.
All these calculations to produce a quadrant elevation (or range) and azimuth were done manually using instruments, tabulated, data of the moment, and approximations until battlefield computers started appearing in the 1960s and 1970s. While some early calculators copied the manual method (typically substituting polynomials for tabulated data), computers use a different approach. They simulate a shell's trajectory by 'flying' it in short steps and applying data about the conditions affecting the trajectory at each step. This simulation is repeated until it produces a quadrant elevation and azimuth that lands the shell within the required 'closing' distance of the target coordinates.
NATO has a standard ballistic model for computer calculations and has expanded the scope of this into the NATO Armaments Ballistic Kernel (NABK)<ref>The public NABK Brochure [https://aop37.lsec.dnd.ca/sites/s4_public_info/S4%20Document%20Information/NABK%20brochure.pdf NABK] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706175224/https://aop37.lsec.dnd.ca/sites/s4_public_info/S4%20Document%20Information/NABK%20brochure.pdf |dateJuly 6, 2011 }}</ref> within the SG2 Shareable (Fire Control) Software Suite (S4).
Logistics
Supply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics. Up until World War I some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations. Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level. A key difference is whether supply is 'push' or 'pull'. In the former the 'pipeline' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack.
Classification
using 130 mm Gun M-46 during a direct fire mission in a live fire exercise in 2010.]]
Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements.
Types of ordnance
The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles.
Types of artillery:
PzH 2000 self-propelled artillery]]
* Cannon: The oldest type of artillery with direct firing trajectory.
* Bombard: A type of a large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery piece, a cannon or mortar used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications.
* Falconet was a type of light cannon developed in the late 15th century that fired a smaller shot than the similar falcon.
* Swivel gun is a type of small cannon mounted on a swiveling stand or fork which allows a very wide arc of movement. Camel mounted swivel guns called zamburak were used by the Gunpowder Empires as self-propelled artillery.
* Volley gun is a gun with multiple single-shot barrels that volley fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession. Although capable of unleashing intense firepower, volley guns differ from modern machine guns in that they lack autoloading and automatic fire mechanisms
* Siege artillery: Large-caliber artillery that have limited mobility with indirect firing trajectory, which was used to bombard targets at long distances.
**Large-calibre artillery.
* Field artillery: Mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include:
** Infantry support guns: Directly support infantry units.
** Mountain guns: Lightweight guns that can be disassembled and transported through difficult terrain.
** Field guns: Capable of long-range direct fires.
** Howitzers: Capable of high-angle fire, they are most often employed for indirect-fire.
** Gun-howitzers: Capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.
** Mortars: Typically muzzle-loaded, short-barreled, high-trajectory weapons designed primarily for an indirect-fire role.
** Gun-mortars: Typically breech-loaded, capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.
** Tank guns: Large-caliber guns mounted on tanks to provide mobile direct fire.
** Anti-tank artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed primarily for direct fire to destroy armored fighting vehicles with heavy armor.
**Anti-tank gun: Guns designed for direct fire to destroy tanks and other armored fighting vehicles.
** Anti-aircraft artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft by land and/or at sea. Some guns were suitable for the dual roles of anti-aircraft and anti-tank warfare.
** Rocket artillery: Launches rockets or missiles, instead of shot or shell.
* Railway gun: Large-caliber weapons that are mounted on, transported by and fired from specially-designed railway wagons.
* Naval artillery: Guns mounted on warships to be used either against other naval vessels or to bombard coastal targets in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, but the advent of air power and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete. They are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role.
* Coastal artillery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (for example, the Atlantic Wall in World War II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Modern coastal artillery (for example, Russia's "Bereg" system) is often self-propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit.
* Aircraft artillery: Large-caliber guns mounted on attack aircraft, this is typically found on slow-flying gunships.
* Nuclear artillery: Artillery which fires nuclear shells.
Modern field artillery can also be split into two other subcategories: towed and self-propelled. As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually an artillery tractor or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Towed artillery is in some cases equipped with an APU for small displacements. Self-propelled artillery is permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and is thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. It includes mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection.
Organizational types
At the beginning of the modern artillery period, the late 19th century, many armies had three main types of artillery, in some case they were sub-branches within the artillery branch in others they were separate branches or corps. There were also other types excluding the armament fitted to warships:
s, operate a {{convert|9.2|in|mm|adj=on}} howitzer during World War I]]
* Horse artillery, first formed as regular units in the late 18th century, with the role of supporting cavalry, they were distinguished by the entire crew being mounted.
* Field or "foot" artillery, the main artillery arm of the field army, using either guns, howitzers, or mortars. In World War II this branch again started using rockets and later surface to surface missiles.
* Fortress or garrison artillery, operated a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, either on land or coastal frontiers. Some had deployable elements to provide heavy artillery to the field army. In some nations coast defence artillery was a naval responsibility.
* Mountain artillery, a few nations treated mountain artillery as a separate branch, in others it was a speciality in another artillery branch. They used light guns or howitzers, usually designed for pack animal transport and easily broken down into small easily handled loads
* Naval artillery, some nations carried pack artillery on some warships, these were used and manhandled by naval (or marine) landing parties. At times, part of a ship's armament would be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and limbers for actions ashore, for example during the Second Boer War, during the First World War the guns from the stricken SMS Königsberg formed the main artillery strength of the German forces in East Africa.
(1772–1851)]]
After World War I many nations merged these different artillery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches. Naval artillery disappeared apart from that belonging to marines. However, two new branches of artillery emerged during that war and its aftermath, both used specialised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in the 1950s and 1960s both started to make extensive use of missiles:
* Anti-tank artillery, also under various organisational arrangements but typically either field artillery or a specialist branch and additional elements integral to infantry, etc., units. However, in most armies field and anti-aircraft artillery also had at least a secondary anti-tank role. After World War II anti-tank in Western armies became mostly the responsibility of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artillery matter, with some exceptions.
* Anti-aircraft artillery, under various organisational arrangements including being part of artillery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being split between army for the field and air force for home defence. In some cases infantry and the new armoured corps also operated their own integral light anti-aircraft artillery. Home defence anti-aircraft artillery often used fixed as well as mobile mountings. Some anti-aircraft guns could also be used as field or anti-tank artillery, providing they had suitable sights.
However, the general switch by artillery to indirect fire before and during World War I led to a reaction in some armies. The result was accompanying or infantry guns. These were usually small, short range guns, that could be easily man-handled and used mostly for direct fire but some could use indirect fire. Some were operated by the artillery branch but under command of the supported unit. In World War II they were joined by self-propelled assault guns, although other armies adopted infantry or close support tanks in armoured branch units for the same purpose, subsequently tanks generally took on the accompanying role.
Equipment types
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60&nbsp;mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies.
The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century.
True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. , 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks.]]
Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately).
That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi-charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels.
Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading.
There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations.
A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry.
A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s.
In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine.
Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Caliber categories
A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as "light", "medium", "heavy" and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coastal guns.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArtillery |urlhttps://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/artillery |access-date2024-06-22 |websiteNational WWI Museum and Memorial |languageen}}</ref>Modern operations
showcasing towing, turning and firing of rounds]]
(155 mm AUF1) Self-propelled Guns, 40th Regiment d' Artillerie, with IFOR markings are parked at Hekon base, near Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina, in support of Operation Joint Endeavor]]
List of countries in order of amount of artillery (only conventional barrel ordnance is given, in use with land forces):{{Sfn | Hackett | 2010}}
{| class"wikitable sortable" styletext-align:right;
|+
! Country
! scopecol classunsortable | Number
! scopecol classunsortable | Ref
|-
| Russia || 26,121{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p 223 | ps. The number given is for Land Forces only. Naval Infantry and Coastal Defense forces, Federal Border Guard Service, and Interior Troops use an additional 500+ ordnance pieces.}}
|-
| North Korea || 17,900+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 412}}
|-
| China || 17,700+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 400}}
|-
| India || 11,258+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 360}}
|-
| South Korea || 10,774+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 414}}
|-
| United States || 8,137{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p 33 | ps. The total is composed of 6 270+ ordnance used by the US Army, Army Reserve and National Guard with 1 867 used by the USMC.}}
|-
| Turkey || 7,450+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 165}}
|-
| Israel || 5,432{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 255}}
|-
| Egypt || 4,480{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p 248 | ps. Syria, Egypt's strategic partner in the past wars against Israel, uses 3 440+ artillery pieces, and is the 11th ranking artillery user in the World.}}
|-
| Pakistan || 4,291+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Syria || 3,805+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Iran || 3,668+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Algeria || 3,465{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Jordan || 2,339{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Iraq || 2,300+ || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Finland || 1,398{{spaces|1|en}} || <ref name"HS">{{cite web | type news analysis | title In a changing world, Finland's artillery stays the same | url http://www.hs.fi/english/article/NEWS+ANALYSIS+In+a+changing+world+Finland%E2%80%99s+artillery+stays+the+same/1135238365526 | access-dateJuly 24, 2013 | archive-date January 22, 2013 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130122064517/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/NEWS+ANALYSIS+In+a+changing+world+Finland%E2%80%99s+artillery+stays+the+same/1135238365526 | url-status dead}}</ref>
|-
| Brazil || 900{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Cameroon || 883{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Morocco || 848{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|-
| Hungary || 835{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Citation needed |date=April 2022}}
|-
| France || 758{{spaces|1|en}} || {{Sfn | Hackett | 2010 | p = 368}}
|}
Artillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber. The general role of artillery is to provide fire support—"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize or suppress the enemy". This NATO definition makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic. The italicised terms are NATO's.<ref>{{Citation | id AAP-6(2006) | publisher NATO | title = Glossary of Terms and Definitions}}.</ref>
Unlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering close supporting fire. However, they are all suitable for providing deep supporting fire although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role. Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to direct supporting fire. Guns are used either for this or general supporting fire while rockets are mostly used for the latter. However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies.
Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armour units. This means they generally do not have to concentrate their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies. However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO.
In NATO armies artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to. It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used. The standard terms are: direct support, general support, general support reinforcing and reinforcing. These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: operational command, operational control, tactical command or tactical control.
In NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions. However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation. Nevertheless, the batteries' fire can be concentrated onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions.
Application of fire
M-198 howitzer]]
There are several dimensions to this subject. The first is the notion that fire may be against an opportunity target or may be arranged. If it is the latter it may be either on-call or scheduled. Arranged targets may be part of a fire plan. Fire may be either observed or unobserved, if the former it may be adjusted, if the latter then it has to be predicted. Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other target acquisition system.
NATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes:
* Counterbattery fire: delivered for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the enemy's fire support system.
* Counterpreparation fire: intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered.
* Covering fire: used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms.
* Defensive fire: delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action.
* Final Protective Fire: an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.
* Harassing fire: a random number of shells are fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale.
* Interdiction fire: placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point.
* Preparation fire: delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position.
These purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of suppression in counterbattery is an omission. Broadly they can be defined as either:
* Deep supporting fire: directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation; or
* Close supporting fire: placed on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit.
M-198 firing outside of Fallujah, Iraq in 2004]]
Two other NATO terms also need definition:
* Neutralization fire: delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and
* Suppression fire: that degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfill its mission. Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire.
The tactical purposes also include various "mission verbs", a rapidly expanding subject with the modern concept of "effects based operations".
Targeting is the process of selecting target and matching the appropriate response to them taking account of operational requirements and capabilities. It requires consideration of the type of fire support required and the extent of coordination with the supported arm. It involves decisions about:
* what effects are required, for example, neutralization or suppression;
* the proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants;
* what types of munitions, including their fuzing, are to be used and in what quantities;
* when the targets should be attacked and possibly for how long;
* what methods should be used, for example, converged or distributed, whether adjustment is permissible or surprise essential, the need for special procedures such as precision or danger close
* how many fire units are needed and which ones they should be from those that are available (in range, with the required munitions type and quantity, not allotted to another target, have the most suitable line of fire if there is a risk to own troops or non-combatants);
The targeting process is the key aspect of tactical fire control. Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed. In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer. This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units. The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances.
Surprise may be essential or irrelevant. It depends on what effects are required and whether or not the target is likely to move or quickly improve its protective posture. During World War II UK researchers concluded that for impact fuzed munitions the relative risk were as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
* men standing – 1
* men lying – 1/3
* men firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50
* men crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100
Airburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men, etc. Historically most casualties occur in the first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e. the time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, this is less relevant if airburst is used.
There are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability:
* ordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a "fire at" time. The disadvantage is that if the fire is concentrated from many dispersed fire units then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time. To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window.
* burst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight. Smaller caliber guns, such as 105&nbsp;mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it was not until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155&nbsp;mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability.
* multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI), where a single weapon or multiple individual weapons fire multiple rounds at differing trajectories so that all rounds arrive on target at the same time.
* time on target, fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve. It can be used with both the previous two methods.
Counter-battery fire
{{Main|Counter-battery fire}}
Modern counter-battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery. Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns. In World War I the latter required air observation. The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}
Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter.
Once hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter-battery policy. Air strike is another option. In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff. In other situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy.
Modern counter-battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging. Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'follow' a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example. Counter-measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physically and electronically.
]]
Field artillery team
{{Main|Field artillery team}}
'Field Artillery Team' is a US term and the following description and terminology applies to the US, other armies are broadly similar but differ in significant details. Modern field artillery (post–World War I) has three distinct parts: the Forward Observer (FO), the Fire Direction Center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping. A lesser known part of the team is the FAS or Field Artillery Survey team which sets up the "Gun Line" for the cannons. Today most artillery battalions use an "Aiming Circle" which allows for faster setup and more mobility. FAS teams are still used for checks and balances purposes and if a gun battery has issues with the "Aiming Circle" a FAS team will do it for them.
The FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires.
The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns. Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However, in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link.
Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.
Time on target
{{main|Time on target}}
A technique called time on target (TOT) was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert.<ref>The Development of Artillery Tactics and Equipment, Brigadier AL Pemberton, 1950, The War Office, pg 129</ref> With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire. When each fire unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time all the opening rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.
Multiple round simultaneous impact
{{MRSI_animation_SMIL.svg}}
Multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI) is a modern version of the earlier time on target concept. MRSI is when a single gun fires multiple shells so all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is possible because there is more than one trajectory for a round to fly to any given target. Typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and by using different sized propellant charges with each shell, it is possible to utilize more than two trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target. If shells are fired on higher trajectories for initial volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and later volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, with the correct timing the shells will all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional methods of firing, the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to take cover between volleys. However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver multiple rounds in a few seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target.
MRSI has a few prerequisites. The first is guns with a high rate of fire. The second is the ability to use different sized propellant charges. Third is a fire control computer that has the ability to compute MRSI volleys and the capability to produce firing data, sent to each gun, and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hu |first1Xin Jun |last2Wang |first2Hang Yu |titleEffectiveness Calculation of Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact Shooting Method Based on Monte Carlo Method |journalApplied Mechanics and Materials |dateSeptember 2013 |volume397–400 |pages2459–63 |doi10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.397-400.2459|s2cid111026161 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact, adjustable simulation |urlhttps://www.geogebra.org/m/r82YhC8d |website GeoGebra | date= 30 May 2017}}</ref> The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire. To allow the most shells to reach the target, the target has to be in range of the lowest propellant charge.
Examples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS-90, South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least {{convert |25|km|0|abbron}} away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000<ref>{{cite web |titleHungary purchases a brutal military beast that can eliminate targets from over 60 kilometres |urlhttps://dailynewshungary.com/hungary-purchases-a-brutal-military-beast-that-can-eliminate-targets-from-over-60-kilometres/ |website Daily News Hungary |date9 January 2019}}</ref> (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least {{convert|17|km|0|abbron}} away), Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA 2,<ref>{{Cite web |titleKotadef article on 155mm SpGH Zuzana |urlhttps://kotadef.sk/projekty/zuzana/?langen |access-date2025-01-02}}</ref> and K9 Thunder.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFinnish Army report on K9 Thunder |urlhttps://maavoimat.fi/en/self-propelled-howitzer-k9-thunder |access-date=2025-01-02}}</ref>
The Archer project (developed by BAE-Systems Bofors in Sweden) is a 155&nbsp;mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun. The 120&nbsp;mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland),<ref>{{Cite web | place FI | url http://www.patriahagglunds.fi/ |titlePatria hagglunds |access-dateApril 4, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100404172145/http://www.patriahagglunds.fi/ |archive-dateApril 4, 2010 |url-statusdead |dfmdy-all}}</ref> is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability. It is unclear how many fire control computers have the necessary capabilities.
Two-round MRSI firings were a popular artillery demonstration in the 1960s, where well trained detachments could show off their skills for spectators.
Air burst
{{Main|Air burst}}
The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuzes or proximity fuzes. Time fuzes use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuze can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These employ a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuze to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. The proximity fuze itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare.
This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open; even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position.
Use in monuments
(American Civil War)]]
Numerous war memorials around the world incorporate an artillery piece that was used in the war or battle commemorated.
See also
{{Div col|colwidth=15em}}
* List of artillery
* Advanced Gun System
* Artillery museums
* Barrage (artillery)
* Beehive anti-personnel round
* Coilgun
* Combustion light-gas gun
* Cordite
* Fuze
* Gun laying
* Light-gas gun
* Paris Gun
* Railgun
* Shoot-and-scoot
* Shrapnel shell
* Suppressive fire
* Improvised artillery in the Syrian Civil War
{{div col end}}
References
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
* {{Cite book|last1Browne|first1 J.P.R.|last2Thurbon|first2 M T |titleElectronic Warfare |year 1998 |seriesBrassey's air power, v. 4|publisher Brassey's|locationLondon|isbn 978-1-85753-133-6 |oclc= 38292289}}
* {{Citation | editor-last Hackett | editor-first James | title The Military Balance | year 2010 | publisher = The International Institute for Strategic Studies}}
* {{Cite book|lastHolmes|first Richard|titleThe World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations that Changed the Course of History|year 1988|publisherViking Studio Books|location New York |isbn978-0-670-81967-6|oclc 17840438|url= https://archive.org/details/worldatlasofwarf0000unse}}
* {{Cite book|lastMcCamley|first N.J.|titleDisasters Underground|year 2004|locationBarnsley |isbn 978-1-84415-022-9|oclc53241739|publisher Pen & Sword Military}}
* {{Cite journal|lastMcNaughton|first Andrew|author-linkAndrew McNaughton|title The Development of Artillery in the Great War|journalCanadian Defence Quarterly|volume 6|issue2|dateJanuary 1929}}
* {{Cite journal|lastOrdway|first Frederick I|titleHistory of Astronautics Symposium: Mar Del Plata, Argentina, October 1969|journal Technology and Culture|volume11|issue 3|pages407–416|dateJuly 1970 |issn0040-165X|doi 10.2307/3102202|jstor3102202|s2cid 113141625}}
* {{Cite journal|lastSchmidtchen|first Volker|titleRiesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit |trans-title Giant cannon of the 15th century: technical masterpieces of their era |journalTechnikgeschichte|pages 153–73 (162–64)|volume44|issue 2|year1977|language de|oclc= 85351643}}
* {{Cite journal| publisher International Aeronautic Federation|journal Interavia|page262|volume 32 |dateJanuary–June 1977|issn 0020-5168}}
Further reading
* {{Cite book|lastHogg|first Oliver Frederick Gillilan|titleArtillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline|year 1970|publisherC. Hurst|location London|isbn978-0-900966-43-9|oclc 99454}}
* {{Cite book|lastBailey|first J.B.A.|titleField Artillery and Firepower|year 2004|seriesAUSA Institute of Land Warfare book|publisher Naval Institute Press|locationAnnapolis, MD|isbn 978-1-59114-029-0|oclc51931033}}External links
{{Wiktionary|artillery}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Artillery}}
* [http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/index_weapons.htm Naval Weapons of the World]
* [http://www.cannonartillery.com/ Cannon Artillery – The Voice of Freedom's Thunder]
* [http://www.enemyforces.com/artillery.htm Modern Artillery] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060504204735/http://www.enemyforces.com/artillery.htm |dateMay 4, 2006 }}
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1179/1574077313Z.00000000029?needAccesstrue What sort of forensic information can be derived from the analysis of shell fragments] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210809051938/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1179/1574077313Z.00000000029?needAccesstrue |dateAugust 9, 2021 }}
* Evans, Nigel F. (2001–2007) "[http://nigelef.tripod.com/index.htm British Artillery in World War 2]"
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_tactics.htm Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars]
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/IMPERIAL_GUARD_artillery.htm Artillery of Napoleon's Imperial Guard]
* [http://www.artillerie.info/ French artillery and its ammunition. 14th to the end of the 19th century]
* Historic films showing artillery in World War I at [http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914%20Artillery/multilingual:1/showOnly:video europeanfilmgateway.eu]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUvcdKGD-FM/ Video: Inside shrieking shrapnel. Hear the great sound of shrapnel's – Finnish field artillery fire video year 2013]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5--klcaqbZY Video: Forensic and archaeological interpretation of artillery shell fragments and shrapnel]
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitleOrdnance |volume20 |pages189–235 |short1}}
{{Weapons}}
{{Military and war}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Chinese inventions
Category:Explosive weapons
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Arnulf of Carinthia
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{{Short description|Disputed Emperor in Italy (r. 896–899)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Arnulf of Carinthia
| image = File:Seal of Arnulph of Carinthia (896).jpg
| caption = Seal of Arnulf of Carinthia {{circa|896}}
| succession = Emperor in Italy
| title = Emperor of the Romans
| reign = 22 February 896 – 8 December 899
| coronation = 22 February 896, Rome
| predecessor = Lambert
| successor = Louis the Blind
| succession1 = King of Italy
| reign1 = 894 – 8 December 899
| predecessor1 = Lambert
| successor1 = Louis the Blind
| succession2 = King of East Francia
| reign2 = {{circa|27 November 887}}<ref>[https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/gnd118630938.html "Karl III."], Neue Deutsche Biographie. "[Karl's] last document from Frankfurt is dated to 17 November 887, and Arnulf's first document is dated to 27 November 887."</ref> – 8 December 899
| predecessor2 = Charles the Fat
| successor2 = Louis the Child
| spouse = Ota<br />Oda of West Francia<br />Vinburge
| issue = Louis the Child<br />Ratold of Italy<br />Zwentibold<br />Glismut of Carinthia<br />Hedwig of Carinthia
| royal house = Carolingian
| father = Carloman of Bavaria
| mother = Liutswind
| birth_date = {{c.|850}}
| birth_place | death_date 8 December 899
| death_place Ratisbon, Duchy of Bavaria, East Francia (now Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany)<ref name"Useful Knowledge page 623">The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Vol. III, Part II (page 623), printed by William Clowes and Sons, Stamford Street, London, 1844</ref>
| date of burial | place of burial St. Emmeram's Basilica, Ratisbon
| signature_type = signum manus (890)
| signature = Arnulf of Carinthia - monogram.svg
}}
Arnulf of Carinthia ({{circa|850}} – 8 December 899) was the duke of Carinthia who overthrew his uncle Emperor Charles the Fat to become the Carolingian king of East Francia<ref>East Francia had been split from the rest of Frankish Realm by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. It evolved into Holy Roman Empire after end of Carolingian rule.</ref> from 887, the disputed king of Italy from 894, and the disputed emperor from 22 February 896 until his death at Ratisbon, Bavaria.
Early life
{{more citations needed|section|dateNovember 2019}}Illegitimacy and early lifeArnulf was the illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria<ref>Bradbury, Jim. The Capetians: Kings of France 987–1328. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2007. p 31</ref><ref>McDougall, Sara. Royal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800–1230. Oxford University Press, 2017. p 91</ref> and Liutswind,<ref>Also Litwinde or Litwindie</ref> who may have been the sister of Ernst, Count of the Bavarian Nordgau Margraviate (now in the area of the Upper Palatinate), or perhaps the burgrave of Passau, according to other sources. After Arnulf's birth, Carloman married before 861, a daughter of that same Count Ernst, who died after 8 August 879. As it is mainly West-Franconian historiography<ref>[http://www.manfred-hiebl.de/mittelalter-genealogie/karolinger_ostfraenkische_linie/karlmann_ostfraenkischer_koenig_880.html Konecny, Silvia. Die Frauen des karolingischen Königshauses. Die politische Bedeutung der Ehe und die Stellung der Frau in der fränkischen Herrscherfamilie vom 7. bis zum 10. Jahrhundert. PhD thesis Vienna 1976, p. 139]</ref> that speaks of Arnulf's illegitimacy, it is quite possible that the two women are actually the same person, Liutswind, and that Carloman married Arnulf's mother, thus legitimizing his son.<ref>[http://www.mittelalter-genealogie.de/karolinger_ostfraenkische_linie/luitswinda_mutter_kaiser_arnulfs_891.html Mediaeval Genealogy: Liutswind:] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030902183355/http://www.mittelalter-genealogie.de/karolinger_ostfraenkische_linie/luitswinda_mutter_kaiser_arnulfs_891.html |date=September 2, 2003 }} Various theories about her descent and her relation to Carloman (in German)</ref>
Arnulf was granted the rule over the Duchy of Carinthia, a Frankish vassal state and successor of the ancient Principality of Carantania by his father, after Carloman reconciled with his own father, King Louis the German, and was made king in the Duchy of Bavaria.
Arnulf spent his childhood in Mosaburch or Mosapurc, which is widely believed to be Moosburg in Carinthia. Moosburg was a few miles away from one of the imperial residences, the Carolingian Kaiserpfalz at Karnburg, which had been the residence of the Carantanian princes. Arnulf kept his seat here, and from later events it may be inferred that the Carantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own duke. Later, after he had been crowned King of East Francia, Arnulf turned his old territory of Carinthia into the March of Carinthia, a part of the Duchy of Bavaria.<ref name"Taylor1874">{{cite book|authorBayard Taylor|titleA School History of Germany: From the Earliest Period to the Establishment of the German Empire in 1871|urlhttps://archive.org/details/schoolhistoryofg00tayl|year1874|publisherD. Appleton & Company|pages[https://archive.org/details/schoolhistoryofg00tayl/page/n156 139]–}}</ref>Regional ruler
After Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke in 879, Louis the Younger inherited Bavaria, Charles the Fat was given the Kingdom of Italy, and Arnulf was confirmed in Carinthia by an agreement with Carloman. However, Bavaria was more or less ruled by Arnulf<ref>Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda. (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992. 882 (p. 104 and n3)</ref> during the summer and autumn of 879 while his father arranged his succession. He was also granted "Pannonia," in the words of the Annales Fuldenses,<ref>Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda. (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992. 884 (pp. 108–111)</ref> or "Carantanum," in the words of Regino of Prüm.<ref>MacLean, Simon. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the end of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press: 2003. p. 135</ref> The division of the realm was confirmed in 880 after Carloman's death.
When Engelschalk II of Pannonia in 882 rebelled against Margrave Aribo and ignited the Wilhelminer War, Arnulf supported him and accepted his and his brother's homage. This ruined Arnulf's relationship with his uncle, Emperor Charles the Fat, and put him at war with Svatopluk of Moravia. Pannonia was invaded, but Arnulf refused to give up the young Wilhelminers. Arnulf did not make peace with Svatopluk until late 885, by which time the Moravian ruler was loyal to the emperor. Some scholars see this war as destroying Arnulf's hopes of succeeding Charles the Fat.<ref name"Marshall2018">{{cite book|authorHenrietta Marshall|titleThe Story of Germany|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7rJ4DwAAQBAJ&pgPT53|date2018|publisherPerennial Press|isbn978-1-5312-6337-9|pages53–}}</ref>
King of East Francia
.]]
Arnulf took the leading role in the deposition of Charles the Fat. With the support of the Frankish nobles, Arnulf called a Diet at Tribur and deposed Charles in November 887, under threat of military action.<ref name"Comyn, pg. 78">Comyn, pg. 78</ref><ref name"Mann III, pg. 376">Mann III, pg. 376</ref> Charles peacefully agreed to this involuntary retirement, but not without first chastising his nephew for his treachery and asking for a few royal villas in Swabia on which to live out his final months, which Arnulf granted him.<ref>Duckett, pg. 12</ref> Arnulf, having distinguished himself in the war against the Slavs, was then elected king by the nobles of East Francia (only the eastern realm, though Charles had ruled the whole of the Frankish Empire).<ref>Comyn, pg. 80</ref> West Francia, the Kingdom of Burgundy, and the Kingdom of Italy elected their own kings from the Carolingian family.
Like many rulers of the period, Arnulf was heavily involved in ecclesiastical disputes. In 895, at the Diet of Tribur, he presided over a dispute between the episcopal sees of Bremen, Hamburg, and Cologne over jurisdictional authority, which saw Bremen and Hamburg remain a combined see, independent of the see of Cologne.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 66</ref>
Arnulf was more a fighter than a negotiator. In 890, he was successfully battling Slavs in Pannonia.<ref>Duckett, pg. 16</ref> In early/mid-891, Vikings invaded Lotharingia<ref>Duckett, pg. 17</ref> and crushed an East Frankish army at Maastricht.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 20">Duckett, pg. 20</ref> Terms such as "Vikings", "Danes", "Northmen" and "Norwegians" have been used loosely and interchangeably to describe these invaders.<ref>Arnulf's opponents in 890 have sometimes been described as "Normans", although the term has become more strongly associated with the Scandinavians that were allies of West Francia from 911 and settled in the Duchy of Normandy.</ref> In September 891, Arnulf repelled the Vikings<ref name"Duckett, pg. 20">Duckett, pg. 20</ref> and essentially ended their attacks on that front.{{citation needed|dateAugust 2018}} The Annales Fuldenses report that there were so many dead Northmen that their bodies blocked the run of the river. After this victory, Arnulf built a castle on an island in the Dijle river.<ref>Latin Luvanium, local Lovon.</ref>Intervention in West Francia
Arnulf took advantage of the problems in West Francia after the death of Charles the Fat to secure the territory of Lotharingia, which he converted into a kingdom for his son Zwentibold.<ref>Comyn, pg. 82</ref> In 889, Arnulf supported the claim of Louis the Blind to the kingdom of Provence, after receiving a personal appeal from Louis' mother, Ermengard, who came to see Arnulf at Forchheim in May 889.<ref>Mann III, pg. 382</ref>
Recognising the superiority of Arnulf's position in 888, king Odo of France formally accepted the suzerainty of Arnulf.<ref name"Bryce, pg. xxxv">Bryce, pg. xxxv</ref> In 893, Arnulf switched his support from Odo to Charles the Simple after being persuaded by Fulk, Archbishop of Reims, that it was in his best interests.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 55</ref> Arnulf then took advantage of the following fighting between Odo and Charles in 894, harrying some territories of West Francia.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 56">Mann IV, pg. 56</ref> At one point, Charles the Simple was forced to flee to Arnulf and ask for his protection.<ref>Duckett, pg. 25</ref> His intervention soon forced Pope Formosus to get involved, as he was worried that a divided and war weary West Francia would be easy prey for the Vikings.<ref name="Mann IV, pg. 56">Mann IV, pg. 56</ref>
In 895, Arnulf summoned both Charles and Odo to his residence at Worms. Charles's advisers convinced him not to go, and he sent a representative in his place. Odo, on the other hand, personally attended, together with a large retinue, bearing many gifts for Arnulf.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 26">Duckett, pg. 26</ref> Angered by the non-appearance of Charles, he welcomed Odo at the Diet of Worms in May 895 and again supported Odo's claim to the throne of West Francia.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 26">Duckett, pg. 26</ref> In the same assembly he crowned his illegitimate son Zwentibold as the king of Lotharingia.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 26">Duckett, pg. 26</ref>Wars with MoraviaAs early as 880, Arnulf had designs on Great Moravia and had the Frankish bishop Wiching of Nitra interfere with the missionary activities of the Eastern Orthodox priest Methodius, with the aim of preventing any potential for creating a unified Moravian state.<ref>Mann III, pg. 243</ref> Arnulf had formal relations with the ruler of the Moravian Kingdom, Svatopluk, using them to learn the latter's military and political secrets. Later, these tactics were used to occupy the territory of the Greater Moravian state.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/ebce.2018.8.issue-1/ebce-2018-0007/ebce-2018-0007.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/ebce.2018.8.issue-1/ebce-2018-0007/ebce-2018-0007.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleEthics and politics of Great Moravia of the 9th century Vasil Gluchman}}</ref>
Arnulf failed to conquer the whole of Great Moravia in wars of 892, 893, and 899. Yet Arnulf did achieve some successes, in particular in 895, when the Duchy of Bohemia broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal state. An accord was reached between him and Duke of Bohemia Borivoj I. Bohemia was thus freed from the dangers of Frankish invasion. In 893 or 894 Great Moravia probably lost a part of its territory—present-day western Hungary—to him. As a reward, Wiching became Arnulf's chancellor in 892.<ref>Mann, III, pg. 244</ref> In his attempts to conquer Moravia, in 899 Arnulf reached out to Magyars who had settled in the Carpathian Basin, and with their help he imposed a measure of control over Moravia.<ref name"Comyn, pg. 83">Comyn, pg. 83</ref><ref>Mann IV, pg. 13</ref>King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
, early 14th-century)]]
In Italy Guy III of Spoleto and Berengar of Friuli fought over the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Berengar had been crowned king in 887, but Guy was then crowned in 889. While Pope Stephen V supported Guy, even crowning him Roman Emperor in 891, Arnulf threw his support behind Berengar.<ref>Mann III, pg. 378</ref>
In 893, the new Pope Formosus, not trusting the newly crowned co-emperors Guy and his son Lambert, sent an embassy to Omuntesberch, where Arnulf was meeting with Svatopluk,<ref>Mann III, pg. 379</ref> to request that Arnulf come and liberate Italy,<ref>Mann IV, pg. 50</ref> where he would be crowned emperor in Rome. Arnulf met the Primores of the Kingdom of Italy, dismissed them with gifts and promised to assist the pope.<ref name="Mann IV, pg. 51">Mann IV, pg. 51</ref> Arnulf then sent Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to join Berengar. They defeated Guy but were bought off and left in autumn.
When Pope Formosus again asked Arnulf to invade, the duke personally led an army across the Alps, early in 894. In January 894, Bergamo fell, and Count Ambrose, Guy's representative in the city, was hanged from a tree by the city's gates.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 22" /> Conquering all of the territory north of the Po River, Arnulf forced the surrender of Milan and then drove Guy out of Pavia, where he was crowned King of Italy.<ref name"Bryce, pg. xxxv" /> Arnulf went no further before Guy died suddenly in late autumn, and a fever incapacitated his troops.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 51">Mann IV, pg. 51</ref> His march northward through the Alps was interrupted by Rudolph I of Burgundy, and it was only with great difficulty that Arnulf crossed the mountain range.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 22">Duckett, pg. 22</ref> In retaliation, Arnulf ordered Zwentibold to ravage Rudolph's kingdom.<ref name="Duckett, pg. 22">Duckett, pg. 22</ref> In the meantime, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude travelled to Rome to receive papal confirmation of his imperial succession, but when Pope Formosus, still desiring to crown Arnulf, refused, he was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo.
by Johann Jakob Jung (1840).]]
In September 895, a new papal embassy arrived in Regensburg beseeching Arnulf's aid. In October, Arnulf undertook his second campaign into Italy.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 51">Mann IV, pg. 51</ref> He crossed the Alps quickly and again took Pavia, but then he continued slowly, garnering support among the nobility of Tuscany. Maginulf, Count of Milan, and Walfred of Friuli joined him. Eventually even Adalbert II of Tuscany abandoned Lambert. Finding Rome locked against him and held by Ageltrude,<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 51">Mann IV, pg. 51</ref> Arnulf had to take the city by force on 21 February 896, freeing the pope.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 52">Mann IV, pg. 52</ref> Arnulf was then greeted at the Ponte Milvio by the Roman Senate who escorted him into the Leonine City, where he was received by Pope Formosus on the steps of the Santi Apostoli.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 52">Mann IV, pg. 52</ref>
On 22 February 896, Formosus led the king into the church of St. Peter, anointed and crowned him as emperor, and saluted him as Augustus.<ref>Annals of Fulda, an. 896</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastClemens Gantner, Walter Pohl|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyCoNEAAAQBAJ&pgPA116|titleAfter Charlemagne: Carolingian Italy and its Rulers|publisherCambridge University Press|year2020|pages116| isbn9781108840774 }}</ref> Arnulf then proceeded to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, where he received the homage of the Roman people,<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 52">Mann IV, pg. 52</ref> who swore "never to hand over the city to Lambert or his mother Ageltrude".<ref name="Mann IV, pg. 53">Mann IV, pg. 53</ref> Arnulf then proceeded to exile to Bavaria two leading senators, Constantine and Stephen, who had helped Ageltrude to seize Rome.<ref>Duckett, pg. 28</ref>
Leaving one of his vassals, Farold, to hold Rome, two weeks later Arnulf marched on Spoleto, where Ageltrude had fled to join Lambert.<ref name"Mann IV, pg. 53">Mann IV, pg. 53</ref> However at this point, Arnulf had a stroke, forcing him to call off the campaign and return to Bavaria.<ref>{{cite book |last1Christopher |first1Kleinhenz |titleMedieval Italy: An Encyclopedia |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-415-93929-4 |page59 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE2CTAgAAQBAJ&qarnulf+holy+roman+emperor+%22stroke%22&pgPT89|date2004-08-02 }}</ref> Rumours of the time made Arnulf's condition to be a result of poisoning at the hand of Ageltrude.<ref name="Mann IV, pg. 53">Mann IV, pg. 53</ref>
Arnulf retained power in Italy only as long as he was personally there.<ref name"Bryce, pg. 79">Bryce, pg. 79</ref><ref>Mann IV, pg. 80</ref> On his way north, he stopped at Pavia where he crowned his illegitimate son Ratold as sub-king of Italy, after which he left Ratold in Milan in an attempt to preserve his hold on Italy.<ref name"Duckett, pg. 30">Duckett, pg. 30</ref> That same year Pope Formosus died, leaving Lambert once again in power, and both he and Berengar proceeded to kill any officials who had been appointed by Arnulf, forcing Ratold to flee from Milan to Bavaria.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 81</ref> For the rest of his life Arnulf exercised very little control in Italy, and his agents in Rome did not prevent the accession of Pope Stephen VI in 896.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 77</ref> The pope initially gave his support to Arnulf but eventually became a supporter of Lambert.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 84 – Silver coins from the pontificate of Stephen VI show the transition from Arnulf ("Arnolfvs Imp. Roma") to Lambert ("Lamverto Imp. Roma")</ref>
Final years
In addition to after effects of the stroke, Arnulf contracted morbus pediculosis (infestation of pubic lice on his eyelid), which prevented him from effectively dealing with the problems besetting his reign. Italy was lost,<ref name="Duckett, pg. 30">Duckett, pg. 30</ref> raiders from Moravia and Magyars were continually harassing his lands, and Lotharingia was in revolt against Zwentibold.<ref>Duckett, pg. 33</ref> He was also plagued by escalating violence and power struggles among the lower Frankish nobility.<ref>Duckett, pg. 36</ref>
On 8 December 899 Arnulf died at Ratisbon, in present-day Bavaria.<ref name="Useful Knowledge page 623" /> He is entombed in St. Emmeram's Basilica at Regensburg, which is now known as Schloss Thurn und Taxis, the palace of the princes of Thurn und Taxis. He was succeeded as the king of East Francia by his only legitimate son from Ota, Louis the Child.<ref>Mann IV, pg. 100</ref> After Louis' death in 911 at age 17 or 18, the East Frankish branch of the Carolingian dynasty ceased to exist. Arnulf had had the nobility recognize the rights of his illegitimate sons, Zwentibold and Ratold, as his successors. Zwentibold continued to rule Lotharingia until his murder in 900.
{{clear}}
See also
{{Commons category|Arnulf of Carinthia}}
*Family tree of German monarchs
*List of Frankish kings
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* Duckett, Eleanor (1968). Death and Life in the Tenth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Comyn, Robert. [https://archive.org/stream/historywesterne01unkngoog#page/n6/mode/2up History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol. I.] 1851
* Bryce, James, [https://archive.org/stream/holyromanempir00bryc#page/n5/mode/2up The Holy Roman Empire], MacMillan. 1913
* Mann, Horace, K. [https://archive.org/stream/livesofpopesinea03mann#page/n7/mode/2up The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol III: The Popes During the Carolingian Empire, 858–891.] 1925
* Mann, Horace, K. [https://archive.org/stream/livesofpopesinea04mann#page/n7/mode/2up The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891–999.] 1925
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Carolingian dynasty|850||8 December|899|name=Emperor Arnulf of Carinthia}}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef|before=Charles the Fat}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of East Francia|years887–899}}
{{S-aft|after=Louis the Child}}
{{s-break}}
{{S-bef|rows2|beforeLambert}}
{{S-dis|title(Holy) Roman Emperor|byLambert II of Spoleto|years=896–899}}
{{S-aft|rows2|afterLouis the Blind}}
{{s-break}}
{{S-dis|titleKing of Italy|years894–899|regent1Ratold (896)|byLambert and Berengar I}}
{{s-bef|before=Charles the Fat}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Lotharingia|years887–894}}
{{s-aft|after=Zwentibold}}
{{S-end}}
{{Holy Roman Emperors}}
{{German monarchs}}
{{Antique Kings of Italy}}
{{Carolingians footer}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arnulf of Carinthia}}
Category:850s births
Category:899 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:9th-century Holy Roman Emperors
Category:9th-century kings of Italy
Category:9th-century kings of East Francia
Category:9th-century dukes of Bavaria
Category:Frankish warriors
Category:Kings of Bavaria
Category:Kings of Saxony
Category:Kings of Lotharingia
Category:People from Carinthia
Category:Burials at St. Emmeram's Abbey
Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.828237
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Alexanderplatz
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{{short description|Square in Berlin, Germany}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno|nocaty}}}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2024}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox street
| name = Alexanderplatz
| marker_image | image Alexanderplatz in Berlin - Panorama.jpg
| image_size | image_alt Panoramic view of Alexanderplatz in 2015
| image_map | caption Panoramic view of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} in 2015
| map_type = Germany Berlin
| map_size | map_caption Location within Berlin
| map_alt = Location within Berlin
| former_names {{ubl|{{lang|de|Paradeplatz}}|{{small|(18th century)}}|{{lang|de|Königsplatz}}|{{small|({{circa|1740}}–1805)}}<ref name"kauperts">{{cite web |titleAlexanderplatz |urlhttps://berlin.kauperts.de/Strassen/Alexanderplatz-10178-Berlin |websiteKauperts Straßenführer durch Berlin |publisher{{ill|Kaupert (publisher)|de|Kaupert (Verlag)|ltKaupert}} |access-date16 October 2024 |languagede}}</ref><ref name"der-alex">{{cite web |author1<!--not stated--> |titleAlexanderplatz Berlin |urlhttps://www.der-alexanderplatz.de/ |websiteder-alexanderplatz.de |access-date16 October 2024 |languagede-DE}}</ref>}}
| part_of = {{ubl| Bundesstraße 1| Bundesstraße 2| Bundesstraße 5}}
| namesake = Alexander I of Russia
| type = Public square
| owner | maint
| length | length_m
| length_km | length_ref
| length_notes | width
| area {{cvt|34000|m2}}<ref name"der-alex"/>
| addresses | location Berlin, Germany
| quarter = Mitte
| postal_code | metro {{ubl| {{ric|Berlin S-Bahn|S3|sizex12}} {{ric|Berlin S-Bahn|S5|sizex12}} {{ric|Berlin S-Bahn|S7|sizex12}} {{ric|Berlin S-Bahn|S9|sizex12}} | {{ric|Berlin U-Bahn|U2|sizex12}} {{ric|Berlin U-Bahn|U5|sizex12}} {{ric|Berlin U-Bahn|U8|size=x12}} | Alexanderplatz}}
| coordinates {{coord|formatdms|region:DE-BE_type:landmark|display=it}}
| direction_a | terminus_a
| direction_b | terminus_b
| junction {{ubl|Alexanderstraße|Karl-Marx-Allee|{{ill|Otto-Braun-Straße|de}}|Bernhard-Weiß-Straße|Karl-Liebknecht-Straße|Memhardstraße|Dircksenstraße|{{ill|Rathausstraße (Berlin-Mitte)|de|ltRathausstraße}}|{{ill|Grunerstraße (Berlin)|de|lt=Grunerstraße}}}}
| main_contractor | cost
| references | commissioning_date
| construction_start_date | completion_date
| inauguration_date = <!--{{Start date|YYYY|MM|DD}}}}-->
| demolition_date | designer
| known_for | status
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| browse | embedded
}}
|italicno}}: Old Cölln [1] (with Museum Island [1a], Fisher Island [1b]), {{lang|de|Altberlin|italicno}} [2] (with Nikolai Quarter [2a]), {{lang|de|Friedrichswerder|italicno}} [3], {{lang|de|Neukölln am Wasser}} [4], {{lang|de|Dorotheenstadt|italicno}} [5], {{lang|de|Friedrichstadt|italicno}} [6], {{lang|de|Luisenstadt|italicno}} [7], {{lang|de|Stralauer Vorstadt|italicno}} (with {{lang|de|Königsstadt|italicno}}) [8], {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} area ({{lang|de|Königsstadt|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Altberlin|italicno}}) [9], {{lang|de|Spandauer Vorstadt|italicno}} [10] (with {{lang|de|Scheunenviertel|italicno}} [10a]), {{lang|de|Friedrich-Wilhelm-Stadt|italicno}} [11], {{lang|de|Oranienburger Vorstadt|italicno}} [12], {{lang|de|Rosenthaler Vorstadt|italicno}} [13] ]]
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} ({{IPA|de|alɛkˈsandɐˌplats|lang|De-Alexanderplatz.ogg}}, Alexander Square) is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin. The square is named after the Russian Tsar Alexander I, which also denotes the larger neighbourhood stretching from {{lang|de|Mollstraße}} in the north-east to {{lang|de|Spandauer Straße}} and the {{lang|de|Rotes Rathaus|italicno}} in the south-west.
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} is reputedly the most visited area of Berlin, beating Friedrichstrasse and City West. It is a popular starting point for tourists, with many attractions including the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}} (TV tower), the Nikolai Quarter and the {{lang|de|Rotes Rathaus|italicno}} ('Red City Hall') situated nearby. {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} is still one of Berlin's major commercial areas, housing various shopping malls, department stores and other large retail locations.History]]Early history to the 18th centuryA hospital stood at the location of present-day {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} since the 13th century. Named {{lang|de|Heiliger Georg}} (St. George), the hospital gave its name to the nearby {{lang|de|Georgentor}} (George Gate) of the Berlin city wall. Outside the city walls, this area was largely undeveloped until around 1400, when the first settlers began building thatched cottages. As a gallows was located close by, the area earned the nickname the {{lang|de|Teufels Lustgarten}} ('Devil's Pleasure Garden').<ref name=":1">Aus der Geschichte des Alexanderplatzes, BZA, Teil 1: Foltergebühr: 10 Schillinge.</ref>
The George Gate became the most important of Berlin's city gates during the 16th century, being the main entry point for goods arriving along the roads to the north and north-east of the city, for example from {{lang|de|Oderberg|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Prenzlau|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Bernau|italic=no}}, and the big Hanseatic cities on the Baltic Sea.
After the Thirty Years' War, the city wall was strengthened. From 1658 to 1683, a citywide fortress was constructed to plans by the Linz master builder, {{lang|de|Johann Gregor Memhardt|italicno}}. The new fortress contained 13 bastions connected by ramparts and was preceded by a moat measuring up to {{convert|50|m}} wide. Within the new fortress, many of the historic city wall gates were closed. For example, the southeastern {{lang|de|Stralauer|italicno}} Gate was closed but the Georgian Gate remained open, making the Georgian Gate an even more important entrance to the city.
In 1681, the trade of cattle and pig fattening was banned within the city. Frederick William, the Great Elector, granted cheaper plots of land, waiving the basic interest rate, in the area in front of the Georgian Gate. Settlements grew rapidly and a weekly cattle market was established on the square in front of the Gate.
The area developed into a suburb – the {{lang|de|Georgenvorstadt}} – which continued to flourish into the late 17th century. Unlike the southwestern suburbs ({{lang|de|Friedrichstadt|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Dorotheenstadt|italicno}}) which were strictly and geometrically planned, the suburbs in the northeast ({{lang|de|Georgenvorstadt|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Spandauervorstadt|italicno}} and the {{lang|de|Stralauer Vorstadt|italic=no}}) proliferated without plan. Despite a building ban imposed in 1691, more than 600 houses existed in the area by 1700.
At that time, the George Gate was a rectangular gatehouse with a tower. Next to the tower stood a remaining tower from the original medieval city walls. The upper floors of the gatehouse served as the city jail.<ref>Serie Aus der Geschichte des Alexanderplatzes, T. 2: Rüger auf der Lauer.</ref> A drawbridge spanned the moat and the gate was locked at nightfall by the garrison using heavy oak planks.
A highway ran through the cattle market to the northeast towards {{lang|de|Bernau|italic=no}}. To the right stood the George chapel, an orphanage and a hospital that was donated by the Elector Sophie Dorothea in 1672. Next to the chapel stood a dilapidated medieval plague house which was demolished in 1716. Behind it was a rifleman's field and an inn, later named the {{lang|de|Stelzenkrug}}.
By the end of the 17th century, 600 to 700 families lived in this area. They included butchers, cattle herders, shepherds and dairy farmers. The George chapel was upgraded to the George church and received its own preacher.
{{lang|de|Königs Thor Platz|italicno}} (1701–1805) |italicno}} is shown in red, the royal suburbs northeast brown.]]
After his coronation in {{lang|de|Königsberg|italicno}} on 6 May 1701 the Prussian King Frederick I entered Berlin through the George Gate. This led to the gate being renamed the King's Gate, and the surrounding area became known in official documents as {{lang|de|Königs Thor Platz}} (King's Gate Square). The {{lang|de|Georgenvorstadt|italicno}} suburb was renamed {{lang|de|Königsvorstadt}} (or 'royal suburbs' short).
In 1734, the Berlin Customs Wall, which initially consisted of a ring of palisade fences, was reinforced and grew to encompass the old city and its suburbs, including {{lang|de|Königsvorstadt|italic=no}}. This resulted in the King's Gate losing importance as an entry point for goods into the city. The gate was finally demolished in 1746.
By the end of the 18th century, the basic structure of the royal suburbs of the {{lang|de|Königsvorstadt|italicno}} had been developed. It consisted of irregular-shaped blocks of buildings running along the historic highways which once carried goods in various directions out of the gate. At this time, the area contained large factories (silk and wool), such as the {{lang|de|Kurprinz}} (one of Berlin's first cloth factories, located in a former barn) and a workhouse established in 1758 for beggars and homeless people, where the inmates worked a man-powered treadmill to turn a mill.<ref name":0">Serie Aus der Geschichte des Alexanderplatzes, T. 3: Tretmühle im Arbeitshaus.</ref>
Soon, military facilities came to dominate the area, such as the 1799–1800 military parade grounds designed by David Gilly. At this time, the residents of the {{lang|de|Platz}} were mostly craftsmen, petty-bourgeois, retired soldiers and manufacturing workers.<ref name":0" /> The southern part of the later {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} was separated from traffic by trees and served as a parade ground, whereas the northern half remained a market. Beginning in the mid-18th century, the most important wool market in Germany was held in {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}.
Between 1752 and 1755, the writer {{lang|de|Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|italicno}} lived in a house on Alexanderplatz. In 1771, a new stone bridge (the {{lang|de|Königsbrücke}}) was built over the moat and in 1777 a colonnade-lined row of shops ({{lang|de|Königskolonnaden}}) was constructed by architect {{lang|de|Carl von Gontard|italicno}}. Between 1783 and 1784, seven three-storey buildings were erected around the square by {{lang|de|Georg Christian Unger|italicno}}, including the famous {{lang|de|Gasthof zum Hirschen}}, where {{lang|de|Karl Friedrich Schinkel|italicno}} lived as a permanent tenant and {{lang|de|Heinrich von Kleist|italicno}} stayed in the days before his suicide. {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} (1805–1900)
On 25 October 1805 the Russian Tsar Alexander I was welcomed to the city on the parade grounds in front of the old King's Gate. To mark this occasion, on 2 November, King Frederick William III ordered the square to be renamed {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz}}:<ref name=":2">Aus der Geschichte des Alexanderplatzes, T. 4: Taufe</ref>
{{Blockquote|textHis Royal Majesty, by means of the supreme Cabinet, orders on the 2nd of this month, those in the {{lang|de|Königs-Vorstadt Sandgasse}} to take the name {{lang|de|Kaiserstrasse}}, and the square in front of the workhouse in the newly-conceived suburb settles with the name of {{lang|de|Alexander-Platz}}, this is hereby made known to the public for news and attention."|signRoyal Prussian Police Directorate|source}}In the southeast of the square, the cloth factory buildings were converted into the {{lang|de|Königstädter|italicno}} Theater by {{lang|de|Carl Theodor Ottmer|italic=no}} at a cost of 120,000 Taler. The foundation stone was laid on 31 August 1823 and the opening ceremony occurred on 4 August 1824. Sales were poor, forcing the theatre to close on 3 June 1851. Thereafter, the building was used for wool storage, then as a tenement building, and finally as an inn called {{lang|de|Aschinger}} until the building's demolition in 1932.
During these years, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} was populated by fish wives, water carriers, sand sellers, rag-and-bone men, knife sharpeners and day laborers.<ref name":2" />
Because of its importance as a transport hub, horse-drawn buses ran every 15 minutes between {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Potsdamer Platz|italicno}} in 1847.<ref>{{Cite book|titlePeter Behrens, Berlin Alexanderplatz: Pläne, Zeichnungen und Photographien zum Wettewerb und der Bebauung, 1929–1932|lastBehrens|firstPeter|date1993|publisher[Die Pfalzgalerie]|othersFiedler-Bender, Gisela; Höfchen, Heinz; Pfalzgalerie Kaiserslautern.|isbn389422066X|location[Kaiserslautern]|oclc=28807743}}</ref>
During the March Revolution of 1848, large-scale street fighting occurred on the streets of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}, where revolutionaries used barricades to block the route from {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} to the city.
Novelist and poet {{lang|de|Theodor Fontane|italicno}}, who worked in the vicinity in a nearby pharmacy, participated in the construction of barricades and later described how he used materials from the {{lang|de|Königstädter|italicno}} Theater to barricade {{lang|de|Neue Königstraße|italic=no}}.<ref>Theodor Fontane: Von Zwanzig bis Dreißig. Abschnitt Der achtzehnte März. Erstes Kapitel.</ref>
The {{lang|de|Königsstadt|italic=no}} continued to grow throughout the 19th century, with three-storey developments already existing at the beginning of the century and fourth storeys being constructed from the middle of the century. By the end of the century, most of the buildings were already five storeys high. The large factories and military facilities gave way to housing developments (mainly rental housing for the factory workers who had just moved into the city) and trading houses.
At the beginning of the 1870s, the Berlin administration had the former moat filled to build the Berlin city railway, which was opened in 1882 along with {{lang|de|Bahnhof Alexanderplatz}} ('{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} Railway Station').
In 1883–1884, the Grand Hotel, a neo-Renaissance building with 185 rooms and shops beneath was constructed. From 1886 to 1890, {{lang|de|Hermann Blankenstein|italicno}} built the police headquarters, a huge brick building whose tower on the northern corner dominated the building. In 1890, a district court at {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} was also established.
In 1886, the local authorities built a central market hall west of the rail tracks, which replaced the weekly market on the {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} in 1896. During the end of the 19th century, the emerging private traffic and the first horse bus lines dominated the northern part of the square, the southern part (the former parade ground) remained quiet, having green space elements added by garden director {{lang|de|Hermann Mächtig|italicno}} in 1889. The northwest of the square contained a second, smaller green space where, in 1895, the {{convert|7.5|m|adjon}} copper Berolina statue by sculptor {{lang|de|Emil Hundrieser|italicno}} was erected.
Between Empire and the Nazi era (1900–1940)
and the Berlin Cathedral, ca. 1930]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} experienced its heyday. In 1901, {{lang|de|Ernst von Wolzogen|italicno}} founded the first German cabaret, the {{lang|de|Überbrettl|italicno}}, in the former {{lang|de|Sezessionsbühne}} ('Secession stage') at {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße 40|italicno}}, initially under the name {{lang|de|Bunte Brettl|italic=no}}. It was announced as "{{lang|de|Kabarett}} as upscale entertainment with artistic ambitions. Emperor-loyal and market-oriented stands the uncritical amusement in the foreground."
The merchants {{lang|de|Hermann Tietz|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Georg Wertheim|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Hahn|italicno}} opened large department stores on {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}: {{lang|de|Tietz|italicno}} (1904–1911), {{lang|de|Wertheim|italicno}} (1910–1911) and {{lang|de|Hahn|italicno}} (1911). {{lang|de|Tietz|italicno}} marketed itself as a department store for the Berlin people, whereas {{lang|de|Wertheim|italic=no}} modelled itself as a department store for the world.
In October 1905, the first section of the {{lang|de|Tietz|italicno}} department store opened to the public. It was designed by architects {{lang|de|Wilhelm Albert Cremer|italicno|nocaty}} and {{lang|de|Richard Wolffenstein|italicno|nocaty}}, who had already won second prize in the competition for the construction of the {{lang|de|Reichstag|italicno}} building. The {{lang|de|Tietz|italicno}} department store underwent further construction phases and, in 1911, had a commercial space of {{convert|7300|m2}} and the longest department store façade in the world at {{convert|250|m}} in length.<ref name"1942- 2006">{{Cite book|titleDer Berliner Alexanderplatz|lastJochheim|firstGernot|date2006|isbn9783861533917|locationCH. Links Verlag (Sachbuch)|oclc=984942416}}</ref>
For the construction of the {{lang|de|Wertheim|italicno}} department store, by architects {{ill|Heinrich Joseph Kayser|de}} and {{lang|de|Karl von Großheim|italicno}}, the {{lang|de|Königskolonnaden}} were removed in 1910 and now stand in the {{lang|de|Heinrich von Kleist|italicno}} Park in {{lang|de|Schöneberg|italicno}}.
In October 1908, the {{lang|de|Haus des Lehrers}} ('the teacher's house') was opened next to the {{lang|de|Bunte Brettl|italicno}} at {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße 41|italicno}}. It was designed by {{lang|de|Hans Toebelmann|italicno}} and Henry Gross. The building belonged to the {{lang|de|Berliner Lehrererverein}} ('teachers’ association'), who rented space on the ground floor of the building out to a pastry shop and restaurant to raise funds for the association. The building housed the teachers' library which survived two world wars, and today is integrated into the library for educational historical research.<ref name"1942- 2006"/> The rear of the property contained the association's administrative building, a hotel for members and an exhibition hall. Notable events that took place in the hall include the funeral services for {{lang|de|Karl Liebknecht|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Rosa Luxemburg|italicno}} on 2 February 1919 and, on 4 December 1920, the {{lang|de|Vereinigungsparteitag}} (Unification Party Congress) of the Communist Party and the USPD.
The First Ordinary Congress of the Communist Workers' Party of Germany was held in the nearby {{lang|de|Zum Prälaten}} restaurant, 1–4 August 1920.
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}'s position as a main transport and traffic hub continued to fuel its development. In addition to the three {{lang|de|U-Bahn}} underground lines, long-distance trains and {{lang|de|S-Bahn|italicno}} trains ran along the {{lang|de|Platz|italicno}}'s viaduct arches. Omnibuses, horse-drawn from 1877 and, after 1898, also electric-powered trams,<ref>Hans-Joachim Pohl: Chronik des Straßenbahnverkehrs auf dem Alexanderplatz. In: Verkehrsgeschichtliche Blätter. Heft 1, 1999, S. 17–18<br /></ref> ran out of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} in all directions in a star shape. The subway station was designed by Alfred Grenander and followed the colour-coded order of subway stations, which began with green at {{lang|de|Leipziger Platz|italic=no}} and ran through to dark red.
In the Golden Twenties, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} was the epitome of the lively, pulsating cosmopolitan city of Berlin, rivalled in the city only by {{lang|de|Potsdamer Platz|italicno}}. Many of the buildings and rail bridges surrounding the platz bore large billboards that illuminated the night. The Berlin cigarette company Manoli had a famous billboard at the time which contained a ring of neon tubes that constantly circled a black ball. The proverbial "{{lang|de|Berliner Tempo}}" of those years was characterized as "{{lang|de|total manoli|italicno}}". Writer {{lang|de|Kurt Tucholsky|italicno}} wrote a poem referencing the advert, and the composer Rudolf Nelson made the legendary {{lang|de|Revue Total manoli|italicno}} with the dancer Lucie Berber. The writer {{lang|de|Alfred Döblin|italicno}} named his novel, {{lang|de|Berlin Alexanderplatz}}, after the square, and {{lang|de|Walter Ruttmann|italicno}} filmed parts of his 1927 film {{lang|de|Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Großstadt}} (Berlin: The Symphony of the Big City) at {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}.
Destruction of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} (1940–1945) One of Berlin's largest air-raid shelters during the Second World War was situated under {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}. It was built between 1941 and 1943 for the {{lang|de|Deutsche Reichsbahn}} by {{lang|de|Philipp Holzmann|italicno}}.<ref name":3">{{Cite web |urlhttp://berliner-unterwelten.de/alexbunker.331.0.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150418085629/http://berliner-unterwelten.de/alexbunker.331.0.html |url-statusdead|archive-date2015-04-18 |publisherBerliner Unterwelten |titleTiefbunker unter dem Alexanderplatz |date2015-04-18|access-date2019-01-30}}</ref>
The war reached {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} in early April 1945. The Berolina statue had already been removed in 1944 and probably melted down for use in arms production. During the Battle of Berlin, Red Army artillery bombarded the area around {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}. The battles of the last days of the war destroyed considerable parts of the historic {{lang|de|Königsstadt|italicno}}, as well as many of the buildings around {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}.
The {{lang|de|Wehrmacht}} had entrenched itself within the tunnels of the underground system. Hours before fighting ended in Berlin on 2 May 1945, troops of the SS detonated explosives inside the north–south {{lang|de|S-Bahn|italicno}} tunnel under the {{lang|de|Landwehr|nocaty}} Canal to slow the advance of the Red Army towards Berlin's city centre. The entire tunnel flooded, as well as large sections of the {{lang|de|U-Bahn|italicno}} network via connecting passages at the {{lang|de|Friedrichstraße|italicno}} underground station. Many of those seeking shelter in the tunnels were killed.<ref name":3" /> Of the then {{convert|63.3|km|abbrin}} of subway tunnel, around {{convert|19.8|km|abbron}} were flooded with more than one million cubic meters ({{convert|1|GL|USgal|dispout}}) of water.
Demolition and reconstruction (1945–1964)
Before a planned reconstruction of the entire {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} could take place, all the war ruins needed to be demolished and cleared away. A popular black market emerged within the ruined area, which the police raided several times a day.
One structure demolished after World War II was the 'Rote Burg', a red brick building with round arches, previously used as police and Gestapo headquarters. The huge construction project began in 1886 and was completed in 1890; it was one of Berlin's largest buildings. The 'castle' suffered extensive damage during 1944-45 and was demolished in 1957. The site on the southwest corner of Alexanderplatz remained largely unused as a carpark until the Alexa shopping centre opened in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRed Town Hall |urlhttps://www.visitberlin.de/en/red-townhall-babylon-berlin |access-date9 January 2023 |websiteVisit Berlin}}</ref>
Reconstruction planning for post-war Berlin gave priority to the dedicated space to accommodate the rapidly growing motor traffic in inner-city thoroughfares. This idea of a traffic-oriented city was already based on considerations and plans by {{lang|de|Ludwig Hilberseimer|italicno}} and {{lang|fr|Le Corbusier|italicno}} from the 1930s.<ref name":3" />East Germany{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the 1960s, when it was turned into a pedestrian zone and enlarged as part of the German Democratic Republic's redevelopment of the city centre. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}} ('TV Tower').
During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno|nocaty}} demonstration on 4 November 1989 was the largest demonstration in the history of the German Democratic Republic. Protests starting 15 October and peaked on 4 November with an estimated 200,000 participants who called on the government of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany to step down and demanded a free press, the opening of the borders and their right to travel. Speakers were {{lang|de|Christa Wolf|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Stefan Heym|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Friedrich Schorlemmer|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Heiner Müller|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Lothar Bisky|italicno}}, {{lang|de|Christoph Hein|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Steffie Spira|italicno}}. The protests continued and culminated in the unexpected Fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989.<ref>{{cite book |lastKowalczuk |firstIlko-Sascha |date2009 |titleEndspiel, die Revolution von 1989 in der DDR |trans-titleEndgame, the 1989 Revolution in the GDR |urlhttps://www.chbeck.de/kowalczuk-sascha-endspiel/product/15144793 |languagede |locationMunich |publisherC.H. Beck Verlag |isbn9783406583575}}</ref> ]]After German reunification (1989)Ever since German reunification, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. After the political turnaround in the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall, socialist urban planning and architecture of the 1970s no longer corresponded to the current ideas of an inner-city square. Investors demanded planning security for their construction projects. After initial discussions with the public, the goal quickly arose to reinstate {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}'s tram network for better connections to surrounding city quarters. In 1993, an urban planning ideas competition for architects took place to redesign the square and its surrounding area.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
In the first phase, there were 16 submissions, five of which were selected for the second phase of the competition. These five architects had to adapt their plans to detailed requirements. For example, the return of the Alex's trams was planned, with the implementation to be made in several stages.
The winner, who was determined on 17 September 1993, was the Berlin architect {{lang|de|Hans Kollhoff|italicno}}. {{lang|de|Kollhoff|italicno}}'s plan was based on Behrens’ design, provided a horseshoe-shaped area of seven- to eight-storey buildings and {{convert|150|m|adjon}} high towers with 42 floors. The {{lang|de|Alexanderhaus|italicno}} and the {{lang|de|Berolinahaus|italicno}} – both listed buildings – would form the southwestern boundary. Second place went to the design by {{lang|de|Daniel Libeskind|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Bernd Faskel|italicno}}. The proposal of the architecture firm Kny & Weber, which was strongly based on the horseshoe shape of Wagner, finally won the third place. The design by {{lang|de|Kollhoff|italicno}} was chosen on 7 June 1994 by the Berlin Senate as a basis for the further transformation of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}.
In 1993, architect {{lang|de|Hans Kollhoff|italicno}}'s master plan for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published.<ref name"bloomberg1">Dalia Fahmy (27 May 2014), [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-05-26/25-years-after-communism-eyesores-spur-landmark-debate.html "25 Years After Communism, Eyesores Spur Landmark Debate"] The Wall Street Journal.</ref>
In 1995, {{lang|de|Landesbank Berlin|italicno}} completed the renovation of the {{lang|de|Alexanderhaus|italicno}}. In 1998, the first tram returned to {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}, and in 1999, the town planning contracts for the implementation of {{lang|de|Kollhoff|italicno}} and {{lang|de|Timmermann|italicno}}'s plans were signed by the landowners and the investors.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
21st century
|left]]
station at the alexanderplatz]]
On 2 April 2000, the Senate finally fixed the development plan for {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}. The purchase contracts between investors and the Senate Department for Urban Development were signed on 23 May 2002, thus laying the foundations for the development.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
The CUBIX multiplex cinema (CineStar Cubix am Alexanderplatz,<ref>{{cite web | titleCineStar Cubix am Alexanderplatz - Kinobeschreibung und Termine - Kinoprogramm für Berlin und Umland | websiteBerlin.de | urlhttps://www.berlin.de/kino/_bin/kinodetail.php/32139 | languagede | access-date18 September 2022}}</ref> styled CUBIX<ref>{{cite web | titleCineStar CUBIX am Alexanderplatz, Berlin | websitecityseeker | urlhttps://cityseeker.com/berlin/338506-cinestar-cubix-am-alexanderplatz | access-date18 September 2022}}</ref>), which opened in November 2000, joined the team of Berlin International Film Festival cinemas in 2007, and the festival shows films on three of its screens.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.berlinale.de/en/programm/spielst_tten/kinos/index.html |titleBerlinale venues |publisherBerlin International Film Festival |access-date17 August 2018 |archive-date2 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202173453/https://www.berlinale.de/en/programm/spielst_tten/kinos/index.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Renovation of the {{lang|de|Centrum|italicno}} department store began in 2004, led by Berlin professor of architecture, {{lang|de|Josef Paul Kleihues|italicno}} and his son {{lang|de|Jan Kleihues|italic=no}}. The building was enlarged by about {{convert|25|m}} and has since operated under the name {{lang|de|Galeria Kaufhof}}.
Beginning with the reconstruction of the {{lang|de|Kaufhof}} department store in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings were redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side. Sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed.<ref name"bloomberg1"/> Between 2005 and 2006, {{lang|de|Berolinahaus|italicno}} was renovated and later became a branch of the clothing chain, C&A.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
In 2005, the {{lang|de|Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe}} began work to extend the tram line from {{lang|de|Prenzlauer Allee|italicno}} to {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} (Alex II). This route was originally to be opened in 2000 but was postponed several times. After further delays caused by the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the route opened on 30 May 2007.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
In February 2006, the redesign of the walk-in plaza began. The redevelopment plans were provided by the architecture firm Gerkan, Marg and Partners and the Hamburg-based company {{lang|de|WES-Landschaftsarchitekten|italic=no}}. The final plans emerged from a design competition launched by the state of Berlin in 2004. However, the paving work was temporarily interrupted a few months after the start of construction by the 2006 FIFA World Cup and all excavation pits had to be provisionally asphalted over. The construction work could only be completed at the end of 2007.
The renovation of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz U-Bahnhof}}, the largest Berlin underground station, had been ongoing since the mid-1990s and was finally completed in October 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |workBerliner Morgenpost |date2008-10-18 |titleU-Bahnhof Alexanderplatz ist endlich fertig |urlhttps://www.morgenpost.de/berlin/article102977613/U-Bahnhof-Alexanderplatz-ist-endlich-fertig.html |access-date2020-09-03 |languagede-DE}}</ref>
The {{lang|de|Platz}} was given a pavement of yellow granite, bordered by grey mosaic paving around the buildings. Wall AG modernized the 1920s-era underground toilets at a cost of 750,000 euros. The total redesign cost amounted to around 8.7 million euros.{{when|dateSeptember 2022}}{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
On 12 September 2007 the Alexa shopping centre opened. It is located in the immediate vicinity of the {{lang|de|Platz}}, on the site of the old Berlin police headquarters. With a {{convert|56200 |m2|adjon|abbron}} sales area, it is one of the largest shopping centres in Berlin.
In May 2007, the Texas property development company Hines began building a six-story commercial building named {{lang|de|die mitte}}.<ref name"dw.com 2007 c943">{{cite web | titleBerlin's Alexanderplatz – DW – 06/17/2007 | websitedw.com | dateJune 17, 2007 | urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/berlins-famous-alexanderplatz-reinvents-itself/a-2606585 | access-dateFebruary 6, 2024}}</ref> The building was built on a plot of {{convert|3900|m2|abbron}}, which, according to the {{lang|de|Kollhoff|italicno}} plans, closes the square to the east and thus reduces the area of the Platz. The building was opened on 25 March 2009.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
At the beginning of 2007, the construction company {{lang|de|Wöhr + Bauer|italicno}} created an underground garage with three levels below the {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße|italicno}}, located between the hotel tower and the {{lang|de|Elektroindustrie|italicno}} building, which cost 25 million euros to build and provides space for around 700 cars.<ref>{{Cite news |lastFlatau |firstSabine |date2009-08-14 |titleEin See in der Baustelle am Alexanderplatz |urlhttps://www.morgenpost.de/printarchiv/berlin/article104361297/Ein-See-in-der-Baustelle-am-Alexanderplatz.html |access-date2020-09-03 |workBerliner Morgenpost |languagede-DE }}</ref> The opening took place on 26 November 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |titleAm Alexanderplatz wurde drei Jahre lang ein unterirdisches Parkhaus gebaut, es eröffnet Ende November. Doch viele Straßen und Gehwege sind noch nicht fertig: Schmale Straße und tiefe Garage |urlhttps://www.berliner-zeitung.de/am-alexanderplatz-wurde-drei-jahre-lang-ein-unterirdisches-parkhaus-gebaut-es-eroeffnet-ende-november-doch-viele-strassen-und-gehwege-sind-noch-nicht-fertig-schmale-strasse-und-tiefe-garage-li.6331 |access-date2020-09-03 |websiteBerliner Zeitung |languagede-DE }}</ref> At the same time, the Senate narrowed {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße|italicno}} from almost {{cvt|100|m}} wide to {{cvt|58|m}} wide ({{convert|100|to|58|m|dispout}}), thus reducing it to three lanes in each direction.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
Behind the {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} station, next to the CUBIX cinema in the immediate vicinity of the TV tower, the {{convert|30|m|ft|adjon}} high residential and commercial building, Alea 101, was built between 2012 and 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |last|first |date2014-09-16 |titleRedevco opent ALEA 101-gebouw Berlijn: € 90 mio op top-retail locatie – SCN shopping, leisure, people & places |urlhttps://www.scn.today/redevco-opent-alea-101-gebouw-berlijn-e-90-mio-op-top-retail-locatie/ |access-date2023-11-21 |language=nl-NL}}</ref>
{{As of|2014|post,}} it was assessed that due to a lack of demand the skyscrapers planned in 1993 were unlikely to be constructed.<ref name"bloomberg1"/>
In January 2014, a 39-story residential tower designed by Frank Gehry was announced, but this project was put on hold in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.dezeen.com/2018/05/03/frank-gehry-berlin-skyscraper-hines-hochhaus-on-hold/ |titleFrank Gehry's plans for Berlin's tallest skyscraper put on hold |firstIndia |lastBlock |workDezeen |date2018-05-03}}</ref>
The {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} area is the largest area for crime in Berlin. As of October 2017, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} was classified a {{lang|de|kriminalitätsbelasteter Ort}} ("crime-contaminated location") by the {{lang|de|Berlin Allgemeinen Sicherheits- und Ordnungsgesetz}} (General Safety and Planning Laws).<ref>{{Cite web |date2019-03-18 |titleKriminalitätsbelastete Orte in Berlin |urlhttps://www.berlin.de/polizei/polizeimeldungen/fakten-hintergruende/artikel.597950.php |access-date2020-09-03 |websitewww.berlin.de |languagede |archive-date8 April 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180408073426/https://www.berlin.de/polizei/polizeimeldungen/fakten-hintergruende/artikel.597950.php |url-statusdead }}</ref>Today and future plansDespite the reconstruction of the tram line crossing, it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied {{ill|Fountain of Friendship between Peoples|de|Brunnen_der_Völkerfreundschaft_(Berlin)|}}, a popular venue.<ref>{{Cite web |dateOctober 29, 2019 |titleBerlin, Germany Historic Trail |urlhttps://www.tac-bsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Berlin.pdf |access-dateOctober 10, 2024 |websitetac-bsa.org}}</ref>
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} is reputedly the most visited area of Berlin, beating Friedrichstrasse and City West.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.alexanderplatz.de/|titleHines – Berlin Alexanderplatz – Berlins meistbesuchte Destination| websitewww.alexanderplatz.de|access-date2019-01-24}}</ref> It is a popular starting point for tourists, with many attractions including the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}} (TV tower), the Nikolai Quarter and the {{lang|de|Rotes Rathaus|italicno}} ('Red City Hall') situated nearby. {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} is still one of Berlin's major commercial areas, housing various shopping malls, department stores and other large retail locations.
Many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}}. The traditional seat of city government, the {{lang|de|Rotes Rathaus}}, or 'Red City Hall', is located nearby, as was the former East German parliament building, the {{lang|de|Palast der Republik|italicno}}. The {{lang|de|Palast}} was demolished from 2006–2008 to make room for a full reconstruction of the Baroque Berlin Palace, or {{lang|de|Stadtschloss}}.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,594515,00.html |titleThe New Palace: Neo-Baroque in Berlin |date4 December 2008 |access-date17 August 2018 |newspaperDer Spiegel }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/finally-berlin-has-its-palace-again/a-45176364 |titleFinally – Berlin has its palace again! |date23 August 2018 |website=Deutsche Welle}}</ref>
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. It is one of Berlin's largest and most important transportation hubs, being a meeting place of three subway ({{lang|de|U-Bahn|italicno}}) lines, three {{lang|de|S-Bahn|italic=no}} lines, and many tram and bus lines, as well as regional trains.
It also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, the House of Travel, and {{lang|de|Hermann Henselmann|italic=no}}'s {{lang|de|Haus des Lehrers}} (House of Teachers)'.
in Berlin ]]
Long-term plans exist for the demolition of the {{convert|125|m|ft|adjon}} high former {{lang|de|Interhotel Stadt Berlin|italicno}} (now the Hotel Park-Inn), with the site to be replaced by three skyscrapers. If and when this plan will be implemented is unclear, especially since the hotel tower received a new façade as recently as in 2005, and the occupancy rates of the hotel are very good. However, the plans could give way in the next few years to a suggested {{convert|35|m|ft|adj=on}} high new block conversion. The previous main tenant of the development, Saturn, moved into the {{lang|de|die mitte}} building in March 2009. In 2014, Primark opened a branch inside the hotel building.
The majority of the planned {{convert|150|m|ft|adjon}} high skyscrapers will probably never be built. The state of Berlin has announced that it will not enforce the corresponding urban development contracts against the market. Of the 13 planned skyscrapers, 10 remained as of 2008, after modifications to the plans – eight of which had construction rights.<ref>{{Cite news|titleDie Riesen kommen kleckerweise|urlhttps://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/alexanderplatz-die-riesen-kommen-kleckerweise/1308972.html|access-date2020-09-08|newspaperDer Tagesspiegel|date25 August 2008|languagede}}</ref> Some investors in the Alexa shopping centre announced several times since 2007 that they would sell their respective shares in the plot to an investor interested in building a high-rise building.<ref>{{Cite news|lastHein|firstRainer L.|date2008-04-17|titleRiesenhochhaus: 150-Meter-Wolkenkratzer wird am Alex gebaut|workDIE WELT|urlhttps://www.welt.de/regionales/berlin/article1913007/150-Meter-Wolkenkratzer-wird-am-Alex-gebaut.html|access-date2020-09-08}}</ref>
The first concrete plans for the construction of a high-rise were made by Hines, the investor behind die mitte. In 2009, the construction of a {{convert|150|m|adjon}} high tower to be built behind die mitte was announced. On 12 September 2011, a slightly modified development plan was presented, which provided for a residential tower housing 400 apartments. In early 2013, the development plan was opened to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |date2014-02-02|titleErster Wohnturm am Alexanderplatz in Berlin |urlhttp://www.rohmert-medien.de/news/erster-wohnturm-am-alexanderplatz-in-berlin,124525.html |access-date2020-09-08 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140202194256/http://www.rohmert-medien.de/news/erster-wohnturm-am-alexanderplatz-in-berlin,124525.html |archive-date=2014-02-02}}</ref>
In autumn 2015, the Berlin Senate organized two forums in which interested citizens could express their opinions on the proposed changes to the {{lang|de|Platz}}. Architects, city planners and Senate officials held open discussions. On that occasion, however, it was reiterated that the plans for high-rise developments were not up for debate. According to the master plan of the architect {{lang|de|Hans Kollhoff|italicno}}, up to eleven huge buildings will continue to be built, which will house a mixture of shops and apartments.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBürgerdialog in Berlin: Zacken und Flügel am Fernsehturm |urlhttps://www.berliner-zeitung.de/mensch-metropole/buergerdialog-in-berlin-zacken-und-fluegel-am-fernsehturm-li.6330 |access-date2020-09-08 |websiteBerliner Zeitung |languagede-DE }}</ref>
Roads and public transport
During the post-war reconstruction of the 1960s, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} was completely pedestrianized. Since then, trams were reintroduced to the area in 1998.
{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|nocaty|italicno}} station provides {{lang|de|S-Bahn}} connections, access to the U2, U5 and U8 subway lines, regional train lines for DB Regio and ODEG services and, on weekends, the {{lang|de|Harz-Berlin-Express|italic=no}} (HBX). Several tram and bus lines also service the area.
The following main roads connect to {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}:
* Northwest: {{lang|de|Karl-Liebknecht-Straße|italic=no}} (federal highways B 2 and B 5)
* Northeast: {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße|italic=no}} (B 2 and B 5)
* Southeast: {{lang|de|Grunerstraße / Alexanderstraße|italic=no}} (B 1)
* Southwest (in front of the {{lang|de|S-Bahn|italicno}} station, in the pedestrian zone): {{lang|de|Dircksenstraße|italicno}}
Several arterial roads lead radially from {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} to the outskirts of Berlin. These include (clockwise from north to south-east):
* {{lang|de|Memhardstraße|italicno}} / {{lang|de|Rosa-Luxemburg-Straße|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Schönhauser Allee|italicno}} (to Bundesstraße 96a)
* {{lang|de|Karl-Liebknecht-Straße|italicno}} – intersection {{lang|de|Mollstraße/Prenzlauer Tor|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Prenzlauer Allee}} (main road 109 to the {{lang|de|Pankow|italic=no}} triangle at the {{lang|de|Berliner Ring}})
* {{lang|de|Grunerstraße|italicno}} / {{lang|de|Alexanderstraße|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Otto-Braun-Straße|italicno}} (B 2) – (intersection {{lang|de|Mollstraße|italicno}}) – {{lang|de|Greifswalder Straße|italicno}} (B 2 via {{lang|de|Berliner Allee|italicno}} to the {{lang|de|Barnim|italicno}} junction at {{lang|de|Berliner Ring|italicno}})
{{lang|de|Karl-Marx-Allee|italicno}} (B 1 and B 5) – {{lang|de|Strausberger Platz|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Karl-Marx-Allee|italicno}} / {{lang|de|Frankfurter Tor|italicno}} – {{lang|de|Frankfurter Allee|italicno}} (B 1 and B 5 to {{lang|de|Berlin-Hellersdorf|italicno}} junction at {{lang|de|Berliner Ring|italicno}}) Structures {{see also|:de:Liste der Kulturdenkmale in Berlin-Mitte/Königsstadt|l1List of cultural monuments in Berlin-Mitte / Alexanderplatz}}
and Park Inn hotel in the background]]
World Clock
{{main|World Clock (Alexanderplatz)}}
The World Clock (‹See Tfd›German: Weltzeituhr), is a large turret-style world clock located. By reading the markings on its metal rotunda, the current time for 148 major cities from around the world can be determined. Since its erection by the German Democratic Republic in 1969, it has been a tourist attraction and meeting place.
Berolina
{{main|Berolina}}
Berolina is the female personification{{refn|The traditional Latin name of Berlin is the neuter Berolinum.}} of Berlin and the allegorical female figure symbolizing the city. One of the best-known portraits of Berolina is the statue that once stood in Alexanderplatz.
Fountain of Friendship
The Fountain of Friendship ({{lang|de|Brunnen der Völkerfreundschaft}}) was erected in 1970 during the redesign of {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} and inaugurated on October 7. It was created by {{lang|de|Walter Womacka|italicno}} and his group of artists. Its water basin has a diameter of 23 meters, it is 6.20 meters high and is built from embossed copper, glass, ceramics and enamel. The water spurts from the highest point and then flows down in spirals over 17 shells, which each have a diameter between one and four meters. After German reunification, it was completely renovated in a metal art workshop during the reconstruction of the {{lang|de|Galeria Kaufhof|italicno}}. Other Apart from {{lang|de|Hackescher Markt}}, {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italicno}} is the only existing square in front of one of the medieval gates of Berlin's city well.
Image gallery
<gallery widths"250" mode"packed-hover">
Der Alexanderplatz um 1908.jpg|{{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}, 1908 (left to right: {{lang|de|Lehrervereinshaus}}, {{lang|de|Polizeipräsidium}}, {{lang|de|Aschinger}})
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-C0623-0001-001, Berlin, Alexanderplatz, Haus des Lehrers, Kongresshalle.jpg|Trams at {{lang|de|Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}
Apstatue.jpg|{{lang|de|Neptunbrunnen}}
Weltzeituhr.jpg|The World Clock with the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}} in the background
Berlin Alexanderplatz abend.JPG|{{lang|de|Bahnhof Alexanderplatz|italic=no}} and the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}}
Reloj Mundial, Berlín, Alemania, 2016-04-22, DD 46-48 HDR.jpg|Night view of the World Clock
Berlin TV tower reflection.jpg|Park Inn with a reflection from the {{lang|de|Fernsehturm}}
Die mitte Alexanderplatz IMGP1725.jpg|{{lang|de|Die Mitte}} shopping mall
Bahnhof Berlin-Alexanderplatz.jpg|{{lang|de|Bahnhof Alexanderplatz|italic=no}}
2019-08-06 Tram at Alexanderplatz 2.jpg|Modern tram
Berlin Alexanderplatz - Alexanderhaus 1.jpg|{{lang|de|Alexanderhaus|italic=no}}
Project-blinkenlights-aerial-view.jpg|Project Blinkenlights
</gallery>
Further reading
* Weszkalnys, Gisa (2010). Berlin, Alexanderplatz: Transforming Place in a Unified Germany. Berghahn Books.
* [https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en/alexanderplatz Alexanderplatz: Plenty of Space for Free Speech.] In: [https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en/ Sites of Unity] (Haus der Geschichte), 2022.
External links
{{Commons category|Alexanderplatz (Berlin-Mitte)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080921122322/http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/staedtebau-projekte/alexanderplatz/index_en.shtml Alexanderplatz – Overview of the changes]
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Berlin-Mitte}}
{{Visitor attractions in Berlin}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century
Category:13th-century establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Mitte
Category:Squares in Berlin
Category:Zones of Berlin
Category:Cremer & Wolffenstein
Category:Alexander I of Russia
Category:Frederick William III of Prussia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderplatz
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.884898
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Asian Development Bank
|
{{short description|Regional development bank in Asia-Pacific}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Asian Development Bank
| logo = ADB logo & wordmark.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| image = Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong, Philippines - panoramio.jpg
| image_border | size 250px
| caption = Headquarters in 2011
| map = Asian Development Bank Map.svg
| map_caption = {{legend|#0000ff|Regional members}} {{legend|#008000|Nonregional members}}
| msize | mcaption
| abbreviation = ADB
| formation {{Start date and age|1966|12|19|dfyes}}
| extinction | type Multilateral development bank
| status = Treaty
| purpose = Social and Economic Development
| headquarters = 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila 1550, Philippines
| region_served = Indo-Pacific
| membership = 69
countries
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Masato Kanda
| main_organ Board of Governors<ref>[http://www.adb.org/about/board-governors About: Management] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200623002226/https://www.adb.org/about/board-governors |date=23 June 2020 }}, adb.org.</ref>
| parent_organization | affiliations International Monetary Fund (International)
| num_staff 3,769<ref name"nos">{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/872636/adb-annual-report-2022.pdf |titleADB Annual Report 2022 |date2023 |publisherAsian Development Bank |isbn978-92-9270-073-7 |pages10|doi10.22617/FLS230039 |access-date1 April 2024 }}</ref>
| num_volunteers | budget
| website = {{official URL}}
| remarks =
}}
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank to promote social and economic development in Asia. The bank is headquartered in Metro Manila, Philippines and maintains 31 field offices around the world<ref>{{Cite web |titleDepartments and Offices |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/departments-offices#tabs-0-1 |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date17 March 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120317022549/http://www.adb.org/about/departments-offices#tabs-0-1 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"UIA">{{Cite web |urlhttps://uia.org/s/or/en/1100054117 |url-access |titleAsian Development Bank (ADB) |author1Staff writer |year2024 |departmentUIA Global Civil Society Database |websiteuia.org |publisherUnion of International Associations |agencyYearbook of International Organizations Online |locationBrussels, Belgium |format|arxiv |asin|bibcode |doi|doi-broken-date |isbn|issn |jfm|jstor |lccn|mr |oclc|ol |osti|pmc |pmid|rfc |ssrn|zbl |id|access-date29 January 2025 |url-status|archive-url |archive-date|via |quote|trans-quote |ref|postscript}}</ref>
The bank was established on 19 December 1966 and admits the members of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East or ECAFE), and non-regional developed countries.<ref>{{Cite web |titleADB History |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/history |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date29 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160129195803/http://www.adb.org/about/history |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Ming Wan">{{Cite journal |lastMing |firstWan |dateWinter 1995–1996 |titleJapan and the Asian Development Bank |urlhttp://hir.harvard.edu/article-authors/ming-wan |url-statusdead |journalPacific Affairs |publisherUniversity of British Columbia |volume68 |issue4 |pages509–528 |doi10.2307/2761274 |jstor2761274 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110807123335/http://hir.harvard.edu/article-authors/ming-wan |archive-date=2011-08-07}}</ref> Starting with 31 members at its establishment, by 2019 ADB had 69 members.
The ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank and has a similar weighted voting system, where votes are distributed in proportion with members' capital subscriptions. ADB releases an annual report that summarizes its operations, budget, and other materials for review by the public.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAnonymous |titleADB Annual Reports |urlhttp://www.adb.org/documents/series/adb-annual-reports |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date26 November 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151126112031/http://www.adb.org/documents/series/adb-annual-reports |url-statuslive }}</ref> The ADB-Japan Scholarship Program (ADB-JSP) enrolls about 300 students annually in academic institutions located in 10 countries within the Region. After completing their study programs, scholars are expected to contribute to the economic and social development of their home countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date12 October 2017 |titleScholarship Program: List of Academic Institutions |urlhttps://www.adb.org/site/careers/japan-scholarship-program/jsp-institutions |publisherAsian Development Bank |access-date28 April 2017 |archive-date19 May 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170519044346/https://www.adb.org/site/careers/japan-scholarship-program/jsp-institutions |url-statuslive }}</ref> ADB holds the status of an official United Nations Observer.<ref>{{Cite web |titleIntergovernmental Organizations |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/index.html |publisherUnited Nations |access-date28 April 2017 |archive-date23 May 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170523053652/http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
As of 31 December 2020, Japan and the United States each holds the largest proportion of shares at 15.571%. China holds 6.429%, India holds 6.317%, and Australia holds 5.773%.<ref>{{Cite web |titleShareholders |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/237881/oi-appendix1.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170803171248/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/237881/oi-appendix1.pdf |archive-date2017-08-03 |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref>OrganizationThe highest policy-making body of the bank is the Board of Governors, composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the twelve members of the board of directors and their deputies. Eight of the twelve members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the others come from non-regional members.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBoard of Directors |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/board-directors |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date6 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151206062514/http://www.adb.org/about/board-directors |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |urlhttps://doi.org/10.22617/fls230038-3 |titleADB Annual Report 2022 |date2023-07-01 |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref>
The Board of Governors also elect the bank's president, who is the chairperson of the board of directors and manages ADB. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be re-elected. Traditionally, and because Japan is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the president has always been Japanese.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAnonymous |titleADB |urlhttps://www.trade.gov/adb |access-date2024-12-10 |websitewww.trade.gov |languageen}}</ref>
The current president is Masatsugu Asakawa. He succeeded Takehiko Nakao on 17 January 2020,<ref>{{Cite web |date2020-01-17 |titleNew ADB President Masatsugu Asakawa Assumes Office |urlhttps://www.adb.org/news/new-adb-president-masatsugu-asakawa-assumes-office |access-date2020-01-24 |publisherAsian Development Bank|archive-date17 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200117060046/https://www.adb.org/news/new-adb-president-masatsugu-asakawa-assumes-office |url-statuslive }}</ref> who succeeded Haruhiko Kuroda in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNew ADB President Takehiko Nakao Assumes Office |urlhttp://www.adb.org/news/new-adb-president-takehiko-nakao-assumes-office |publisherAsian Development Bank |date28 April 2013 |access-date29 April 2013 |archive-date17 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200917163419/https://www.adb.org/news/new-adb-president-takehiko-nakao-assumes-office |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2024, Asakawa announced his resignation effective on 23 February 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1Cigaral |first1 Ian Nicolas |titleADB president announces resignation|url https://business.inquirer.net/479202/adb-president-announces-resignation|accessdateSeptember 10, 2024 |newspaper Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=September 9, 2024}}</ref>
The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines,<ref>"[http://www.adb.org/contacts Contacts]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120226103341/http://beta.adb.org/contacts/main Archive]) Asian Development Bank. Retrieved on 21 April 2015. "6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong 1550, Philippines"</ref><ref>"[http://www.adb.org/contacts/main Contacts: How to Visit ADB] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201223224755/http://www.adb.org/contacts/main |date23 December 2020 }}." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20151007055302/http://beta.adb.org/sites/default/files/ADB-Map.pdf Archive]) Asian Development Bank. Retrieved on 21 April 2015.</ref> and it has 42 field offices in Asia and the Pacific and representative offices in Washington, Frankfurt, Tokyo and Sydney. The bank employs about 3,000 people, representing 60 of its 68 members.<ref>{{Cite web |titleKey Facts |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/key-facts |access-date2015-11-26 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date2 May 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170502035111/https://www.adb.org/about/key-facts |url-statuslive }}</ref>List of presidents
{{Multiple images
| image1 = 亞洲銀行總裁渡邊武抵台.jpg
| caption1 = Takeshi Watanabe, the first president
| image2 = Haruhiko Kuroda at ADB Philippines (crop).jpg
| caption2 = Haruhiko Kuroda, the eighth president
| image3 = Masatsugu Ashakawa.jpg
| caption3 = Masatsugu Asakawa, the tenth president
| image4 = Masato_Kanda_20240604.jpg
| caption4 = Masato Kanda, the eleventh president
| total_width = 400
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Dates
! Nationality
|-
| Takeshi Watanabe
| 1966–1972
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Shiro Inoue
| 1972–1976
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| {{Ill|Taroichi Yoshida|ja|吉田太郎一|qid=}}
| 1976–1981
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| {{Ill|Masao Fujioka||qid=Q38167320}}
| 1981–1989
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| {{Ill|Kimimasa Tarumizu|ja|垂水公正|qid=}}
| 1989–1993
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Mitsuo Sato
| 1993–1999
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Tadao Chino
| 1999–2005
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Haruhiko Kuroda
| 2005–2013
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Takehiko Nakao
| 2013–2020
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Masatsugu Asakawa
|2020–February 23, 2025
| {{JPN}}ese
|-
| Masato Kanda
|February 24, 2025–
| {{JPN}}ese
|}
History
1960s
As early as 1956, Japan Finance Minister Hisato Ichimada had suggested to United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that development projects in Southeast Asia could be supported by a new financial institution for the region. A year later, Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi announced that Japan intended to sponsor the establishment of a regional development fund with resources largely from Japan and other industrial countries. But the US did not warm to the plan and the concept was shelved. See full account in "Banking the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank", July 2017.
The idea came up again late in 1962 when Kaoru Ohashi, an economist from a research institute in Tokyo, visited Takeshi Watanabe, then a private financial consultant in Tokyo, and proposed a study group to form a development bank for the Asian region. The group met regularly in 1963, examining various scenarios for setting up a new institution and drew on Watanabe's experiences with the World Bank. However, the idea received a cool reception from the World Bank itself and the study group became discouraged.
In parallel, the concept was formally proposed at a trade conference organized by the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) in 1963 by a young Thai economist, Paul Sithi-Amnuai. (ESCAP, United Nations Publication March 2007, "The first parliament of Asia" pp.&nbsp;65). Despite an initial mixed reaction, support for the establishment of a new bank soon grew.
An expert group was convened to study the idea, with Japan invited to contribute to the group. When Watanabe was recommended, the two streams proposing a new bank—from ECAFE and Japan—came together. Initially, the US was on the fence, not opposing the idea but not ready to commit financial support. But a new bank for Asia was soon seen to fit in with a broader program of assistance to Asia planned by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson in the wake of the escalating U.S. military support for the government of South Vietnam.
As a key player in the concept, Japan hoped that the ADB offices would be in Tokyo. However, eight other cities had also expressed an interest: Bangkok, Colombo, Kabul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Phnom Penh, Singapore, and Tehran. To decide, the 18 prospective regional members of the new bank held three rounds of votes at a ministerial conference in Manila in November/December 1965. In the first round on 30 November, Tokyo failed to win a majority, so a second ballot was held the next day at noon. Although Japan was in the lead, it was still inconclusive, so a final vote was held after lunch. In the third poll, Tokyo gained eight votes to Manila's nine, with one abstention. Therefore, Manila was declared the host of the new development bank; the Japanese were mystified and deeply disappointed. Watanabe later wrote in his personal history of ADB: "I felt as if the child I had so carefully reared had been taken away to a distant country." (Asian Development Bank publication, "Towards a New Asia", 1977, p.&nbsp;16)
On 3 December 1965, Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal lays the foundation stone of the Asian Development Bank.
As intensive work took place during 1966 to prepare for the opening of the new bank in Manila, high on the agenda was choice of president. Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō asked Watanabe to be a candidate. Although he initially declined, pressure came from other countries and Watanabe agreed. In the absence of any other candidates, Watanabe was elected first President of the Asian Development Bank at its Inaugural Meeting on 24 November 1966.
By the end of 1972, Japan had contributed $173.7&nbsp;million (22.6% of the total) to the ordinary capital resources and $122.6&nbsp;million (59.6% of the total) to the special funds. In contrast, the United States contributed only $1.25&nbsp;million to the special fund.<ref name="Ming Wan" />
After its creation in the 1960s, ADB focused much of its assistance on food production and rural development. At the time, Asia was one of the poorest regions in the world.<ref name"admin">{{Cite web |titleADB History |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/history |access-date2015-12-21 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date29 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160129195803/http://www.adb.org/about/history |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Early loans went largely to Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea and the Philippines; these countries accounted for 78.48% of the total ADB loans between 1967 and 1972. Moreover, Japan received tangible benefits, 41.67% of the total procurements between 1967 and 1976. Japan tied its special funds contributions to its preferred sectors and regions and procurements of its goods and services, as reflected in its $100&nbsp;million donation for the Agricultural Special Fund in April 1968.<ref name="Ming Wan" />
Watanabe served as the first ADB president to 1972.<ref name"KapurLewis">{{Cite book |last1Devesh Kapur |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsuOGRlBoPgQC&pgPA304 |titleThe World Bank: Perspectives |last2John Prior Lewis |last3Richard Charles Webb |date2010-12-01 |publisherBrookings Institution Press |isbn978-0-8157-2014-0 |pages304–}}</ref><ref name"Magill2014">{{Cite book |lastFrank N. Magill |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idySJpAwAAQBAJ&pgPA891 |titleChron 20c Hist Bus Comer |date23 April 2014 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-134-26462-9 |pages891–}}</ref>
1970s–1980s
In the 1970s, ADB's assistance to developing countries in Asia expanded into education and health, and then to infrastructure and industry. The gradual emergence of Asian economies in the latter part of the decade spurred demand for better infrastructure to support economic growth. ADB focused on improving roads and providing electricity. When the world suffered its first oil price shock, ADB shifted more of its assistance to support energy projects, especially those promoting the development of domestic energy sources in member countries.<ref name="admin" />
Following considerable pressure from the Reagan Administration in the 1980s, ADB reluctantly began working with the private sector in an attempt to increase the impact of its development assistance to poor countries in Asia and the Pacific. In the wake of the second oil crisis, ADB expanded its assistance to energy projects. In 1982, ADB opened its first field office, in Bangladesh, and later in the decade, it expanded its work with non-government organizations (NGOs).<ref name="admin" />
Japanese presidents Inoue Shiro (1972–76) and Yoshida Taroichi (1976–81) took the spotlight in the 1970s. Fujioka Masao, the fourth president (1981–90), adopted an assertive leadership style, launching an ambitious plan to expand the ADB into a high-impact development agency.
On 18 November 1972, the Bank inaugurated its headquarters along Roxas Boulevard in Pasay City, Philippines. On 31 May 1991, ADB moved its offices to Ortigas Center in Pasig City, with the Department of Foreign Affairs (Philippines) taking over its old Pasay premises.
1990s
In the 1990s, ADB began promoting regional cooperation by helping the countries on the Mekong River to trade and work together. The decade also saw an expansion of ADB's membership with the addition of several Central Asian countries following the end of the Cold War.<ref name="admin" />
In mid-1997, ADB responded to the financial crisis that hit the region with projects designed to strengthen financial sectors and create social safety nets for the poor. During the crisis, ADB approved its largest single loan – a $4&nbsp;billion emergency loan to South Korea. In 1999, ADB adopted poverty reduction as its overarching goal.<ref name"admin" />2000s
The early 2000s saw a dramatic expansion of private sector finance. While the institution had such operations since the 1980s (under pressure from the Reagan Administration) the early attempts were highly unsuccessful with low lending volumes, considerable losses and financial scandals associated with an entity named AFIC. However, beginning in 2002, the ADB undertook a dramatic expansion of private sector lending under a new team. Over the course of the next six years, the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) grew by a factor of 41 times the 2001 levels of new financings and earnings for the ADB. This culminated with the Board's formal recognition of these achievements in March 2008, when the board of directors formally adopted the Long Term strategic Framework (LTSF). That document formally stated that assistance to private sector development was the lead priority of the ADB and that it should constitute 50% of the bank's lending by 2020.
In 2003, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic hit the region and ADB responded with programs to help the countries in the region work together to address infectious diseases, including avian influenza and HIV/AIDS. ADB also responded to a multitude of natural disasters in the region, committing more than $850&nbsp;million for recovery in areas of India, Indonesia, Maldives, and Sri Lanka which were impacted by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. In addition, $1&nbsp;billion in loans and grants was provided to the victims of the October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.<ref name="admin" />
In December 2005, China donated $20&nbsp;million to the ADB for a regional poverty alleviation fund; China's first such fund set up at an international institution.<ref>{{Cite book |lastZhao |firstSuisheng |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1332788951 |titleThe dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy |date2023 |publisherStanford University Press |isbn978-1-5036-3415-2 |locationStanford, California |pages70 |oclc1332788951}}</ref>
In 2009, ADB's Board of Governors agreed to triple ADB's capital base from $55&nbsp;billion to $165&nbsp;billion, giving it much-needed resources to respond to the global economic crisis. The 200% increase is the largest in ADB's history, and was the first since 1994.<ref name"admin" />2010sAsia moved beyond the economic crisis and by 2010 had emerged as a new engine of global economic growth though it remained home to two-thirds of the world's poor. In addition, the increasing prosperity of many people in the region created a widening income gap that left many people behind. ADB responded to this with loans and grants that encouraged economic growth.<ref name"admin" />
In early 2012, the ADB began to re-engage with Myanmar in response to reforms initiated by the government. In April 2014, ADB opened an office in Myanmar and resumed making loans and grants to the country.<ref name="admin" />
In 2017, ADB combined the lending operations of its Asian Development Fund (ADF) with its ordinary capital resources (OCR). The result was to expand the OCR balance sheet to permit increasing annual lending and grants to $20&nbsp;billion by 2020 – 50% more than the previous level.<ref name="admin" />
In 2020, ADB gave a $2&nbsp;million grant from the Asia Pacific Disaster Response Fund, to support the Armenian government in the fight against the spread of COVID-19 pandemic. In the same year, the ADB committed a $20&nbsp;million loan to Electric Networks of Armenia, that will ensure electricity for the citizens during the pandemic, as well as approved $500,000 in regional technical assistance to procure personal protective equipment and other medical supplies.<ref name"ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK MEMBER FACT SHEET">{{cite web |titleAsian Development Bank |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27749/arm-2020.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27749/arm-2020.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref>Objectives and activitiesAimThe ADB defines itself as a social development organization that is dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. This is carried out through investments – in the form of loans, grants and information sharing – in infrastructure, health care services, financial and public administration systems, helping countries prepare for the impact of climate change or better manage their natural resources, as well as other areas.Focus areasEighty percent of ADB's lending is concentrated public sector lending in five operational areas.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCore Operational Areas |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/core-operational-areas |access-date2015-12-14 |date30 March 2014 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date22 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222112203/http://www.adb.org/about/core-operational-areas |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Education – Most developing countries in Asia and the Pacific have earned high marks for a dramatic rise in primary education enrollment rates in the last three decades, but daunting challenges remain, threatening economic and social growth.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEducation |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/education/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date9 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209153540/http://www.adb.org/sectors/education/main |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Environment, Climate Change, and Disaster Risk Management – Environmental sustainability is a prerequisite for economic growth and poverty reduction in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEnvironment, Climate Change, and Disaster Risk Management |urlhttp://www.adb.org/themes/environment/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date6 November 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106085622/http://www.adb.org/themes/environment/main |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Finance Sector Development – The financial system is the lifeline of a country's economy. It creates prosperity that can be shared throughout society and benefit the poorest and most vulnerable people. Financial sector and capital market development, including microfinance, small and medium-sized enterprises, and regulatory reforms, is vital to decreasing poverty in Asia and the Pacific. This has been a key priority of the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) since 2002. One of the most active sub-sectors of finance is the PSOD's support for trade finance. Each year the PSOD finances billions of dollars in letters of credit across all of Asia and the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFinance Sector Development |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/finance/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date13 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151213105907/http://www.adb.org/sectors/finance/main |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Infrastructure, including transport<ref>{{Cite web |titleSustainable Transport for All |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/transport/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date14 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160114162633/http://www.adb.org/sectors/transport/main |url-statuslive }}</ref> and communications,<ref>{{Cite web |titleInformation and Communications Technology |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/ict/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date26 October 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151026144116/http://www.adb.org/sectors/ict/main |url-statuslive }}</ref> energy,<ref>{{Cite web |titleEnergy |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/energy/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date12 November 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151112194102/http://www.adb.org/sectors/energy/main |url-statuslive }}</ref> water supply and sanitation,<ref>{{Cite web |titleWater for All |urlhttp://www.adb.org/sectors/water/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date20 February 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160220233108/http://www.adb.org/sectors/water/main |url-statuslive }}</ref> and urban development.<ref>{{Cite web |titleUrban Development |urlhttp://www.adb.org/themes/urban-development/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date1 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170201090741/https://www.adb.org/themes/urban-development/main |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Regional Cooperation and Integration – Regional cooperation and integration (RCI) was introduced by President Kuroda when he joined the ADB in 2004. It was seen as a long-standing priority of the Japanese government as a process by which national economies become more regionally connected. It plays a critical role in accelerating economic growth, reducing poverty and economic disparity, raising productivity and employment, and strengthening institutions.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRegional Cooperation and Integration |urlhttp://www.adb.org/themes/regional-cooperation/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date12 June 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160612181227/http://www.adb.org/themes/regional-cooperation/main |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Private Sector Lending – This priority was introduced into the ADB's activities at the insistence of the Reagan Administration. However, that effort was never a true priority until the administration of President Tadeo Chino who in turn brought in a seasoned American banker – Robert Bestani. From then on, the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) grew at a very rapid pace, growing from the smallest financing unit of the ADB to the largest in terms of financing volume. As noted earlier, this culminated in the Long Term strategic Framework (LTSF) which was adopted by the Board in March 2008.
Financings
The ADB offers "hard" loans on commercial terms primarily to middle income countries in Asia and "soft" loans with lower interest rates to poorer countries in the region. Based on a new policy, both types of loans will be sourced starting January 2017 from the bank's ordinary capital resources (OCR), which functions as its general operational fund.<ref>{{Cite web |titleADF-OCR Merger to Boost Support for Region's Poor |urlhttp://www.adb.org/news/adf-ocr-merger-boost-support-region-s-poor |access-date2015-11-27 |date2 May 2015 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date27 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151227022519/http://www.adb.org/news/adf-ocr-merger-boost-support-region-s-poor |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The ADB's Private Sector Department (PSOD) can and does offer a broader range of financings beyond commercial loans. They also have the capability to provide guarantees, equity and mezzanine finance (a combination of debt and equity).
In 2017, ADB lent $19.1&nbsp;billion of which $3.2&nbsp;billion went to private enterprises, as part of its "non-sovereign" operations. ADB's operations in 2017, including grants and co-financing, totaled $28.9&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite web |titleADB news release |urlhttps://www.adb.org/news/adb-2017-operations-reach-289-billion |access-date2018-01-12 |date12 January 2018 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date8 February 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180208123741/https://www.adb.org/news/adb-2017-operations-reach-289-billion |url-statuslive }}</ref>
ADB obtains its funding by issuing bonds on the world's capital markets. It also relies on the contributions of member countries, retained earnings from lending operations, and the repayment of loans.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFAQs |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/faqs |access-date2015-11-27 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date10 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151210163207/http://www.adb.org/about/faqs |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right;float:left;"
|+Five largest borrowing countries<ref name"AFS2016">{{Cite web |date31 December 2016 |titleManagement's Discussion and Analysis and Annual Financial Statements |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/414776/adb-financial-report-2016.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/414776/adb-financial-report-2016.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref><ref name"FR2017">{{Cite web |date31 December 2018 |title2018 FINANCIAL REPORT |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/496016/adb-financial-report-2018.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/496016/adb-financial-report-2018.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref>
!rowspan"2" |Country !!colspan"2"|2018 !!colspan"2"| 2017 !!colspan"2"|2016 !!colspan="2"| 2015
|-
!$ million !!% !!$ million !!% !!$ million !!% !!$ million !!%
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|China}} ||17,015 ||16.6 ||16,284 ||16.9||15,615 ||24.8 ||14,646 ||25.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|India}} ||16,115 ||15.7 ||14,720 ||15.2||13,331 ||21.2 ||12,916 ||22.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Pakistan}} ||10,818 ||10.6 ||10,975 ||11.4 ||4,570 ||7.3 ||4,319 ||7.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Indonesia}} ||10,356 ||10.1 ||9,393 ||9.7||8,700 ||13.8 ||8,214 ||14.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Bangladesh}} ||9,169 ||8.9 ||8,685 ||9.0 ||- ||- ||- ||-
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Philippines}} ||- ||- ||- ||- ||5,935 ||9.4 || 5,525 ||9.5
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Others ||38,998 ||38.1 ||36,519 ||37.8 ||14,831 ||23.5 ||12,486 ||21.6
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Total ||102,470 ||100.0 ||96,577 ||100.0 ||62,983 ||100.0 ||58,106 ||100.0
|}
{{clear}}
Private sector investments
ADB provides direct financial assistance, in the form of debt, equity and mezzanine finance to private sector companies, for projects that have clear social benefits beyond the financial rate of return. ADB's participation is usually limited but it leverages a large amount of funds from commercial sources to finance these projects by holding no more than 25% of any given transaction.<ref>{{Cite web |titlePrivate Sector (Nonsovereign) Financing |urlhttp://www.adb.org/site/private-sector-financing/main |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date5 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151205234106/http://www.adb.org/site/private-sector-financing/main |url-statuslive }}</ref>Co-financingADB partners with other development organizations on some projects to increase the amount of funding available. In 2014, $9.2&nbsp;billion—or nearly half—of ADB's $22.9&nbsp;billion in operations were financed by other organizations.<ref>{{Cite web |titleOfficial Cofinancing |urlhttp://www.adb.org/site/public-sector-financing/official-cofinancing |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date18 November 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151118190337/http://www.adb.org/site/public-sector-financing/official-cofinancing |url-statuslive }}</ref> According to Jason Rush, Principal Communication Specialist, the Bank communicates with many other multilateral organizations.
Funds and resources
More than 50 financing partnership facilities, trust funds, and other funds – totaling several billion each year – are administered by ADB and put toward projects that promote social and economic development in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFunds |urlhttp://www.adb.org/site/funds/funds |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date22 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222112022/http://www.adb.org/site/funds/funds |url-status=live }}</ref> ADB has raised Rupees 5&nbsp;billion or around Rupees 5&nbsp;billion from its issuance of 5-year offshore Indian rupee (INR) linked bonds.
On 26 February 2020, ADB raises $118&nbsp;million from rupee-linked bonds and supporting the development of India International Exchange in India, as it also contributes to an established yield curve which stretches from 2021 through 2030 with $1&nbsp;billion of outstanding bonds.<ref>{{Cite news |date2020-02-26 |titleADB raises $118 million from rupee-linked bonds |workThe Economic Times |urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/bonds/adb-raises-118-million-from-rupee-linked-bonds/articleshow/74313917.cms |access-date2020-03-23 |archive-date7 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210107101339/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/bonds/adb-raises-118-million-from-rupee-linked-bonds/articleshow/74313917.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref>
2022 Annual Report
The 2022 Annual Report details ADB's efforts in aiding its developing member countries to overcome the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, tackle new challenges like the Russian invasion of Ukraine and a severe food crisis, while also addressing climate change with significant financial commitments, including $6.7&nbsp;billion for climate initiatives and a $14&nbsp;billion package for food security. The ADB committed a total of $20.5&nbsp;billion in various forms of assistance, including private sector financing, and fostered regional cooperation, with a focus on gender equality, education, healthcare, and unlocking additional resources through innovative financial mechanisms. The report also notes organizational reforms for increased efficacy, the adoption of a hybrid work model following the full reopening of its headquarters.<ref>{{Cite web |titleADB Annual Report 2022 |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/872636/adb-annual-report-2022.pdf |access-date1 April 2024 |publisherAsian Development Bank}}</ref>
Access to information
ADB has an information disclosure policy that presumes all information that is produced by the institution should be disclosed to the public unless there is a specific reason to keep it confidential. The policy calls for accountability and transparency in operations and the timely response to requests for information and documents.<ref>{{Cite web |titleOverview |urlhttp://www.adb.org/site/disclosure/overview |access-date2015-12-14 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date22 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222100236/http://www.adb.org/site/disclosure/overview |url-statuslive }}</ref> ADB does not disclose information that jeopardizes personal privacy, safety and security, certain financial and commercial information, as well as other exceptions.<ref>{{Cite web |titleExceptions to Disclosure |urlhttp://www.adb.org/site/disclosure/public-communications-policy/exceptions |access-date2015-12-14 |date9 September 2014 |publisherAsian Development Bank |archive-date22 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222112902/http://www.adb.org/site/disclosure/public-communications-policy/exceptions |url-statuslive }}</ref>Notable projects and technical assistance* Afghanistan: Hairatan to Mazar-e-Sharif Railway Project<ref>{{Cite web |titleHairatan to Mazar-i-Sharif railway {{!}} Railways of Afghanistan |urlhttp://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/ |access-date2015-11-27 |websiteandrewgrantham.co.uk |archive-date24 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171224182253/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Armenia: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project<ref>{{Cite web |titleWater Supply and Sanitation Sector Project – Additional Financing in Armenia: General Procurement Notice|publisherDevex |urlhttps://www.devex.com/projects/tenders/water-supply-and-sanitation-sector-project-additional-financing-in-armenia-general-procurement-notice/7292 |access-date2015-11-27 |archive-date13 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230413191710/https://servedbyadbutler.com/adserve/;MID168518;typev959fb862;placementID2061094;setID222869;channelID0;CID752267;BID520980763;TAID0;place0;referrerhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.devex.com%2Ffunding%2Fr%3Freport%3Dtender-7292;mt1681413428838912;hc172c1effc5cdeaed64e544587840628a43dd3bcf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Bhutan: Green Power Development Project<ref>{{Cite web |titleProposed Green Power Development Project in Bhutan|publisherDevex |urlhttps://www.devex.com/projects/tenders/proposed-green-power-development-project-in-bhutan/50258 |access-date2015-11-27 |archive-date6 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160306133859/https://www.devex.com/projects/tenders/proposed-green-power-development-project-in-bhutan/50258 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* India: Rural Roads Sector II Investment Program;<ref>{{Cite web |titleGovernment signs loan agreement with ADB for Rural Roads Sector II Investment Program–Project 4, Special Content – Association Releases – ConstructionBiz360 |urlhttp://www.constructionbiz360.com/article/45/2009090820090908180955234905dd67f/Government-signs-loan-agreement-with-ADB-for-Rural-Roads-Sector-II-Investment-Program%25E2%2580%2593Project-4.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208141532/http://www.constructionbiz360.com/article/45/2009090820090908180955234905dd67f/Government-signs-loan-agreement-with-ADB-for-Rural-Roads-Sector-II-Investment-Program%25E2%2580%2593Project-4.html |archive-date2015-12-08 |access-date2015-11-27 |websiteconstructionbiz360.com}}</ref> Agartala Municipal Infrastructure Development Project<ref>{{Cite web |titleIndia Project Notice |urlhttps://www.biddetail.com/projects/project-information/48745 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230121112104/https://www.biddetail.com/projects/project-information/48745 |archive-date21 January 2023 |access-date21 January 2023 |websiteBid Detail}}</ref>
* Indonesia: Vocational Education Strengthening Project<ref>{{Cite news |date28 September 2012 |titleADB supports vocational education in Indonesia |agencyAntara |urlhttp://www.antaranews.com/en/news/84768/adb-supports-vocational-education-in-indonesia |access-date2015-11-27 |archive-date7 April 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407223922/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/84768/adb-supports-vocational-education-in-indonesia |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Laos: Northern and Central Regions Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project<ref>{{Cite web |lastMurphy |firstB. J. |titleOudomxay hosts belated opening ceremony for water treatment plant |urlhttps://laospdrnews.wordpress.com/2012/06/01/oudomxay-hosts-belated-opening-ceremony-for-water-treatment-plant/ |access-date2015-11-27 |websiteLao People's Democratic Republic |dateJune 2012 |archive-date20 February 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160220011528/https://laospdrnews.wordpress.com/2012/06/01/oudomxay-hosts-belated-opening-ceremony-for-water-treatment-plant/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Mongolia: Food and Nutrition Social Welfare Program and Project<ref>{{Cite web |titleFood and Nutrition Social Welfare Programme and Project (Capacity Development Project – M&E) |urlhttp://www.opml.co.uk/projects/food-and-nutrition-social-welfare-programme-and-project-capacity-development-project-me |access-date2015-11-27 |websiteOxford Policy Management |archive-date20 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180120135704/http://www.opml.co.uk/projects/food-and-nutrition-social-welfare-programme-and-project-capacity-development-project-me |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Philippines: North–South Commuter Railway Extension Project (Malolos–Clark Railway Project and South Commuter Railway Project), jointly funded with Japan International Cooperation Agency;<ref>{{Cite web|titleMalolos–Clark Railway Project: North-South Commuter Railway, PNR Clark – Phase 2|urlhttps://www.adb.org/news/infographics/malolos-clark-railway-project|publisherAsian Development Bank|date10 July 2019|access-date24 January 2022|archive-date7 November 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191107081238/https://www.adb.org/news/infographics/malolos-clark-railway-project|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titlePhilippines: South Commuter Railway Project|urlhttps://www.adb.org/projects/52220-001/main|publisherAsian Development Bank|access-date24 January 2022|archive-date24 January 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220124133148/https://www.adb.org/projects/52220-001/main|url-statuslive}}</ref> Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge, jointly funded by Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank;<ref>{{Cite web |titlePhilippines : Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge Project |date12 December 2023 |urlhttps://www.adb.org/projects/52310-001/main |access-date30 May 2024}}</ref> Laguna Lakeshore Road Network,<ref>{{Cite web |date11 November 2024 |titlePhilippines : Laguna Lakeshore Road Network Project |urlhttps://www.adb.org/projects/52321-001/main |website=Asian Development Bank}}</ref> jointly funded by Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and Export-Import Bank of Korea-Economic Development Cooperation Fund
* Solomon Islands: Pacific Private Sector Development Initiative<ref>{{Cite web |titlePacific banks go branchless to reach the unbanked |urlhttp://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1401/S00030/pacific-banks-go-branchless-to-reach-the-unbanked.htm |access-date2015-11-27 |publisher Scoop News |archive-date5 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305001035/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1401/S00030/pacific-banks-go-branchless-to-reach-the-unbanked.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref>CriticismSince the ADB's early days, critics have charged that the two major donors, Japan and the United States, have had extensive influence over lending, policy and staffing decisions.<ref name"Kilby">{{Cite journal |lastKilby |firstChristopher |year2002 |titleDonor Influence in MDBs: The Case of the Asian Development Bank |urlhttp://www.williams.edu/Economics/neudc/papers/ADB.3.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.williams.edu/Economics/neudc/papers/ADB.3.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |journalThe Review of International Organizations |volume68 |issue4 |pages509–528 |access-date=2010-09-16}}</ref>
Oxfam Australia has criticized the Asian Development Bank for insensitivity to local communities. "Operating at a global and international level, these banks can undermine people's human rights through projects that have detrimental outcomes for poor and marginalized communities."<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Asian Development Bank and Food Security |urlhttp://www.oxfam.org.au/campaigns/adb/ |websiteOxfam Australia |date13 June 2014 |access-date23 February 2008 |archive-date6 January 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090106042019/http://www.oxfam.org.au./campaigns/adb/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The bank also received criticism from the United Nations Environmental Program, stating in a report that "much of the growth has bypassed more than 70 percent of its rural population, many of whom are directly dependent on natural resources for livelihoods and incomes."<ref>{{Cite web |titleInter Press Service – News and Views from the Global South |urlhttp://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews38568 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071212033539/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews38568 |archive-date=2007-12-12}}</ref>
There had been criticism that ADB's large scale projects cause social and environmental damage due to lack of oversight. One of the most controversial ADB-related projects is Thailand's Mae Moh coal-fired power station. Environmental and human rights activists say ADB's environmental safeguards policy as well as policies for indigenous peoples and involuntary resettlement, while usually up to international standards on paper, are often ignored in practice, are too vague or weak to be effective, or are simply not enforced by bank officials.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLarge-scale ADB projects draw criticism |urlhttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070508a5.html |websiteThe Japan Times |access-date28 May 2010 |archive-date21 July 2012 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120721192048/search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070508a5.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleRFI – NGO criticises ADB and questions its ability to reduce poverty |urlhttp://www.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/113/article_3679.asp |publisherrfi.fr |access-date28 May 2010 |archive-date21 November 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111121080757/http://www.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/113/article_3679.asp |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The bank has been criticized over its role and relevance in the food crisis. The ADB has been accused by civil society of ignoring warnings leading up the crisis and also contributing to it by pushing loan conditions that many say unfairly pressure governments to deregulate and privatize agriculture, leading to problems such as the rice supply shortage in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.3746.aspx|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717063923/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.3746.aspx|url-statusdead|title"ADB to meet amid food crisis, growing poverty"|archivedate=17 July 2011}}</ref>
Indeed, whereas the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) closed out that year with financings of $2.4&nbsp;billion, the ADB has significantly dropped below that level in the years since and is clearly not on the path to achieving its stated goal of 50% of financings to the private sector by 2020. Critics also point out that the PSOD is the only department that actually makes money for the ADB. Hence, with the vast majority of loans going to concessionary (sub-market) loans to the public sector, the ADB is facing considerable financial difficulty and continuous operating losses.
Countries with the largest subscribed capital and voting rights
The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by subscribed capital and voting power at the Asian Development Bank as of December 2021.<ref name"adb.org1">{{Cite book |dateMay 2021 |titleMembers, Capital Stock, and Voting Power |urlhttps://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/788046/adb-annual-report-2021.pdf |publisherAsian Development Bank |doi10.22617/FLS210109 |s2cid243528302 |access-date9 April 2023 |archive-date9 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230409085700/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/788046/adb-annual-report-2021.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right"
|+ The 20 countries with the largest capital contribution and voting rights in the Asian Development Bank
! Rank !! Country !! Subscribed capital<br>(% of total) !! Voting power<br>(% of total)
|-
| || align=left|World || 100.000 || 100.000
|-
| 1 || align=left|{{JPN}} || 15.571 || 12.751
|-
| 1 || align=left|{{USA}} || 15.571 || 12.751
|-
| 3 || align=left|{{CHN}} || 6.429 || 5.437
|-
| 4 || align=left|{{IND}} || 6.317 || 5.347
|-
| 5 || align=left|{{AUS}} || 5.773 || 4.913
|-
| 6 || align=left|{{IDN}} || 5.434 || 4.641
|-
| 7 || align=left|{{CAN}} || 5.219 || 4.469
|-
| 8 || align=left|{{KOR}} || 5.026 || 4.315
|-
| 9 || align=left|{{DEU}} || 4.316 || 3.747
|-
| 10 || align=left|{{MYS}} || 2.717 || 2.468
|-
| 11 || align=left|{{PHL}} || 2.377 || 2.196
|-
| 12 || align=left|{{FRA}} || 2.322 || 2.152
|-
| 13 || align=left|{{PAK}} || 2.174 || 2.033
|-
| 14 || align=left|{{GBR}} || 2.038 || 1.924
|-
| 15 || align=left|{{ITA}} || 1.803 || 1.737
|-
| 16 || align=left|{{NZL}} || 1.532 || 1.520
|-
| 17 || align=left|{{THA}} || 1.358 || 1.381
|-
| 18 || align=left|{{TWN}} || 1.087 || 1.164
|-
| 19 || align=left|{{NED}} || 1.023 || 1.113
|-
| 20 || align=left|{{BAN}} || 1.019 || 1.109
|-
| || align=left|{{nowrap|All Remaining Members}} || 10.894 || 22.832
|}
Members
(DMC) graduation stages<ref>{{Cite book |titleA Graduation Policy for the Bank's DMCs |urlhttp://www.adb.org/documents/graduation-policy-banks-dmcs |publisherAsian Development Bank |date26 November 1998 |access-date21 April 2015 |archive-date26 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151226112513/http://www.adb.org/documents/graduation-policy-banks-dmcs |url-statuslive |last1Bank |first1Asian Development }}</ref>
{{legend|#0000ff|Outside regions}} {{legend|#008000|Asia-Pacific region developed members}} {{legend|#804000|DMC graduated from assistance, Group-D}} {{legend|#FF8040|Ordinary Capital Resources (OCR) financing, Group-C}} {{legend|#ff00ff|OCR and ADF blended financing, Group-B}} {{legend|#ff0000|Asian Development Fund (ADF) financing, Group-A}}]]
ADB has 69<ref>{{Cite web |titleMember Countries of the Asian Development Bank |urlhttps://www.adb.org/news/israel-joins-adb-69th-member |publisherAsian Development Bank |date27 September 2024 |url-statuslive }}</ref> members (as of 27th September 2024): 49 members from the Asian and Pacific Region, and 19 members from Other Regions.<ref name"adb.org">{{Cite web |titleMembers |urlhttp://www.adb.org/about/members |publisherAsian Development Bank |date18 December 2020 |access-date28 March 2012 |archive-date9 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150709111140/http://www.adb.org/about/members |url-statuslive }}</ref> The year listed after a member's name indicates the year of their membership. When a country no longer remains a member, the Bank shall arrange for the repurchase of such country's shares by the Bank as a part of the settlement of accounts with such country in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 of Article 43.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www.adb.org/documents/agreement-establishing-asian-development-bank-adb-charter |titleAgreement Establishing the Asian Development Bank |date4 December 1965 |publisherAsian Development Bank |access-date2007-12-10 |archive-date9 April 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120409195004/http://www.adb.org/documents/agreement-establishing-asian-development-bank-adb-charter |url-statuslive |last1Bank |first1Asian Development }}</ref>
{| style="border-collapse: collapse; background: transparent;"
|-
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Regional members
! Date of accession
|-
|{{flag|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan}} || rowspan="19" | 1966
|-
|{{flag|Australia}}
|-
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|-
|{{flag|India}}
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|-
|{{flag|Japan}}
|-
|{{flag|Laos}}<ref>Joined as Kingdom of Laos, succeeded by Lao PDR in 1975</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|-
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|-
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|-
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|-
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|-
|{{flag|Samoa}}
|-
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|-
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|-
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|-
|{{flag|Taiwan}}<ref>{{Cite book |titleAsian Development Bank and Taipei,China: Fact Sheet |urlhttp://www.adb.org/publications/taipei-china-fact-sheet |publisherAsian Development Bank |date26 April 2021 |access-date28 March 2012 |archive-date13 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230413191711/https://www.adb.org/publications/taipei-china-fact-sheet |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>Joined as Republic of China representing not only Taiwan Area, but also nominally Mainland China until 1986. However, its share of Bank capital was based on the size of Taiwan's capital, unlike the World Bank and IMF where the government in Taiwan had had a share. The representation was succeeded by China in 1986. However, the ROC was allowed to retain its membership, but under the name of "Taipei,China" [http://www.amcham.com.tw/content/view/2834/ (space deliberately omitted after the comma)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208130612/http://www.amcham.com.tw/content/view/2834/ |date8 December 2015 }} – a name it protests. Uniquely, this allows both sides of the Taiwan Straits to be represented at the institution.</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|-
|{{flag|Vietnam}}<ref>before 1975 was South Vietnam</ref>
|-
|{{HKG}}<ref>Joined as "British Hong Kong", not "Hong Kong SAR"</ref> || 1969
|-
|{{flag|Fiji}} || 1970
|-
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}} || 1971
|-
|{{flag|Tonga}} || 1972
|-
|{{flag|Burma}} || rowspan="2" | 1973
|-
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
|-
|{{flag|Kiribati}} || 1974
|-
|{{flag|Cook Islands}} || 1976
|-
|{{flag|Maldives}} || 1978
|-
|{{flag|Vanuatu}} || 1981
|-
|{{flag|Bangladesh}} || 1973
|-
|{{flag|Bhutan}} || 1982
|-
|{{flag|China}} || 1986
|-
|{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}} || rowspan="2" | 1990
|-
|{{flag|Marshall Islands}}
|-
|{{flag|Mongolia}} || rowspan="2" | 1991
|-
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|-
|{{flag|Tuvalu}} || 1993
|-
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}} || rowspan="2" | 1994
|-
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|-
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}} || 1995
|-
|{{flag|Tajikistan}} || 1998
|-
|{{flag|Azerbaijan}} || 1999
|-
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}} || 2000
|-
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}} || 2002
|-
|{{flag|Palau}} || 2003
|-
|{{flag|Armenia}} || 2005
|-
|{{flag|Brunei Darussalam}} || 2006
|-
|{{flag|Georgia}} || 2007
|-
|{{flag|Niue}} || 2019
|}
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Nonregional members
! Date of accession
|-
|{{flag|Austria}} || rowspan="12" | 1966
|-
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|-
|{{flag|Canada}}
|-
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|-
|{{flag|Finland}}
|-
|{{flag|Germany}}<ref>Founding member; joined as West Germany.</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Italy}}
|-
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|-
|{{flag|Norway}}
|-
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|-
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
|{{flag|United States}}
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}} || 1967
|-
|{{flag|France}} || 1970
|-
|{{flag|Spain}} || 1986
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}}|| 1991
|-
|{{flag|Portugal}} || 2002
|-
|{{flag|Luxembourg}} || 2003
|-
|{{flag|Ireland}} || 2006
|-
|{{flag|Israel}} || 2024
|-
|}
|}
See also
{{Portal|Banks}}
* African Development Bank
* Asian Clearing Union
* Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI)
* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
* Asia Cooperation Dialogue
* Asia Council
* CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean
* Caribbean Development Bank
* Eurasian Development Bank
* Inter-American Development Bank
* International Monetary Fund
* South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation
* World Bank
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Huang, P.W. 1975. The Asian Development Bank: Diplomacy and Development in Asia. New York, NY: Vantage Press.
* Krishnamurti, R. 1977. ADB: The Seeding Days. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* McCawley, Peter. 2017. [https://www.adb.org/publications/50-years-adb Banking on the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank.] Manila: Asian Development Bank, {{ISBN|978-92-9257-791-9}} (print), {{ISBN|978-92-9257-792-6}} (e-ISBN), {{ISBN|978-4-326-50451-0}} (Japanese language edition).
* McCawley, Peter. 2020. [https://www.adb.org/publications/indonesia-adb-50-years-partnership Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership] Manila: Asian Development Bank, {{ISBN|978-92-9262-202-2}} (print), {{ISBN|978-92-9262-204-6}} (e-book). DOI: [http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/SGP200146-2 Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership]
* Watanabe, Takeshi. 1977 (reprinted 2010). Towards a New Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* Wihtol, Robert. 1988. The Asian Development Bank and Rural Development: Policy and Practice. Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Press.
* Wilson, Dick. 1997. A Bank for Half the World: The Story of the Asian Development Bank, 1966–1986. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* Yasutomo, D.T. 1983. Japan and the Asian Development Bank. New York, NY: Praeger.
External links
{{Commons category|Asian Development Bank}}
* {{official website}}
{{International development and investment banks}}
{{South-South}}
{{Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Banking institutes
Category:Supranational banks
Category:Organizations based in Manila
Category:International development multilaterals
Category:Multilateral development banks
Category:United Nations General Assembly observers
Category:International banking institutions
Category:Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
Category:Development in Asia
Category:Banks established in 1966
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.926727
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Aswan
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{{other uses}}
{{about-distinguish-text|Aswan|biblical city of Sin}}
{{Infobox settlement
<!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage-->
<!-- Basic info ---------------->
| name = Aswan
| native_name = {{native name|ar|أسوان}} <br />
{{native name|cop|Ⲥⲟⲩⲁⲛ}}
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Panoramic view of Aswan, Egypt.jpg
| photo2a = معبد فيلة ..اسوان.jpg
| photo2b = Aswan High Dam-1.jpg
| photo3a = Panoramic view of Aswan 2, Egypt.jpg
| photo3b = Bridge over the Nile at Aswan - panoramio.jpg
| photo4a = Aswan - panoramio (2).jpg
| photo4b = Old Monastery of St. Simeon west Aswan.jpg
| size = 280
| spacing = 2
| color = transparent
| border = 0
}}
| image_caption = From top left: <br /> Aerial view of the city, Philae temple complex, Aswan High Dam, view of the city from the Nile, El Khattaya bridge, a resort in the city, Monastery of St. Simeon
| flag_size | image_seal
| seal_size | image_shield
| shield_size | nickname
| motto =
<!-- images and maps ----------->
| image_map | mapsize
| map_caption | pushpin_map Egypt
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_relief = yes
| pushpin_mapsize | pushpin_map_caption Location within Egypt
<!-- Location ------------------>
| coordinates {{coord|24|05|20|N|32|53|59|E|region:EG|displayinline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Egypt}}
| subdivision_type1 = Governorate
| subdivision_type2 | subdivision_type3
| subdivision_name1 = Aswan
| subdivision_name2 | subdivision_name3
| established_title = <!-- Settled -->
| established_date | government_footnotes
| government_type | leader_title Governor
| leader_name | leader_title1 <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager -->
| leader_name1 =
<!-- Area --------------------->
| area_footnotes <ref name"citypopulation">{{cite web |titleEgypt: Governorates, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |urlhttps://citypopulation.de/en/egypt/cities/?cityid578 |websitecitypopulation.de |access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>
| area_magnitude | area_total_km2 375
| area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion-->
| elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags-->
| elevation_m = 194
| elevation_ft =
<!-- Population ----------------------->
| population_total = 379,774
| population_as_of = 2021
| population_footnotes <ref name"citypopulation" />
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi | population_metro
| population_density_metro_km2 | population_density_metro_sq_mi
| population_blank1_title = Ethnicities
| population_blank1 | population_density_blank1_km2
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi | population_note
<!-- Area/postal codes & others -------->
| postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... -->
| postal_code | area_code (+20) 97
<!-- General information --------------->
| website | timezone EST
| utc_offset = +2
| timezone_DST | utc_offset_DST
| blank_name | blank_info
| blank1_name | blank1_info
| official_name | footnotes {{designation list | embed = yes
| notes | designation1 WHS
| designation1_offname = Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_criteria = i, iii, vi
| designation1_date = 1979 (3rd session)
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/88 89]
| designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free1value = Egyptian Governorates, Northern Africa, African Union
}}
}}
Aswan ({{IPAc-en|æ|s|ˈ|w|ɑː|n|,_|ɑː|s|-}}, <small>also</small> {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|æ|s|w|ɑː|n|,_|ˈ|ɑː|s|-|,_|ˈ|æ|z|-}};<ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Aswan|access-dateApril 3, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/aswan|titleAswan|workCollins English Dictionary|publisherHarperCollins|access-dateApril 3, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403061451/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/aswan|archive-dateApril 3, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>[https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/aswan "Aswan"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403061451/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/aswan |date2019-04-03 }} (US) and {{Cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Aswan |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200813121349/https://www.lexico.com/definition/aswan |url-statusdead |archive-date2020-08-13 |titleAswan |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Aswân|access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref> {{langx|ar|أسوان|ʾAswān}} {{IPA|arz|ʔɑsˈwɑːn|}}; {{langx|cop|Ⲥⲟⲩⲁⲛ}} {{transliteration|cop|Souan}} {{IPA|cop|swɑn|}}) is a city in Southern Egypt, and is the capital of the Aswan Governorate.
Aswan is a busy market and tourist centre located just north of the Aswan Dam on the east bank of the Nile at the first cataract. The modern city has expanded and includes the formerly separate community on the island of Elephantine.
Aswan includes five monuments within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae; these are the Old and Middle Kingdom tombs of Qubbet el-Hawa, the town of Elephantine, the stone quarries and Unfinished Obelisk, the Monastery of St. Simeon and the Fatimid Cemetery.<ref>{{cite web |url https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/88 |title Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae |website UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 7 September 2021}}</ref> The city's Nubian Museum is an important archaeological center, containing finds from the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia before the Aswan Dam flooded all of Lower Nubia.
The city is part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of craft and folk art.<ref>{{Cite book|titleIssues in cultural tourism studies|authorSmith, Melanie K.|date2016|publisherRoutledge|isbn9781138785694|oclc932058870}}</ref> Aswan joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2017.
Other spellings and variations
Aswan was formerly spelled Assuan or Assouan. Names in other languages include ({{langx|ar|أسوان|ʾAswān}}; Ancient Egyptian: {{transliteration|egy|Swenett}}; {{langx|cop|Ⲥⲟⲩⲁⲛ|Souan}}; {{langx|grc|Συήνη|Suēnē}}; proposed Biblical Hebrew: סְוֵנֵה Sǝwēnê). The Nubians also call the city Dib which means "fortress, palace" and is derived from the Old Nubian name ⲇⲡ̅ⲡⲓ.<ref>{{Cite book|lastHofmann|firstInge|titleNubisches Wörterverzeichnis: Nubisch-deutsches und deutsch-nubisches Wörterverzeichnis nach dem Kenzi-Material des Samuel Ali Hisen (1863–1927)|publisherAcademia Richarz|year1986|locationBonn|pages49}}</ref> History {{Hiero | swnt<ref>{{cite book |last1Gauthier |first1Henri |titleDictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 5 |date1928 |page[https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1928/page/n12 17] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/Gauthier1928}}</ref> | <hiero>s-wn:n-t:niwt</hiero> | alignleft | era=lp}}
Aswan is the ancient city of Swenett, later known as Syene, which in antiquity was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt facing the south. Swenett is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name.<ref namealtas>{{cite book|last1 Baines|first1 John|last2 Malek|first2 Jaromir|title Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Cultural Atlas)|publisher Facts On File Inc|date March 1983|location New York, NY|page [https://archive.org/details/atlasofancienteg00bain/page/240 240]|isbn 9780871963345|url-access registration|url https://archive.org/details/atlasofancienteg00bain/page/240}}</ref> This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt because of the similar association of their goddesses with childbirth, and of which the import is "the opener". The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for "trade",<ref>{{Cite book|titleMuhafazat Al Gumhuriya Al Arabiya Al Mutaheda wa Asaraha al baqiah fi al asr al islamim|year1966|authorSuʻād Māhir|publisherMajlis al-Aʻlá lil-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjEL5GwAACAAJ}}</ref> or "market".<ref>{{Cite book|titleA History of Egypt, from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest|year1912|authorJames Henry Breasted|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons|page[https://archive.org/details/historyofegyptfr00inbrea/page/7 7]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofegyptfr00inbrea|access-date2015-04-27|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111121211505/http://www.archive.org/details/historyofegyptfr00inbrea|archive-date2011-11-21|url-status=live}}</ref>
Because the Ancient Egyptians oriented themselves toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south, and as Swenett was the southernmost town in the country, Egypt always was conceived to "open" or begin at Swenett.<ref name= altas/> The city stood upon a peninsula on the right (east) bank of the Nile, immediately below (and north of) the first cataract of the flowing waters, which extended to it from Philae. Navigation to the delta was possible from this location without encountering a barrier.
The stone quarries of ancient Egypt located here were celebrated for their stone, and especially for the granitic rock called syenite. They furnished the colossal statues, obelisks, and monolithic shrines that are found throughout Egypt, including the pyramids; and the traces of the quarrymen who worked (alongside domesticated draft animals) in these 3,000 years ago are still visible in the native rock. They lie on either bank of the Nile, and a road, {{convert|6.5|km|abbr=on}} in length, was cut beside them from Syene to Philae.
Swenett was equally important as a military station and for its position on a trade route. Under every dynasty it was a garrison town; and here tolls and customs were levied on all boats passing southwards and northwards. Around 330, the legion stationed here received a bishop from Alexandria; this later became the Coptic Diocese of Syene.<ref>Dijkstra, J. Harm F. [http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/theology/2005/j.h.f.dijkstra/thesis.pdf Religious Encounters on the Southern Egyptian Frontier in Late Antiquity (AD 298-642)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090704024558/http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/theology/2005/j.h.f.dijkstra/thesis.pdf |date2009-07-04 }}.<!--accessed 23 June 2009--></ref> The city is mentioned by numerous ancient writers, including Herodotus,<ref>(ii. 30)</ref> Strabo,<ref>(ii. p.&nbsp;133, xvii. p.&nbsp;797, seq.)</ref> Stephanus of Byzantium,<ref>(s. v.)</ref> Ptolemy,<ref>(vii. 5. § 15, viii. 15. § 15)</ref> Pliny the Elder,<ref>(ii. 73. s. 75, v. 10. s. 11, vi. 29. s. 34)</ref> Vitruvius,<ref>(De architectura, book viii. ch ii. § 6)</ref> and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary.<ref>(p.&nbsp;164)</ref> It may also be mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah.<ref>Ezekiel 29:10, 30:6; Isaiah 49:12</ref>
The Nile is nearly {{convert|650|m|mi|abbron}} wide above<!--Should this say "below"? Bear in mind that north is down on the Nile.--> Aswan. From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than {{convert|1200|km|abbron}} without bar or cataract. The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favorable weather.
Archaeological findings
In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the head of the bust of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius at the Temple of Kom Ombo during work to protect the site from groundwater.<ref>{{Cite web|date2018-04-22|titleShrine to Osiris and bust of Roman emperor found in Egypt|urlhttp://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-and-science/science/shrine-to-osiris-and-bust-of-roman-emperor-found-in-egypt/article/520449|access-date2020-12-28|websitewww.digitaljournal.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastDPA|firstDaily Sabah with|date2018-04-22|titleArcheologists find Roman emperor bust, ancient shrine in Egypt|urlhttps://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/04/22/archeologists-find-roman-emperor-bust-ancient-shrine-in-egypt|access-date2020-12-28|websiteDaily Sabah|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date2018-04-22|titleArchaeologists find bust of Roman emperor in Egypt dig in Aswan|urlhttps://www.arabnews.com/node/1289571/art-culture|access-date2020-12-28|websiteArab News|language=en}}</ref>
In September 2018, the Egyptian Antiquities Minister Khaled el-Enany announced that a sandstone sphinx statue had been discovered at the temple of Kom Ombo. The statue, measuring approximately {{cvt|28|cm}} in width and {{cvt|38|cm}}) in height, probably dates to the Ptolemaic Dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArchaeologists discover sphinx in Egyptian temple|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/9/17/egypt-archaeologists-discover-sphinx-in-temple-at-aswan|access-date2020-12-28|websitewww.aljazeera.com|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastHeffron|firstClaire|date2018-09-17|titleArchaeologists discover ancient sphinx in Egyptian temple|urlhttps://www.euronews.com/2018/09/17/archaeologists-discover-ancient-sphinx-in-egyptian-temple|access-date2020-12-28|websiteeuronews|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date2018-09-17|titleEgyptian archaeologists find sphinx at Aswan temple|languageen-GB|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45546415|access-date=2020-12-28}}</ref>
Archaeologists discovered 35 mummified remains of Egyptians in a tomb in Aswan in 2019. Italian archaeologist Patrizia Piacentini and El-Enany both reported that the tomb, where the remains of ancient men, women and children were found, dates back to the Greco-Roman period between 332 BC and 395 AD. While the findings assumed belonging to a mother and a child were well preserved, others had suffered major destruction. Other than the mummies, artifacts including painted funerary masks, vases of bitumen used in mummification, pottery and wooden figurines were revealed. Thanks to the hieroglyphs on the tomb, it was detected that the tomb belongs to a tradesman named Tjit.<ref name":0">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/24/mummified-remains-of-35-ancient-egyptians-found-in-aswan|titleMummified remains of 35 ancient Egyptians found in Aswan|lastGiuffrida|firstAngela|date2019-04-24|workThe Guardian|access-date2019-07-25|languageen-GB|issn0261-3077|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190725203757/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/24/mummified-remains-of-35-ancient-egyptians-found-in-aswan|archive-date2019-07-25|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-mummies-aswan-hidden-tomb-scli-intl/index.html|titleAt least 34 mummies found in hidden Egyptian tomb|firstEmily |lastDixon|date2019-04-25|websiteCNN Travel|languageen|access-date2019-07-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190725203757/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-mummies-aswan-hidden-tomb-scli-intl/index.html|archive-date2019-07-25|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":2">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2019/04/23/egyptian-necropolis-with-35-mummies-found_b19e4e39-c00d-4069-a42d-528cf82c5ee7.html|titleEgyptian necropolis with 35 mummies found - Culture|date2019-04-23|websiteANSAMed|languageen|access-date2019-07-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190725203758/http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2019/04/23/egyptian-necropolis-with-35-mummies-found_b19e4e39-c00d-4069-a42d-528cf82c5ee7.html|archive-date2019-07-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
Piacentini commented "It's a very important discovery because we have added something to the history of Aswan that was missing. We knew about tombs and necropoli dating back to the second and third millennium, but we didn't know where the people who lived in the last part of the Pharaonic era were. Aswan, on the southern border of Egypt, was also a very important trading city".<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /><ref name=":2" />
Stan Hendrick, John Coleman Darnell and Maria Gatto in 2012 excavated petroglyphic engravings from Nag el-Hamdulab in Aswan which featured representations of a boat procession, solar symbolism and the earliest depiction of the White Crown with an estimated dating range between 3200BC and 3100BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hendrickx |first1Stan |last2Darnell |first2John Coleman |author2-linkJohn Coleman Darnell |last3Gatto |first3Maria Carmela |titleThe earliest representations of royal power in Egypt: the rock drawings of Nag el-Hamdulab (Aswan) |journalAntiquity |dateDecember 2012 |volume86 |issue334 |pages1068–1083 |doi10.1017/S0003598X00048250 |s2cid53631029 |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/earliest-representations-of-royal-power-in-egypt-the-rock-drawings-of-nag-elhamdulab-aswan/5DB2326AD5659EF652D1F77C2B713729 |languageen |issn0003-598X}}</ref>
In February 2021, archaeologists from the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced significant discoveries at an archaeological site called Shiha Fort in Aswan, namely a Ptolemaic period temple, a Roman fort, an early Coptic church and an inscription in hieratic script. According to Mostafa Waziri, the crumbling temple was decorated with palm leaf carvings and an incomplete sandstone panel that described a Roman emperor. Researcher Abdel Badie states more generally that the church contained ovens used to bake pottery, four rooms, a long hall, stairs, and stone tiles.<ref>{{Cite web|titleRuins Of Ancient Ptolemaic Temple Discovered In Egypt - Greek City Times|date3 February 2021|urlhttps://greekcitytimes.com/2021/02/03/ancient-ptolemaic-temple-egypt/|access-date2021-02-05|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastGeggel|firstLaura|titleRuins of ancient church and temple discovered in Egypt|urlhttps://www.livescience.com/fort-church-temple-ancient-egypt.html|access-date2021-02-05|websitelivescience.com|date2 February 2021|languageen}}</ref> Geography Northern Tropic boundary The latitude of the city that would become Aswan – located at 24° 5′ 23″ – was an object of great interest to the ancient geographers and mathematicians.<ref name"Venturi">Venturi, Jacir J.. [https://www.educacional.com.br/articulistas/outrosOutros_artigo.asp?artigojacir0003 Eratóstenes e a Esfericidade da Terra] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220127203232/https://www.educacional.com.br/articulistas/outrosOutros_artigo.asp?artigojacir0003 |date2022-01-27 }}. Revista Articulistas.[s/d].</ref> They believed that it was seated immediately under the tropic, and that on the day of the summer solstice, a vertically positioned staff cast no shadow.<ref name"Venturi"/> They noted that the sun's disc was reflected in a deep well (or pit) at noon.<ref name"Venturi"/> This statement is only approximately correct;<ref name"Venturi"/> at the summer solstice, the shadow was only {{frac|400}} of the staff, and so could scarcely be discerned, and the northern limb of the Sun's disc would be nearly vertical.{{Citation needed|dateApril 2020|reasonEratosthenes did not use any assumption in the latitude of Aswan, so if no other geographer from antiquity did, the whole paragraph should be removed}} More than 2200 years ago, Greek polymath Eratosthenes used this information to calculate Earth's circumference.<ref name"Venturi"/>
Climate
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2011}}
Aswan has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) like the rest of Egypt. Aswan and Luxor have the hottest summer days of any city in Egypt. Aswan is one of the hottest, sunniest and driest cities in the world. Average high temperatures are consistently above {{convert|40|°C|1}} during summer (June, July, August and also September) while average low temperatures remain above {{convert|25|°C|1}}. Average high temperatures remain above {{convert|23|°C|1}} during the coldest month of the year while average low temperatures remain above {{convert|8|°C|1}}. Summers are very prolonged and extremely hot with blazing sunshine although desert heat is dry. Winters are brief and pleasantly mild, though nights may be cool at times.
The climate of Aswan is extremely dry year-round, with less than {{convert|1|mm|2|abbron}} of average annual precipitation. The desert city is one of the driest ones in the world, and rainfall does not occur every year; in early 2001, the last rain in Aswan had been seven years earlier. When heavy precipitation does occur, as in a November 2021 rain and hail storm, flash flooding can drive scorpions from their lairs to deadly effects.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-59274686|titleEgypt: Hundreds stung by scorpions after deadly floods in Aswan|workBBC News|date=13 November 2021}}</ref> Aswan is one of the least humid cities on the planet, with an average relative humidity of only 26%, with a maximum mean of 42% during winter and a minimum mean of 16% during summer.
The weather of Aswan is extremely clear, bright and sunny year-round in all seasons, with low seasonal variation and almost 4,000 hours of annual sunshine – very close to the maximum theoretical sunshine duration. Aswan is one of the sunniest places on Earth.
The highest record temperature was {{convert|51|°C}} on July 4, 1918, and the lowest record temperature was {{convert|-2.4|°C}} on January 6, 1989.<ref name = meteoclimat/>
{{Weather box
|location = Aswan (1991–2020, extremes 1918–present)
|single line = y
|metric first = y
|Jan record high C = 35.3
|Feb record high C = 38.5
|Mar record high C = 44.0
|Apr record high C = 46.1
|May record high C = 47.8
|Jun record high C = 50.9
|Jul record high C = 51.0
|Aug record high C = 48.0
|Sep record high C = 47.8
|Oct record high C = 45.4
|Nov record high C = 42.2
|Dec record high C = 38.6
|year record high C = 51.0
|Jan high C = 23.2
|Feb high C = 25.9
|Mar high C = 30.3
|Apr high C = 35.5
|May high C = 39.5
|Jun high C = 41.6
|Jul high C = 41.9
|Aug high C = 41.9
|Sep high C = 40.0
|Oct high C = 36.4
|Nov high C = 29.8
|Dec high C = 24.5
|year high C = 34.2
|Jan mean C = 16.3
|Feb mean C = 18.6
|Mar mean C = 22.9
|Apr mean C = 28.0
|May mean C = 32.2
|Jun mean C = 34.4
|Jul mean C = 35.1
|Aug mean C = 35.0
|Sep mean C = 32.7
|Oct mean C = 29.2
|Nov mean C = 22.7
|Dec mean C = 17.6
|year mean C = 27.0
|Jan low C = 10.0
|Feb low C = 11.7
|Mar low C = 15.5
|Apr low C = 20.1
|May low C = 24.6
|Jun low C = 26.7
|Jul low C = 27.8
|Aug low C = 27.9
|Sep low C = 25.5
|Oct low C = 22.3
|Nov low C = 16.2
|Dec low C = 11.4
|year low C = 20.0
|Jan record low C = -2.4
|Feb record low C = 3.8
|Mar record low C = 5.0
|Apr record low C = 7.8
|May record low C = 13.4
|Jun record low C = 18.9
|Jul record low C = 20.0
|Aug record low C = 20.0
|Sep record low C = 16.1
|Oct record low C = 12.2
|Nov record low C = 6.1
|Dec record low C = 0.6
|year record low C = -2.4
|Jan rain mm = 0.1
|Feb rain mm = 0.0
|Mar rain mm = 0.6
|Apr rain mm = 0.3
|May rain mm = 0.1
|Jun rain mm = 0.0
|Jul rain mm = 0.0
|Aug rain mm = 0.0
|Sep rain mm = 0.1
|Oct rain mm = 0.7
|Nov rain mm = 0.0
|Dec rain mm = 0.1
|year rain mm = 2.0
|unit rain days = 1 mm
|Jan rain days = 0.0
|Feb rain days = 0.0
|Mar rain days = 0.1
|Apr rain days = 0.1
|May rain days = 0.0
|Jun rain days = 0.0
|Jul rain days = 0.0
|Aug rain days = 0.0
|Sep rain days = 0.0
|Oct rain days = 0.1
|Nov rain days = 0.0
|Dec rain days = 0.0
|year rain days = 0.4
|Jan humidity = 40
|Feb humidity = 32
|Mar humidity = 24
|Apr humidity = 19
|May humidity = 17
|Jun humidity = 16
|Jul humidity = 18
|Aug humidity = 21
|Sep humidity = 22
|Oct humidity = 27
|Nov humidity = 36
|Dec humidity = 42
|year humidity = 26.2
| Jan dew point C = 1.4
| Feb dew point C = 0.1
| Mar dew point C = 0.0
| Apr dew point C = 0.5
| May dew point C = 2.2
| Jun dew point C = 3.1
| Jul dew point C = 5.7
| Aug dew point C = 7.2
| Sep dew point C = 6.5
| Oct dew point C = 6.4
| Nov dew point C = 4.6
| Dec dew point C = 3.1
|Jan sun = 298.2
|Feb sun = 281.1
|Mar sun = 321.6
|Apr sun = 316.1
|May sun = 346.8
|Jun sun = 363.2
|Jul sun = 374.6
|Aug sun = 359.6
|Sep sun = 298.3
|Oct sun = 314.6
|Nov sun = 299.6
|Dec sun = 289.1
|year sun = 3862.8
|source 1 NOAA (humidity, dew point, sun 1961–1990)<ref nameWMOCLINO>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230827043524/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Egypt/CSV/Asswan_62414.csv
| archive-date = 27 August 2023
| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Egypt/CSV/Asswan_62414.csv
| title = Asswan Climate Normals 1991–2020
| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020)
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 27 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230827000151/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-I/UB/62405.TXT
| archive-date = 27 August 2023
| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-I/UB/62414.TXT
| title = Asswan Climate Normals 1961–1990
| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Reference Normals (1961–1990)
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = January 30, 2015}}</ref>
| source 2 Meteo Climat (record temperatures)<ref name meteoclimat>{{cite web
| url http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?pagestati&id=532
| title = Station Aswan
| publisher = Meteo Climat
| language = fr
| access-date = April 26, 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190713123305/http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/favicon.ico
| archive-date = July 13, 2019
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind62414&ano2024&mes6&day08&hora15&min0&ndays30|title62414: Asswan (Egypt)|author<!--Not stated--> |date7 June 2024|websiteogimet.com |publisherOGIMET |access-date 29 June 2024|quote=}}</ref>
}}
Education
In 2012, the Aswan University was inaugurated, which is headquartered in the city. Aswan is also home to the Aswan Higher Institute of Social Work, which was established in 1975.
Transport
The city is crossed by the Cape to Cairo Road, which connects it to Luxor and Cairo to the north, and Abu Simbel and Wadi Halfa to the south. Also important is the Aswan-Berenice highway, which connects with the ports of the Red Sea.
Aswan is linked to Cairo by the Cape to Cairo Railway, which also connects it with Wadi Halfa. The railway is incomplete towards the south.
Other key transport infrastructures are the Port of Aswan, the largest river port in the region, and Aswan International Airport.
International relations
Twin towns/Sister cities
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt}}
Aswan is twinned with:
* Sonoma, California, United States {{citation needed|dateFebruary 2022}} Gallery <gallery mode"packed">
File:Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic style 2006-10-EGYPT-ASWAN.jpg|Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic style.
File:El-Tabia Mosque, Aswan.jpg| El-Tabia Mosque in Aswan
File:Lotus-tower near Aswan.jpg|The Lotus-Tower near Aswan, monument to Arab-Soviet Friendship. Near Aswan High Dam.
File:Aswan Nubian Museum entrance.jpg|Nubia Museum entrance
File:Fatimid Cemetery at Aswan.jpg|Fatimid Cemetery
File:Unfinished Obelisk in Aswan.jpg|Unfinished Obelisk in Aswan
File:Aswan street parallel to Corniche, Egypt, October 2004.jpg|A street parallel to Corniche in Aswan.
File:Al Khattarah Aswan Bridge.jpg|Aswan Bridge
File:Kitchener-Insel Aswan Botanical Garden.jpg|Aswan Botanical Garden
File:Aswan Souq (West Gate).jpg|Aswan souq
File:Market, Shopping street, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|Market in Aswan
File:Aswan Railway station (Egypt).jpg|Aswan station
File:Gharb Seheil by Hatem Moushir 1.JPG|Gharb Seheil
File:Assuao.jpg|Nubian village in Elephantine Island.
File:Cimetières des nobles Qubbet el-Hawa.jpg|Qubbet el-Hawa
File:Nile River, Boats and feluccas, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|River Nile in Aswan
File:Nile Feluccas in Aswan.jpg|Feluccas in Aswan
</gallery>
See also
{{portal|Egypt}}
{{div col|content=
* Wadi Allaqi national park
* Abu Simbel
* Aswan Dam
* Elephantine
* Philae
* Luxor
* El Nabatat Island
* Temple of Kalabsha
* Tombs of Nobles in Aswan
* Nubia
* Banu Kanz
* Coptic Diocese of Syene
* Ta-Seti
}}
References
* {{SmithDGRG|wstitle=Aswan}}
{{reflist}}
External links
{{Commons}}
{{wikivoyage|Aswan}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110707104222/http://aldokkan.com/geography/aswan.htm Ancient Aswan City]
{{Egyptian Cities}}
{{Governorates capital of Egypt}}
{{Sa'id / Upper Egypt Main Cities}}
{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Governorate capitals in Egypt
Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt
Category:Populated places in Aswan Governorate
Category:Roman sites in Egypt
Category:Tourism in Egypt
Category:Medieval cities of Egypt
Category:Upper Egypt
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aswan
|
2025-04-05T18:26:05.945774
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2519
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Adelaide of Italy
|
{{Short description|Holy Roman Empress, Catholic saint (931–999)}}
{{Redirect|Saint Adelaide|another Saint Adelaide|Adelaide, Abbess of Vilich}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = Saint
| name = Adelaide of Italy
| birth_date = 931
| death_date = 16 December 999 (aged 68)
| feast_day = 16 December
| venerated_in = Catholic Church<br/>Eastern Orthodox Church
| image = Sainte-Adélaïde - Église de Toury, vitraux par Lorin.jpg
| imagesize | caption
| birth_place = Orbe, Upper Burgundy
| death_place = Seltz, Alsace
| titles | beatified_date
| beatified_place | beatified_by
| canonized_date = 1097
| canonized_place | canonized_by Pope Urban II{{sfn|Vauchez|1990|p=322}} (Catholicism)
|attributes = dispensing alms and food to the poor, often beside a ship
| patronage = <!-- WARNING: patronages MUST CORRESPOND to a reliable secondary source, per WP:RS -->
| major_shrine | prayer
| prayer_attrib =
}}
{{infobox royalty|
|name = Personal details
|consort = yes
|succession = Holy Roman Empress
|reign = 2 February 962 – 7 May 973
|succession1 = Queen consort of Italy
|reign1 = before 27 June 947/947 — 950
|spouse {{marriage|Lothair II of Italy|947|enddied 950}}<br>{{marriage|Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|951|end=died 973}}
|house = Elder House of Welf
|father = Rudolph II of Burgundy
|mother = Bertha of Swabia
|issue = {{plainlist|
* Emma, Queen of West Francia
* Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg
* Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor
}}}}
Adelaide of Italy ({{langx|de|Adelheid}}; 931 – 16 December 999 AD), also called Adelaide of Burgundy, was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great.{{sfn|Campbell|1907}} She was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962. She was the first empress designated consors regni, denoting a "co-bearer of royalty" who shared power with her husband. She was essential as a model for future consorts regarding both status and political influence.{{sfn|Wilson|2016|pPR17}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Gaude-Ferragu |first1Murielle |titleQueenship in Medieval France, 1300-1500 |date31 August 2016 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-1-349-93028-9 |page79 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRpfvDAAAQBAJ&pgPA79 |access-date6 July 2022 |languageen}}</ref> She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991–995.{{sfn|Campbell|1907}}LifeEarly lifeAdelaide was born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), to Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.{{sfn|Reuter|McKitterick|1999|p699}}
Adelaide was involved from the outset in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy. The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar's death, enabling Rudolf to claim the throne.{{sfn|Jestice|2018|p=49-51}}
Not happy with this, the inhabitants of Lombardy appealed to another ally, Hugh of Provence, who had long considered Rudolf an enemy. Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide's father died in 937.{{sfn|Jestice|2018|p=49-51}} So as to control Upper Burgundy, Hugh decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy,{{sfn|Gallick|2009}} to the 15-year-old Adelaide (in 947, before 27 June).
The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948. Emma became Queen of West Francia by marrying King Lothair of France.
Marriage and alliance with Otto I
]]
The calendar of saints states that Lothair was poisoned on 22 November 950 in Turin by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy.
There were some suspicions amongst the people of Lombardy that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself.{{sfn|Jestice|2018|p=?}} Berengar attempted to thwart this and cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como. However, she was quickly tracked down and was imprisoned for four months at Garda.
According to Adelaide's contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a "certain impregnable fortress," likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio.{{sfn|Odilo of Cluny|2004|p131}} She was able to send an emissary to the East Frankish king Otto I asking for his protection. Adelaide met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951.{{sfn|Bouchard|1995|p342}} Early in their marriage, Adelaide and Otto had two children, Henry and Bruno, both of whom died before reaching adulthood.
A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto's son by his first marriage, instigated a big revolt that was quelled by his father. As a consequence, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title. This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court. Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry.
After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. He then extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obotrites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz on 16 October 955. That same year, Adelaide gave birth to Otto II. In 955 or 956, she gave birth to a daughter who would become Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg.<ref>{{Cite web |lastUniversity |firstCenter for Teaching and Learning at Columbia |titleMatilda, abbess of Quedlinburg |urlhttps://epistolae.ctl.columbia.edu/woman/11.html |access-date2023-05-22 |websiteEpistolae |languageen}}</ref>Holy Roman EmpressAdelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII. In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII. Breaking new ground, Pope John XII also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress.{{sfn|Müller-Mertens|1995|p251}} In 960, a new ordo was created for her coronation and anointing, including prayers to biblical female figures, especially Esther. The ordo presents a theological and political concept that legitimizes the empress's status as a divinely ordained component of the earthly rule.{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|p12}} In 966, Adelaide and the eleven-year-old Otto II, travelled again with Otto on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him). Crucial to Otto's establishing legitimacy in his conquest of Italy and in bringing the imperial crown to the couple, was the support of Adelaide and her extensive network of relations. As heir to the Italian throne, Adelaide established for late Carolingian traditions the legitimate claim over Italy by the imperial throne.{{sfn|Wilson|2016|pPR17}}{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|pp=5–8}}
Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy and ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband returned to Germany, where Otto I died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.
After her coronation, which increased her power as she was now consors regni and able to receive people from the entire Empire, Adelaide's interventions in political decisions increased. According to Buchinger, "Between 962 and 972 Adelheid appears as intervenient in seventy-five charters. Additionally Adelheid and Otto I are named together in Papal bulls". She often protected the ecclesiastic institutions, seemingly to gain a sphere of influence separate from that of her husband. Between 991 and 993, the brothers of Feuchtwang wrote to her and requested to be "protected by the shadow of your rule from now on, we may be safe from the tumults of secular attacks". They promised they would pray for her so that her reign would be long and stable.{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|pp=10,13}}
Adelaide wielded a great amount of power during her husband's reign, as evidenced by several requests made to her. A letter, written in the 980s by her daughter Emma demanded that Adelaide intervene against Emma's enemies and mobilize forces in the Ottonian Empire. She also asked that Adelaide capture Hugh Capet, who was already elected king of West Frankia in 987.
Another enemy of Emma's was Charles, the brother of Emma's deceased consort Lothar, who had accused his sister-in-law of adultery. Another pleader was Gerbert of Aurillac, at that time archbishop of Reims (the later Pope Sylvester II), who wrote to Adelaide to ask for protection against his enemies. Buchinger remarks that, "These examples are remarkable, because they imply that Adelheid had the possibilities to help in both cases or at least Emma and Gerbert do believe that she could have intervened and succeeded. Both are themselves important political figures in their realm and still they rely on Adelheid. Adelheid’s power and importance must have been extremely stable and reliable to do as wished by the pleaders."{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|p14}}Otto II's eraIn the years following Otto I's death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court. However, Adelaide was in conflict with her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, as only one woman could be queen and hold the associated functions and powers at court. Adelaide was able to maintain the title imperatrix augusta even though Theophanu now also used it. Moreover, Theophanu opposed Adelaide in the use of her dowry lands, which Adelaide wanted to continue to use and donate to ecclesiastical institutions, ensuring her power base. Adelaide had the right to make transactions of her Italian lands as she pleased, but she needed the permission of the emperor to use her Ottonian lands.<ref>{{cite book |last1Buchinger |first1Hannah Margarete |titleAdelheid of Burgundy. Representation and memory of an Ottonian Empress and Christian Saint|date2016|page11 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/35428000 |access-date6 July 2022}}</ref> Adelaide also sided with her extended kin against Otto II. Wilson compares this action with those of other royal women: "Royal women possessed agency and did not always do the bidding of male relatives. Engelberge greatly influenced her husband, Emperor Louis II, in his attempts to extend imperial control to southern Italy in the 870s. Matilda’s favouritism for her younger son Heinrich caused Otto I considerable trouble, while Adelaide sided with her extended kin against her own son, Otto II, until he temporarily exiled her to Burgundy in 978. Agency was clearest during regencies, because these lacked formal rules, offering scope for forceful personalities to assert themselves."{{sfn|Wilson|2016|p315}} After being expelled from court by Otto II in 978, she divided her time between living in Italy in the royal palace of Pavia<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?langen|titlePavia Royal town|workMonasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date29 July 2022}}</ref> and Arles with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son. In 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy.<ref name"Kleinhenz2004">{{cite book|authorChristopher Kleinhenz|titleMedieval Italy: An Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE2CTAgAAQBAJ&pgPT34|accessdate29 July 2021|date2 August 2004|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-135-94880-1|page4}}</ref>RegencyIn 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by Adelaide's grandson Otto III under the regency of Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy. For some time, Adelaide and Theophanu were able to put aside their separate interests and work together to ensure Otto III's succession. This is seen through their joint appearance in the charters. According to the Annales Quedlinburgenses, after Otto II's death, Henry, duke of Bavaria kidnapped Otto III. The narrative claims that Adelaide returned from Lombardy to join with Theophanu, Matilda, and other leaders of Europe and reclaim the child.<ref>{{Cite web |lastUniversity |firstCenter for Teaching and Learning at Columbia |titleAdelaide of Burgundy, Ottonian empress |urlhttps://epistolae.ctl.columbia.edu/woman/19.html |access-date2023-05-22 |websiteEpistolae |languageen}}</ref>
When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of Otto III until he reached legal majority four years later.
Adelaide's role in establishing Otto's position can be seen in a letter Otto III wrote to his grandmother in 996: "According to your [Adelheid’s] wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us [Otto III] with a happy outcome".{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|pp=11,12}}
Troubles in the East continued under Adelaide, as Boleslaus of Bohemia wavered in his loyalty. In 992, there was war between Bohemia and Poland, and again like in Theophanu's time, the Ottonian regime sided with Poland. Jestice comments that, "Christianity was not re-established in the land of the Liutizi during their lifetimes. But there were territorial gains, and by 987 it was possible to begin rebuilding destroyed fortresses along the Elbe". A Saxon army, with Otto III's presence, took Brandenburg in 991. The {{ill|Hildesheim annal|de|Hildesheimer Annalen}} reports that there was another expedition in 992.{{sfn|Jestice|2018|p=253}}
Thietmar of Merseburg reports that Otto III dismissed his grandmother after his mother's death, but Althoff doubts this story. Even after Otto attained majority, Adelaide often accompanied him in his travels and influenced him, along with other women.{{sfn|Althoff|2010|pp=53–54}}
In Burgundy, Adelaide's homeland, the counts and castellans behaved increasingly independently from their king Rudolph III. Just before her death in 999, she had to intervene in Burgundy to restore peace.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024 |page342 |isbn9780521364478 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu-SsbHs5zTAC&pgPA342 |access-date11 October 2022|last1Reuter |first1Timothy |last2McKitterick |first2Rosamond |last3Fouracre |first3Paul |last4Abulafia |first4David |last5Allmand |first5C. T. |last6Luscombe |first6David |last7Jones |first7Michael |last8Riley-Smith |first8Jonathan |year1995 |publisherCambridge University Press }}</ref>Later yearsAdelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared to be of the legal majority in 995. From then on, she devoted herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses, i.e. monasteries, churches and abbeys.<ref name"Lawler2018">{{cite book|authorJennifer Lawler|titleEncyclopedia of Women in the Middle Ages|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpAxeCgAAQBAJ&pgPA11|accessdate29 July 2021|date16 January 2018|publisherMcFarland|isbn978-1-4766-0111-3|page11}}</ref><ref name"Rose1857">{{cite book|authorHugh James Rose|titleA New General Biographical Dictionary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzNo8AQAAIAAJ&pgPA105|accessdate29 July 2021|year1857|publisherT. Fellowes|page103}}</ref>
Adelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c.&nbsp;991 at Selz in Alsace.<ref>"[http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-adelaide-of-burgundy Saint Adelaide of Burgundy]". Saints.SQPN.com. 15 June 2012. Web. {2012-9-20}.</ref>
On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097.{{sfn|Wilson|2016|p=374}} After serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, Adelaide's relics were moved elsewhere. A goblet reputed to have belonged to Saint Adelaide has long been preserved in Seltz.; it was used to give potions to people with fever and the healings were said to have been numerous.
Adelaide constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent — almost an embodiment — of the work of the pre-schism Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe.<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Saints: A concise Biographical Dictionary|firstJohn|lastCoulson|publisher Hawthorn Books, Inc.|year1960|urlhttp://www.ewtn.com/library/mary/adelaide.HTM}}</ref>
Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses.<ref name"Butler1956">{{cite book|authorAlban Butler|titleButler's Lives of the Saints|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-6Q5xTklH1cC|accessdate29 July 2021|year1956|publisherP. J. Kenedy & Sons|page573|isbn9780870610493 }}</ref>
Issue
In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy.{{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=126}} The union produced one child:
* Emma of Italy (948 – after 987), queen of France and wife of Lothair of France{{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=126}}
In 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor.{{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=127}} The union produced four children:
* Henry (952 – 7 April 954){{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=127}}
* Bruno (953 – 8 September 957){{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=127}}
* Matilda (early 955 – † 6 February 999), the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg{{sfn|Holböck|2002|p=127}}
* Otto II (end 955 – 7 December 983), later Holy Roman Emperor.{{sfn|Holböck|2002|p127}}Historiography and cultural depictions{{Main|Cultural depictions of Adelaide of Italy}}Historiography{{See also|Cultural depictions of Adelaide of Italy#Historiography|label 1Historiography of Adelaide of Italy}}
Adelaide was one of the most important and powerful medieval female rulers.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Ottonian queen as 'consors regni' – After Empire |urlhttps://arts.st-andrews.ac.uk/after-empire/2017/08/08/the-ottonian-queen-as-consors-regni/ |websitearts.st-andrews.ac.uk |access-date15 July 2022}}</ref> Historically, as empress and saint, she has been described as powerful, with both male attributes (like strength, justness and prudence) and female attributes (piety, self denying).{{sfn|Buchinger|2016|p38}} Modern German historiography tends to focus on her contributions to the Ottonian dynasty and the development of the Holy Roman Empire.Depictions in art
Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown. Since the 14th century, she is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (by which she is said to have escaped from captivity).
The most famous representation of Adelaide in German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260. She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her.
Operas
* Adelaide of Burgundy is the main character of the opera ''l'Adelaide (1672) by Antonio Sartorio.
* Adelaide is the subject of a 1723 opera by Nicola Porpora, where she was played by the great castrato Farinelli en travesti.
* Lotario is a 1729 opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adelaide.
* Adelaide is the heroine of Adelaide di Borgogna'', an opera with two acts (1817) by Gioachino Rossini (music) and Giovanni Schmidt (libretto).
* Adelaide is the heroine of William Bernard McCabe's 1856 novel Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown.
Books and novels
* Adelheid, Mutter der Königreiche (Adelaide, Mother of Kingdoms) published in 1936 by Gertrud Bäumer.
* Die fremde Königin (The Foreign Queen), published in 2017, Adelaide is one of the central characters in Rebecca Gablé's novel.
* Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda: medieval female rulership and the foundations of European society by Penelope Nash (2017).
* Imperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany by Phyllis G. Jestice (2018)
* ''God's Maidservant: The story of Adelaide of Italy (Women of the Dark Ages) by Anna Chant (2017)
Artwork
* San Giuseppe con Gesù Bambino tra Sant'Adelaide, Sant'Antonio da Padova, San Lupo e San Michele arcangelo'' by Francesco Coghetti, 1828
* Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor, with the related place setting of Theodora (wife of Justinian I).<ref name"Adelaide">{{cite web | year2007 | titleAdelaide | workElizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor: Adelaide | publisherBrooklyn Museum | urlhttp://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/adelaide.php | access-date15 December 2011}}</ref><ref name"C104105">Chicago, 104-105.</ref>
See also
* List of Eastern Orthodox saints
* List of Holy Roman empresses
* List of Catholic saints
* Saint Adelaide, patron saint archive
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
*{{cite book |last1Althoff |first1Gerd |titleOtto III |date1 November 2010 |publisherPenn State Press |isbn978-0-271-04618-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idn7iPQjA9Lf8C |language=en}}
*{{cite book |chapterBurgundy and Provence, 879–1032 |firstConstance Brittain |lastBouchard |titleThe New Cambridge Medieval History |volume3, C.900-c.1024 |publisherCambridge University Press |year=1995 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |lastCampbell |firstThomas |urlhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01140c.htm |titleSt. Adelaide |encyclopediaThe Catholic Encyclopedia |volume1 |publisherRobert Appleton Company |year1907 }}
*{{Cite book|titleThe big book of women saints|lastGallick|firstSarah|publisherPymble, NSW: HarperCollins e-books|year2009|isbn978-0061956560}}
*{{cite book |firstFerdinand |lastHolböck |titleMarried Saints and Blesseds: Through the Centuries |translator-firstMichael J. |translator-lastMiller |publisherIgnatius Press |year=2002 }}
*{{Cite book |titleImperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany |lastJestice |firstPhyllis G. |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |year2018 |isbn978-3-319-77305-6 }}
*{{cite book |chapterThe Ottonians as kings and emperors |firstEckhard |lastMüller-Mertens |titleThe New Cambridge Medieval History |volume3, C.900-c.1024 |publisherCambridge University Press |year=1995 }}
*{{cite book |lastOdilo of Cluny |chapterEpitaph of Adelheid |editor-lastGilsdorf |titleQueenship and Sanctity |publisherCatholic University of America Press |year2004 }}
*{{cite book |chapterAppendix |titleThe New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024 |editor1-firstTimothy |editor1-lastReuter |editor2-firstRosamond |editor2-lastMcKitterick |publisherCambridge University Press |year1999 }}
*{{cite book |chapterThe Saint |firstAndre |lastVauchez |titleMedieval Callings |editor-firstJacques |editor-lastLe Goff |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |year1990 }}
*{{cite book |last1Wilson |first1Peter H. |titleThe Holy Roman Empire: A Thousand Years of Europe's History |date2016 |publisherPenguin Books Limited |isbn978-0-14-195691-6 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI5lFCgAAQBAJ&qAdelaide+of+Italy+canonization&pgPT374 |languageen}}Further reading* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060504152424/http://www.genealogie-mittelalter.de/deutschland_koenige_2/adelheid_von_burgund_999_rudolfinger_hugoniden_liudolfinger/adelheid_von_burgund_999.html Genealogie-Mittelalter: "Adelheid von Burgund".]Bibliography* {{cite Q|Q115297284|editor1Henry Gardiner Adams}}<!-- s:A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Adelaide, daughter of Rodolphus -->
* Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz: Adelheid of Burgundy. In: Biographical-Bibliographical Dictionary of Churches (BBKL). Volume 1, Bautz, Hamm 1975. 2nd, unchanged edition Hamm 1990, {{ISBN|3-88309-013-1}}, Sp. 35–35.
* Amalie Fößel: Adelheid. In: Amalie Fößel (Ed.): The Empresses of the Middle Ages. Pustet, Regensburg 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7917-2360-0}}, p.&nbsp;35-59.
* Werner Goez: Empress Adelheid. In: Pictures of life from the Middle Ages. The time of the Ottonians, Salians and Staufers. Primus, Darmstadt 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-89678-701-9}}, p.&nbsp;66-82.
* Bruno Keiser: Adelheid. Queen, empress, saint. Piper Verlag, Munich 2009, {{ISBN|978-349-22548-9-2}}.
* Walter Schlesinger: Adelheid. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1953, {{ISBN|3-428-00182-6}}, p.&nbsp;57 f. (digitized version).
* Franz Staab: Thorsten Unger (Ed.): Empress Adelheid and her monastery foundation in Selz (= Publications of the Palatinate Society for the Advancement of Science in Speyer. Vol. 99). Presentations at the scientific conference in Landau and Selz from 15 to 17 October 1999, published by the Society for the Advancement of Science, Speyer 2005, {{ISBN|3-932155-21-1}}.
* Ernst Steindorff: Adelheid (Empress). In: General German Biography (ADB). Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1875, pp.&nbsp;75–77.
* Stefan Weinfurter: Empress Adelheid and the Ottonian Empire. In: Early Medieval Studies. Vol. 33, 1999, pp.&nbsp;1–19, (digitised version).
External links
{{EB1911 poster|Adelaide (Queen)|Adelaide}}
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141030073006/http://epistolae.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/woman/19.html ''Women's Biography: Adelaide of Burgundy, Ottonian empress'']
* Monks of Ramsgate. "Adelaide". Book of Saints, 1921. Saints.SQPN.com. 1 May 2012. Web. {2012-9-20}. [http://saints.sqpn.com/book-of-saints-adelaide]
{{s-start}}
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{{s-vac|last=Edith of Wessex}}
{{s-ttl|titleQueen consort of Germany|years951–961}}
{{s-aft | rows2 | afterTheophanu}}
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{{s-vac|last=Anna of Provence}}
{{s-ttl|titleHoly Roman Empress|years962–973}}
{{s-end}}
{{Subject bar |portal1Saints |portal2 Biography |portal3Catholicism |portal4 Royalty}}
{{Holy Roman Empresses}}
{{Royal consorts of Germany}}
{{Italian consorts}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adelaide Of Italy}}
Category:931 births
Category:999 deaths
Category:10th-century women regents
Category:10th-century Christian saints
Category:10th-century German nobility
Category:10th-century German women
Category:People from Orbe
Category:Roman Catholic royal saints
Category:Medieval German saints
Category:Ottonian dynasty
Category:German female regents
Category:Holy Roman Empresses
Category:Queens consort of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)
Category:Remarried queens consort
Category:Eastern Orthodox royal saints
Category:Elder House of Welf
Category:Duchesses of Saxony
Category:Female saints of medieval Germany
Category:Daughters of kings
Category:Otto the Great
Category:10th-century empresses consort
Category:10th-century regents
Category:Mothers of Holy Roman Emperors
Category:Italian queen mothers
Category:Mothers of German monarchs
Category:Regents of the Holy Roman Empire
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2025-04-05T18:26:05.960417
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2524
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Airbus A300
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{{Short description|World's first twin-engine widebody jet airliner}}
{{Redirect|A300}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox aircraft
| name = Airbus A300
| image = Iran Air Airbus A300B4-605R EP-IBD (23416357051).jpg
| long_caption = The A300 has two underwing podded turbofans, making it the first twinjet wide-body airliner. Seen here operated by Iran Air in 2011, its largest remaining passenger operator as of 2025.
| aircraft_role = Wide-body airliner
| national_origin = France and West Germany<!-- Use the main nation (e.g. UK), not constituent country (England); don't use "EU". List collaborative programmes of only 2 or 3 nations; for more than 3, use "Multi-national" per Template:Infobox aircraft type and WP:Air/PC guidelines. -->
| manufacturers = Airbus
| status = In limited passenger service, in cargo service
| primary_user = FedEx Express
| more_users = {{ubl|UPS Airlines|European Air Transport Leipzig|Mahan Air}}
| number_built 561<ref name"Airbus_Deliveries" />
| construction_date = 1971{{ndash}}2007
| introduction = 23 May 1974 with Air France
| first_flight {{start date and age|1972|10|28|dfy}}
| developed_into = {{ubl|Airbus A310|Airbus A330|Airbus A340|A300-600ST Beluga}}
}}
The Airbus A300 is Airbus' first production aircraft and the world's first twin-engine, double-aisle (wide-body) airliner. It was developed by Airbus Industrie GIE, now merged into Airbus SE, and manufactured from 1971 to 2007.
<!--development-->
In September 1967, aircraft manufacturers in France, West Germany and the United Kingdom signed an initial memorandum of understanding to collaborate to develop an innovative large airliner. The French and West Germans reached a firm agreement on 29 May 1969, after the British withdrew from the project on 10 April 1969. A new collaborative aerospace company, Airbus Industrie GIE, was formally created on 18 December 1970 to develop and produce it. The A300 prototype first flew on 28 October 1972.
<!--design-->
The first twin-engine widebody airliner, the A300 typically seats 247 passengers in two classes over a range of 5,375 to 7,500&nbsp;km (2,900 to 4,050&nbsp;nmi; {{cvt|5,375 to 7,500|km|mi|disp=output only}}).
<!--variants-->
Initial variants are powered by General Electric CF6-50 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans and have a three-crew flight deck. The improved A300-600 has a two-crew cockpit and updated CF6-80C2 or PW4000 engines; it made its first flight on 8 July 1983 and entered service later that year. The A300 is the basis of the smaller A310 (first flown in 1982) and was adapted in a freighter version. Its cross section was retained for the larger four-engined A340 (1991) and the larger twin-engined A330 (1992). It is also the basis for the oversize Beluga transport (1994). Unlike most Airbus products, it has a yoke, not using a fly-by-wire system.
<!-- operational history-->
Launch customer Air France introduced the type on 23 May 1974.
After limited demand initially, sales took off as the type was proven in early service, beginning three decades of steady orders. It has a similar capacity to the Boeing 767-300, introduced in 1986, but lacked the 767-300ER range. During the 1990s, the A300 became popular with cargo aircraft operators, as both passenger airliner conversions and as original builds. Production ceased in July 2007 after 561 deliveries.
{{As of|2023|Sep|dfUS}}, there are 197 A300 family aircraft still in commercial service. Development Origins
, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation proposed the 260-seat wide-body HBN 100 with a similar configuration]]
During the 1960s, European aircraft manufacturers such as Hawker Siddeley and the British Aircraft Corporation, based in the UK, and Sud Aviation of France, had ambitions to build a new 200-seat airliner for the growing civil aviation market. While studies were performed and considered, such as a stretched twin-engine variant of the Hawker Siddeley Trident and an expanded development of the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) One-Eleven, designated the BAC Two-Eleven, it was recognized that if each of the European manufacturers were to launch similar aircraft into the market at the same time, neither would achieve sales volume needed to make them viable.<ref name"early days">[http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/early-days-1967-1969/ "Early days (1967–1969)."] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110705195621/http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/early-days-1967-1969/ |date5 July 2011 }} Airbus, Retrieved: 28 February 2016.</ref> In 1965, a British government study, known as the Plowden Report, had found British aircraft production costs to be between 10% and 20% higher than American counterparts due to shorter production runs, which was in part due to the fractured European market. To overcome this factor, the report recommended the pursuit of multinational collaborative projects between the region's leading aircraft manufacturers.<ref nameBowen>Bowen, John T. The Economic Geography of Air Transportation: Space, Time, and the Freedom of the Sky. "Business & Economics", 2010. {{ISBN|1-135-15657-3}}, pp. 49–53.</ref>{{rp|49}}<ref>[https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1966/feb/01/aircraft-industry-plowden-report "Aircraft Industry (Plowden Report)."] Hansard, February 1966. vol 723, cc 890–1016.</ref><ref nameITC>{{cite book|authorU.S. International Trade Commission|titleGlobal Competitiveness of U. S. Advanced-Technology Manufacturing Industries: Large Civil Aircraft|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiMN_GHp-iEkC|dateOctober 1995|publisherDianePublishing|isbn978-0-7881-2526-3|series=Investigation No. 332-332, Publication 2667}} pp. 2–16.</ref>{{rp|2–13}}
European manufacturers were keen to explore prospective programmes; the proposed 260-seat wide-body HBN 100 between Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation being one such example.<ref name"early days" /><ref nameSimons>Simons, Graham. The Airbus A380: A History. "Pen and Sword", 2014. {{ISBN|1-78303-041-0}}, pp. 37–40.</ref>{{rp|37–38}} National governments were also keen to support such efforts amid a belief that American manufacturers could dominate the European Economic Community;<ref>Chorafas, Dimitris N. The Business of Europe is Politics: Business Opportunity, Economic Nationalism and the Decaying Atlantic Alliance. Gower Publishing, 2012. {{ISBN|1-4094-5959-4}} p. 292.</ref> in particular, Germany had ambitions for a multinational airliner project to invigorate its aircraft industry, which had declined considerably following the Second World War.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|49–50}} During the mid-1960s, both Air France and American Airlines had expressed interest in a short-haul twin-engine wide-body aircraft, indicating a market demand for such an aircraft to be produced.<ref nameBowen /><ref name"airbus 30">[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airbus-at-thirty-family-planning-124235/ "Airbus at thirty – Family planning."] Flight International, 2 January 2001.</ref> In July 1967, during a high-profile meeting between French, German, and British ministers, an agreement was made for greater cooperation between European nations in the field of aviation technology, and "for the joint development and production of an airbus".<ref name"early days" /><ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}} The word airbus at this point was a generic aviation term for a larger commercial aircraft, and was considered acceptable in multiple languages, including French.<ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}}
(from behind) discussing with general manager Henri Ziegler beside the CF6 turbofan, which powered the A300 first flight]]
Shortly after the July 1967 meeting, French engineer Roger Béteille was appointed as the technical director of what would become the A300 programme, while Henri Ziegler, chief operating office of Sud Aviation, was appointed as the general manager of the organisation and German politician Franz Josef Strauss became the chairman of the supervisory board.<ref name"early days" /> Béteille drew up an initial work share plan for the project, under which French firms would produce the aircraft's cockpit, the control systems, and lower-centre portion of the fuselage, Hawker Siddeley would manufacture the wings, while German companies would produce the forward, rear and upper part of the center fuselage sections. Additional work included moving elements of the wings being produced in the Netherlands, and Spain producing the horizontal tail plane.<ref name"early days" /><ref name=Simons />{{rp|38}}
An early design goal for the A300 that Béteille had stressed the importance of was the incorporation of a high level of technology, which would serve as a decisive advantage over prospective competitors. For this reason, the A300 would feature the first use of composite materials of any passenger aircraft, the leading and trailing edges of the tail fin being composed of glass fibre reinforced plastic.<ref nameITC />{{rp|2–16}}<ref name"first order flight" /> Béteille opted for English as the working language for the developing aircraft, as well against using Metric instrumentation and measurements, as most airlines already had US-built aircraft.<ref name"first order flight" /> These decisions were partially influenced by feedback from various airlines, such as Air France and Lufthansa, as an emphasis had been placed on determining the specifics of what kind of aircraft that potential operators were seeking. According to Airbus, this cultural approach to market research had been crucial to the company's long-term success.<ref name"first order flight">[http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/first-order-first-flight-1970-1972/ "First order, first flight (1970–1972)."] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150401095900/http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/first-order-first-flight-1970-1972/ |date1 April 2015 }} Airbus, Retrieved: 28 February 2016.</ref>
Workshare and redefinition
On 26 September 1967, the French, West German and British governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding to start the development of the 300-seat Airbus A300.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|38}}<ref nameEndres />{{rp|43}}<ref namePitt>Pitt, Ivan L. and John Randolph Norsworthy. Economics of the U.S. Commercial Airline Industry: Productivity, Technology and Deregulation. "Springer", 2012. {{ISBN|1-4615-5031-9}}, pp. 57, 60.</ref>{{rp|57}} At this point, the A300 was only the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, the first being the Anglo-French Concorde.<ref nameSenguttuvan>Senguttuvan, P. S. Fundamentals of Air Transport Management. "Excel Books India", 2006. {{ISBN|81-7446-459-X}}. pp. 33–34.</ref> Under the terms of the memorandum, the French and British were to each receive a 37.5 per cent work share on the project, while the West Germans would receive a 25 per cent share. Sud Aviation was recognized as the lead contractor for the A300, with Hawker Siddeley being selected as the British partner company.<ref name"early days" /> At the time, the news of the announcement had been clouded by the British Government's support for the Airbus, which coincided with its refusal to back BAC's proposed competitor, the BAC 2–11, despite a preference for the latter expressed by British European Airways (BEA).<ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}} Another parameter was the requirement for a new engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce to power the proposed airliner; a derivative of the in-development Rolls-Royce RB211, the triple-spool RB207, capable of producing of {{cvt|47500|lbf|kN}}.<ref name"Flight International1968">{{cite journal|urlhttp://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1968/1968%20-%200017.html|titleAero Engines 1968: "Flight" special review|date4 January 1968|journalFlight International|issue3069|volume93|pages19–30}}</ref>
The programme cost was US$4.6 billion (in 1993 dollars, equivalent to ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|4600000000|1993}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}).<ref nameFIapr2008>{{cite web |url https://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/disp_pdf.cfm?DACH_RECNO188 |title Airbus A300 report |dateApril 2008 |publisher Forecast international}}</ref>
containers below. This is part of the first A300 prototype, F-OCAZ, on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich.]]
In December 1968, the French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. It had been feared that the original 300-seat proposal was too large for the market, thus it had been scaled down to produce the A250.<ref nameITC />{{rp|2–14}}<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref name"trouble strife">[https://www.airbus.com/company/history/aircraft-history/1968-1969.html "Trouble and strife (1968–1969)."] Airbus, Retrieved: 28 February 2016.</ref> The dimensional changes involved in the shrink reduced the length of the fuselage by {{convert|5.62|m|ft}} and the diameter by {{convert|0.8|m|in}}, reducing the overall weight by {{convert|25|t|lb}}.<ref name"first order flight" /><ref nameNorWag>{{Cite book|last1Norris|first1Guy and Mark Wagner|titleAirbus|locationOsceola, Wisconsin|publisherMBI Publishing|year1999|isbn0-7603-0677-X|ref{{harvid|Norris|Wagner|1999}}|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/airbus0000norr|pages16–25}}</ref>{{rp|16}} For increased flexibility, the cabin floor was raised so that standard LD3 freight containers could be accommodated side-by-side, allowing more cargo to be carried. Refinements made by Hawker Siddeley to the wing's design provided for greater lift and overall performance; this gave the aircraft the ability to climb faster and attain a level cruising altitude sooner than any other passenger aircraft.<ref name"first order flight" /> It was later renamed the A300B.<ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}}<ref name="trouble strife" />
Perhaps the most significant change of the A300B was that it would not require new engines to be developed, being of a suitable size to be powered by Rolls-Royce's RB211, or alternatively the American Pratt & Whitney JT9D and General Electric CF6 powerplants; this switch was recognized as considerably reducing the project's development costs.<ref nameEndres />{{rp|45}}<ref name"trouble strife" /><ref nameNorWag />{{rp|16–17}} To attract potential customers in the US market, it was decided that General Electric CF6-50 engines would power the A300 in place of the British RB207; these engines would be produced in co-operation with French firm Snecma.<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref name"first order flight" /> By this time, Rolls-Royce had been concentrating their efforts upon developing their RB211 turbofan engine instead and progress on the RB207's development had been slow for some time, the firm having suffered due to funding limitations, both of which had been factors in the engine switch decision.<ref nameITC />{{rp|2–13}}<ref name"trouble strife" /><ref nameNorWag />{{rp|17–18}}
On 10 April 1969, a few months after the decision to drop the RB207 had been announced, the British government announced that they would withdraw from the Airbus venture.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|38–39}}<ref name"trouble strife" /> In response, West Germany proposed to France that they would be willing to contribute up to 50% of the project's costs if France was prepared to do the same.<ref name"trouble strife" /> Additionally, the managing director of Hawker Siddeley, Sir Arnold Alexander Hall, decided that his company would remain in the project as a favoured sub-contractor, developing and manufacturing the wings for the A300, which would prove to be an important contributor to the performance of subsequent versions.<ref nameITC />{{rp|2–13}}<ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}}<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|18}} Hawker Siddeley spent £35 million of its own funds, along with a further £35 million loan from the West German government, on the machine tooling to design and produce the wings.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}}<ref name"trouble strife" />
Programme launch
On 29 May 1969, during the Paris Air Show, French transport minister Jean Chamant and German economics minister Karl Schiller signed an agreement officially launching the Airbus A300, the world's first twin-engine widebody airliner.<ref name"early days" /> The intention of the project was to produce an aircraft that was smaller, lighter, and more economical than its three-engine American rivals, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar.<ref name"first order flight" /> In order to meet Air France's demands for an aircraft larger than 250-seat A300B, it was decided to stretch the fuselage to create a new variant, designated as the A300B2, which would be offered alongside the original 250-seat A300B, henceforth referred to as the A300B1. On 3 September 1970, Air France signed a letter of intent for six A300s, marking the first order to be won for the new airliner.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}}<ref name"first order flight" /><ref name=NorWag />{{rp|21}}
In the aftermath of the Paris Air Show agreement, it was decided that, in order to provide effective management of responsibilities, a Groupement d'intérêt économique would be established, allowing the various partners to work together on the project while remaining separate business entities.<ref name"early days" /> On 18 December 1970, Airbus Industrie was formally established following an agreement between Aérospatiale (the newly merged Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation) of France and the antecedents to Deutsche Aerospace of Germany, each receiving a 50 per cent stake in the newly formed company.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|50}}<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}}<ref name"first order flight" /> In 1971, the consortium was joined by a third full partner, the Spanish firm CASA, who received a 4.2 per cent stake, the other two members reducing their stakes to 47.9 per cent each.<ref name"first order flight" /><ref nameNorWag />{{rp|20}} In 1979, Britain joined the Airbus consortium via British Aerospace, which Hawker Siddeley had merged into, which acquired a 20 per cent stake in Airbus Industrie with France and Germany each reducing their stakes to 37.9 per cent.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|53}}<ref nameITC />{{rp|2–14}}<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}} Prototype and flight testing Airbus Industrie was initially headquartered in Paris, which is where design, development, flight testing, sales, marketing, and customer support activities were centred; the headquarters was relocated to Toulouse in January 1974.<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref name"first order flight" /> The final assembly line for the A300 was located adjacent to Toulouse Blagnac International Airport. The manufacturing process necessitated transporting each aircraft section being produced by the partner companies scattered across Europe to this one location. The combined use of ferries and roads were used for the assembly of the first A300, however this was time-consuming and not viewed as ideal by Felix Kracht, Airbus Industrie's production director.<ref name"first order flight" /> Kracht's solution was to have the various A300 sections brought to Toulouse by a fleet of Boeing 377-derived Aero Spacelines Super Guppy aircraft, by which means none of the manufacturing sites were more than two hours away. Having the sections airlifted in this manner made the A300 the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques, and allowed each company to manufacture its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly assemblies.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|53}}<ref name"first order flight" />
In September 1969, construction of the first prototype A300 began.<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|20}} On 28 September 1972, this first prototype was unveiled to the public, it conducted its maiden flight from Toulouse–Blagnac International Airport on 28 October that year.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}}<ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}}<ref nameEndres>{{cite journal|lastEndres|firstGünter|titleClassic Airliner: Airbus A300|journalFlightpath: The International Journal of Commercial Aviation|volume3|dateSpring 2004|publisherAIRtime Publishing|locationNorwalk, Connecticut|isbn1-880588-73-0|pages43, 45, 51–52}}</ref>{{rp|51–52}} This maiden flight, which was performed a month ahead of schedule, lasted for one hour and 25 minutes; the captain was Max Fischl and the first officer was Bernard Ziegler, son of Henri Ziegler.<ref name"first order flight" /> In 1972, unit cost was US$17.5M.<ref nameFlight10Aug1972>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1972/1972%20-%202020.html |title Airliner price index |magazineFlight International |date 10 August 1972 |page183}}</ref> On 5 February 1973, the second prototype performed its maiden flight.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}} The flight test programme, which involved a total of four aircraft, was relatively problem-free, accumulating 1,580 flight hours throughout.<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|22}} In September 1973, as part of promotional efforts for the A300, the new aircraft was taken on a six-week tour around North America and South America, to demonstrate it to airline executives, pilots, and would-be customers.<ref name"first order flight" /> Amongst the consequences of this expedition, it had allegedly brought the A300 to the attention of Frank Borman, the CEO of Eastern Airlines, one of the "big four" U.S. airlines.<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> Entry into service On 15 March 1974, type certificates were granted for the A300 from both German and French authorities, clearing the way for its entry into revenue service.<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> On 23 May 1974, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification was received.<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|22}} The first production model, the A300B2, entered service in 1974, followed by the A300B4 one year later.<ref name"airbus 30" /> Initially, the success of the consortium was poor, in part due to the economic consequences of the 1973 oil crisis,<ref nameSimons />{{rp|40}}<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}} but by 1979 there were 81 A300 passenger liners in service with 14 airlines, alongside 133 firm orders and 88 options.<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> Ten years after the official launch of the A300, the company had achieved a 26 per cent market share in terms of dollar value, enabling Airbus to proceed with the development of its second aircraft, the Airbus A310.<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> Design
aircraft with twin underwing turbofans and a conventional tail]]
The Airbus A300 is a wide-body medium-to-long range airliner; it has the distinction of being the first twin-engine wide-body aircraft in the world.<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref nameSenguttuvan />{{rp|34}}<ref namePitt />{{rp|57, 60}}<ref name"tech lead" /> In 1977, the A300 became the first Extended Range Twin Operations (ETOPS)-compliant aircraft, due to its high performance and safety standards.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|40}} Another world-first of the A300 is the use of composite materials on a commercial aircraft, which were used on both secondary and later primary airframe structures, decreasing overall weight and improving cost-effectiveness.<ref name"tech lead" /> Other pioneering technology included the use of centre-of-gravity control, achieved by transferring fuel between various locations across the aircraft, as first used on Concorde, and electrically signalled secondary flight controls.<ref name"airbus launch">[http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/first-order-first-flight-1970-1972/a300/ "A300: the aircraft that launched Airbus."] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304105931/http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/first-order-first-flight-1970-1972/a300/ |date=4 March 2016 }} Airbus, Retrieved: 3 March 2016.</ref>
The A300 is powered by a pair of underwing turbofan engines, either General Electric CF6 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines; the sole use of underwing engine pods allowed for any suitable turbofan engine to be more readily used.<ref namePitt />{{rp|57}} The lack of a third tail-mounted engine, as per the trijet configuration used by some competing airliners, allowed for the wings to be located further forwards and to reduce the size of the vertical stabiliser and elevator, which had the effect of increasing the aircraft's flight performance and fuel efficiency.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|50}}<ref name=NorWag />{{rp|21}}
and a flight engineer station (not shown)]]
Airbus partners had employed the latest technology, some of which having been derived from Concorde, on the A300. According to Airbus, new technologies adopted for the airliner were selected principally for increased safety, operational capability, and profitability.<ref name="tech lead" /> Upon entry into service in 1974, the A300 was a very advanced plane, which went on to influence later airliner designs. The technological highlights include advanced wings by de Havilland (later BAE Systems) with supercritical airfoil sections for economical performance and advanced aerodynamically efficient flight control surfaces.
The {{cvt|5.64|m|in|0}} diameter circular fuselage section allows an eight-abreast passenger seating and is wide enough for 2 LD3 cargo containers side by side. Structures are made from metal billets, reducing weight. It is the first airliner to be fitted with wind shear protection. Its advanced autopilots are capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing, and it has an electrically controlled braking system.
Later A300s incorporated other advanced features such as the Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit (FFCC), which enabled a two-pilot flight crew to fly the aircraft alone without the need for a flight engineer, the functions of which were automated; this two-man cockpit concept was a world-first for a wide-body aircraft.<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref nameNorWag />{{rp|23–24}}<ref name"airbus launch" /> Glass cockpit flight instrumentation, which used cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors to display flight, navigation, and warning information, along with fully digital dual autopilots and digital flight control computers for controlling the spoilers, flaps, and leading-edge slats, were also adopted upon later-built models.<ref name"tech lead">[http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/technology-leaders-1977-1979/ "Technology leaders (1977–1979)."] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925104335/http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/technology-leaders-1977-1979/ |date25 September 2015 }} Airbus, Retrieved: 3 March 2016.</ref><ref>Tischler, Mark. B. Advances in Aircraft Flight Control. "CRC Press", 1996. {{ISBN|0-7484-0479-1}}, p. 219.</ref> Additional composites were also made use of, such as carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP), as well as their presence in an increasing proportion of the aircraft's components, including the spoilers, rudder, air brakes, and landing gear doors.<ref>Park, Soo-Jin. Carbon Fibers. "Springer", 2014. {{ISBN|94-017-9478-2}}, p. 257.</ref> Another feature of later aircraft was the addition of wingtip fences, which improved aerodynamic performance and thus reduced cruise fuel consumption by about 1.5% for the A300-600.<ref>Airbus The European Triumph, Bill Gunston 1988, {{ISBN|085045820X}}, p. 113</ref>
In addition to passenger duties, the A300 became widely used by air freight operators; according to Airbus, it is the best-selling freight aircraft of all time.<ref name"airbus launch" /> Various variants of the A300 were built to meet customer demands, often for diverse roles such as aerial refueling tankers, freighter models (new-build and conversions), combi aircraft, military airlifter, and VIP transport. Perhaps the most visually unique of the variants is the A300-600ST Beluga, an oversized cargo-carrying model operated by Airbus to carry aircraft sections between their manufacturing facilities.<ref name"airbus launch" /> The A300 was the basis for, and retained a high level of commonality with, the second airliner produced by Airbus, the smaller Airbus A310.<ref name"tech lead" /> Operational history
introduced the A300 on 23 May 1974]]
On 23 May 1974, the first A300 to enter service performed the first commercial flight of the type, flying from Paris to London, for Air France.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|39}}<ref name"Champagne and Drought" />
Immediately after the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to favor the domestically made product&nbsp;– notably Air France and Lufthansa, the first two airlines to place orders for the type.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|50–52}}<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> Following the appointment of Bernard Lathière as Henri Ziegler's replacement, an aggressive sales approach was adopted. Indian Airlines was the world's first domestic airline to purchase the A300, ordering three aircraft with three options. However, between December 1975 and May 1977, there were no sales for the type. During this period a number of "whitetail" A300s&nbsp;– completed but unsold aircraft&nbsp;– were completed and stored at Toulouse, and production fell to half an aircraft per month amid calls to pause production completely.<ref name="Champagne and Drought" />
, the first non-European customer in September 1974]]
During the flight testing of the A300B2, Airbus held a series of talks with Korean Air on the topic of developing a longer-range version of the A300, which would become the A300B4. In September 1974, Korean Air placed an order for four A300B4s with options for two further aircraft; this sale was viewed as significant as it was the first non-European international airline to order Airbus aircraft. Airbus had viewed South-East Asia as a vital market that was ready to be opened up and believed Korean Air to be the 'key'.<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref nameNorWag />{{rp|23}}<ref name"Champagne and Drought">[http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/champagneand-drought-1973-1977/ "Champagne&nbsp;... and drought (1973–1977)."] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150401100121/http://www.airbus.com/company/history/the-narrative/champagneand-drought-1973-1977/ |date=1 April 2015 }} Airbus, Retrieved: 28 February 2016.</ref>
Airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes were forced to reduce frequencies to try and fill the aircraft. As a result, they lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. Eventually, Airbus had to build its own narrowbody aircraft (the A320) to compete with the Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80. The saviour of the A300 was the advent of ETOPS, a revised FAA rule which allows twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them. This enabled Airbus to develop the aircraft as a medium/long-range airliner.
introduced the A300 in the US market in 1977]]
In 1977, US carrier Eastern Air Lines leased four A300s as an in-service trial.<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> CEO Frank Borman was impressed that the A300 consumed 30% less fuel, even less than expected, than Eastern's fleet of L-1011s. The A300 would replacing the aging DC-9s and 727-100s but in smaller numbers, while being a twinjet sized between the Tristars and 727-200s, and capable of operating from short runway airports with sufficient range from New York City to Miami.<ref>https://www.yesterdaysairlines.com/airline-history-blog/eastern-a300s-a-marriage-made-in-heaven</ref> Borman proceeded to order 23 A300s, becoming the first U.S. customer for the type. This order is often cited as the point at which Airbus came to be seen as a serious competitor to the large American aircraft-manufacturers Boeing and McDonnell Douglas.<ref nameSimons />{{rp|40}}<ref name"airbus 30" /><ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> Aviation author John Bowen alleged that various concessions, such as loan guarantees from European governments and compensation payments, were a factor in the decision as well. Although the A300 was originally too large for Eastern's exiting routes, Airbus provided a fixed subsidy for a 57% load factor which decreased for every percent above that figure.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|52}} The Eastern Air Lines breakthrough was shortly followed by an order from Pan Am. From then on, the A300 family sold well, eventually reaching a total of 561 delivered aircraft.<ref name"Airbus_Deliveries" />
In December 1977, Aerocondor Colombia became the first Airbus operator in Latin America, leasing one Airbus A300B4-2C, named Ciudad de Barranquilla.
During the late 1970s, Airbus adopted a so-called 'Silk Road' strategy, targeting airlines in the Far East.<ref nameBowen />{{rp|52}}<ref name"Champagne and Drought" /> As a result, The aircraft found particular favor with Asian airlines, being bought by Japan Air System, Korean Air, China Eastern Airlines, Thai Airways International, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Garuda Indonesia, China Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Indian Airlines, Trans Australia Airlines and many others. As Asia did not have restrictions similar to the FAA 60-minutes rule for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea.
Airbus A300B4-220 with the newly designed Forward Facing Crew Cockpit or FFCC Concept that operated only by two-man cockpit crew and was the first wide-body aircraft to be operated by two-man cockpit crew.]]
In 1977, the A300B4 became the first ETOPS compliant aircraft,<ref>{{cite web|titleTechnology leaders (1977–1979)|url https://www.airbus.com/company/history/aircraft-history/1977-1979.html |workAircraft History |date 17 June 2021 |publisherAirbus}}</ref> qualifying for Extended Twin Engine Operations over water, providing operators with more versatility in routing. In 1982, Garuda Indonesian Airways became the first airline to fly the A300B4-200FFCC with the newly Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit concept, the world's first wide-body aircraft that only operated by two-man cockpit crew.<ref>{{Cite web|date11 January 1995|titleAirbus cockpit/control milestones|urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/airbus-cockpit/control-milestones/17511.article|access-date25 April 2023|websiteFlightGlobal}}</ref> By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 400 aircraft sold to over forty airlines.<ref>{{Cite news|lastLewis|firstPaul|date31 May 1981|titleFor Europe's Airbus Industrie It's Decision Time |languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/31/business/for-europe-s-airbus-industrie-it-s-decision-time.html|access-date8 November 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
In 1989, Chinese operator China Eastern Airlines received its first A300; by 2006, the airline operated around 18 A300s, making it the largest operator of both the A300 and the A310 at that time. On 31 May 2014, China Eastern officially retired the last A300-600 in its fleet, having begun drawing down the type in 2010.<ref>Hashim, Firdaus. [https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-china-eastern-retires-a300-600s-400142/ "China Eastern retires A300-600s."] Flight International, 6 June 2014.</ref>
From 1997 to 2014, a single A300, designated A300 Zero-G, was operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as a reduced-gravity aircraft for conducting research into microgravity; the A300 is the largest aircraft to ever have been used in this capacity.<!--ref nameBeysens--> A typical flight would last for two and a half hours, enabling up to 30 parabolas to be performed per flight.<ref nameBeysens>Beysens, Daniel A. and Jack J.W. A. van Loon. Generation and Applications of Extra-Terrestrial Environments on Earth. "River Publishers", 2015. {{ISBN|87-93237-53-7}}. pp. 63–65.</ref><ref>[http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Research/Experience_weightlessness_on_board_the_Zero-G_Airbus "Experience weightlessness on board the 'Zero-G' Airbus."] European Space Agency, Retrieved: 3 March 2016.</ref>
, was delivered to FedEx Express, as of May 2022 the largest operator with 65 aircraft still in service]]
By the 1990s, the A300 was being heavily promoted as a cargo freighter.<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|24}} The largest freight operator of the A300 is FedEx Express, which has 70 A300 aircraft in service as of September 2022. UPS Airlines also operates 52 freighter versions of the A300.<ref>{{cite web|lastFlottau|firstJens|date20 October 2022|titleThe Airbus A300 In-Service Fleet By The Numbers|publisherAviation Week Network|urlhttps://aviationweek.com/air-transport/airlines-lessors/airbus-a300-service-fleet-numbers|access-date9 January 2025}}</ref>
The final version was the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters; large numbers were being converted during the late 1990s.<ref nameNorWag />{{rp|24–25}} The freighter versions&nbsp;– either new-build A300-600s or converted ex-passenger A300-600s, A300B2s and B4s&nbsp;– account for most of the world's freighter fleet after the Boeing 747 freighter.<ref>{{Cite web|date22 December 2016|titleAirbus A300 Available For Cargo Charter|urlhttp://aircharterguru.com/airbus-a300-available-for-cargo-charter/|access-date20 October 2021|websiteAir Charter Guru|language=en-US}}</ref>
The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later stretched (A330 and A340), shortened (A310), or modified into derivatives (A300-600ST Beluga Super Transporter). In 2006, unit cost of an −600F was $105 million.<ref nameFIapr2008 /> In March 2006, Airbus announced the impending closure of the A300/A310 final assembly line,<ref>{{Cite news | title A300/A310 Final Assembly to be completed by July 2007 | publisher Airbus | date 7 March 2006 | url http://www.airbus.com/en/presscentre/pressreleases/pressreleases_items/07_03_06_A300_final_assembly.html | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081007110156/http://www.airbus.com/en/presscentre/pressreleases/pressreleases_items/07_03_06_A300_final_assembly.html | archive-date 7 October 2008}}</ref> making them the first Airbus aircraft to be discontinued. The final production A300, an A300F freighter, performed its initial flight on 18 April 2007,<ref>{{Cite news | title The last A300 makes its maiden flight | publisher Airbus | date 18 April 2007 | url http://www.airbus.com/en/myairbus/newsbrief/index.jsp | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070513035737/http://www.airbus.com/en/myairbus/newsbrief/index.jsp | archive-date = 13 May 2007}}</ref> and was delivered to FedEx Express on 12 July 2007.<ref>Kaminski-Morrow, David. [https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-airbus-delivers-last-a300-215481/ "Airbus delivers last A300."] Flight International, 12 July 2007.</ref> Airbus has announced a support package to keep A300s flying commercially.
Airbus offers the A330-200F freighter as a replacement for the A300 cargo variants.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airbus-aims-to-fill-freighter-void-with-a330-derivative-205407/|titleAirbus aims to fill freighter void with A330 derivative|publisherFlight International|date14 March 2006}}</ref>
The life of UPS's fleet of 52 A300s, delivered from 2000 to 2006, will be extended to 2035 by a flight deck upgrade based around Honeywell Primus Epic avionics; new displays and flight management system (FMS), improved weather radar, a central maintenance system, and a new version of the current enhanced ground proximity warning system.<!--<ref name=ATW16may2017 />-->
With a light usage of only two to three cycles per day, it will not reach the maximum number of cycles by then.<!--<ref name=ATW16may2017 />-->
The first modification will be made at Airbus Toulouse in 2019 and certified in 2020.<ref nameATW16may2017>{{cite news |url http://www.atwonline.com/avionics/ups-upgrade-airbus-a300-cockpits |workAir Transport World |publisher Aviation Week Network |titleUPS to upgrade Airbus A300 cockpits |date 16 May 2017 |authorAlan Dron |access-date 17 May 2017 |archive-date17 May 2017 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170517055943/http://atwonline.com/avionics/ups-upgrade-airbus-a300-cockpits |url-status= dead }}</ref>
<!-- more details : http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/will-upgraded-cockpit-ups-s-airbus-a300-600-start-trend -->
As of July 2017, there are 211 A300s in service with 22 operators, with the largest operator being FedEx Express with 68 A300-600F aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/asset/18365|titleWorldCensus2017.pdf|websiteFlightglobal.com|languageen-GB|access-date28 June 2018}}</ref> Variants A300B1 The A300B1 was the first variant to take flight. It had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of {{cvt|291000|lb|t|orderflip}}, was {{cvt|167|ft|orderflip}} long and was powered by two General Electric CF6-50A engines.<ref name"NorWag" />{{rp|21}}<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|41}} Only two prototypes of the variant were built before it was adapted into the A300B2, the first production variant of the airliner.<ref name"Simons" />{{rp|39}} The second prototype was leased to Trans European Airways in 1974.<ref name"Endres99">{{Cite book|lastEndres|firstGünter|titleAirbus A300|publisherMBI Pub.|year1999|isbn978-0-7603-0827-1|pages17–110}}</ref>{{rp|54}}
A300B2
A300B2-100
Responding to a need for more seats from Air France, Airbus decided that the first production variant should be larger than the original prototype A300B1. The CF6-50A powered A300B2-100 was {{cvt|2.6|m|ft}} longer than the A300B1 and had an increased MTOW of {{cvt|137|t|lb}}, allowing for 30 additional seats and bringing the typical passenger count up to 281, with capacity for 20 LD3 containers.<ref name"tcdsv3">{{cite web|title Type certificate data sheet A.172 for Airbus A300, A310 and A300-600 |issue4 |url https://www.easa.europa.eu/downloads/17110/en |date8 April 2022 |publisher EASA}}</ref>{{rp|10}}<ref>{{Cite book|lastSimpson|firstRod|titleAirlife's Commercial Aircraft and Airliners|publisherAirlife|year1999|isbn978-1-84037-073-7|pages28}}</ref><ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|17}} Two prototypes were built and the variant made its maiden flight on 28 June 1973, became certified on 15 March 1974 and entered service with Air France on 23 May 1974.<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|27, 53}}<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|10}}
A300B2-200
For the A300B2-200, originally designated as the A300B2K, Krueger flaps were introduced at the leading-edge root, the slat angles were reduced from 20 degrees to 16 degrees, and other lift related changes were made in order to introduce a high-lift system. This was done to improve performance when operating at high-altitude airports, where the air is less dense and lift generation is reduced.<ref name"Gunston">{{Cite book|lastGunston|firstBill|titleAirbus: The Complete Story|publisherHaynes Publishing UK|year2010|isbn978-1-84425-585-6|pages38–74}}</ref>{{rp|52, 53}}<ref>{{Cite web|titleHot and High Operations|urlhttps://skybrary.aero/articles/hot-and-high-operations|access-date10 April 2022|websiteSKYbrary Aviation Safety|date25 May 2021 |languageen}}</ref> The variant had an increased MTOW of {{cvt|142|t|lb}} and was powered by CF6-50C engines, was certified on 23 June 1976, and entered service with South African Airways in November 1976.<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|40}}<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|12}} CF6-50C1 and CF6-50C2 models were also later fitted depending on customer requirements, these became certified on 22 February 1978 and 21 February 1980 respectively.<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|41}}<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|12}}
A300B2-320
The A300B2-320 introduced the Pratt & Whitney JT9D powerplant and was powered by JT9D-59A engines. It retained the {{cvt|142|t|lb}} MTOW of the B2-200, was certified on 4 January 1980, and entered service with Scandinavian Airlines on 18 February 1980, with only four being produced.<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|99, 112}}<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|14}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Variant
! Produced{{ref label|B2_produced|A|A}}
|-
| B2-100
| 32
|-
| B2-200
| 25
|-
| B2-320
| 4
|-
! colspan2|Source:<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|110}}
|}
{|
|{{note label|B2_produced|A|A}} Production figures are listed up to 1 January 1999.<ref name="Endres99" />{{rp|110}}
|-
|}
A300B4
A300B4-100
The initial A300B4 variant, later named the A300B4-100, included a centre fuel tank for an increased fuel capacity of {{convert|47.5|t|lb}}, and had an increased MTOW of {{convert|157.5|t|lb|}}.<ref>{{cite magazine|lastSweetman|firstBill|titleAirbus Industrie spreads its wings|magazineFlight International|date4 September 1975|volume108|issue3469|pages326|urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1975/1975%20-%201721.html}}</ref><ref name"Gunston" />{{rp|38}} It also featured Krueger flaps and had a similar high-lift system to what was later fitted to the A300B2-200.<ref name"Gunston" />{{rp|74}} The variant made its maiden flight on 26 December 1974, was certified on 26 March 1975, and entered service with Germanair in May 1975.<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|32, 54}}<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|16}} A300B4-200 The A300B4-200 had an increased MTOW of {{convert|165|t|lb}} and featured an additional optional fuel tank in the rear cargo hold, which would reduce the cargo capacity by two LD3 containers.<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|19}}<ref name"Gunston" />{{rp|69}} The variant was certified on 26 April 1979.<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|19}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Variant
! Produced{{ref label|B4_produced|A|A}}
|-
| B4-100
| 47
|-
| B4-200
| 136
|-
! colspan|Source:<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|110}}
|}
{|
|{{note label|B4_produced|A|A}} Production figures are listed up to 1 January 1999.<ref name="Endres99" />{{rp|110}}
|-
|}
A300B4-200FFCC
It is the A300B4-200 without the flight engineer but analog flight instruments. Introduced by Garuda Indonesian Airways in 1982
A300-600
, the A300-600 entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian Airlines]]
]]
The A300-600, officially designated as the A300B4-600, was slightly longer than the A300B2 and A300B4 variants and had an increased interior space from using a similar rear fuselage to the Airbus A310, this allowed it to have two additional rows of seats.<ref name"Gunston" />{{rp|79}} It was initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4H1 engines, but was later fitted with General Electric CF6-80C2 engines, with Pratt & Whitney PW4156 or PW4158 engines being introduced in 1986.<ref name"Gunston" />{{rp|82}} Other changes include an improved wing featuring a recambered trailing edge, the incorporation of simpler single-slotted Fowler flaps, the deletion of slat fences, and the removal of the outboard ailerons after they were deemed unnecessary on the A310.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20-%202008.html|publisherFlight International|titleCommercial Aircraft of the World|access-date29 December 2015}}</ref> The variant made its first flight on 8 July 1983, was certified on 9 March 1984, and entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian Airlines.<ref name"tcdsv3" />{{rp|42}}<ref name"Endres99" />{{rp|58}} A total of 313 A300-600s (all versions) have been sold. The A300-600 uses the A310 cockpits, featuring digital technology and electronic displays, eliminating the need for a flight engineer. The FAA issues a single type rating which allows operation of both the A310 and A300-600.
* A300-600: (Official designation: A300B4-600) The baseline model of the −600 series.
* A300-620C: (Official designation: A300C4-620) A convertible-freighter version. Four delivered between 1984 and 1985.
* A300-600F: (Official designation: A300F4-600) The freighter version of the baseline −600.
* A300-600R: (Official designation: A300B4-600R) The increased-range −600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail. First delivery in 1988 to American Airlines; all A300s built since 1989 (freighters included) are −600Rs. Japan Air System (later merged into Japan Airlines) took delivery of the last new-built passenger A300, an A300-622R, in November 2002.
* A300-600RC: (Official designation: A300C4-600R) The convertible-freighter version of the −600R. Two were delivered in 1999.
* A300-600RF: (Official designation: A300F4-600R) The freighter version of the −600R. All A300s delivered between November 2002 and 12 July 2007 (last ever A300 delivery) were A300-600RFs.
A300B10 (A310)
, {{cvt|7|m}} shorter, was introduced by Swissair in April 1983]]
{{Main|Airbus A310}}
<!--development-->
Airbus had demand for an aircraft smaller than the A300.
On 7 July 1978, the A310 (initially the A300B10) was launched with orders from Swissair and Lufthansa.
On 3 April 1982, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight and it received its type certification on 11 March 1983.
<!--design-->
Keeping the same eight-abreast cross-section, the A310 is {{cvt|6.95|m}} shorter than the initial A300 variants, and has a smaller {{cvt|219|m2}} wing, down from {{cvt|260|m2}}. The A310 introduced a two-crew glass cockpit, later adopted for the A300-600 with a common type rating. It was powered by the same GE CF6-80 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D then PW4000 turbofans. It can seat 220 passengers in two classes, or 240 in all-economy, and can fly up to {{cvt|5150|nmi}}.
It has overwing exits between the two main front and rear door pairs.
<!--operational history-->
In April 1983, the aircraft entered revenue service with Swissair and competed with the Boeing 767–200, introduced six months before.
Its longer range and ETOPS regulations allowed it to be operated on transatlantic flights. Until the last delivery in June 1998, 255 aircraft were produced, as it was succeeded by the larger Airbus A330-200.
<!--variants-->
It has cargo aircraft versions, and was derived into the Airbus A310 MRTT military tanker/transport.
A300-600ST
is based on the A300 with an oversized cargo hold on top]]
{{Main|Airbus Beluga}}
Commonly referred to as the Airbus Beluga or "Airbus Super Transporter", these five airframes are used by Airbus to ferry parts between the company's disparate manufacturing facilities, thus enabling workshare distribution. They replaced the four Aero Spacelines Super Guppys previously used by Airbus.
ICAO code: A3ST
Operators
{{Main|List of Airbus A300 operators}}
{{As of|2023|September|df=US}}, there are 197 A300 family aircraft in commercial service.
The five largest operators were FedEx Express (70), UPS Airlines (52), European Air Transport Leipzig (23), Iran Air (11), and Mahan Air (11).<ref name"AirbusOrd&Del">{{cite web |date31 March 2023 |titleOrders & Deliveries |urlhttps://www.airbus.com/en/products-services/commercial-aircraft/market/orders-and-deliveries |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190210065631/https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/market/orders-deliveries.html |archive-date10 February 2019 |access-date12 April 2023 |workAirbus}}</ref> Deliveries
{{See also|List of Airbus A300 operators}}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right; font-size:96%"
|-
! !!Total!!2007!!2006!!2005!!2004!!2003!!2002!!2001!!2000!!1999!!1998!!1997!!1996!!1995!!1994!!1993!!1992!!1991
|-
!Deliveries
|561||6||9||9||12||8||9||11||8||8||13||6||14||17||23||22||22||25
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right; font-size:96%"
|-
! !!1990!!1989!!1988!!1987!!1986!!1985!!1984!!1983!!1982!!1981!!1980!!1979!!1978!!1977!!1976!!1975!!1974
|-
!Deliveries
|19||24||17||11||10||16||19||19||46||38||39||26||15||15||13||8||4
|}
<small>Data through end of December 2007.</small><ref name"Airbus_Deliveries">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.airbus.com/store/mm_repository/pdf/att00011494/media_object_file_Historical_OD_74_07.xls |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081221090847/http://www.airbus.com/store/mm_repository/pdf/att00011494/media_object_file_Historical_OD_74_07.xls |archive-date21 December 2008 |title Airbus – Historical Orders and Deliveries |workAirbus S.A.S. |dateJanuary 2008 |formatMicrosoft Excel |access-date10 December 2012}}</ref> Accidents and incidents As of June 2021, the A300 has been involved in 77 occurrences including 24 hull-loss accidents causing 1133 fatalities, and {{#expr:6+30}} criminal occurrences and hijackings causing {{#expr:290+12}} fatalities.<ref name"asna300">{{cite web |titleAirbus A300 Statistics |url https://aviation-safety.net/database/types/Airbus-A300/index |publisherAviation Safety Network |access-date 25 June 2021}}</ref>
Accidents with fatalities
thumb|American Airlines Flight 587 vertical stabilizer
* 21 September 1987: An Egyptair Airbus A300B4-203 touched down {{cvt|700|m}} past the runway threshold during a training flight. The right main gear hit the runway lights and the aircraft collided with an antenna and fences. No passengers were on board the plane, but 5 crew members were killed. The aircraft was written off. This was the first fatal accident of an Airbus A300.<ref>{{cite web |titleAccident description |urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19870921-0 |publisherAviation Safety Network |date21 September 1987 |access-date10 December 2013}}</ref>
* 28 September 1992: PIA Flight 268, an A300B4 crashed on approach near Kathmandu, Nepal. All 12 crew and 155 passengers died.<ref>{{Cite news| urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/world/the-airbus-a300-1.279241 | workCBC News | titleThe Airbus A300 | date12 November 2001}}</ref>
* 26 April 1994: China Airlines Flight 140 crashed at the end of runway at Nagoya, Japan, killing all 15 crew and 249 of 256 passengers on board.
* 26 September 1997: Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 was on approach to Polonia International Airport in Medan. The plane later crashed into a ravine in Buah Nabar due to ATC error and apparent haze that covers the country which limits the visibility. All 234 passengers and crew aboard were killed in Indonesia's deadliest crash.
* 16 February 1998: China Airlines Flight 676 crashed into a residential area close to CKS International Airport near Taipei, Taiwan. All 196 people on board were killed, including Taiwan's central bank president. Six people on the ground were also killed.
* 2 February 2000: During take-off, a Lockheed C-130 Hercules owned by the Iranian Air Force lost control and veered off the runway, striking an Airbus A300B2-203 owned by Iran Air, killing eight people.<ref>{{Cite web |titleOther Airbus A300B2-203 EP-IBR, Wednesday 2 February 2000 |urlhttps://asn.flightsafety.org/asndb/323575 |access-date2024-08-15 |websiteasn.flightsafety.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleLoss of control Accident Lockheed C-130 Hercules, Wednesday 2 February 2000 |urlhttps://asn.flightsafety.org/asndb/323574 |access-date2024-08-15 |websiteasn.flightsafety.org}}</ref>
* 12 November 2001: American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into Belle Harbor—a neighbourhood in Queens, New York, United States—shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport. The vertical stabiliser ripped off the aircraft after the rudder was mishandled during wake turbulence. All 260 people on board were killed, along with 5 people on the ground. It is the second-deadliest incident involving an A300 to date and the second-deadliest aircraft incident in the United States.
* 14 April 2010: AeroUnion Flight 302, an A300B4-203F, crashed on a road {{cvt|2|km}} short of the runway while attempting to land at Monterrey Airport in Mexico. Seven people (five crew members and two on the ground) were killed.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20100413-1|titleASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B4-203F XA-TUE Monterrey-General Mariano Escobedo International Airport (MTY)|authorHarro Ranter|date13 April 2010|workaviation-safety.net|access-date=1 April 2015}}</ref>
* 14 August 2013: UPS Flight 1354, an Airbus A300F4-622R, crashed outside the perimeter fence on approach to Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Alabama, United States. Both crew members died.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/news/events/Pages/2014_UPS1354_BMG.aspx|titleBoard Meeting: UPS Flight 1354|date9 September 2014|websiteNational Transportation Safety Board}}</ref>
Non-fatal hull losses
* 18 December 1983: Malaysian Airline System Flight 684, an Airbus A300B4 leased from Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), registration OY-KAA, crashed short of the runway at Kuala Lumpur in bad weather while attempting to land on a flight from Singapore. All 247 people aboard escaped unharmed but the aircraft was destroyed in the resulting fire.<ref>{{Citation|urlhttp://www.airdisaster.com/photos/mh684/photo.shtml |access-date8 March 2013 |titleFlight MH684 crash |date18 December 1983 |workAirDisasters |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130428050604/http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/mh684/photo.shtml |archive-date28 April 2013 }}</ref>
* 24 April 1993: an Air Inter Airbus A300B2-1C was written off after colliding with a light pole while being pushed back at Montpellier.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19930424-0 | titleAirbus A300B2-1C F-BUAE Montpellier-Frejorgues Airport (MPL) | publisherAviation Safety Network | access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref>
* 15 November 1993, an Indian Airlines Airbus A300, registered as VT-EDV, crash landed near Hyderabad Airport. There were no deaths but the aircraft was written off.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAccident Airbus A300B2-101 VT-EDV, Monday 15 November 1993 |urlhttps://asn.flightsafety.org/wikibase/325126 |access-date2024-08-12 |websiteasn.flightsafety.org}}</ref>
* 10 August 1994 – Korean Air Flight 2033 (Airbus A300) from Seoul to Jeju, the flight approached faster than usual to avoid potential windshear. Fifty feet above the runway the co-pilot, who was not flying the aircraft, decided that there was insufficient runway left to land and tried to perform a go-around against the captain's wishes. The aircraft touched down 1,773 meters beyond the runway threshold. The aircraft could not be stopped on the remaining 1,227 meters of runway and overran at a speed of 104 knots. After striking the airport wall and a guard post at 30 knots, the aircraft burst into flames and was incinerated. The cabin crew was credited with safely evacuating all passengers although only half of the aircraft's emergency exits were usable.
* 17 October 2001: Pakistan International Airlines flight PK231, registration AP-BCJ, from Islamabad via Peshawar to Dubai veered off the side of the runway after the right hand main landing gear collapsed as it touched down. The aircraft skidded and eventually came to rest in sand 50 meters from the runway. The aircraft sustained damage to its right wing structure and its no. 2 engine, which partly broke off the wing. All 205 passengers and crew survived.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20011017-0| titleAviation Safety Network Report PIA Flight PK231| publisherAviation-Safety-Network| date17 October 2001|access-date18 February 2024}}</ref>
* 1 March 2004: Pakistan International Airlines Flight 2002 burst 2 tyres whilst taking off from King Abdulaziz International Airport. Fragments of the tyre were ingested by the engines, this caused the engines to catch fire and an aborted takeoff was performed. Due to the fire substantial damage to the engine and the left wing caused the aircraft to be written off. All 261 passengers and 12 crew survived.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20040301-0 |titlePIA Flight 2002 accident |publisherAviation-safety.net |access-date=16 March 2010}}</ref>
* 16 November 2012: an Air Contractors Airbus A300B4-203(F) EI-EAC, operating flight QY6321 on behalf of EAT Leipzig from Leipzig (Germany) to Bratislava (Slovakia), suffered a nose wheel collapse during roll out after landing at Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport. All three crew members survived unharmed, the aircraft was written off. As of December 2017, the aircraft still was parked at a remote area of the airport between runways 13 and 22.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://bratislava.sme.sk/c/6605397/v-bratislave-havarovalo-nakladne-lietadlo.html|titleV Bratislave havarovalo nákladné lietadlo, zlyhal mu podvozok – Bratislava – bratislava.sme.sk|authorSME – Petit Press, a.s.|worksme.sk|access-date=1 April 2015}}</ref>
* 12 October 2015: An Airbus A300B4-200F Freighter operated by Egyptian Tristar cargo carrier crashed in Mogadishu, Somalia. All the passengers and crew members survived the crash.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aviationanalysis.net/2015/10/tristar-a300-cargo-plane-crashed-in-mogadishu.html|titleTristar A300 cargo plane crashed in Mogadishu – Aviation Analysis Wing|work=aviationanalysis.net}}</ref>
* 1 October 2016: An Airbus A300-B4 registration PR-STN on a cargo flight between São Paulo-Guarulhos and Recife suffered a runway excursion after landing and the aft gear collapsed upon touchdown.
Violent incidents
* 27 June 1976: Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv, Israel and carrying 248 passengers and a crew of 12 took off from Athens, Greece, headed for Paris, France. The flight was hijacked by terrorists, and was eventually flown to Entebbe Airport in Uganda. At the airport, Israeli commandos rescued 102 of the 106 hostages.
* 26 October 1986: Thai Airways Flight 620, an Airbus A300B4-601, originating in Bangkok suffered an explosion mid-flight. The aircraft descended rapidly and was able to land safely at Osaka. The aircraft was later repaired and there were no fatalities. The cause was a hand grenade brought onto the plane by a Japanese gangster of the Yamaguchi-gumi. 62 of the 247 people on board were injured.<ref>{{cite web|titleThai Airways International Flight 620|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19861026-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastSnyder |firstJanet |date29 October 1986 |titlePolice check gangster grenade blast theory |urlhttp://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/10/29/Police-check-gangster-grenade-blast-theory/6790530946000/ |workUPI |access-date8 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titleGangster's grenade causes jet scare |urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/10/16/national/history/men-marrying-later-the-new-diet-building-opens-grenade-causes-plane-scare/ |workThe Japan Times|date30 October 1986 |access-date8 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titlePolice say grenade caused Airbus blast |urlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/html/cd/1986/198610/19861031/19861031001_9.html |workChina Daily |date31 October 1986 |access-date 8 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastHaberman |firstClyde |date4 November 1986 |title Thai Plane Incident Prompts a New Look at Japan Gangs|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/04/world/thai-plane-incident-prompts-a-new-look-at-japan-gangs.html |workThe New York Times |access-date8 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |titleYakuza Branches Out |urlhttp://www.joc.com/maritime-news/yakuza-branches-out_19861102.html |agencyAssociated Press |date2 November 1986 |access-date8 July 2017 |archive-date28 October 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211028051119/https://www.joc.com/maritime-news/yakuza-branches-out_19861102.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=June 2021}}
* 3 July 1988: Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by USS Vincennes in the Persian Gulf after being mistaken for an attacking Iranian F-14 Tomcat, killing all 290 passengers and crew.<ref name"iranair">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/flight801/stories/july88crash.htm|access-date3 August 2006|titleNavy Missile Downs Iranian Jetliner|date4 July 1988|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref>
* 15 February 1991: two Kuwait Airways A300C4-620s and two Boeing 767s that had been seized during Iraq's occupation of Kuwait were destroyed in coalition bombing of Mosul Airport.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19910215-2 | titleAirbus A300C4-620 9K-AHG Mosul Airport (MOS) | publisherAviation Safety Network | access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref>
* 24 December 1994: Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked at Houari Boumedienne Airport in Algiers, by four terrorists who belonged to the Armed Islamic Group. The terrorists apparently intended to crash the plane over the Eiffel Tower on Boxing Day. After a failed attempt to leave Marseille following a confrontational firefight between the terrorists and the GIGN French Special Forces, the result was the death of all four terrorists. (Snipers on the terminal front's roof shot dead two of the terrorists. The other two terrorists died as a result of gunshots in the cabin after approximately 20 minutes.) Three hostages including a Vietnamese diplomat were executed in Algiers, 229 hostages survived, many of them wounded by shrapnel. The almost 15-year-old aircraft was written off.
* 24 December 1999: Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 from Kathmandu, Nepal, to New Delhi was hijacked. After refuelling and offloading a few passengers, the flight was diverted to Kandahar, Afghanistan. A Nepalese man was murdered while the plane was in flight.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/neighbours/story/20000117-xyz-761801-2012-07-20|title Why didn't the hijack drama end in Dubai| date=20 July 2012 }}</ref>
* 22 November 2003: European Air Transport OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-14 'Gremlin' missile after takeoff from Baghdad International Airport. The aeroplane lost hydraulic pressure and thus the controls. After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was repaired and offered for sale, but in April 2011 it still remained parked at Baghdad Intl.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20031122-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B4-203F OO-DLL Baghdad International Airport (SDA)|authorHarro Ranter|date22 November 2003|workaviation-safety.net|access-date=1 April 2015}}</ref>
* 25 August 2011: an A300B4-620 5A-IAY of Afriqiyah Airways and A300B4-622 5A-DLZ of Libyan Arab Airlines were both destroyed in fighting between pro- and anti-Gaddafi forces at Tripoli International Airport.<ref nameASN250811a>{{cite web |urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20110825-0 |title5A-IAY Hull-loss description |publisherAviation Safety Network |access-date27 August 2011}}</ref><ref nameASN250811b>{{cite web |urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20110825-1 |title5A-DLZ Criminal occurrence description |publisherAviation Safety Network |access-date27 August 2011}}</ref>
Aircraft on display
{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|section|date=February 2024}}
{{One source|section|dateFebruary 2024}}|sectionyes}}
Fifteen A300s are currently preserved:
*F-BUAD Airbus A300 ZERO-G, since August 2015 preserved at Cologne Bonn Airport, Germany.
*F-WUAB The first prototype of the Airbus A300 is Partially preserved with a fuselage section, the right-hand wing, and an engine on display at the Deutsches Museum
*ex-HL7219 Korean Air Airbus A300B4 preserved at Korean Air Jeongseok Airfield.
*ex-N11984 Continental Airlines Airbus A300B4 preserved in South Korea as a Night Flight Restaurant.
*ex TC-ACD and TC-ACE Air ACT, preserved as coffee house at Uçak Cafe in Burhaniye, Turkey.
*ex TC-MNJ MNG Airlines, preserved as Köfte Airlines restaurant at Tekirdağ, Turkey.
*ex TC-FLA Fly Air, preserved as the Airbus Cafe & Restaurant at Kayseri, Turkey.
*ex TC-ACC Air ACT, preserved as the Uçak Kütüphane library and education centre at Çankırı, Turkey.
*ex EP-MHA Mahan Air, preserved as instructional airframe at the Botia Mahan Aviation College at Kerman, Iran.
*ex TC-FLM Fly Air, preserved as a restaurant at Istanbul, Turkey.
*ex B-18585 China Airlines, preserved as the Flight of Happiness restaurant at Taoyuan, Taiwan.
*ex-PK-JID Sempati Air Airbus A300B4 repainted in first A300B1 prototype colours, including original F-WUAB registration, became an exhibit in 2014 at the Aeroscopia museum in Blagnac, near Toulouse, France.<ref>{{cite web |titleMusée Aeroscopia |urlhttp://www.aeroscopia-blagnac.fr/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141224193543/http://www.aeroscopia-blagnac.fr/ |archive-date24 December 2014 |access-date1 April 2015 |work=aeroscopia-blagnac.fr}}</ref>
*ex TC-MCE MNG Airlines, preserved as a restaurant at the Danialand theme park at Agadir, Morocco.
*ex HL7240 Korean Air, preserved as instructional airframe (gate guard) at the Korea Aerospace University at Goyang, South Korea.
*ex HS-TAM Thai Airways A300-600R, preserved in a field near Doi Saket, Chiang Mai.
Specifications
{{sticky header}}
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align: center"
!Model
!A300B4-200<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleA300 Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning |publisher Airbus |date= 1 December 2009 }}</ref>
!A300-600R<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300-600-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300-600-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleA300-600 Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning |publisher Airbus |date= 1 December 2009}}</ref>
!A300-600F<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300F4-600-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/techdata/aircraft_characteristics/Airbus-Commercial-Aircraft-AC-A300F4-600-Dec-2009.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleA300F4-600 Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning |publisher Airbus |date= 1 December 2009}}</ref>
|-
! Cockpit crew
| Three
| colspan=2 | Two
|-
! Main deck
| 281/309Y @ 34/31 in)<br />max 345
| 247 (46F + 201Y)/285Y @ 34 in<br />max 345 (3-3-3 Y)
| 540&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>, 43 AYY ULD<br />9 AMJ/LD7 + 16 AYY
|-
! Lower deck
| 20 LD3 + bulk
| colspan=2 | 22 LD3 + bulk / 158&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>
|-
! Length
| {{cvt|53.61|m}}
| colspan=2 | {{cvt|54.08|m}}
|-
! Height
| {{cvt|16.72|m}}
| colspan=2 | {{cvt|16.66|m}}
|-
! Wing
| colspan3 |{{cvt|44.84|m|}} span, {{cvt|260|m2}} area<ref nameelsevier>{{cite web |urlhttp://booksite.elsevier.com/9780340741528/appendices/data-a/table-1/table.htm |title Airbus Aircraft Data File |publisherElsevier |work Civil Jet Aircraft Design |date= July 1999}}</ref> {{#expr:44.84^2/260round1}} aspect ratio
|-
! Width
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|5.287|m}} cabin, {{cvt|5.64|m}} Fuselage, usually 2-4-2Y
|-
! Pressurized volume
| 542&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> (19,140&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft)
| 860&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> (30,370&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft)
|
|-
! MTOW
| {{cvt|165000|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|171700|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|170500|kg|0}}
|-
! Max payload
| {{cvt|37495|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|41374|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|48293|kg|0}}
|-
! Fuel capacity
| {{cvt|48470|kg|0}}
| colspan=2 | {{cvt|53505|kg|0}}
|-
! OEW
| {{cvt|88505|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|88626|kg|0}}
| {{cvt|81707|kg|0}}
|-
! Engines
| GE CF6-50C2 or<br />PW JT9D-59A
| colspan=2 | GE CF6-80C2 or<br />PW4158
|-
! Takeoff thrust
| {{cvt|230|kN}}<ref name="tcdsv3" />
| colspan2 | {{cvt|249|-|270|kN}}<ref name600specs />
|-
! Takeoff (MTOW, SL, ISA)
| {{cvt|2300|m}}
| colspan=2 | {{cvt|2400|m}}
|-
! Speed
| colspan3 | {{convert|0.78|Mach|altitude_ft35,000|kn km/h mph|0}} at {{cvt|35000|ft|km}}<br />M<sub>MO</sub>: Mach 0.82<ref name=600specs />
|-
! Range
| 5,375&nbsp;km (2,900&nbsp;nmi; {{cvt|5,375|km|mi|disp=output only}})
| colspan2 | 7,500&nbsp;km (4,050&nbsp;nmi; {{cvt|7,500|km|mi|dispoutput only}})<ref name600specs>{{cite web |url https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/previous-generation-aircraft/a300-600.html |titleA300-600 / Dimensions & key data |date 16 June 2021 |publisher= Airbus }}</ref>
|}
Aircraft model designations
{{sticky header}}
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align: center;"
|+ Type Certificate Data Sheet<ref nameTCDS>{{cite web |url https://www.easa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/dfu/EASA_TCDS_EASA.A.172_Issue3.pdf |titleType Certificate Data Sheet |publisher EASA |date21 September 2017 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181129183829/https://www.easa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/dfu/EASA_TCDS_EASA.A.172_Issue3.pdf |archive-date= 29 November 2018 }}</ref>
! Model !! Certification Date !! Engines
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B1 || rowspan"2" | 12 November 1974 || GE CF6-50A
|-
| GE CF6-50C
|-
| A300B2-1A || 15 March 1974 || GE CF6-50A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2-1C || rowspan"2" | 2 October 1974 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2K-3C || rowspan"2" | 23 June 1976 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| A300B2-202 || 22 February 1978 || GE CF6-50C1
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2-203 || rowspan"2" | 21 February 1980 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B2-320 || 4 January 1980 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-2C || rowspan"2" | 26 March 1975 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| A300B2-102 || 7 December 1977 || GE CF6-50C1
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-103 || rowspan"2" | 21 March 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B4-120 || 4 February 1981 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-203 || rowspan"2" | 26 April 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B4-220 || 8 January 1982 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| A300C4-203 || 18 December 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| A300C4-203 || 6 June 1986 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| A300B4-601 || 17 September 1985 || GE CF6-80C2A1
|-
| A300B4-603 || 27 January 1987 || GE CF6-80C2A3
|-
| A300B4-620 || 9 March 1984 || PW JT9D-7R4H1
|-
| A300B4-622 || 6 March 1989 || PW4158
|-
| A300C4-620 || 17 May 1984 || PW JT9D-7R4H1
|-
| rowspan"3" | A300B4-605R || rowspan"3" | 10 March 1988 || GE CF6-80C2A3
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5F
|-
| A300B4-622R || 25 November 1988 || PW4158
|-
| A300C4-605R || 2 July 1999 || GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300F4-605R || rowspan"2" | 19 April 1994 || GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5F
|-
| A300F4-622R || 20 June 2000 || PW4158
|}
See also
{{Portal|Aviation|European Union}}
{{aircontent
|see also=
* Competition between Airbus and Boeing
*F-WUAB (Airbus A300B1)
|related=
* Airbus A310
* Airbus A330
* Airbus A340
* Airbus Beluga – modified A300-600
|similar aircraft=
* Boeing 767
* Ilyushin Il-86
* Lockheed L-1011 TriStar
* McDonnell Douglas DC-10
|lists=
*List of jet airliners
}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
*{{cite book |last1Chillon |first1Jacques |last2Dubois |first2Jean-Pierre |last3Wegg |first3John |titleFrench Post-War Transport Aircraft |date1980 |publisherAir-Britain |locationTonbridge, UK |isbn0-85130-078-2|name-list-styleamp}}
* {{Cite book|lastGunston|firstBill|titleAirbus: The Complete Story|year2009|locationSparkford, Yeovil, Somerset, UK | publisherHaynes Publishing|isbn=978-1-84425-585-6}}
* {{cite magazine|lastHofton|firstAndy|titleCommercial Aircraft of the World|magazineFlight International|date10 October 1987|volume 132|issue4083|pages36–79 |urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20-%202006.html}} External links
{{Commons and category|Airbus A300}}
* {{official website|https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/previous-generation-aircraft/a300-600.html}}
* {{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/avweek/photos/a.108353332199/10153001369672200/ |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/16067432199/10153001369672200 |archive-date25 February 2022 |url-accesslimited|titleThis Is The Start of Something Big |magazine Aviation Week |date= 1968}}{{cbignore}}
{{Airbus A3xx timeline}}
{{Airbus aircraft}}
{{Authority control}}
A300
Category:1970s international airliners
Category:Twinjets
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Low-wing aircraft
Category:Aircraft first flown in 1972
Category:Wide-body aircraft
Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A300
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.036948
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2526
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Agostino Carracci
|
{{Short description|Bolognese painter of the Baroque (1557–1602)}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Agostino Carracci
| image = Agostino Carracci (1557-1602) - Zelfportret met uurwerk - Bologna Museo della storia di Bologna 29-04-2012 15-24-24.JPG
| image_size = 230px
| caption = Self portrait as a watchmaker
| birth_name | birth_date 16 August 1557
| birth_place = Bologna, Papal States
| death_date = {{death date and age|1602|3|23|1557|8|16}}
| death_place = Parma, Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
| nationality = Italian
| known_for = Painting
| training | movement Baroque
| notable_works | patrons
| awards | signature
}}
Agostino Carracci (or Caracci; {{IPA|it|aɡoˈstiːno karˈrattʃi}}; 16 August 1557 – 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter, printmaker, tapestry designer, and art teacher. He was, together with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the Progressives) in Bologna. Intended to devise alternatives to the Mannerist style favored in the preceding decades,<ref namegetty>[http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/488/agostino-carracci-italian-1557-1602/ Agostino Carracci] at Getty</ref> this teaching academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence.LifeAgostino Carracci was born in Bologna as the son of a tailor. He was the elder brother of Annibale Carracci and the cousin of Ludovico Carracci. He initially trained as a goldsmith. He later studied painting, first with Prospero Fontana, who had been Lodovico's master, and later with Bartolomeo Passarotti. He traveled to Parma to study the works of Correggio. Accompanied by his brother Annibale, he spent a long time in Venice, where he trained as an engraver under the renowned Cornelis Cort.<ref namecat>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03374c.htm Carracci] at the Catholic Encyclopedia</ref> Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings.
He traveled to Venice (1582, 1587–1589) and Parma (1586–1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (Histories of Jason and Medea, 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (Histories of Romulus, 1590–1592). In 1592 he also painted the Communion of St. Jerome, now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. In 1620, Giovanni Lanfranco, a pupil of the Carracci, famously accused another Carracci student, Domenichino, of plagiarizing this painting. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the Madonna with Child and Saints, in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598 to 1600 is a triple Portrait, now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished. His friend the poet Claudio Achillini composed an epitaph, which was later published by Carlo Cesare Malvasia in the life of the Carracci.<ref>{{cite book|titleMalvasia's Life of the Carracci: Commentary and Translation|publisherPenn State Press|isbn9780271044378|page8|authorAnne Summerscale|date2000 }}</ref>
Agostino's son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father's Academy.
An engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting Love in the Golden Age by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse's Le bonheur de vivre (Joy of Life).<ref>Thomas Puttfarken, "Mutual Love and Golden Age: Matisse and 'gli Amori de' Carracci", The Burlington Magazine, 124 (Apr. 1982): 203–208.</ref>
Critical evaluation
While his undoubted value in the graphic field is widely recognised, Agostino, as a painter, although admired by his contemporaries, ended up being overshadowed by the fame of his brother Annibale. Perhaps even his long practice of engraving ended up putting him at disadvantage, since he might have been perceived as more inclined to copy than to create.
Even Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who included Agostino Carracci in his selective collection of biographies of artists (''Vite de' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni, 1672), described his activity as a painter, with the sole exception of the Communion of Saint Jerome, a work that he praises, almost entirely limited to the role of supporting his younger brother Annibale, and reproaches him for having dedicated too much of his work to graphic production.<ref>Giovanni Pietro Bellori, Le vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni, 1672 (Italian)</ref>
The modern critical evaluation of the painter Agostino Carracci probably still suffers from the negative legacies of the past. The fact that there is still only one important monograph dedicated to him published (Stephen E. Ostrow, from the United States, 1966, never translated into Italian), and that an individual exhibition on this artist has yet to be held, are probably significant factors that show that he remains an underrated artist.
However, there have been a positive critical reevaluation of the painter, since there is now a better awareness of his artistic role, alongside his more famous relatives, and the knowledge of his personal work is now greater.
Works
Oil on canvas unless otherwise noted
* 1573 – Pietà (Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia<ref name"Pietà">{{cite web | year2018 | titlePietà, (engraving). | workIn the Light of Caravaggio: Dutch and Flemish Paintings from Southeastern Museums | publisherMuscarelle Museum of Art | urlhttps://proficio.campus.wm.edu/RediscoveryProficioPublicSearch/ShowItem.aspx?5625+ | access-date20 Jun 2018 }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2018 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>)
* 1586 – Madonna and Child with Saints (Galleria nazionale di Parma)
* {{Circa|1586}} – Lamentation or Pietà (Hermitage, St. Petersburg<ref>[http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/01.+paintings/31787 Agostino Caracci, The Lamentation''] in the Hermitage</ref>)
* {{Circa|1589–1595}} – {{lang|it|Reciprico Amore}} (engraving, Baltimore Museum of Art<ref>{{cite journal |titleMatisse and Agostino Carracci: A Source for the 'Bonheur de Vivre'|firstJames B. |lastCuno|journalThe Burlington Magazine|volume122|issue928 |dateJuly 1980 |pages503–505 |jstor=880057}}</ref>)
* {{Circa|1590}} – Annunciation (Musée du Louvre, Paris<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srvcar_not_frame&idNotice18809|titleLouvre Museum Official Website|worklouvre.fr|year1575 }}</ref>)
* 1590–1595 – Portrait of a Woman as Judith (private collection)
* {{Circa|1592–1593}} – Assumption (Ss. Salvatore church, Bologna)
* 1592–1597 – The Last Communion of Saint Jerome (Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna)
* {{Circa|1595}} – Head of a Faun in a Concave (drawing in roundel, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
* 1598–1600 – Triple Portrait of Arrigo, Pietro and Amon (National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples)
Fresco collaborations with Annibale and Ludovico
*Life of Aeneas (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
*Lives of Jason and Medea (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
*Scenes from the Foundation of Rome (Palazzo Magnani, Bologna)
*Life of Hercules (Palazzo Sampieri Talon, Bologna)
Undated
* The Penitent Magdalen (private collection)
* Carracci's erotic work (prints)
See also
* The Carracci
Bibliography
* Stephen E. Ostrow, Agostino Carracci (1966), Thesis (Ph.D.) New York University, New York
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
*{{Commons-inline}}
{{Agostino Carracci}}
{{Annibale Carracci}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Carracci, Agostino}}
Category:1557 births
Category:1602 deaths
Category:16th-century Italian painters
Category:Italian male painters
Category:17th-century Italian painters
Category:Italian Baroque painters
Category:Painters from Bologna
Category:Italian printmakers
Category:Italian erotic artists
Category:Italian Roman Catholics
Category:Sibling artists
Category:Catholic painters
Category:Catholic decorative artists
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Carracci
|
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2528
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Adenylyl cyclase
|
{{short description|Enzyme with key regulatory roles in most cells}}
{{enzyme
| Name = Adenylate cyclase
| EC_number = 4.6.1.1
| CAS_number = 9012-42-4
| GO_code = 0008294
| image = 1pk0.jpg
| width = 270
| caption = Adenylate cyclase (calmodulin sensitive) trimer, Bacillus anthracis<br />
Epinephrine binds its receptor, that associates with a heterotrimeric G protein. The G protein associates with adenylyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP, spreading the signal.<ref>{{cite web |titlePDB101: Molecule of the Month: G Proteins |urlhttp://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/58 |websiteRCSB: PDB-101 |access-date24 August 2020}}</ref>}}
Adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as adenyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, abbreviated AC) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming). It catalyzes the following reaction:
:ATP = 3′,5′-cyclic AMP + diphosphate
It has key regulatory roles in essentially all cells.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|titleCell Signaling|lastHancock|firstJohn|year2010|pages189–195}}</ref> It is the most polyphyletic known enzyme: six distinct classes have been described, all catalyzing the same reaction but representing unrelated gene families with no known sequence or structural homology.<ref name":1">{{cite journal | vauthors Sadana R, Dessauer CW | title Physiological roles for G protein-regulated adenylyl cyclase isoforms: insights from knockout and overexpression studies | journal Neuro-Signals | volume 17 | issue 1 | pages 5–22 | date February 2009 | pmid 18948702 | pmc 2790773 | doi 10.1159/000166277 }}</ref> The best known class of adenylyl cyclases is class III or AC-III (Roman numerals are used for classes). AC-III occurs widely in eukaryotes and has important roles in many human tissues.<ref name":2">{{cite journal | vauthors Zhang G, Liu Y, Ruoho AE, Hurley JH | title Structure of the adenylyl cyclase catalytic core | language En | journal Nature | volume 386 | issue 6622 | pages 247–253 | date March 1997 | pmid 9069282 | doi 10.1038/386247a0 | s2cid 4329051 | bibcode 1997Natur.386..247Z }}</ref>
All classes of adenylyl cyclase catalyse the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to 3',5'-cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate.<ref name=":2" /> Magnesium ions are generally required and appear to be closely involved in the enzymatic mechanism. The cAMP produced by AC then serves as a regulatory signal via specific cAMP-binding proteins, either transcription factors, enzymes (e.g., cAMP-dependent kinases), or ion transporters.
to 3',5'-cyclic AMP.]]
Classes
Class I
{{Infobox protein family|NameAdenylate cyclase, class-I|SymbolAdenylate_cycl|InterProIPR000274|PfamPF01295|PROSITE=PDOC00837}}
The first class of adenylyl cyclases occur in many bacteria including E. coli (as CyaA {{UniProt|P00936}} [unrelated to the Class II enzyme]).<ref name=":2" /> This was the first class of AC to be characterized. It was observed that E. coli deprived of glucose produce cAMP that serves as an internal signal to activate expression of genes for importing and metabolizing other sugars. cAMP exerts this effect by binding the transcription factor CRP, also known as CAP. Class I AC's are large cytosolic enzymes (~100&nbsp;kDa) with a large regulatory domain (~50&nbsp;kDa) that indirectly senses glucose levels. {{as of|2012}}, no crystal structure is available for class I AC.
Some indirect structural information is available for this class. It is known that the N-terminal half is the catalytic portion, and that it requires two Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions. S103, S113, D114, D116 and W118 are the five absolutely essential residues. The class I catalytic domain ({{Pfam|PF12633}}) belongs to the same superfamily ({{Pfam|CL0260}}) as the palm domain of DNA polymerase beta ({{Pfam|PF18765}}). Aligning its sequence onto the structure onto a related archaeal CCA tRNA nucleotidyltransferase ({{PDB|1R89}}) allows for assignment of the residues to specific functions: γ-phosphate binding, structural stabilization, DxD motif for metal ion binding, and finally ribose binding.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Linder JU | title Structure-function relationships in Escherichia coli adenylate cyclase | journal The Biochemical Journal | volume 415 | issue 3 | pages 449–454 | date November 2008 | pmid 18620542 | doi 10.1042/BJ20080350 }} ([https://pastebin.com/JHJeQuJn alignment])</ref> Class II These adenylyl cyclases are toxins secreted by pathogenic bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis, Bordetella pertussis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Vibrio vulnificus during infections.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ahuja N, Kumar P, Bhatnagar R | title The adenylate cyclase toxins | journal Critical Reviews in Microbiology | volume 30 | issue 3 | pages 187–196 | date 2004 | pmid 15490970 | doi 10.1080/10408410490468795 | s2cid 23893594 | author-link1 Nita Ahuja }}</ref> These bacteria also secrete proteins that enable the AC-II to enter host cells, where the exogenous AC activity undermines normal cellular processes. The genes for Class II ACs are known as cyaA, one of which is anthrax toxin. Several crystal structures are known for AC-II enzymes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Khanppnavar B, Datta S | title Crystal structure and substrate specificity of ExoY, a unique T3SS mediated secreted nucleotidyl cyclase toxin from Pseudomonas aeruginosa | journal Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects| volume 1862 | issue 9 | pages 2090–2103 | date September 2018 | pmid 29859257 | doi 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.05.021 | s2cid 44151852 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Guo Q, Shen Y, Lee YS, Gibbs CS, Mrksich M, Tang WJ | title Structural basis for the interaction of Bordetella pertussis adenylyl cyclase toxin with calmodulin | journal The EMBO Journal | volume 24 | issue 18 | pages 3190–3201 | date September 2005 | pmid 16138079 | pmc 1224690 | doi 10.1038/sj.emboj.7600800 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Drum CL, Yan SZ, Bard J, Shen YQ, Lu D, Soelaiman S, Grabarek Z, Bohm A, Tang WJ | display-authors 6 | title Structural basis for the activation of anthrax adenylyl cyclase exotoxin by calmodulin | journal Nature | volume 415 | issue 6870 | pages 396–402 | date January 2002 | pmid 11807546 | doi 10.1038/415396a | s2cid 773562 | bibcode 2002Natur.415..396D }}</ref>
Class III
{{Infobox protein family
|Name=Adenylyl cyclase class-3/guanylyl cyclase
|Symbol=Guanylate_cyc
|Pfam=PF00211
|Pfam_clan=CL0276
|InterPro=IPR001054
|PROSITE=PS50125
|SMART=SM00044
|SCOP=1tl7
|TCDB=8.A.85
|OPM family= 546
|OPM protein=6r3q
}}
These adenylyl cyclases are the most familiar based on extensive study due to their important roles in human health. They are also found in some bacteria, notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis where they appear to have a key role in pathogenesis. Most AC-III's are integral membrane proteins involved in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Earl Sutherland in 1971 for discovering the key role of AC-III in human liver, where adrenaline indirectly stimulates AC to mobilize stored energy in the "fight or flight" response. The effect of adrenaline is via a G protein signaling cascade, which transmits chemical signals from outside the cell across the membrane to the inside of the cell (cytoplasm). The outside signal (in this case, adrenaline) binds to a receptor, which transmits a signal to the G protein, which transmits a signal to adenylyl cyclase, which transmits a signal by converting adenosine triphosphate to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP is known as a second messenger.<ref name"Campbell">{{cite book | vauthors Reece J, Campbell N | title Biology | publisher Benjamin Cummings | location San Francisco | year 2002 | pages [https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/207 207] | isbn 978-0-8053-6624-2 | url-access registration | url https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/207 }}</ref>
Cyclic AMP is an important molecule in eukaryotic signal transduction, a so-called second messenger. Adenylyl cyclases are often activated or inhibited by G proteins, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli.<ref name":3">{{cite journal | vauthors Hanoune J, Defer N | title Regulation and role of adenylyl cyclase isoforms | journal Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology | volume 41 | issue 1 | pages 145–174 | date April 2001 | pmid 11264454 | doi 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.145 }}</ref> Following activation of adenylyl cyclase, the resulting cAMP acts as a second messenger by interacting with and regulating other proteins such as protein kinase A and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels.<ref name=":3" />
Photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) was discovered in Euglena gracilis and can be expressed in other organisms through genetic manipulation. Shining blue light on a cell containing PAC activates it and abruptly increases the rate of conversion of ATP to cAMP. This is a useful technique for researchers in neuroscience because it allows them to quickly increase the intracellular cAMP levels in particular neurons, and to study the effect of that increase in neural activity on the behavior of the organism.<ref name"pmid17128267">{{cite journal | vauthors Schröder-Lang S, Schwärzel M, Seifert R, Strünker T, Kateriya S, Looser J, Watanabe M, Kaupp UB, Hegemann P, Nagel G | display-authors 6 | title Fast manipulation of cellular cAMP level by light in vivo | journal Nature Methods | volume 4 | issue 1 | pages 39–42 | date January 2007 | pmid 17128267 | doi 10.1038/nmeth975 | s2cid 10616442 | url http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/18452/10021 }}</ref> A green-light activated rhodopsin adenylyl cyclase (CaRhAC) has recently been engineered by modifying the nucleotide binding pocket of rhodopsin guanylyl cyclase. Structure Most class III adenylyl cyclases are transmembrane proteins with 12 transmembrane segments. The protein is organized with 6 transmembrane segments, then the C1 cytoplasmic domain, then another 6 membrane segments, and then a second cytoplasmic domain called C2. The important parts for function are the N-terminus and the C1 and C2 regions. The C1a and C2a subdomains are homologous and form an intramolecular 'dimer' that forms the active site. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis and many other bacterial cases, the AC-III polypeptide is only half as long, comprising one 6-transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain, but two of these form a functional homodimer that resembles the mammalian architecture with two active sites. In non-animal class III ACs, the catalytic cytoplasmic domain is seen associated with other (not necessarily transmembrane) domains.<ref name"pmid14575863">{{cite journal | vauthors Linder JU, Schultz JE | title The class III adenylyl cyclases: multi-purpose signalling modules | journal Cellular Signalling | volume 15 | issue 12 | pages 1081–1089 | date December 2003 | pmid 14575863 | doi = 10.1016/s0898-6568(03)00130-x }}</ref>
Class III adenylyl cyclase domains can be further divided into four subfamilies, termed class IIIa through IIId. Animal membrane-bound ACs belong to class IIIa.<ref name"pmid14575863"/>{{rp|1087}}MechanismThe reaction happens with two metal cofactors (Mg or Mn) coordinated to the two aspartate residues on C1. They perform a nucleophilic attack of the 3'-OH group of the ribose on the α-phosphoryl group of ATP. The two lysine and aspartate residues on C2 selects ATP over GTP for the substrate, so that the enzyme is not a guanylyl cyclase. A pair of arginine and asparagine residues on C2 stabilizes the transition state. In many proteins, these residues are nevertheless mutated while retaining the adenylyl cyclase activity.<ref name"pmid14575863"/>
Types
There are ten known isoforms of adenylyl cyclases in mammals:
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* ADCY1
* ADCY2
* ADCY3
* ADCY4
* ADCY5
* ADCY6
* ADCY7
* ADCY8
* ADCY9
* ADCY10
}}
These are also sometimes called simply AC1, AC2, etc., and, somewhat confusingly, sometimes Roman numerals are used for these isoforms that all belong to the overall AC class III. They differ mainly in how they are regulated, and are differentially expressed in various tissues throughout mammalian development.
Regulation
Adenylyl cyclase is regulated by G proteins, which can be found in the monomeric form or the heterotrimeric form, consisting of three subunits.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /><ref name":2" /> Adenylyl cyclase activity is controlled by heterotrimeric G proteins.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /><ref name":2" /> The inactive or inhibitory form exists when the complex consists of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, with GDP bound to the alpha subunit.<ref name":0" /><ref name":2" /> In order to become active, a ligand must bind to the receptor and cause a conformational change.<ref name":0" /> This conformational change causes the alpha subunit to dissociate from the complex and become bound to GTP.<ref name":0" /> This G-alpha-GTP complex then binds to adenylyl cyclase and causes activation and the release of cAMP.<ref name":0" /> Since a good signal requires the help of enzymes, which turn on and off signals quickly, there must also be a mechanism in which adenylyl cyclase deactivates and inhibits cAMP.<ref name":0" /> The deactivation of the active G-alpha-GTP complex is accomplished rapidly by GTP hydrolysis due to the reaction being catalyzed by the intrinsic enzymatic activity of GTPase located in the alpha subunit.<ref name":0" /> It is also regulated by forskolin,<ref name":3" /> as well as other isoform-specific effectors:
* Isoforms I, III, and VIII are also stimulated by Ca<sup>2+</sup>/calmodulin.<ref name=":3" />
* Isoforms V and VI are inhibited by Ca<sup>2+</sup> in a calmodulin-independent manner.<ref name=":3" />
* Isoforms II, IV and IX are stimulated by alpha subunit of the G protein.<ref name=":3" />
* Isoforms I, V and VI are most clearly inhibited by Gi, while other isoforms show less dual regulation by the inhibitory G protein.<ref name=":3" />
* Soluble AC (sAC) is not a transmembrane form and is not regulated by G proteins or forskolin, instead acts as a bicarbonate/pH sensor. It is anchored at various locations within the cell and, with phosphodiesterases, forms local cAMP signalling domains.<ref name"pmid24324443">{{cite journal | vauthors Rahman N, Buck J, Levin LR | title pH sensing via bicarbonate-regulated "soluble" adenylyl cyclase (sAC) | journal Frontiers in Physiology | volume 4 | pages 343 | date November 2013 | pmid 24324443 | pmc 3838963 | doi 10.3389/fphys.2013.00343 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
In neurons, calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for faster reaction to Ca<sup>2+</sup> influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylyl cyclases are coincidence detectors, meaning that they are activated only by several different signals occurring together.<ref name":4">{{cite journal | vauthors Hogan DA, Muhlschlegel FA | title Candida albicans developmental regulation: adenylyl cyclase as a coincidence detector of parallel signals | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 14 | issue 6 | pages 682–686 | date December 2011 | pmid 22014725 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2011.09.014 }}</ref> In peripheral cells and tissues adenylyl cyclases appear to form molecular complexes with specific receptors and other signaling proteins in an isoform-specific manner.
Function
Individual transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms have been linked to numerous physiological functions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ostrom KF, LaVigne JE, Brust TF, Seifert R, Dessauer CW, Watts VJ, Ostrom RS | title Physiological roles of mammalian transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms | journal Physiological Reviews | volume 102 | issue 2 | pages 815–857 | date April 2022 | pmid 34698552 | pmc 8759965 | doi 10.1152/physrev.00013.2021 }}</ref> Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, AC10) has a critical role in sperm motility.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Esposito G, Jaiswal BS, Xie F, Krajnc-Franken MA, Robben TJ, Strik AM, Kuil C, Philipsen RL, van Duin M, Conti M, Gossen JA | display-authors 6 | title Mice deficient for soluble adenylyl cyclase are infertile because of a severe sperm-motility defect | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 101 | issue 9 | pages 2993–2998 | date March 2004 | pmid 14976244 | pmc 365733 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0400050101 | bibcode 2004PNAS..101.2993E | doi-access free }}</ref> Adenylyl cyclase has been implicated in memory formation, functioning as a coincidence detector.<ref name":3" /><ref name":4" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Willoughby D, Cooper DM | title Organization and Ca2+ regulation of adenylyl cyclases in cAMP microdomains | journal Physiological Reviews | volume 87 | issue 3 | pages 965–1010 | date July 2007 | pmid 17615394 | doi 10.1152/physrev.00049.2006 | citeseerx 10.1.1.336.3746 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Mons N, Guillou JL, Jaffard R | title The role of Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulable adenylyl cyclases as molecular coincidence detectors in memory formation | journal Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume 55 | issue 4 | pages 525–533 | date April 1999 | pmid 10357223 | doi 10.1007/s000180050311 | s2cid 10849274 | pmc 11147090 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Neve KA, Seamans JK, Trantham-Davidson H | title Dopamine receptor signaling | journal Journal of Receptor and Signal Transduction Research | volume 24 | issue 3 | pages 165–205 | date August 2004 | pmid 15521361 | doi 10.1081/RRS-200029981 | s2cid 12407397 | citeseerx 10.1.1.465.5011 }}</ref> Class IV
{{redirect|CyaB|the airport with code CYAB|Arctic Bay Airport}}
{{Anchor|Adenylyl cyclase CyaB|CyaB}}
{{Infobox protein family
|InterPro=IPR008173
|Name=Adenylyl cyclase CyaB
|Symbol=CyaB
|CDD=cd07890
|SCOP=2ACA
|CATH=1YEM
}}
AC-IV was first reported in the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila, and the structure of the AC-IV from Yersinia pestis has been reported. These are the smallest of the AC enzyme classes; the AC-IV (CyaB) from Yersinia is a dimer of 19 kDa subunits with no known regulatory components ({{PDB|2FJT}}).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Gallagher DT, Smith NN, Kim SK, Heroux A, Robinson H, Reddy PT | title Structure of the class IV adenylyl cyclase reveals a novel fold | journal Journal of Molecular Biology | volume 362 | issue 1 | pages 114–122 | date September 2006 | pmid 16905149 | doi 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.07.008 }}</ref> AC-IV forms a superfamily with mammalian thiamine-triphosphatase called CYTH (CyaB, thiamine triphosphatase).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Kohn G, Delvaux D, Lakaye B, Servais AC, Scholer G, Fillet M, Elias B, Derochette JM, Crommen J, Wins P, Bettendorff L | display-authors 6 | title High inorganic triphosphatase activities in bacteria and mammalian cells: identification of the enzymes involved | journal PLOS ONE | volume 7 | issue 9 | pages e43879 | date 2012 | pmid 22984449 | pmc 3440374 | doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0043879 | doi-access free | bibcode 2012PLoSO...743879K }}</ref>
Classes V and VI
{{Infobox protein family
|Name=AC Class VI (DUF3095)
|Symbol=DUF3095
|Pfam=PF11294
|InterPro=IPR021445
|below[http://gremlin.bakerlab.org/sub.php?id1557471140 contact prediction]
}}
These forms of AC have been reported in specific bacteria (Prevotella ruminicola {{UniProt|O68902}} and Rhizobium etli {{UniProt|Q8KY20}}, respectively) and have not been extensively characterized.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cotta MA, Whitehead TR, Wheeler MB | title Identification of a novel adenylate cyclase in the ruminal anaerobe, Prevotella ruminicola D31d | journal FEMS Microbiology Letters | volume 164 | issue 2 | pages 257–260 | date July 1998 | pmid 9682474 | doi 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13095.x | doi-access free }} GenBank [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AF056932 AF056932].</ref> There are a few extra members (~400 in Pfam) known to be in class VI. Class VI enzymes possess a catalytic core similar to the one in Class III.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Téllez-Sosa J, Soberón N, Vega-Segura A, Torres-Márquez ME, Cevallos MA | title The Rhizobium etli cyaC product: characterization of a novel adenylate cyclase class | journal Journal of Bacteriology | volume 184 | issue 13 | pages 3560–3568 | date July 2002 | pmid 12057950 | pmc 135151 | doi 10.1128/jb.184.13.3560-3568.2002 }} GenBank [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AF299113 AF299113].</ref>
Additional images
<gallery>
File:Beta adrenergic receptor kinase.JPG|Beta adrenergic receptor kinase pathway
</gallery>
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | vauthors Sodeman W, Sodeman T | title Sodeman's Pathologic Physiology: Mechanisms of Disease | publisher W B Saunders Co. | year 2005 | pages 143–145 | chapter Physiologic- and Adenylate Cyclase-Coupled Beta-Adrenergic Receptors | isbn = 978-0721610108 }}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
*{{MeSH name|Adenylyl Cyclases}}
*Interactive 3D views of Adenylate cyclase at {{Proteopedia|Adenylyl_cyclase}}
{{Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins}}
{{Phosphorus-oxygen lyases}}
{{Enzymes}}
{{Portal bar|Biology|border=no}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adenylyl Cyclase}}
Category:EC 4.6.1
Category:Cell signaling
Category:Signal transduction
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylyl_cyclase
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.057078
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Alexandra
|
{{About|the human name}}
{{Infobox given name
| name = Alexandra
| pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|l|ɪ|ɡ|ˈ|z|æ|n|d|r|ə|,_|-|ˈ|z|ɑː|n|-}}<br />{{respell|AL|ig|ZA(H)N|drə}}
| gender = Female
| meaning = "Defender, protector of mankind"
| language = From the Greek Alexandra, the female form of Alexandros, from alexein meaning "to ward off, keep off, turn away, defend, protect" and aner meaning "man"
| name day = August 30
| seealso = Alejandra, Aleksandra, Alissandra, Alessandra, Oleksandra, Alexandrine, Alex, Alexa, Alexis, Cassandra, Kassandra, Lexi, Lexie, Lexa, Alessia, Alessiya, Alesiya, Olesia, Olesiya, Olessiya, Sandra, Sandrna, Sandrine, Sally, Sandy, Sendy, Shandy, Sasha, Shura, Xandra, Ksandra.<br />The name Alexandria is similar, though itself means "land, place of Alexander".
}}
{{Contains special characters}}
Alexandra ({{Langx|grc|Ἀλεξάνδρα}}){{Efn|{{Lang|el|Alexándra}}, {{IPA|grc|aleksándra|lang|linkyes}}<br>{{IPA|el|aleˈksanðra|labelModern Greek:}}|name|grouplower-alpha}} is a female given name of Greek origin. It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander ({{Langx|grc|Ἀλέξανδρος}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|Aléxandros}}).<ref name"Hanks Hardcastle Hodges 2006">{{cite book |lastHanks |firstPatrick |author-linkPatrick Hanks |last2Hardcastle |first2Kate |last3Hodges |first3Flavia |titleA Dictionary of First Names |publisherOxford University Press |seriesOxford paperback reference |year2006 |isbn978-0-19-861060-1 |oclc67869278 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9nd05X_awIgC&pgPT52 |page52 |access-date5 May 2019}}</ref> Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb {{lang|grc|ἀλέξειν}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|alexein}}; meaning 'to defend') and {{lang|grc|ἀνήρ}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|anēr}}<small>; GEN</small> {{lang|grc|ἀνδρός}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|andros}}; meaning 'man'). Thus it may be roughly translated as "defender of man" or "protector of man".<ref>{{LSJ|a)le/candros|Ἀλέξανδρος|ref}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|a)le/cw|ἀλέξειν|shortref}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|a)nh/r|ἀνήρ|shortref}}.</ref> The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to save warriors". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek {{lang|gmy|𐀀𐀩𐀏𐀭𐀅𐀨}} ({{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-re-ka-sa-da-ra}} or /{{Lang|gmy-Latn|aleksandra}}/), written in the Linear B syllabic script.<ref>Tablet MY V 659 (61). {{cite web |urlhttp://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static12&wid217 |titleThe Linear B word a-re-ka-sa-da-ra |websitePalaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages}} {{cite web |urlhttps://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5622 |titleMY 659 V (61) |websiteDĀMOS Database of Mycenaean at Oslo |publisherUniversity of Oslo}} {{cite web |lastRaymoure |firstK.A. |urlhttp://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/a/a-re-ka-sa-da-ra-qe/ |titlea-re-ka-sa-da-ra-qe |workDeaditerranean. Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B}} {{cite book |titleThe Mycenaean World |firstJohn |lastChadwick |author1-linkJohn Chadwick |placeNew York |publisherCambridge University Press |orig-year1976 |year1999}}</ref> Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken. Variants
* Alejandra, Alejandrina (diminutive) (Spanish)
* Aleksandra (Александра) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian)
* Alessandra (Italian)
* Alessia (Italian)
* Alex (various languages)
* Alexa (English, Romanian, Spanish)
* Alexandra (English, German, Dutch, French, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Greek, Portuguese, Romanian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Ukrainian, Ancient Greek)
* Alexis (English)
* Alexandra, Alexa, Alexis, Sandra, Sandy, Sasha (Indonesian)
* Aliaksandra (Belarusian)
* Alikhandra /اليخاندرا (Egyptian Arabic)
* Alissandra/Alyssandra (Sicilian, Greek)
* Allie (English)
* Ally (English)
* Alya (Russian)
* Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali)
* Αλεξάνδρα (Greek)
* Leska (Czech)
* Lesya (Ukrainian)
* Lexa (English)
* Lexie (English)
* Lexine (English)
* Lexi (English)
* Lexy (English)
* Oleksandra (Ukrainian)
* Sacha (French)
* Sanda (Romanian)
* Sandie (English)
* Sandra (Danish, Dutch, English, Polish, Estonian, Italian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Swedish)
* Sandy (English)
* Sascha (German)
* Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Spanish)
* Saskia (Slavic)
* Saundra (English, Lowland Scottish)
* Saša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene)
* Saška (Serbian)
* Shura (Russian)
* Sondra (English)
* Szandra (Hungarian)
People with the name
Royalty
* Alexandra of Russia (disambiguation), various grand duchesses and royal consorts
* Empress Alexandra (disambiguation), various empresses
** Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), last empress consort of Russia by marriage to Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia. She is mentioned in the song "Rasputin".
* Princess Alexandra (disambiguation), various princesses
* Queen Alexandra (disambiguation), various queens
** Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), queen consort of the United Kingdom by marriage to Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom
* Alexandra the Maccabee (63 BCE – 28 BCE), only child of Hyrcanus II, King of Judaea
* Duchess Alexandra of Oldenburg (1838–1900), eldest child of Duke Constantine Frederick Peter of Oldenburg
Alexandra
* Alexandra of Antioch ({{fl.|4th century}}), Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch
* Alexandra of Lithuania ({{died-in|1434}}), duchess consort of Masovia
* Alexandra of Rome ({{died-in|314}}), Christian saint and martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions
* Alexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian–Australian linguist
* Alexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer
* Alexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor
* Alexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler
* Alexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer
* Alexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician
* Alexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian–born Italian water polo player
* Alexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician
* Alexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player
* Alexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek–Swiss choreographer and visual artist
* Alexandra Backford (1942–2010), Aleut–American painter
* Alexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra Balashova (1942–1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer
* Alexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian–born Canadian sprint kayaker
* Alexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress
* Alexandra Bastedo (1946–2014), English actress
* Alexandra Beaton (born {{c.|1994}}), Canadian actress
* Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian–American mathematician
* Alexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player
* Alexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler
* Alexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist
* Alexandra Beukes, South African politician
* Alexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer, and newspaper editor
* Alexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovakian sprinter
* Alexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist
* Alexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovakian–Hungarian actress
* Alexandra Botez (born 1995), American–Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer
* Alexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian–Bulgarian actress, model, and singer
* Alexandra Boyko (1916–1996), Russian tank commander
* Alexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author
* Alexandra Bradshaw (1888–1981), Canadian–American art professor and watercolor artist
* Alexandra Branitskaya (1754–1838), Russian courtier
* Alexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen
* Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer
* Alexandra Brewis Slade (born 1965), New Zealand-American anthropologist
* Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer
* Alexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player
* Alexandra Brushtein (1884–1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist
* Alexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist
* Alexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat
* Alexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian–German sabre fencer
* Alexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player
* Alexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter
* Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer
* Alexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist
* Alexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer
* Alexandra Cardenas (born 1976), Colombian composer
* Alexandra Carlisle (1886–1936), English actress and suffragist
* Alexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player
* Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player
* Alexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker
* Alexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean–Canadian actress and dancer
* Alexandra Chalupa (born 1976 or 1977), American lawyer and pro–Ukrainian activist
* Alexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player
* Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress
* Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner
* Alexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer
* Alexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer
* Alexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist
* Alexandra Cheron (1983–2011), Dominican–American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite
* Alexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer
* Alexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur
* Alexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author
* Alexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier
* Alexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker
* Alexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican–born Portuguese marine biologist
* Alexandra Cunningham (born 1972 or 1973), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer
* Alexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen
* Alexandra Čvanová (1897–1939), Ukrainian–born Czech operatic soprano
* Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress
* Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress
* Alexandra Dane (born 1940), South African–born English actress
* Alexandra Danilova (1903–1997), Russian ballet dancer
* Alexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist
* Alexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier
* Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969), French explorer and spiritualist
* Alexandra Davies (born 1977), English–born Australian actress
* Alexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress
* Alexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist
* Alexandra Denisova (1922–2018), Canadian ballet dancer
* Alexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French–Canadian operatic soprano
* Alexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete
* Alexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress
* Alexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter
* Alexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player
* Alexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician
* Alexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress
* Alexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder
* Alexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer
* Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player
* Alexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer
* Alexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer
* Alexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter
* Alexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist
* Alexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter
* Alexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater
* Alexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka
* Alexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress
* Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete
* Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano
* Alexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player
* Alexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer
* Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower
* Alexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer
* Alexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host
* Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player
* Alexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer
* Alexandra Pavlovna Galitzine (1905–2006), Russian princess
* Alexandra Gajda (born 1979), English historian
* Alexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist
* Alexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer
* Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English–South African artist
* Alexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist
* Alexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African–born Hungarian–Canadian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka
* Alexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist
* Alexandra Gripenberg (1857–1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher
* Alexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player
* Alexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower
* Alexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player
* Alexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player
* Alexandra Hasluck (1908–1993), Australian author and historian
* Alexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer
* Alexandra Heidrich, German canoeist
* Alexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan–born Swiss Paralympic athlete
* Alexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer
* Alexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director
* Alexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovakian–Czech ice dancer
* Alexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan–American documentarian
* Alexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist
* Alexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger
* Alexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen
* Alexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player
* Alexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player
* Alexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress
* Alexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovakian football player
* Alexandra van Huffelen (born 1968), Dutch politician
* Alexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete
* Alexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player
* Alexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player
* Alexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian–Canadian speed skater
* Alexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player
* Alexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish–English swimmer
* Alexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress
* Alexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player
* Alexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer
* Alexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer
* Alexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete
* Alexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater
* Alexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model
* Alexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician
* Alexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player
* Alexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist
* Alexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress
* Alexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian–born Argentine sprint canoer
* Alexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker
* Alexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor
* Alexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva (born 2002), Australian Olympic rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Kim (1885–1918), Russian–Korean revolutionary political activist
* Alexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer
* Alexandra Kluge (1937–2017), German actress
* Alexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor
* Alexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player
* Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), Russian politician
* Alexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist
* Alexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian
* Alexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer
* Alexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner
* Alexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster
* Alexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist
* Alexandra Kropotkin (1887–1966), Russian–American writer
* Alexandra Krosney, American actress
* Alexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovakian figure skater
* Alexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model
* Alexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer
* Alexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress
* Alexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player
* Alexandra Lapierre, French author
* Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian–German actress
* Alexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer
* Alexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish–Argentine model
* Alexandra Lazarowich, Cree–Canadian director and producer
* Alexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman
* Alexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter
* Alexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra
* Alexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician
* Alexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress
* Alexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong–born English photographer
* Alexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer
* Alexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower
* Alexandra London (born 1973), French actress
* Alexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovakian archer
* Alexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player
* Alexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician
* Alexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician
* Alexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player
* Alexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player
* Alexandra Lydon, American actress
* Alexandra Măceșanu (2003–2019), Romanian murder victim
* Alexandra Makovskaya (1837–1915), Russian landscape painter
* Alexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist
* Alexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier
* Alexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress
* Alexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer
* Alexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician
* Alexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter
* Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605–1684), Greek intellectual
* Alexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen
* Alexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer
* Alexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician
* Alexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model
* Alexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician
* Alexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator
* Alexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer
* Alexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist
* Alexandra Mitsotaki (born 1956), Greek activist and entrepreneur
* Alexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist
* Alexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver
* Alexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer
* Alexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist
* Alexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist
* Alexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player
* Alexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player
* Alexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier
* Alexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater
* Alexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player
* Alexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German–born Kenyan épée fencer
* Alexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian–American cubist painter and philanthropist
* Alexandra Nekvapilová (1919–2014), Czech alpine skier
* Alexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress
* Alexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer
* Alexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor
* Alexandra Nessmar (born 1994), Swedish racing cyclist
* Alexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor
* Alexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player
* Alexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress
<!--* Alexandra Norman (born 1983), Canadian squash player-->
* Alexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player
* Alexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician
* Alexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet
* Alexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer
* Alexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower
* Alexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player
* Alexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek–Canadian actress
* Alexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player
* Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player
* Alexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower
* Alexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress
* Alexandra Parks (born 1984), English singer-songwriter
* Alexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek–Swedish author and columnist
* Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912–2010), Greek architect
* Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek–American music supervisor
* Alexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist
* Alexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist
* Alexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player
* Alexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer
* Alexandra Petrova (1980–2000), Russian beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress
* Alexandra Pierce (1934–2021), American composer and pianist
* Alexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian–American tennis player
* Alexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka
* Alexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer
* Alexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress
* Alexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player
* Alexandra Potter (born 1970), English author
* Alexandra Poulovassilis, Greek–English computer scientist
* Alexandra Powers, American actress
* Alexandra Pringle (born 1953), British publisher
* Alexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress
* Alexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer
* Alexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler
* Alexandra Raffé (born 1955), Canadian film and television producer
* Alexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter
* Alexandra Rapaport (born 1971), Swedish actress
* Alexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete
* Alexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka
* Alexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer
* Alexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovakian blind alpine skier
* Alexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model
* Alexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress
* Alexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican–born English Paralympic sailor
* Alexandra Ridout (born 1998), English jazz trumpeter
* Alexandra Ripley (1934–2004), American writer
* Alexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress
* Alexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer
* Alexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist
* Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder
* Alexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator
* Alexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater
* Alexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian–born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter
* Alexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor
* Alexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player
* Alexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter
* Alexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player
* Alexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovakian author
* Alexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian–born Ecuadorian soccer player
* Alexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Schepisi, Australian actress
* Alexandra Schörghuber (born 1958), German entrepreneur
* Alexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player
* Alexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist
* Alexandra Shimo, Canadian writer
* Alexandra Shipp, American actress and singer
* Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player
* Alexandra Shiva, American documentarian
* Alexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist
* Alexandra Sicoe (1932–2019), Romanian sprinter
* Alexandra Sidorovici (1906–2000), Romanian politician
* Alexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer
* Alexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress
* Alexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian–born French pianist
* Alexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist
* Alexandra Slade, American actress
* Alexandra Smirnoff (1838–1913) Finnish pomologist
* Alexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player
* Alexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress
* Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter
* Alexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer
* Alexandra Sorina (1899–1973), Belarusian actress
* Alexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian–born French violinist
* Alexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian
* Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer
* Alexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer
* Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player
* Alexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress
* Alexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist
* Alexandra Styron, American author and professor
* Alexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian
* Alexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player
* Alexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter
* Alexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower
<!--* Alexandra Teague, American poet-->
* Alexandra Techet, American marine engineer
* Alexandra Tegleva (1894–1955), Russian nursemaid
* Alexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player
* Alexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician
* Alexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer
* Alexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Tolstaya (1884–1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy
* Alexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer
* Alexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player
* Alexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player
* Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater
* Alexandra Truwit (born 2000), American Paralympic swimmer
* Alexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower
* Alexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder
* Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress
* Alexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian–Czech politician
* Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician
* Alexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress
* Alexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater
* Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician
* Alexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor
* Alexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower
* Alexandra Vinogradova (born 1988), Russian volleyball player
* Alexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician
* Alexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano
* Alexandra von Dyhrn (1873–1945), German author and genealogist
* Alexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong–born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite
* Alexandra Voronin (1905–1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling
* Alexandra Vydrina (1988–2021), Russian linguist
* Alexandra Wager (born {{c.|1950}}), American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager
* Alexandra Wallace (born 1975 or 1976), American news media executive
* Alexandra Walsham (born 1966), English–Australian historian
* Alexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist
* Alexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model
* Alexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian
* Alexandra Wejchert (1921–1995), Polish–Irish sculptor
* Alexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer
* Alexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress
* Alexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian–born German long jumper
* Alexandra Williams, American rugby player
* Alexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist
* Alexandra Worden (born 1970), American genome scientist and microbial ecologist
* Alexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer
* Alexandra Zabelina (1937–2022), Soviet fencer
* Alexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher
* Alexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor
* Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer
* Alexandra Zarini (born 1985), Italian–American daughter of Patricia Gucci
* Alexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian–born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter
* Alexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer
* Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1842–1899), Russian–German lady-in-waiting
* Alexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist
* Alexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer
Aleksandra
* Aleksandra Antonova, various people
* Aleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player
* Aleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master
* Aleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer
* Aleksandra Fedoriva (born 1988), Russian athlete
* Aleksandra Izmailovich (1878–1941), Belarusian revolutionary
* Aleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder
* Aleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854–1941), Polish novelist
* Aleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player
* Aleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master
* Aleksandra Melnichenko (born 1977), Serbian billionaire, former singer, and model who is the wife of the Russian billionaire Andrey Melnichenko
* Aleksandra Perišić (born 2002), Serbian taekwondo practitioner
* Aleksandra Prijović (born 1995), Serbian pop-folk singer
* Aleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist
* Aleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Shchekoldina (born 2002), retired Russian gymnast
* Aleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player
* Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player
* Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer
Fictional characters
* Alexandra, a character from the game Mystic Defender
* Alexandra, Nikita character
* Alexandra, the main antagonist in The Wildwood Chronicles
* Alexandra the Royal Baby Fairy, character in the British book series Rainbow Magic
* Alexandra "Alex" Bailey, a main character in Chris Colfer's The Land of Stories
* Alexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse
* Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a. Lexie Carver, character in the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives
* Alexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March
* Alexandra "Alex" Cahill, character in the 1990s television series Walker, Texas Ranger
* Alexandra Cross, a.k.a. Lexy Cross, a character in the USA/Syfy TV series, Chucky, based on the ''Child's Play'' media franchise
* Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a. Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers' sister in Supergirl
* Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a. Alex Dunphy, character in the popular television series Modern Family
* Alexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe
* Alexandra Finch, sister of Atticus Finch in the 1960 novel To Kill A Mockingbird
* Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series ''Kuroko's Basketball
* Alexandra Grey, a.k.a. Lexie Grey, character in the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy
* Alexandra Vladimirovna Litvyak, a.k.a. Sanya V. Litvyak, a character from the anime/manga franchise Strike Witches
* Alexandra Mack, a.k.a. Alex Mack, titular lead character in the popular television series The Secret World of Alex Mack
* Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a. Alex Nuñez, character in the Canadian television drama Degrassi: The Next Generation
* Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a. Alex Russo, character in the Disney Channel television series Wizards of Waverly Place'', played by Selena Gomez
* Alexandra Vause, a.k.a. Alex Vause, imprisoned drug dealer and love interest to protagonist to Piper Chapman in Netflix's Orange Is The New Black
* Aleksandra Billewicz, a character in Deluge by Henryk Sienkiewicz
* Aleksandra 'Zarya' Zaryanova, a Russian weightlifter turned soldier in the video game Overwatch
* Alexandra "Lex" Foster, the main protagonist of Team StarKid's Black Friday (musical)
See also
* Alexander
* Alexandria (given name)
References
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}
{{Given name}}
Category:Feminine given names
Category:Greek feminine given names
Category:Romanian feminine given names
Category:Serbian feminine given names
Category:English feminine given names
Category:French feminine given names
Category:Hera
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra
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Articolo 31
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{{Expand Italian|topiccult|Articolo 31|dateMay 2023}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Articolo 31
| image = J Ax during a concert.jpg
| caption = J-Ax, rapper of the band
| image_size | alias
| origin = Milan, Italy
| genre = {{flatlist|
*Hip hop
*alternative hip hop
*funk
*pop-rap
*alternative rock
*rap rock
}}
| years_active = 1990–2006, 2018–present
| label = {{flatlist|
*Ricordi (1990–1998)
*BMG (1998–2003)
}}
| associated_acts | website
| current_members = * J-Ax
* DJ Jad
| past_members =
}}
Articolo 31 is a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups.
Band history
Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini).<ref nameallmusic>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/articolo-31-mn0000933462/biography|titleArticolo 31 - Biography & History - AllMusic|websiteAllMusic|access-date=11 May 2018}}</ref>
In the spoken intro of the album Strade di Città ("City Streets"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press. They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act.
Articolo 31 released one of the first Italian hip hop records, Strade di città, in 1993.<ref name=allmusic/> Soon, they signed with BMG Ricordi and started to mix rap with pop music – a move that earned them great commercial success but that alienated the underground hip hop scene, who perceived them as traitors.
In 1997, DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in a track titled 1 vs 2 on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, starting a feud that would go on for years.
In 2001, Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album XChé SI!. In the same year, they made the film Senza filtro (in English, "Without filter").<ref nameallmusic/> Their producer was Franco Godi, who also produced the music for the Signor Rossi animated series.<ref>{{cite book|last1Fabio Bernabei|titleHip Hop Italia: Il rap italiano dalla breakdance alle rapstar|publisherImprimatur editore, 2014|isbn=8868301709}}</ref>
Their 2002 album Domani smetto represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples.<ref nameajaa>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/j-ax-mn0002080046/biography|titleJ-Ax - Biography & History - AllMusic|websiteAllMusic|access-date11 May 2018}}</ref> Several of their songs rotate around the theme of soft drugs legalization in Italy (pointing strongly in favour).<ref nameajaa/>
Following their 2003 album "Italiano medio", the band took a break. Both J-Ax and DJ Jad have been involved with solo projects. In 2006, the group declared an indefinite hiatus.<ref name=allmusic/>
Their posse, Spaghetti Funk, includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi.
On 4 December 2022, it was officially announced Articolo 31 participation in the Sanremo Music Festival 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGranger |firstAnthony |date2022-12-04 |title🇮🇹 Italy: Festival di Sanremo 2023 Participants Revealed |urlhttps://eurovoix.com/2022/12/04/%f0%9f%87%ae%f0%9f%87%b9-italy-festival-di-sanremo-2023-participants-revealed/ |access-date2023-01-21 |websiteEurovoix |languageen-GB}}</ref> "Un bel viaggio" was later announced as their entry for the Sanremo Music Festival 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGranger |firstAnthony |date2022-12-17 |title🇮🇹 Italy: Sanremo Giovani 2022 Qualifiers & Sanremo Song Titles Revealed |urlhttps://eurovoix.com/2022/12/17/sanremo-giovani-2022-qualifiers/ |access-date2023-01-21 |websiteEurovoix |languageen-GB}}</ref>
Band members
*J-Ax – vocals
*DJ Jad – turntables
Discography
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Label
|-
| 1993 || Strade di città || Best Sound
|-
| 1994 || Messa di vespiri || Best Sound
|-
| 1996 || ''Così com'è || Best Sound
|-
| 1998 || Nessuno || Best Sound
|-
| 2001 || Xché sì! || Best Sound
|-
| 2002 || Domani smetto || Best Sound
|-
| 2003 || Italiano medio || Best Sound
|-
| 2024 || Protomaranza'' || Columbia
|}
References
{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Italian hip hop groups
Category:Musical groups from Milan
Category:Hip-hop groups from Milan
Category:Italian rappers
Category:Italian rap rock groups
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articolo_31
|
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Alexander Kerensky
|
{{Short description|Russian politician (1881–1970)}}
{{family name hatnote|Fyodorovich|Kerensky|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Alexander Kerensky
| native_name {{nobold|{{langx|ru|Александр Керенский|labelnone}}}}
| image = Alexander Kerensky 1917 Crop.jpg
| caption = Kerensky in 1917
| office1 = Chairman of the<br />Russian Provisional Government<br />(Prime Minister of Russia)
| term_start1 = 21 July 1917
| term_end1 = 7 November 1917<br /><small>[6 July – 25 October 1917 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor1 = Georgy Lvov
| successor1 = Vladimir Lenin{{efn|as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars}}
| office2 = Minister of War and Navy of the<br />Russian Provisional Government
| term_start2 = 18 May 1917
| term_end2 = 14 September 1917<br /><small>[5 May – 1 September 1917 Old Style]</small>
| 1blankname2 = Minister-Chairman
| 1namedata2 = Georgy Lvov <br /> Himself
| predecessor2 = Alexander Guchkov
| successor2 | office3 Minister of Justice of the<br />Russian Provisional Government
| term_start3 = 16 March 1917
| term_end3 = 1 May 1917<br /><small>[3 March – 18 April 1917 Old Style]</small>
| 1blankname3 = Minister-Chairman
| 1namedata3 = Georgy Lvov
| predecessor3 = Office established{{efn|Nikolai Dobrovolsky as Minister of Justice of the Russian Empire.}}
| successor3 = Pavel Pereverzev
| office4 Vice Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet<ref>{{Cite book |titleСванидзе М. С.: Исторические хроники с Николаем Сванидзе. 1917 год. Александр Керенский |urlhttp://esenin-lit.ru/esenin/bio/svanidze-istoricheskie-hroniki/1917-aleksandr-kerenskij.htm |access-date2023-07-18}}</ref>
| 1blankname4 = Chairman
| 1namedata4 = Nikolai Chkheidze
| term_start4 = 12 March 1917
| term_end4 = 9 November 1917<br /><small>[27 February – 27 October 1917 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor4 = Office established
| successor4 = Matvey Skobelev
| office5 = Member of the<br />Russian Constituent Assembly
| term_start5 = 25 November 1917
| term_end5 = 20 January 1918{{efn|The Constituent Assembly was declared dissolved by the Bolshevik-Left SR Soviet government, rendering the end the term served.}}<br /><small>[12 November – 7 January 1918 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor5 = Constituency established
| successor5 = Constituency abolished
| constituency5 = Saratov
| office6 = Member of the Russian State Duma
| term_start6 = 15 November 1912
| term_end6 = 6 October 1917
| predecessor6 = Multi-member district
| successor6 = Constituency abolished
| constituency6 = Volsk
| birth_date {{birth date|1881|05|04|dfy}}
| birth_place = Simbirsk, Simbirsk Governorate, Russian Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|1970|06|11|1881|05|04|dfy}}
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| restingplace = Putney Vale Cemetery, London
| alma_mater = Saint Petersburg State University
| profession = {{hlist|Lawyer|politician}}
| party Socialist-Revolutionary Party<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-Kerensky | title=Aleksandr Kerensky &#124; Facts & Biography &#124; Britannica }}</ref>
| otherparty = Trudoviks
| children = {{hlist|Oleg|Gleb}}
| signature = Kerensky autograph.svg
}}
Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|r|ə|n|s|k|i|,_|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɛ|n|s|k|i}} {{respell|KERR|ən|skee|,_|kə|REN|skee}}; {{langx|ru|link=no|Александр Фёдорович Керенский}}, {{IPA|ru|ɐlʲɪkˈsandr ˈkʲerʲɪnskʲɪj|IPA}}; original spelling: {{lang|ru|Александръ Ѳедоровичь Керенскій}}}} ({{OldStyleDate|4 May|1881|22 April}} – 11 June 1970) was a Russian lawyer and revolutionary who led the Russian Provisional Government and the short-lived Russian Republic for three months from late July to early November 1917 (N.S.).
After the February Revolution of 1917, he joined the newly formed provisional government, first as Minister of Justice, then as Minister of War, and after July as the government's second Minister-Chairman. He was the leader of the social-democratic Trudovik faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. Kerensky was also a vice-chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, a position that held a sizable amount of power. Kerensky became the prime minister of the Provisional Government, and his tenure was consumed with World War I. Despite mass opposition to the war, Kerensky chose to continue Russia's participation. His government cracked down on anti-war sentiment and dissent in 1917, which made his administration even more unpopular.
Kerensky remained in power until the October Revolution. This revolution saw the Bolsheviks create a government led by them in a coalition with Left SRs, to replace Kerensky's government. Kerensky fled Russia and lived the remainder of his life in exile. He divided his time between Paris and New York City. Kerensky worked for the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, California.
Biography
{{More citations needed|section|dateAugust 2023}} Early life and activism Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga river on 4 May 1881 and was the eldest son in the family.<ref namewwi>{{cite web|titleAlexander Kerenski|urlhttp://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/kerenski.htm|publisherFirst World War|access-date1 April 2013}}</ref> His father, Fyodor Mikhailovich Kerensky, was a teacher<ref namewwi/> and director of the local gymnasium and was later promoted to be an inspector of public schools. His paternal grandfather Mikhail Ivanovich served as a priest in the village of Kerenka in the Gorodishchensky district of the Penza Governorate from 1830. The surname Kerensky comes from the name of this village.<ref name"eternal" /> His maternal grandfather was head of the Topographical Bureau of the Kazan Military District. His mother, Nadezhda Aleksandrovna (née Adler),<ref>{{cite book |lastN. Magill |firstFrank |date5 March 2014 |titleThe 20th Century Go-N: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI3sBAwAAQBAJ&pgPA1944 |publisherRoutledge |page1941 |isbn978-1-317-74060-5 }}</ref> was the granddaughter of a former serf who had managed to purchase his freedom before serfdom was abolished in 1861. He subsequently embarked upon a mercantile career, in which he prospered. This allowed him to move his business to Moscow, where he continued his success and became a wealthy Moscow merchant.<ref nameeternal>{{cite web|titleАлександр Федорович Керенский |urlhttp://eternaltown.com.ua/%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8/2920/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140725092037/http://eternaltown.com.ua/%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8/2920/ |url-status dead|archive-date2014-07-25 }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719234418/http://mega.km.ru/bes_2004/encyclop.asp?TopicNumber31562&search%EA%E5%F0%E5%ED%F1%EA%E8%E9 Encyclopedia of Cyril and Method]</ref>
Members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends; Kerensky's father was the teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) and had even secured him acceptance into the University of Kazan.<ref>{{cite book |lastSebestyen |firstVictor |author-linkVictor Sebestyen |titleLENIN The Man, The Dictator, The Master of Terror |date9 October 2018 |publisherVintage |page58 |isbn978-1-101-97430-8}}</ref> In 1889, when Kerensky was eight, the family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools (superintendent). Kerensky graduated with honours in 1899. The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology. The next year he switched to law. He earned his law degree in 1904 and married Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya, the daughter of a Russian general, the same year.<ref>[http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html A Doomed Democracy] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070311025735/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html |date11 March 2007 }} Bernard Butcher, Stanford Magazine, January/February 2001</ref> Kerensky joined the Narodnik movement and worked as a legal counsel to victims of the Revolution of 1905. At the end of 1904, he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group. Afterwards, he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries.<ref>Political Figures of Russia, 1917, Biographical Dictionary, Large Russian Encyclopedia, 1993, p. 143.</ref>
In 1912, Kerensky became widely known when he visited the goldfields at the Lena River and published material about the Lena massacre.<ref>The Lena Goldfields Massacre and the Crisis of the Late Tsarist State by Michael Melancon [https://books.google.com/books?idymYJfA3mx2kC&pgPA112]</ref> In the same year, Kerensky was elected to the Fourth Duma as a member of the Trudoviks, a socialist, non-Marxist labour party founded by Alexis Aladin that was associated with the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and joined a Freemason society uniting the anti-monarchy forces that strived for democratic renewal of Russia.<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttp://digital.library.okstate.edu/oas/oas_pdf/v51/p127_130.pdf |titleAlexander Fedorovich Kerensky |authorMedlin, Virgil D. |journalProceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science |year1971 |volume51 |page128 |url-status dead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304051142/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/oas/oas_pdf/v51/p127_130.pdf |archive-date4 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.omolenko.com/en/rasputin/tatyana-mironova-belied-life-belied-death.htm|titleGrigori Rasputin: Belied Life – Belied Death|websitewww.omolenko.com|access-date20 January 2019}}</ref> In fact, the Socialist Revolutionary Party bought Kerensky a house, as he otherwise would not be eligible for election to the Duma, according to the Russian property-laws.
During the 4th Session of the Fourth Duma in spring 1915, Kerensky appealed to Mikhail Rodzianko with a request from the Council of elders to inform the tsar that to succeed in the war he must:
# change his domestic policy,
# proclaim a General Amnesty for political prisoners,
# restore the Constitution of Finland,
# declare autonomy of Poland,
# provide national minorities autonomy in the field of culture,
# abolish restrictions against Jews,
# end religious intolerance,
# stop the harassment of legal trade union organizations.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Governments-Parliaments_and_Parties_(Russian_Empire) |titleGovernments, Parliaments and Parties (Russian Empire) By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida |access-date7 January 2024 |archive-date7 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240607051645/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/Governments-Parliaments_and_Parties_(Russian_Empire) |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastFontenot |firstMichael James |titleAlexander F. Kerensky; The Political Career of a Russian Nationalist|page34|urlhttps://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article4014&contextgradschool_disstheses |access-date11 October 2022 |website=Louisiana State University}}</ref><ref>[https://historyofthetwentiethcentury.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/135-Stupidity-or-Treason.pdf Transcript]</ref>
In August, he became a significant member of the Progressive Bloc, which included several socialist parties, Mensheviks, and Liberals – but not Bolsheviks.<ref>TV-documentary "Russian Revolution seen from Russia" aired at Danish DR K 11.June.2018</ref> He was a brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader of the socialist opposition to the government of Tsar Nicholas II.
Kerensky was an active member of the irregular Freemasonic lodge, the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples,<ref name="mason">
{{cite news
|url= http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/russia/russian_masons.html
|title= Noteworthy members of the Grand Orient of France in Russia and the Supreme Council of the Grand Orient of Russia's People
|date= 15 October 2017
|work= Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon
}}</ref> which derived from the Grand Orient of France. Kerensky was Secretary-General of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples and stood down following his ascent to the government in July 1917. He was succeeded by a Menshevik, Alexander Halpern.
Rasputin
In response to bitter resentments held against the imperial favourite Grigori Rasputin in the midst of Russia's failing effort in World War I, Kerensky, at the opening of the Duma on 2 November 1916, called the imperial ministers "hired assassins" and "cowards", and alleged that they were "guided by the contemptible Grishka Rasputin!"<ref>The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents, Volume 1, p. 16 by Robert Paul Browder, Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerensky [https://books.google.com/books?idLzWsAAAAIAAJ&pgPA16]</ref> Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich, Prince Georgy Lvov, and General Mikhail Alekseyev attempted to persuade the Emperor Nicholas II to send away the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, Rasputin's steadfast patron, either to the Livadia Palace in Yalta or to Britain.<ref>A. Kerensky (1965) ''Russia and History's turning point'', p. 150.</ref> Mikhail Rodzianko, Zinaida Yusupova (the mother of Felix Yusupov), Alexandra's sister Elisabeth, Grand Duchess Victoria and the empress's mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna also tried to influence and pressure the imperial couple<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.alexanderpalace.org/realtsaritsa/1chap5.html|titleAlexandra Feodorovna and Romanov Russia, The Real Tsaritsa written by Lili Dehn – Part One – Old Russia – Chapter V|websitewww.alexanderpalace.org|access-date20 January 2019}}</ref> to remove Rasputin from his position of influence within the imperial household, but without success.<ref>The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents, Volume 1, p. 18 by Robert Paul Browder, Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerensky [https://books.google.com/books?idLzWsAAAAIAAJ&pgPA18]</ref> According to Kerensky, Rasputin had terrorised the empress by threatening to return to his native village.<ref>A. Kerensky (1965) ''Russia and History's turning point'', p. 163.</ref>
Members of the nobility murdered Rasputin in December 1916, and he was buried near the imperial residence in Tsarskoye Selo. Shortly after the February Revolution of 1917, Kerensky ordered soldiers to re-bury the corpse at an unmarked spot in the countryside. However, the truck broke down or was forced to stop because of the snow on Lesnoe Road outside of St. Petersburg. It is likely the corpse was incinerated (between 3 and 7 in the morning) in the cauldrons of the nearby boiler shop<ref>[http://www.encspb.ru/object/2804023731?lcen Rasputin G. E. (1869–1916)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304165732/http://www.encspb.ru/object/2804023731?lcen |date4 March 2016 }}. A.G. Kalmykov in the Saint Petersburg encyclopaedia.</ref><ref>Nelipa, pp. 454–455, 457–459.</ref><ref>Moe, p. 627.</ref> of the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, including the coffin, without leaving a single trace.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nlr.ru/petersburg/spbpcards/photos/lo000000328_1_m.jpg|titleThe boiler-building – Images of St Petersburg – National Library of Russia|access-date20 January 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180929160133/http://nlr.ru/petersburg/spbpcards/photos/lo000000328_1_m.jpg|archive-date29 September 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Russian Provisional Government of 1917
{{Further|Russian Provisional Government}}
When the February Revolution broke out in 1917, Kerensky – together with Pavel Milyukov – was one of its most prominent leaders. As one of the Duma's most well-known speakers against the monarchy and as a lawyer and defender of many revolutionaries, Kerensky became a member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the newly formed Petrograd Soviet. These two bodies, the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, or – rather – their respective executive committees, soon became each other's antagonists on most matters except regarding the end of the tsar's autocracy.
The Petrograd Soviet grew to include 3000 to 4000 members, and their meetings could drown in a blur of everlasting orations. At the meeting of {{OldStyleDate|12 March|1917|27 February}} to {{OldStyleDate|13 March|1917|28 February}} the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, or Ispolkom, formed a self-appointed committee, with (eventually) three members from each of the parties represented in the Soviet. Kerensky became one of the members representing the Socialist Revolutionary Party (the SRs).<ref>Richard Pipes (1995). "The Russian Revolution", pp. 104–06 Swedish {{ISBN|91-27-09935-0}}</ref>
On {{OldStyleDate|14 March|1917|1 March}}, without any consultation with the government, the Ispolkom of the Soviet issued the infamous Order No. 1, intended only for the 160,000-strong Petrograd garrison, but soon interpreted as applicable to all soldiers at the front. The order stipulated that all military units should form committees like the Petrograd Soviet. This led to confusion and "stripping of officers' authority"; further, "Order No. 3" stipulated that the military was subordinate to Ispolkom in the political hierarchy. The ideas came from a group of socialists and aimed to limit the officers' power to military affairs. The socialist intellectuals believed the officers to be the most likely counterrevolutionary elements. Kerensky's role in these orders is unclear, but he participated in the decisions. But just as before the revolution he had defended many who disliked the tsar, he now saved the lives of many{{quantify|dateMarch 2019}} of the tsar's civil servants about to be lynched by mobs.<ref name"Pipes, p. 110">Pipes, p. 110</ref>
]]
Additionally, the Duma formed an executive committee which eventually became the Russian Provisional Government. As there was little trust between Ispolkom and this government (and as he was about to accept the office of Attorney General in the Provisional Government), Kerensky gave a most passionate speech, not just to the Ispolkom, but to the entire Petrograd Soviet. He then swore, as minister, never to violate democratic values, and ended his speech with the words "I cannot live without the people. In the moment you begin to doubt me, then kill me."<ref>{{Cite book|lastLoscher|firstJohn D.|titleThe Bolsheviks Volume II: How the Soviets Seize Power, Volume 2|publisherAuthorHouse|year2009|isbn978-1449023317|page362}}</ref> The huge majority (workers and soldiers) gave him great applause, and Kerensky now became the first and the only one<ref>{{cite news|date2017-11-06|titleWhat was Russia's last leader before the Bolshevik revolution like?|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/alexander-kerensky-russia-bolshevik-revolution-interview-1917-centenary-a8036256.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171112225750/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/alexander-kerensky-russia-bolshevik-revolution-interview-1917-centenary-a8036256.html |archive-date2017-11-12 |url-accesslimited |url-statuslive|access-date2020-10-16|websiteThe Independent|languageen}}</ref> who participated in both the Provisional Government and the Ispolkom. As a link between Ispolkom and the Provisional Government, Kerensky stood to benefit from this position.<ref name"Pipes, p. 110"/><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/12/archives/alexander-kerensky-dies-here-at-89-alexander-kerensky-who-led-first.html|titleAlexander Kerensky Dies Here at 89|lastWhitman|firstAlden|date12 June 1970|websiteThe New York Times}}</ref>
After the first government crisis over Pavel Milyukov's secret note re-committing Russia to its original war-aims on 2–4 May, Kerensky became the Minister of War and the dominant figure in the newly formed socialist-liberal coalition government. On 10 May (Julian calendar), Kerensky started for the front and visited one division after another, urging the men to do their duty. His speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect.<ref>{{cite web|titleAlexander Kerensky|urlhttps://www.bl.uk/people/alexander-kerensky|access-date2020-10-16|websiteThe British Library|archive-date28 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228151902/https://www.bl.uk/people/alexander-kerensky|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|lastWoods|firstAlan|titleThe Russian Revolution: the meaning of October|urlhttps://www.socialist.net/the-russian-revolution-the-meaning-of-october-2.htm|access-date2020-10-16|websiteSocialist Appeal|date7 November 2016|languageen-gb|archive-date27 October 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201027004107/https://www.socialist.net/the-russian-revolution-the-meaning-of-october-2.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref> Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on {{OldStyleDate|1 July|1917|18 June}}.<ref>Preclík, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), váz. kniha, 219 pages, first issue vydalo nakladatelství Paris Karviná, Žižkova 2379 (734 01 Karvina, Czech Republic) ve spolupráci s Masarykovým demokratickým hnutím (Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague), 2019, {{ISBN|978-8087173473}}, pp. 36–39, 41–42, 111–12, 124–25, 128, 129, 132, 140–48, 184–99.</ref> At first successful, the offensive soon met strong resistance and the Central Powers riposted with a strong counter-attack. The Russian army retreated and suffered heavy losses, and it became clear from many incidents of desertion, sabotage, and mutiny that the army was no longer willing to attack.
The military heavily criticised Kerensky for his liberal policies, which included stripping officers of their mandates and handing over control to revolutionary-inclined "soldier committees" ({{langx |ru|солдатские комитеты | translit = soldatskie komitety}}) instead; abolition of the death penalty; and allowing revolutionary agitators to be present at the front. Many officers scornfully referred to commander-in-chief Kerensky as the "persuader-in-chief".
On 2 July 1917 the Provisional Government's first coalition collapsed over the question of Ukraine's autonomy. Following the July Days unrest in Petrograd (3–7 July [16–20 July, N.S.] 1917) and the official suppression of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky succeeded Prince Georgy Lvov as Russia's prime minister on {{OldStyleDate| 21 July|1917| 8 July}}. Following the Kornilov Affair, an attempted military coup d'état at the end of August, and the resignation of the other ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief, as well.
On 15 September Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic, which was contrary to the non-socialists' understanding that the Provisional Government should hold power only until a Constituent Assembly should meet to decide Russia's form of government, but which was in line with the long-proclaimed aim of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.<ref>Party manifesto listed in McCauley, M Octobrists to Bolsheviks: Imperial Russia 1905–1917 (1984)</ref> He formed a five-member Directory, which consisted of himself, Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko, Minister of War General Aleksandr Verkhovsky, Minister of the Navy Admiral Dmitry Verderevsky and Minister of Posts and Telegraphs {{Interlanguage link|Aleksei Nikitin (politician)|ru|Никитин, Алексей Максимович|lt=Aleksei Nikitin}}. He retained his post in the final coalition government in October 1917 until the Bolsheviks overthrew it on {{OldStyleDate|7 November|1917|26 October}}.
Kerensky faced a major challenge: three years of participation in World War had exhausted Russia, while the provisional government offered little motivation for a victory outside of continuing Russia's obligations towards its allies. Russia's continued involvement in the war was not popular among the lower and middle classes, and especially not popular among the soldiers. They had all believed that Russia would stop fighting when the Provisional Government took power,{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} and subsequently felt deceived. Furthermore, Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party were promising "peace, land, and bread" under a communist system. The Russian army, war-weary, ill-equipped, dispirited and ill-disciplined, was disintegrating, with soldiers deserting in large numbers. By autumn 1917, an estimated two million men had unofficially left the army.
Kerensky and other political leaders continued Russia's involvement in World War I, thinking that a glorious victory was the only way forward,<ref>Pipes p. 121</ref> and fearing that the economy, already under huge stress from the war effort, might become increasingly unstable if vital supplies from France and from the United Kingdom ceased flowing.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFailure of Provisional Government under Kerensky - February Revolution - Causes, events and effects - National 5 History Revision |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43tcqt/revision/7 |access-date2024-09-08 |websiteBBC Bitesize |language=en-GB}}</ref> The dilemma of whether to withdraw was a great one, and Kerensky's inconsistent and impractical policies further destabilised the army and the country at large.
Furthermore, Kerensky adopted a policy that isolated the right-wing conservatives, both democratic and monarchist-oriented. His philosophy of "no enemies to the left" greatly empowered the Bolsheviks and gave them a free hand, allowing them to take over the military arm or "voyenka" ({{langx |ru|Военка}}) of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets.<ref>{{Cite book|titleThe Russian Moderates and the Crisis of Tsarism 1914–1917|lastPearson|firstRaymond|publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK|year1977|isbn978-1-349-03385-0|pages=126–27}}</ref> His arrest of Lavr Kornilov and other officers left him without strong allies against the Bolsheviks, who ended up being Kerensky's strongest and most determined adversaries, as opposed to the right wing, which evolved into the White movement.
portrait by Georges Chevalier, 1921]]
October Revolution of 1917
{{Further|October Revolution}}
During the Kornilov Affair, Kerensky had distributed arms to the Petrograd workers, and by November most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks.<ref>{{Cite book|titleThe Estonians; The long road to independence|lastFaure and Mensing|firstGunter and Teresa|publisherLulu|year2012|isbn978-1105530036|page161}}</ref> On {{OldStyleDateNY|6–7 November|25–26 October}} 1917, the Bolsheviks launched the second Russian revolution of the year. Kerensky's government in Petrograd had almost no support in the city. Only one small force, a subdivision of the 2nd company of the First Petrograd Women's Battalion, also known as The Women's Death Battalion, was willing to fight for the government against the Bolsheviks, but this force was overwhelmed by the numerically superior pro-Bolshevik forces, defeated, and captured.<ref namegwar>{{cite web|titleWomen Soldiers in Russia's Great War|urlhttp://russiasgreatwar.org/media/military/women_soldiers.shtml|publisherGreat War|access-date1 April 2013}}</ref> The Bolsheviks overthrew the government rapidly by seizing governmental buildings and the Winter Palace.<ref>{{Cite book|titleThe History Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained|last|publisherDK|year2016|isbn978-1465445100|page278}}</ref>
Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to re-take the city. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoye Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky narrowly escaped, and he spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country, eventually arriving in France. During the Russian Civil War, he supported neither side, as he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the White Movement.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bl.uk/people/alexander-kerensky|titleAlexander Kerensky|websiteBritish Library|access-date24 July 2017|archive-date28 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228151902/https://www.bl.uk/people/alexander-kerensky|url-statusdead}}</ref> Meanwhile, viewed by Woodrow Wilson as the spokesman for Russian democracy, he strongly influenced Wilson on Russian matters. Kerensky sought to discredit Alexander Kolchak in Western eyes, telling American diplomats that if Kolchak succeeded, he would "inaugurate a regime hardly less sanguinary and repressive than that of the Bolshevists."<ref name"prrubr">{{cite book |last1Pipes |first1Richard |titleRussia Under the Bolshevik Regime |dateApril 4, 1995 |publisherVintage |isbn0679761845 |page95 |edition4th}}</ref>
Personal life
in 1938]]
Kerensky was married to Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya and they had two sons, Oleg (1905–1984) and Gleb (1907–1990), who both went on to become engineers. Kerensky's grandson (also named Oleg), according to the Internet Movie Database, played his grandfather's role in the 1981 film Reds.{{better source needed|dateNovember 2024}} Kerensky and Olga were divorced in 1939 soon after he settled in Paris. In 1939, while visiting the United States, he met and secretly married Australian journalist Lydia Ellen "Nell" Tritton (1899–1946), who became his press secretary and translator.<ref>[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-07-22/nell-tritton-alexander-kerensky-saved-from-stalin-hitler-history/12472416 The extraordinary life of Nell Tritton, an Australian heiress who saved her husband from assassins] Late Night Live, ABC Radio National. Retrieved 22 July 2020.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastHowells |firstMary |date2023-08-01 |titleFrom Austerity to Prosperity: Trittons in the 1940s. |urlhttps://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/austerity-prosperity-trittons-1940s |access-date2024-01-16 |websiteState Library Of Queensland |language=en}}</ref> The marriage took place in Martins Creek, Pennsylvania.
When Germany invaded France in 1940, they emigrated to the United States.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/tritton-lydia-ellen-nell-11879|titleAustralian Dictionary of Biography|firstJudith|lastArmstrong|publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University|access-date20 January 2019|viaAustralian Dictionary of Biography|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190121064239/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/tritton-lydia-ellen-nell-11879|archive-date21 January 2019|url-statusdead}}</ref> After the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to Joseph Stalin.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idgEwEAAAAMBAJ&lpgPP1&pg=PA76 Soviet's Chances]. By Alexander Kerensky. Life, 14 July 1941, pp. 76–78, 81.</ref>
When his wife Nell became terminally ill in 1945, Kerensky travelled with her to Brisbane, Australia, and lived there with her family. She suffered a stroke in February 1946, and he remained there until her death on 10 April 1946. Kerensky then returned to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/hc40.htm|titleLateline – The Half-Hearted Revolutionary In Paradise |dateSeptember 22, 2003 |first1Dusan |last1Bojic |websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corp |access-date2017-03-20|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160731094019/http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2003/hc40.htm|archive-date31 July 2016|url-status dead}}</ref>
Kerensky eventually settled in New York City, living on the Upper East Side on 91st Street near Central Park<ref name"nytimes">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/12/archives/alexander-kerensky-dies-here-at-89-alexander-kerensky-who-led-first.html |titleAlexander Kerensky Dies Here at 89|newspaperNew York Times|date12 June 1970 |last1Whitman |first1Alden |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231204150951/https://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/12/archives/alexander-kerensky-dies-here-at-89-alexander-kerensky-who-led-first.html?mcubz3 |archive-dateDec 4, 2023 }}</ref> but spent much of his time at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in California, where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on Russian history, and where he taught graduate courses. He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian politics and history. His last public lecture was delivered at Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, in October 1967.<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://cache.kzoo.edu/handle/10920/8205|titleAlexander Kerensky|websiteCACHE Digital Archive |publisherKalamazoo College |access-date2021-06-16 |url-statuslive |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195551/https://cache.kzoo.edu/handle/10920/8205 |archive-dateJun 24, 2021 }}</ref> Death
, London, 2014]]
Kerensky died of arteriosclerotic heart disease at St. Luke's Hospital in New York City on 11 June 1970, after being initially admitted for injuries sustained from a fall.<ref name"nytimes" /> At 89, he was one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917. The local Russian Orthodox Churches in New York City refused to grant Kerensky burial rites because of his association with Freemasonry, and because they saw him as largely responsible for the Bolsheviks' seizure of power.<ref>{{cite book |last1Buttar |first1Prit |titleThe Splintered Empires: The Eastern Front 1917–21 |date2017 |publisherBloomsbury |isbn9781472819864 |page242 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZFgyDwAAQBAJ&pgPA242 |access-date30 March 2024}}</ref> A Serbian Orthodox Church also refused burial rites. Kerensky's body was flown to London, where his two sons resided; he was buried at the non-denominational Putney Vale Cemetery.<ref>{{Cite news |date1970-06-18 |titleKerensky Is Buried at Rites in London |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/18/archives/kerensky-is-buried-at-rites-in-london.html |access-date2024-06-07 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn0362-4331}}</ref>Works
* [https://archive.org/details/preludetobolshev008537mbp The Prelude to Bolshevism] (1919). {{ISBN|0-8383-1422-8}}.
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.180014 The Catastrophe] (1927)
* The Crucifixion of Liberty (1934)
* ''Russia and History's Turning Point (1965)
* Memoirs'' (1966)
Archives
Papers of the Kerensky family are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.<ref>{{cite web|titleUoB Calmview5: Search results|urlhttps://calmview.bham.ac.uk/Record.aspx?srcCalmView.Catalog&idXMS126|access-date2021-02-26|websitecalmview.bham.ac.uk}}</ref>
See also
* Jailbirds of Kerensky
Explanatory notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|33em}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |firstRichard |lastAbraham |titleKerensky: First Love of the Revolution |publisherColumbia University Press |year1987 |isbn0-231-06108-0 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexanderkerensk00abra_0 }}
* {{Cite journal |lastLipatova |firstNadezhda V. |dateMarch 2013 |titleOn the Verge of the Collapse of Empire: Images of Alexander Kerensky and Mikhail Gorbachev |urlhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09668136.2012.759715 |journalEurope-Asia Studies |languageen |volume65 |issue2 |pages264–289 |doi10.1080/09668136.2012.759715 |s2cid143666270 |issn=0966-8136}}
* {{Cite journal |lastThatcher |firstIan D. |date2015 |titlePost-Soviet Russian Historians and the Russian Provisional Government of 1917 |urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/pub/427/article/816611 |journalSlavonic and East European Review |volume93 |issue2 |pages315–337 |doi10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.93.2.0315 |issn=2222-4327}}
* {{Cite journal |lastThatcher |firstIan D. |date2014-01-02 |title Memoirs of the Russian provisional government 1917 |urlhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546545.2014.902839 |journalRevolutionary Russia |languageen |volume27 |issue1 |pages1–21 |doi10.1080/09546545.2014.902839 |s2cid144023566 |issn=0954-6545}}
* {{cite book |firstPeter Alexander |lastThompson |titleThe Quest for Freedom: A life of Alexander Kerensky the Russian Unicorn |publisherBookBaby |isbn978-1098319687 |url |date=19 August 2020}}
* {{BLF|4204|Aleksandr Kerenskij}}
External links
{{Commons category|Alexander Kerensky}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Alexander Kerensky}}
* [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kerensky/ Alexander Kerensky Archive] at marxists.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311025735/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s]
* {{IMDb name|0449292}}
<!--*[http://www.kerensky.org.uk/ Alexander Kerensky Museum in London]-->
* {{PM20|FID=pe/009425}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before = Georgy Lvov}}
{{s-ttl|title Minister-Chairman of the Russian Provisional Government|years 21 July 1917 – 8 November 1917}}
{{s-aft|after = Vladimir Lenin<br /><small>{{nobold|(Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars)}}</small><br />Lev Kamenev<br /><small>{{nobold|(Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee)}}</small>}}
{{s-end}}
{{Prime Ministers of Russia}}
{{Russian Revolution 1917}}
{{Justice ministers of Russia}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kerensky, Alexander}}
Category:1881 births
Category:1970 deaths
Category:20th-century presidents of Russia
Category:Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery
Category:Commanders-in-chief of the Russian Army
Category:Democratic socialists
Category:Heads of government of the Russian Provisional Government
Category:Hoover Institution people
Category:Justice ministers of Russia
Category:Lawyers from the Russian Empire
Category:Leaders ousted by a coup
Category:Members of the 4th State Duma of the Russian Empire
Category:Members of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples
Category:Ministers of defence of Russia
Category:People from Simbirsky Uyezd
Category:People from Ulyanovsk
Category:Revolutionaries of the Russian Revolution
Category:Russian Constituent Assembly members
Category:Russian Freemasons
Category:Russian anti-communists
Category:Russian anti-fascists
Category:Russian democracy activists
Category:Russian nationalists
Category:Russian people of World War I
Category:Russian social democrats
Category:Socialist Revolutionary Party politicians
Category:Stanford University faculty
Category:Trudoviks
Category:White Russian emigrants to Australia
Category:White Russian emigrants to France
Category:White Russian emigrants to the United States
Category:World War I political leaders
Category:World War II political leaders
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky
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Ansgar
|
{{Short description|Christian saint, Archbishop, and missionary}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = Saint
|name=Ansgar
|birth_date=8 September 801
|death_date{{death date and age|dfyes|865|2|3|801|9|8}}
|feast_day=3 February
|venerated_inCatholic Church<br/>Eastern Orthodox Church<ref>February 16 / February 3. https://www.holytrinityorthodox.com/htc/orthodox-calendar/</ref><br/>Anglican Communion<ref name"teccalendar">{{Cite web |titleAnskar, Bishop and Missionary, 865 |urlhttps://www.episcopalchurch.org/lectionary/anskar/ |access-date2022-07-20 |websiteThe Episcopal Church |languageen-US}}</ref><br/>Lutheranism<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.resurrectionpeople.org/saints.html |titleNotable Lutheran Saints |websiteResurrectionpeople.org |access-date16 July 2019 |archive-date16 May 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190516024927/http://www.resurrectionpeople.org/saints.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
|image=Bendixen Ansgar.jpg
|imagesize|captionA depiction of Saint Ansgar by Siegfried Bendixen from the Church Trinitatis, in Hamburg, Germany
|birth_place=Corbie, Frankish Kingdom
|death_place=Bremen, East Francia
|titles=Apostle of the North
|beatified_date|beatified_place
|beatified_by|canonized_date
|canonized_place|canonized_byPope Nicholas I
|attributes=Dressed in archbishop's attire with a model of the church
||suppressed_date|patronageScandinavia, Missionaries|issues|prayer
|prayer_attrib=
}}
Ansgar (8 September 801 – 3 February 865), also known as Anskar,<ref>{{Cite web|url https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-worship/worship/texts/festivals/lesser-festivals/anskar.aspx|title Common Worship texts: Festivals|access-date 2015-02-03|website The Church of England}}</ref> Saint Ansgar, Saint Anschar or Oscar, was Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in the northern part of the Kingdom of the East Franks. Ansgar became known as the "Apostle of the North" because of his travels and the See of Hamburg received the missionary mandate to bring Christianity to Northern Europe.<ref name"ce">{{CathEncy|wstitleSt. Anschar}}</ref><ref nameSHMI>{{cite book|authorFr. Paolo O. Pirlo, SHMI|titleMy First Book of Saints|year1997|publisherSons of Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications|isbn971-91595-4-5|pages41|chapterSt. Ansgar}}</ref>
Life
Ansgar was the son of a noble Frankish family, born near Amiens (present day France).<ref nameSHMI /><ref namedictionary>{{cite book|lastFarmer|firstDavid Hugh|titleThe Oxford dictionary of saints|year1997|publisherOxford Univ. Press|locationOxford [u.a.]|isbn0-19-280058-2|page25|edition4}}</ref> After his mother's early death, Ansgar was brought up in Benedictine monastery of Corbie in Picardy.<ref nameSHMI /> According to the Vita Ansgarii ("Life of Ansgar"), when the little boy learned in a vision that his mother was in the company of Mary, mother of Jesus, his careless attitude toward spiritual matters changed to seriousness.<ref>Rimbert, "Life of Ansgar" at p. 1, English translation available at https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/anskar.asp</ref> His pupil, successor, and eventual biographer Rimbert considered the visions (of which this was the first) to have been Ansgar's main life motivator.
Ansgar acted in the context of the phase of Christianization of Saxony (present day Northern Germany) begun by Charlemagne and continued by Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis the Pious. In 822 Ansgar became one of many missionaries sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, where he became a teacher and preacher. A group of monks including Ansgar were sent further north to Jutland with the king Harald Klak, who had received baptism during his exile. With Harald's downfall in 827 and Ansgar's companion Autbert having died, their school for the sons of courtiers closed and Ansgar returned to Germany. Then in 829, after the Swedish king Björn at Hauge requested missionaries for his Swedes, King Louis sent Ansgar, now accompanied by friar Witmar from New Corbie as his assistant. Ansgar preached and made converts, particularly during six months at Birka, on Lake Mälaren, where the wealthy widow Mor Frideborg extended hospitality. Ansgar organized a small congregation with her and the king's steward, Hergeir, as its most prominent members.
In 831 Ansgar returned to Louis' court at Worms and was appointed to the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. This was a new archbishopric, incorporating the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden and with the right to send missions into all the northern lands, as well as to consecrate bishops for them. Ansgar received the mission of evangelizing pagan Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The King of Sweden decided to cast lots as to whether to admit the Christian missionaries into his kingdom. Ansgar recommended the issue to the care of God, and the lot was favorable.<ref name=SHMI /> Ansgar was consecrated as a bishop in November 831, with the approval of Gregory IV. Before traveling north once again, Ansgar traveled to Rome to receive the pallium directly from the pope's hands, and was formally named legate for the northern lands. Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims had previously received a similar commission, but would be deposed twice before his death in 851, and never actually traveled so far north, so the jurisdiction was divided by agreement, with Ebbo retaining Sweden for himself. For a time Ansgar devoted himself to the needs of his own diocese, which was still a missionary territory and had few churches. He founded a monastery and a school in Hamburg. Although intended to serve the Danish mission further north, it accomplished little.
After Louis the Pious died in 840, his empire was divided and Ansgar lost the abbey of Turholt, which Louis had given to endow Ansgar's work. Then in 845, the Danes unexpectedly raided Hamburg, destroying all the church's treasures and books. Ansgar now had neither see nor revenue, and many helpers deserted him. The new king, Louis' third son, Louis the German, did not re-endow Turholt to Ansgar, but in 847 he named the missionary to the vacant diocese of Bremen, where Ansgar moved in 848. However, since Bremen had been suffragan to the Bishop of Cologne, combining the sees of Bremen and Hamburg presented canonical difficulties. After prolonged negotiations, Pope Nicholas I would approve the union of the two dioceses in 864.
Through this political turmoil, Ansgar continued his northern mission. The Danish civil war compelled him to establish good relations with two kings, Horik the Elder and his son, Horik II. Both assisted him until his death; Ansgar was able to secure permission to build a church in Sleswick north of Hamburg and recognition of Christianity as a tolerated religion.<ref>Wood, Ian. The Missionary Life: Saints and the Evangelisation of Europe, 400–1050. Great Britain: Longman, 2001. pp. 124–125</ref> Ansgar did not forget the Swedish mission, and spent two years there in person (848–850), averting a threatened pagan reaction. In 854, Ansgar returned to Sweden when king Olof ruled in Birka. According to Rimbert, he was well disposed to Christianity. On a Viking raid to Apuole (current village in Lithuania) in Courland, the Swedes plundered the Curonians.
Death and legacy
Ansgar was buried in Bremen in 865. His successor as archbishop, Rimbert, wrote the Vita Ansgarii. He noted that Ansgar wore a rough hair shirt, lived on bread and water, and showed great charity to the poor. Adam of Bremen attributed the Vita et miracula of Willehad (first bishop of Bremen) to Ansgar in Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ; Ansgar is also the reputed author of a collection of brief prayers Pigmenta (ed. J. M. Lappenberg, Hamburg, 1844).<ref>Samuel Macauley, ed. (1914). "Ansgar". New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls</ref> Pope Nicholas I declared Ansgar a saint shortly after the missionary's death. The first actual missionary in Sweden and the Nordic countries (and organizer of the Catholic church therein), Ansgar was later declared "Patron of Scandinavia".<ref name=SHMI />
Relics are located in Hamburg in two places: St. Mary's Cathedral (Ger.: Domkirche St. Marien) and St. Ansgar's and St. Bernard's Church (Ger.: St. Ansgar und St. Bernhard Kirche).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.gpsmycity.com/attractions/st-marys-cathedral-31826.html|title St. Mary's Cathedral in Hamburg, Germany}}</ref>
Statues of Bishop Ansgar stand in Hamburg, Copenhagen and Ribe, as well as a stone cross at Birka. His feast day (Lesser Festival) is 3 February, as it is in the Church of England,<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Calendar|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date2021-03-27|websiteThe Church of England|languageen}}</ref> the Episcopal Church,<ref name"teccalendar" /> and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.<ref>{{Cite book |titleEvangelical Lutheran Worship Leaders Desk Edition |publisherAugsburg Fortress |year2006 |isbn978-0-8066-5620-5 |edition8th (2019) Printing |locationMinneapolis, MN |pages58}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.renewingworship.org/ELW/content/PDF/ChurchYear_asm_20060119.pdf|titleThe Church Year|dateJanuary 2006|websiteRenewing Worship|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060908112753/http://www.renewingworship.org/ELW/content/PDF/ChurchYear_asm_20060119.pdf|archive-dateSeptember 8, 2006|access-dateApril 14, 2020}}</ref>Visions
Although a historical document and primary source written by a man whose existence can be proven historically, the Vita Ansgarii ("The Life of Ansgar") aims above all to demonstrate Ansgar's sanctity. It is partly concerned with Ansgar's visions, which, according to the author Rimbert, encouraged and assisted Ansgar's remarkable missionary feats.
Through the course of this work, Ansgar repeatedly embarks on a new stage in his career following a vision. According to Rimbert, his early studies and ensuing devotion to the ascetic life of a monk were inspired by a vision of his mother in the presence of Mary, mother of Jesus. Again, when the Swedish people were left without a priest for some time, he begged King Horik to help him with this problem; then after receiving his consent, consulted with Bishop Gautbert to find a suitable man. The two together sought the approval of King Louis, which he granted when he learned that they were in agreement on the issue. Ansgar was convinced he was commanded by heaven to undertake this mission and was influenced by a vision he received when he was concerned about the journey, in which he met a man who reassured him of his purpose and informed him of a prophet that he would meet, the abbot Adalhard, who would instruct him in what was to happen. In the vision, he searched for and found Adalhard, who quoted to him "Islands, listen to me, pay attention, remotest peoples" (Isaiah 49:1). Ansgar interpreted this as showing God's will that he go to the Scandinavian countries as "most of that country consisted of islands, especially when Adalhard added "I will make you the light of the nations so that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth" (Isaiah 49:6), since the end of the world in the north was in Swedish territory.<ref namerimbert>{{cite web|lastRimbert|titleLife of Anskar, the Apostle of the North, 801–865|urlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.asp|workMedieval Sourcebook|publisherNew York: Fordham University|access-date2012-07-18}}</ref>See also
*List of Eastern Orthodox saints
*Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)
* Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar
* Priory of St. Ansgar
* Sankt-Ansgar-Schule
*Vita Ansgarii
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Jakobsson, Sverrir. Mission Miscarried: The Narrators of the Ninth-Century Missions to Scandinavia and Central Europe. Bulgaria Medievalis 2 (2011), 49–69.
* Palmer, James T., ''Rimbert's Vita Anskarii and the Scandinavian Mission in the Ninth Century. Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55/2 (2004), 235–56.
* Pryce, Mark. Literary Companion to the Festivals: A Poetic Gathering to Accompany Liturgical Celebrations of Commemorations and Festivals. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.
* Tschan, Francis J. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.
External links
{{commons category|Saint Ansgar}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20000309135829/http://www.skolinternet.telia.se/TIS/birka/texteng/hist.htm Ansgar at Birka History of Birka]
*Vita Ansgari, English translation from [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Medieval sourcebook]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051102144454/http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/subject/hd/fak7/hist/c1/de/gen/gen/grmnhist/log.started920201/mail-16.html German History Forum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130313011358/http://www.cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/ANSKAR/Anskar-DOOR.html ANSKAR The Apostle of the North (801–865). Translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert his fellow missionary and successor. BY CHARLES H. ROBINSON. Im BTM format]
<br>
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou||8 September|801 in Amiens or 796 in Corbie|3 February|865 in Bremen}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-new|diocese|reason=}}
{{s-ttl|titleArchbishop of Hamburg|years834–865}}
{{s-aft|rows2|afterRimbert}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=Leuderich}}
{{s-ttl|titleBishop of Bremen|years848–865}}
{{s-end}}
{{Subject bar |portal1Saints |portal2 Biography |portal3Christianity |portal4 Europe}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ansgar}}
Category:801 births
Category:865 deaths
Category:Diplomats of the Holy See
Category:Danish Roman Catholic saints
Category:Medieval Swedish saints
Category:Bishops in the Carolingian Empire
Category:Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen
Category:9th-century Christian saints
Category:Saints from East Francia
Category:9th-century people from East Francia
Category:Christian missionaries in Denmark
Category:Christian missionaries in Sweden
Category:Medieval Danish saints
Category:9th-century writers in Latin
Category:Writers from the Carolingian Empire
Category:Anglican saints
Category:Lutheran saints
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansgar
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.122418
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2546
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Automated theorem proving
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{{short description|Subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic}}
Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major motivating factor for the development of computer science.
Logical foundations
While the roots of formalized logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalized mathematics. Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic.<ref>{{cite book|lastFrege|firstGottlob|titleBegriffsschrift|year1879|publisherVerlag Louis Neuert|urlhttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65658c}}</ref> His Foundations of Arithmetic, published in 1884,<ref>{{cite book|lastFrege|firstGottlob|titleDie Grundlagen der Arithmetik|year1884|publisherWilhelm Kobner|locationBreslau|urlhttp://www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/philo/textesph/Frege.pdf|access-date2012-09-02|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070926172317/http://www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/philo/textesph/Frege.pdf|archive-date2007-09-26|url-statusdead}}</ref> expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910–1913,<ref>{{cite book |authorRussell |first1Bertrand |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924001575244 |titlePrincipia Mathematica |last2Whitehead |first2Alfred North |publisherCambridge University Press |year1910–1913 |edition1st}}</ref> and with a revised second edition in 1927.<ref>{{cite book |authorRussell |first1Bertrand |urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.221192 |titlePrincipia Mathematica |last2Whitehead |first2Alfred North |publisherCambridge University Press |year1927 |edition2nd |languageen}}</ref> Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.<ref>{{cite thesis |firstJ. |lastHerbrand |titleRecherches sur la théorie de la démonstration |date1930 |typePhD |publisherUniversity of Paris |urlhttps://eudml.org/doc/192791 |languagefr}}</ref>
In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.<ref>{{cite journal|lastPresburger|firstMojżesz|titleÜber die Vollständigkeit eines gewissen Systems der Arithmetik ganzer Zahlen, in welchem die Addition als einzige Operation hervortritt|journalComptes Rendus du I Congrès de Mathématiciens des Pays Slaves|year1929|pages92–101|locationWarszawa}}</ref><ref nameDavis2001>{{Cite book
| last = Davis
| first = Martin
| author-link = Martin Davis (mathematician)
| chapter = The Early History of Automated Deduction
| year = 2001
| chapter-url = http://cs.nyu.edu/cs/faculty/davism/early.ps
| title = {{harvnb|Robinson|Voronkov|2001}}
| access-date = 2012-09-08
| archive-date = 2012-07-28
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120728092819/http://www.cs.nyu.edu/cs/faculty/davism/early.ps
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system, there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions.
First implementations
In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, "Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even".<ref nameDavis2001/><ref nameBibel2007>{{cite journal|lastBibel|firstWolfgang|titleEarly History and Perspectives of Automated Deduction|journalKi 2007|year2007|seriesLNAI|issue4667|pages2–18|urlhttp://www.intellektik.de/resources/OsnabrueckBuchfassung.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.intellektik.de/resources/OsnabrueckBuchfassung.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date2 September 2012|publisherSpringer}}</ref> More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the Principia Mathematica, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the Principia.<ref name=Davis2001/>
The "heuristic" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle. In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore's program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious.<ref nameDavis2001/><ref>{{cite journal|lastGilmore|firstPaul|titleA proof procedure for quantification theory: its justification and realisation|journalIBM Journal of Research and Development|year1960|volume4|pages28–35|doi10.1147/rd.41.0028}}</ref> Decidability of the problem {{Unreferenced section|dateApril 2010}}
Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, invalid formulas (those that are not entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.
The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).
Related problems
A simpler, but related, problem is proof verification, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.
Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.
Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture.<ref>{{cite journal |lastMcCune |firstW. W. |year1997 |titleSolution of the Robbins Problem |journalJournal of Automated Reasoning |volume19 |issue3 |pages263–276 |doi10.1023/A:1005843212881 |s2cid30847540}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |authorKolata |firstGina |dateDecember 10, 1996 |titleComputer Math Proof Shows Reasoning Power |newspaperThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/1210math.html |access-date=2008-10-11}}</ref> However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.
Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).
There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player.
Applications
Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.<ref>{{Citation |lastGoel |firstShilpi |titleMicroprocessor Assurance and the Role of Theorem Proving |date2022 |workHandbook of Computer Architecture |pages1–43 |editor-lastChattopadhyay |editor-firstAnupam |urlhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-15-6401-7_38-1 |access-date2024-02-10 |placeSingapore |publisherSpringer Nature Singapore |languageen |doi10.1007/978-981-15-6401-7_38-1 |isbn978-981-15-6401-7 |last2Ray |first2=Sandip}}</ref>
Other uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification.<ref>{{cite book |last1Basin |first1D. |titleProgram Development in Computational Logic |last2Deville |first2Y. |last3Flener |first3P. |last4Hamfelt |first4A. |last5Fischer Nilsson |first5J. |publisherSpringer |year2004 |editorM. Bruynooghe and K.-K. Lau |seriesLNCS |volume3049 |pages30&ndash;65 |chapterSynthesis of programs in computational logic |citeseerx10.1.1.62.4976}}</ref> Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Meng |first1Jia |last2Paulson |first2Lawrence C. |date2008-01-01 |titleTranslating Higher-Order Clauses to First-Order Clauses |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10817-007-9085-y |journalJournal of Automated Reasoning |languageen |volume40 |issue1 |pages35–60 |doi10.1007/s10817-007-9085-y |issn1573-0670 |s2cid7716709}}</ref>
Applications of theorem provers are also found in natural language processing and formal semantics, where they are used to analyze discourse representations.<ref>Bos, Johan. [https://aclanthology.org/W08-2222.pdf "Wide-coverage semantic analysis with boxer."] Semantics in text processing. step 2008 conference proceedings. 2008.</ref><ref>Muskens, Reinhard. [https://philarchive.org/archive/MUSCMS "Combining Montague semantics and discourse representation."] Linguistics and philosophy (1996): 143-186.</ref>
First-order theorem proving
In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2023}} One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University.<ref>{{cite report |urlhttps://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA027455 |titleAutomatic Program Verification V: Verification-Oriented Proof Rules for Arrays, Records, and Pointers |authorLuckham |first1David C. |last2Suzuki |first2Norihisa |dateMar 1976 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210812180903/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA027455 |archive-dateAugust 12, 2021 |url-statuslive |institutionDefense Technical Information Center |typeTechnical Report AD-A027 455}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi10.1145/357073.357078 | first1David C. |last1Luckham |first2Norihisa |last2Suzuki | titleVerification of Array, Record, and Pointer Operations in Pascal | journalACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems | volume1 | number2 | pages226–244 | dateOct 1979 | s2cid10088183 | doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite tech report | urlhttps://exhibits.stanford.edu/stanford-pubs/catalog/nh154bt5645 |first1D. |last1Luckham |first2S. |last2German |first3F. |last3von Henke |first4R. |last4Karp |first5P. |last5Milne |first6D. |last6Oppen |first7W. |last7Polak |first8W. |last8Scherlis | titleStanford Pascal verifier user manual | institutionStanford University | idCS-TR-79-731 | year1979 }}</ref> This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson's resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society before solutions were formally published.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2020}}
First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling fully automated systems.<ref>{{Cite book |lastLoveland |firstD. W. |titleProceedings of the ACM SIGART international symposium on Methodologies for intelligent systems |date1986 |publisherACM Press |isbn978-0-89791-206-8 |locationKnoxville, Tennessee, United States |page224 |languageen |chapterAutomated theorem proving: Mapping logic into AI |doi10.1145/12808.12833 |doi-accessfree |s2cid14361631}}</ref> More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.<ref>Kerber, Manfred. "[https://kluedo.ub.uni-kl.de/files/364/seki_4.pdf How to prove higher order theorems in first order logic]." (1999).</ref><ref>Benzmüller, Christoph, et al. "[https://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/cbenzmueller/papers/C26.pdf LEO-II-a cooperative automatic theorem prover for classical higher-order logic (system description)]." International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning. Berlin, Germany and Heidelberg: Springer, 2008.</ref>Relationship with SMTThere is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers. Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Blanchette |first1Jasmin Christian |last2Böhme |first2Sascha |last3Paulson |first3Lawrence C. |date2013-06-01 |titleExtending Sledgehammer with SMT Solvers |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10817-013-9278-5 |journalJournal of Automated Reasoning |languageen |volume51 |issue1 |pages109–128 |doi10.1007/s10817-013-9278-5 |s2cid5389933 |issn1573-0670|quoteATPs and SMT solvers have complementary strengths. The former handle quantifiers more elegantly, whereas the latter excel on large, mostly ground problems.}}</ref> The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Weber |first1Tjark |last2Conchon |first2Sylvain |last3Déharbe |first3David |last4Heizmann |first4Matthias |last5Niemetz |first5Aina |last6Reger |first6Giles |date2019-01-01 |titleThe SMT Competition 2015–2018 |journalJournal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation |languageen |volume11 |issue1 |pages221–259 |doi10.3233/SAT190123|quoteIn recent years, we have seen a blurring of lines between SMT-COMP and CASC with SMT solvers competing in CASC and ATPs competing in SMT-COMP.|doi-accessfree }}</ref>Benchmarks, competitions, and sources The quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library<ref>{{cite web|lastSutcliffe|firstGeoff|titleThe TPTP Problem Library for Automated Theorem Proving|urlhttp://www.tptp.org/|access-date15 July 2019}}</ref>—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.
Some important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.
* E is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.
* Otter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.
* SETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.
* Vampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder. It is now developed by a growing international team. It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.<ref>{{cite web |titleHistory |urlhttps://vprover.github.io/history.html |website=vprover.github.io}}</ref>
* Waldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand. It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).
* SPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.
The Theorem Prover Museum<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://theoremprover-museum.github.io |titleThe Theorem Prover Museum |access-date2022-11-20 |publisherMichael Kohlhase}}</ref> is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts. It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above.
Popular techniques
{{Prose|date=December 2023}}
*First-order resolution with unification
*Model elimination
*Method of analytic tableaux
*Superposition and term rewriting
*Model checking
*Mathematical induction<ref>{{cite tech report |firstAlan |lastBundy |titleThe automation of proof by mathematical induction |date1999 |publisherDivision of Informatics, University of Edinburgh|urlhttps://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/3394/0002.pdf?sequence1 |hdl1842/3394 |seriesInformatics Research Report |volume2}}</ref>
*Binary decision diagrams
*DPLL
*Higher-order unification
*Quantifier elimination<ref>Gabbay, Dov M., and Hans Jürgen Ohlbach. [https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1834831/component/file_2172339/content "Quantifier elimination in second-order predicate logic."] (1992).</ref>
Software systems{{anchor|Comparison}}
{{See also|Proof assistant#Comparison|Category:Theorem proving software systems}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Comparison
|-
! Name !! License type !! Web service !! Library !! Standalone !! Last update {{small|(YYYY-mm-dd format)}}
|-
| ACL2 || 3-clause BSD || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2019-05}}
|-
| Prover9/Otter || Public Domain || {{Yes|Via System on TPTP}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2009}}
|-
| Jape || GPLv2 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2015-05-15}}
|-
| PVS || GPLv2 || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2013-01-14}}
|-
| EQP || {{dunno}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2009-05}}
|-
| PhoX || {{dunno}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} ||{{No}} || {{dts|2017-09-28}}
|-
| E || GPL || {{Yes|Via System on TPTP}} ||{{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2017-07-04}}
|-
| SNARK || Mozilla Public License 1.1 || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2012}}
|-
| Vampire ||Vampire License || {{Yes|Via System on TPTP}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2017-12-14}}
|-
| Theorem Proving System (TPS) || TPS Distribution Agreement || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{dts|2012-02-04}}
|-
| SPASS || FreeBSD license || {{Yes}}|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2005-11}}
|-
| IsaPlanner || GPL || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2007}}
|-
| KeY || GPL || {{Yes}}|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2017-10-11}}
|-
| Z3 Theorem Prover || MIT License || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{dts|2019|11|19}}
|-
|}
Free software
* Alt-Ergo
* Automath
* CVC
* E
* IsaPlanner
* LCF
* Mizar
* NuPRL
* Paradox
* Prover9
* PVS
* SPARK (programming language)
* Twelf
* Z3 Theorem Prover
Proprietary software
* CARINE
* Wolfram Mathematica
* ResearchCyc
See also
{{Div col}}
* Curry–Howard correspondence
* Symbolic computation
* Ramanujan machine
* Computer-aided proof
* Formal verification
* Logic programming
* Proof checking
* Model checking
* Proof complexity
* Computer algebra system
* Program analysis (computer science)
* General Problem Solver
* Metamath language for formalized mathematics
* De Bruijn factor{{colend}}
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | title = Symbolic Logic and Mechanical Theorem Proving
| first1 Chin-Liang |last1Chang
|first2Richard Char-Tung |last2Lee
| publisher = Elsevier
| isbn9780080917283 |date2014 |url{{GBurl|oGriBQAAQBAJ|pgPR7}}
| orig-year = 1973
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Loveland
| first Donald W. |author-linkDonald W. Loveland
| title = Automated Theorem Proving: A Logical Basis
| seriesFundamental Studies in Computer Science |volume6
| publisher = Elsevier
| isbn9781483296777 |date2016 |url{{GBurl|lsvSBQAAQBAJ|pgPP11}}
| orig-year = 1978
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Luckham
| first David |author-linkDavid Luckham
| title = Programming with Specifications: An Introduction to Anna, A Language for Specifying Ada Programs
| publisher = Springer
| year = 1990
| isbn = 978-1461396871
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gallier
| first Jean H. | author-link Jean Gallier
| title = Logic for Computer Science: Foundations of Automatic Theorem Proving
| publisher Dover |edition2nd
| orig-year 1986 |date2015 |isbn978-0-486-78082-5 |quoteThis material may be reproduced for any educational purpose, ...
| url = http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~jean/gbooks/logic.html
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Duffy
| first = David A.
| title = Principles of Automated Theorem Proving
| year = 1991
| publisher Wiley |isbn9780471927846
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Wos
| first Larry |author-linkLarry Wos
|author2Overbeek, Ross|author3 Lusk, Ewing|author4= Boyle, Jim
| title = Automated Reasoning: Introduction and Applications
| edition = 2nd
| publisher McGraw–Hill | isbn9780079112514
| year = 1992
}}
* {{cite book
| title Handbook of Automated Reasoning |volumeI
| title-link = Handbook of Automated Reasoning
| editor1-first Alan |editor1-lastRobinson
| editor1-link = John Alan Robinson
| editor2-firstAndrei | editor2-lastVoronkov
| editor2-link = Andrei Voronkov (scientist)
| publisher = Elsevier, MIT Press
| year = 2001
| isbn=9780080532790
}} II {{ISBN|9780262182232}}.
* {{cite book
| last = Fitting
| first Melvin |author-linkMelvin Fitting
| title = First-Order Logic and Automated Theorem Proving
| edition = 2nd
| publisher = Springer
| orig-year 1996 |date2012 |isbn=9781461223603
| url = {{GBurl|133kBwAAQBAJ}}
}}
{{refend}}
External links
* [https://github.com/johnyf/tool_lists/blob/master/verification_synthesis.md#theorem-provers A list of theorem proving tools]
{{Mathematical logic}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Automated Theorem Proving}}
Category:Formal methods
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving
|
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Agent Orange
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{{Short description|Herbicide used by the US in the Vietnam War}}
{{other uses}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-stylevanc|display-authors6}}
{{use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{good article}}
Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange over agricultural land during the Vietnam War in its herbicidal warfare campaign|thumb]]
{{Pollution sidebar|War}}
Agent Orange is a chemical herbicide and defoliant, one of the tactical use of Rainbow Herbicides. It was used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand,{{sfn|Buckingham|1982}} during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.science20.com/news_articles/agent_orange_linked_skin_cancer_risk-128602 |titleAgent Orange Linked To Skin Cancer Risk |dateJanuary 29, 2014 |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191023230836/https://www.science20.com/news_articles/agent_orange_linked_skin_cancer_risk-128602 |workScience 2.0 |archive-dateOctober 23, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The U.S. was strongly influenced by the British who used Agent Orange during the Malayan Emergency. It is a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D.
Agent Orange was produced in the United States beginning in the late 1940s and was used in industrial agriculture, and was also sprayed along railroads and power lines to control undergrowth in forests. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. military procured over {{convert|20,000,000|U.S.gal|abbron}}, consisting of a fifty-fifty mixture of 2,4-D and dioxin-contaminated 2,4,5-T. Nine chemical companies produced it: Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto Company, Diamond Shamrock Corporation, Hercules Inc., Thompson Hayward Chemical Co., United States Rubber Company (Uniroyal), Thompson Chemical Co., Hoffman-Taff Chemicals, Inc., and Agriselect.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://agentorangerecord.com/manufacturing-sites/ |titleManufacturing Sites |publisherAgentorangerecord.com |date2010-12-28 |access-date2022-02-11 |archive-dateFebruary 5, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220205103348/https://agentorangerecord.com/manufacturing-sites/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange,<ref name"The Washington Post">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/14/AR2007061401077_4.html |lastStocking |firstBen |titleAgent Orange Still Haunts Vietnam, US|date2007-06-14 |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date2017-03-29 |languageen-US |issn0190-8286 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330083914/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/14/AR2007061401077_4.html |archive-date2017-03-30|url-statuslive}}</ref> while the Vietnamese Red Cross estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange.<ref name"Jessica King">{{cite news |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/vietnam-us-agent-orange/ |titleU.S. in first effort to clean up Agent Orange in Vietnam |firstJessica |lastKing |date2012-08-10 |access-date2012-08-11 |workCNN |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130303060725/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/vietnam-us-agent-orange |archive-date2013-03-03 |url-statuslive}}</ref> While the United States government has described these figures as unreliable,<ref name"ReferenceB">{{cite encyclopedia |titleDefoliation |editor-lastTucker|editor-firstSpencer C.|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War : a Political, Social, and Military History|year2011|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-85109-961-0|edition2nd}}</ref> it has documented cases of leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and various kinds of cancer in exposed U.S. military veterans. The US Government has not conclusively found either a causal relationship or a plausible biological carcinogenic mechanism for cancers.<ref>{{cite journal|titleTCDD and cancer: A critical review of epidemiologic studies |date2011 |publisherTaylor and Francis|doi10.3109/10408444.2011.560141 |journalCritical Reviews in Toxicology |volume41 |issue7 |pages622–636 |pmid21718216 |pmc3154583 | vauthors Boffetta P, Mundt KA, Adami H, Cole P, Mandel JS }}</ref> An epidemiological study done by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed that there was an increase in the rate of birth defects of the children of military personnel who were exposed to Agent Orange.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor 3969152|title Agent Orange and Birth Defects Risk|last1 Raloff|first1 J.|journal Science News|volume 126|issue 8|page 117|year 1984|doi 10.2307/3969152}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAgent Orange |urlhttps://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/vietnam-war-1962-1975/events/aftermath/agent-orange|access-date2021-07-30|websiteAnzac Portal |languageen-AU|archive-dateJuly 30, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210730100017/https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/vietnam-war-1962-1975/events/aftermath/agent-orange|url-statuslive}}</ref> Agent Orange has also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam. Over {{convert|3,100,000|ha|abbron}} or {{convert|31,000|sqkm|abbron}} of forest were defoliated. Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity is sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.<ref name"Vallero" />{{sfn|Furukawa|2004|p215}} The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.<ref name"Zierler 2011">{{Cite book |lastZierler |firstDavid |titleThe invention of ecocide: agent orange, Vietnam, and the scientists who changed the way we think about the environment |date2011 |publisherUniv. of Georgia Press |isbn978-0-8203-3827-9 |locationAthens, Ga.}}</ref><ref name"ijllr.com">{{Cite web |date2022-12-18 |titleHow Imperative Is It To Consider Ecocide As An International Crime? |urlhttps://www.ijllr.com/post/how-imperative-is-it-to-consider-ecocide-as-an-international-crime |access-date2023-06-21 |websiteIJLLR |languageen}}</ref><ref name"Falk 1973 80–96">{{Cite journal |lastFalk |firstRichard A. |date1973 |titleEnvironmental Warfare and Ecocide—Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals |journalBulletin of Peace Proposals |volume4 |issue1 |pages80–96 |doi10.1177/096701067300400105 |jstor44480206 |s2cid144885326 |issn0007-5035}}</ref><ref name"theleaflet.in">{{Cite web |date2022-02-17 |titleIndustrial disasters from Bhopal to present day: why the proposal to make 'ecocide' an international offence is persuasive – The Leaflet |urlhttps://theleaflet.in/industrial-disasters-from-bhopal-to-present-day-why-the-proposal-to-make-ecocide-an-international-offence-is-persuasive/ |access-date2023-06-21 |websitetheleaflet.in |languageen-US}}</ref><ref name"Giovanni">{{Cite SSRN |lastGiovanni |firstChiarini |date2022-04-01 |titleEcocide: From the Vietnam War to International Criminal Jurisdiction? Procedural Issues In-Between Environmental Science, Climate Change, and Law |ssrn4072727 |languageen}}</ref>
The use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in numerous legal actions. The United Nations ratified United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention. Lawsuits filed on behalf of both U.S. and Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages.
Agent Orange was first used by British Commonwealth forces in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency. It was also used by the U.S. military in Laos and Cambodia during the Vietnam War because forests near the border with Vietnam were used by the Viet Cong.
{{TOC limit}}
Chemical composition
(TCDD)]]
(2,4-D)]]
(2,4,5-T)]]
The active ingredient of Agent Orange was an equal mixture of two phenoxy herbicides – 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) – in iso-octyl ester form, which contained traces of the dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).{{sfn|IOM|1994|p90}} TCDD was a trace (typically 2–3 ppm, ranging from 50 ppb to 50 ppm)<ref>{{cite tech report |vauthorsYoung AL, Thalken CE, Arnold EL, Cupello JM, Cockerham LG |titleFate of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the Environment: Summary and Decontamination Recommendations |year1976 |publisherUnited States Air Force Academy |idTR 76 18}}</ref> - but significant - contaminant of Agent Orange.
Toxicology
TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins and is classified as a human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id12 |titleDioxins |websiteTox Town |publisherUnited States National Library of Medicine |access-date2017-03-12 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170313042937/https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id12 |archive-date2017-03-13}}</ref> The fat-soluble nature of TCDD causes it to accumulate easily in the food chain, and can enter the body readily through physical contact or ingestion.<ref>{{cite journal |lastYonemoto |firstJunzo |titleThe Effects of Dioxin on Reproduction and Development |journalIndustrial Health |volume28 |issue3 |date2000 |pages259–268|doi10.2486/indhealth.38.259 |pmid10943072 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> When TCDD binds to cytoplasmic aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor, the protein translocates to the cell nucleus, where it influences gene expression.{{sfn|Ngo|Taylor|Roberts|Nguyen|2006}}<ref>{{cite journal |lastPalmer |firstMichael |titleThe Case of Agent Orange |journalContemporary Southeast Asia |date2007 |volume29 |pages172–195 |doi10.1355/cs29-1h|doi-broken-date=November 20, 2024 }}</ref>
According to U.S. government reports, if not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves or grass, Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/basics.asp |titleFacts About Herbicides – Public Health |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-date2017-02-20 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170218184604/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/basics.asp |archive-date2017-02-18 |url-statuslive}}</ref>DevelopmentSeveral herbicides were developed as part of efforts by the United States and the United Kingdom to create herbicidal weapons for use during World War II. These included 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN-8 and LN-32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN-33).<ref name"FAB">{{cite magazine |last1Perera |first1Judith |last2Thomas |first2Andy |dateApril 18, 1985 |titleThis horrible natural experiment |journalNew Scientist |pages34–36 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq7v_rDK0uOgC&pgPA34 |access-dateFebruary 11, 2022 |archive-dateJanuary 26, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210126094940/https://books.google.com/books?idq7v_rDK0uOgC&pgPA34 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1943, the United States Department of the Army contracted botanist (and later bioethicist) Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign to study the effects of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://news.yale.edu/2008/07/18/memoriam-arthur-galston-plant-biologist-fought-use-agent-orange |titleIn Memoriam: Arthur Galston, Plant Biologist, Fought Use of Agent Orange |websiteYale News |access-date2017-03-10 |date2008-07-18 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312070110/http://news.yale.edu/2008/07/18/memoriam-arthur-galston-plant-biologist-fought-use-agent-orange |archive-date2017-03-12 |url-statuslive}}</ref> While a graduate and post-graduate student at the University of Illinois, Galston's research and dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier.<ref name"Schneider2003">{{cite journal|lastSchneider |firstBrandon |date2003 |titleAgent Orange: A deadly member of the rainbow |urlhttp://research.yale.edu/ysm/article.jsp?articleID48 |journalYale Scientific |volume77 |issue2 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090125154522/http://research.yale.edu/ysm/article.jsp?articleID48 |archive-date2009-01-25}}</ref> He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans.<ref name"Schneider2003" /> From these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply. In early 1945, the U.S. Army ran tests of various 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida. As a result, the U.S. began a full-scale production of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T and would have used it against Japan in 1946 during Operation Downfall if the war had continued.{{sfn|Young|2009}}{{sfn|Verwey|1977|p=111}}
In the years after the war, the U.S. tested 1,100 compounds, and field trials of the more promising ones were done at British stations in India and Australia, in order to establish their effects in tropical conditions, as well as at the U.S. testing ground in Florida.<ref name"FAB" /> Between 1950 and 1952, trials were conducted in Tanganyika, at Kikore and Stunyansa, to test arboricides and defoliants under tropical conditions. The chemicals involved were 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and endothall (3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalic acid). During 1952–53, the unit supervised the aerial spraying of 2,4,5-T in Kenya to assess the value of defoliants in the eradication of tsetse fly.<ref name"FAB" />
Early use
In Malaya, the local unit of Imperial Chemical Industries researched defoliants as weed killers for rubber plantations. Roadside ambushes by the Malayan National Liberation Army were a danger to the British Commonwealth forces during the Malayan Emergency, several trials were made to defoliate vegetation that might hide ambush sites, but hand removal was found cheaper. A detailed account of how the British experimented with the spraying of herbicides was written by two scientists, E. K. Woodford of Agricultural Research Council's Unit of Experimental Agronomy and H. G. H. Kearns of the University of Bristol.<ref>New Scientist, 19 April 1985, p. 34, https://books.google.com/books?idq7v_rDK0uOgC&pgPA34 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211121222130/https://books.google.ca/books?idq7v_rDK0uOgC&pgPA34&redir_escy |date=November 21, 2021}}</ref>
After the Malayan Emergency ended in 1960, the U.S. considered the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legal tactic of warfare. Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that the British had established a precedent for warfare with herbicides in Malaya.<ref name"Haberman">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/12/us/agent-oranges-long-legacy-for-vietnam-and-veterans.html |titleAgent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans |lastHaberman |firstClyde |date2014-05-11 |newspaperThe New York Times |access-date2017-02-24 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170724205114/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/12/us/agent-oranges-long-legacy-for-vietnam-and-veterans.html |archive-date2017-07-24 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"MAY">{{cite book |titleThe Global Politics of Pesticides: Forging Consensus from Conflicting Interests |page61 |firstPeter |lastHough |year1998 |publisherEarthscan |isbn978-1-84407-987-2}}</ref>Use in the Vietnam War
taking place from 1965 to 1971]]
In mid-1961, President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam asked the United States to help defoliate the lush jungle that was providing cover to his enemies.<ref>{{Cite web|date2016-04-13|titleWhy Hasn't The Government Learned Anything From The Agent Orange Health Crisis?|urlhttps://taskandpurpose.com/health-fitness/hasnt-government-learned-anything-agent-orange-health-crisis/|access-date2022-02-12|websiteTask & Purpose|languageen-US}}</ref>{{sfn|Buckingham|1982|p11–12}} In August of that year, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force conducted herbicide operations with American help. Diem's request launched a policy debate in the White House and the State and Defense Departments. Many U.S. officials supported herbicide operations, pointing out that the British had already used herbicides and defoliants in Malaya during the 1950s. In November 1961, Kennedy authorized the start of Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for the United States Air Force's herbicide program in Vietnam. The herbicide operations were formally directed by the government of South Vietnam.<ref name"Lewy" />
During the Vietnam War, between 1962 and 1971, the United States military sprayed nearly {{convert|20,000,000|U.S.gal|abbron}} of various chemicals – the "rainbow herbicides" and defoliants – in Vietnam, eastern Laos, and parts of Cambodia as part of Operation Ranch Hand, reaching its peak from 1967 to 1969. For comparison purposes, an olympic size pool holds approximately {{convert|660,000|U.S.gal|abbron}}.{{sfn|Pellow|2007|p159}}{{sfn|Stellman|Stellman|Christian|Weber|2003}}<ref name"Haberman" /> As the British did in Malaya, the goal of the U.S. was to defoliate rural/forested land, depriving guerrillas of food and concealment and clearing sensitive areas such as around base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-lastTucker |editor-firstSpencer C. |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisherABC-CLIO |date1997 |titleAgent Orange}}</ref><ref name="Lewy" /> Samuel P. Huntington argued that the program was also part of a policy of forced draft urbanization, which aimed to destroy the ability of peasants to support themselves in the countryside, forcing them to flee to the U.S.-dominated cities, depriving the guerrillas of their rural support base.
<ref name"foreign-affairs-article">{{cite journal|lastHuntington|firstSamuel P.|dateJuly 1968|titleThe Bases of Accommodation|journalForeign Affairs|volume46|issue4|pages642–656 |doi10.2307/20039333|jstor=20039333}}</ref>
Agent Orange was usually sprayed from helicopters or from low-flying C-123 Provider aircraft, fitted with sprayers and "MC-1 Hourglass" pump systems and {{convert|1,000|U.S.gal|abbron}} chemical tanks. Spray runs were also conducted from trucks, boats, and backpack sprayers.{{sfn|Schuck|1987|p16}}<ref name"acs">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/agent-orange-and-cancer.html |titleAgent Orange and Cancer |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191201080707/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/agent-orange-and-cancer.html |archive-date2019-12-01 |url-statuslive |publisherAmerican Cancer Society |date2019-02-11}}</ref>{{sfn|Young|2009|p26}} Altogether, over {{convert|80,000,000|L|abbron}} of Agent Orange were applied.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-55795651 Vietnam War: French court to hear landmark Agent Orange case] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210503131409/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-55795651 |dateMay 3, 2021}}, BBC News, January 25, 2021</ref>
The first batch of herbicides was unloaded at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, on January 9, 1962.{{sfn|Hay|1982|p151}} U.S. Air Force records show at least 6,542 spraying missions took place over the course of Operation Ranch Hand.{{sfn|Furukawa|2004|p143}} By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended U.S. Department of Agriculture application rate for domestic use.{{sfn|Stanford Biology Study Group|1971|p36}} In South Vietnam alone, an estimated {{convert|39,000|sqmi|abbron}} of agricultural land was ultimately destroyed.{{sfn|Luong|2003|p3}} In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the EPA.<ref name"fawthrop-war-against">{{cite news |lastFawthrop |firstTom |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3798581.stm |titleVietnam's war against Agent Orange |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191110092114/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3798581.stm |archive-date2019-11-10 |workBBC News |dateJune 14, 2004}}</ref><ref name"fawthrop-suffering">{{cite news |lastFawthrop |firstTom |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/feb/10/agentofsuffering |titleAgent of Suffering |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190830050406/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/feb/10/agentofsuffering |archive-date2019-08-30 |workThe Guardian |date=February 10, 2008}}</ref>
The campaign destroyed {{convert|20,000|sqkm|abbron}} of upland and mangrove forests and thousands of square kilometres of crops.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/us-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html |title4 Decades on, U.S. Starts Cleanup of Agent Orange in Vietnam |lastFuller |firstThomas |date2012-08-09 |workThe New York Times |access-date2017-03-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312065059/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/us-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html |archive-date2017-03-12 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Overall, more than 20% of South Vietnam's forests were sprayed at least once over the nine-year period.{{sfn|Kolko|1994|p144–145}}{{sfn|Verwey|1977|p113}} 3.2% of South Vietnam's cultivated land was sprayed at least once between 1965 and 1971. 90% of herbicide use was directed at defoliation.<ref name"Lewy" />
The U.S. military began targeting food crops in October 1962, primarily using Agent Blue; the American public was not made aware of the crop destruction programs until 1965 (and it was then believed that crop spraying had begun that spring). In 1965, 42% of all herbicide spraying was dedicated to food crops. In 1965, members of the U.S. Congress were told, "crop destruction is understood to be the more important purpose&nbsp;... but the emphasis is usually given to the jungle defoliation in public mention of the program." The first official acknowledgment of the programs came from the State Department in March 1966.{{sfn|Kolko|1994|p144–145}}{{sfn|Verwey|1977|p111–113}}
When crops were destroyed, the Viet Cong would compensate for the loss of food by confiscating more food from local villages.<ref name"Lewy" /> Some military personnel reported being told they were destroying crops used to feed guerrillas, only to later discover, most of the destroyed food was actually produced to support the local civilian population. For example, according to Wil Verwey, 85% of the crop lands in Quang Ngai province were scheduled to be destroyed in 1970 alone. He estimated this would have caused famine and left hundreds of thousands of people without food or malnourished in the province.{{sfn|Verwey|1977|p116}} According to a report by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the herbicide campaign had disrupted the food supply of more than 600,000 people by 1970.
<ref name="Turse" />
Many experts at the time, including plant physiologist and bioethicist Arthur Galston, opposed herbicidal warfare because of concerns about the side effects to humans and the environment by indiscriminately spraying the chemical over a wide area. As early as 1966, resolutions were introduced to the United Nations charging that the U.S. was violating the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which regulated the use of chemical and biological weapons in international conflicts. The U.S. defeated most of the resolutions,<ref name"galston-light">{{cite magazine |lastPeterson |firstDoug |urlhttp://www.las.illinois.edu/alumni/magazine/articles/2004/galston |titleMatters of Light: Arthur W. Galston |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100618152658/http://www.las.illinois.edu/alumni/magazine/articles/2004/galston/ |archive-date2010-06-18 |magazineLASNews Magazine |publisherUniversity of Illinois |dateSpring 2005}}</ref>{{sfn|Schuck|1987|p19}} arguing that Agent Orange was not a chemical or a biological weapon as it was considered a herbicide and a defoliant and it was used in effort to destroy plant crops and to deprive the enemy of concealment and not meant to target human beings. The U.S. delegation argued that a weapon, by definition, is any device used to injure, defeat, or destroy living beings, structures, or systems, and Agent Orange did not qualify under that definition. It also argued that if the U.S. were to be charged for using Agent Orange, then the United Kingdom and its Commonwealth nations should be charged since they also used it widely during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |titleWhen Technology Fails: Significant Technological Disasters, Accidents, and Failures of the Twentieth Century |year1994 |page104 |lastSchlager |firstNeil |publisherGale Research}}</ref> In 1969, the United Kingdom commented on the draft Resolution 2603 (XXIV):<blockquote>The evidence seems to us to be notably inadequate for the assertion that the use in war of chemical substances specifically toxic to plants is prohibited by international law.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_gb_rule76|titleUnited States of America: Practice Relating to Rule 76. Herbicides|websiteCustomary IHL Database |publisherInternational Committee of the Red Cross|access-date2017-03-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140301101751/http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_gb_rule76|archive-date2014-03-01|url-statuslive}}</ref> </blockquote>The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.<ref name"Zierler 2011" /><ref name"ijllr.com" /><ref name"Falk 1973 80–96" /><ref name"theleaflet.in" /><ref name="Giovanni" />
A study carried out by the Bionetic Research Laboratories between 1965 and 1968 found malformations in test animals caused by 2,4,5-T, a component of Agent Orange. The study was later brought to the attention of the White House in October 1969. Other studies reported similar results and the Department of Defense began to reduce the herbicide operation. On April 15, 1970, it was announced that the use of Agent Orange was suspended. Two brigades of the Americal Division in the summer of 1970 continued to use Agent Orange for crop destruction in violation of the suspension. An investigation led to disciplinary action against the brigade and division commanders because they had falsified reports to hide its use. Defoliation and crop destruction were completely stopped by June 30, 1971.<ref name="Lewy">Lewy, Guenter (1978), America in Vietnam, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 263</ref>
<gallery mode"packed" caption"Gallery">
File:Agent-Orange--stack-of-55-gallon-drums.jpg|Stacks of {{convert|200|L|abbr=on}} drums containing Agent Orange.
File:'Ranch Hand' run.jpg|Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC-123B Provider aircraft.
File:US-Army-APC-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg|U.S. Army armored personnel carrier (APC) spraying Agent Orange over Vietnamese rice fields during the Vietnam War.
File:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|A UH-1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta.
File:VA042083 River Bank Defoliation.jpg|U.S. Army Operations In Vietnam: River bank defoliation
File:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|A U.S. Air Force Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft crop-dusting in Vietnam during Operation Ranch Hand.
File:UC-123B Ranch Hand spraying 1962.jpg|A Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft spraying defoliant in South Vietnam in 1962.
File:Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.JPG|Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.
File:110303-F-XN622-007 U.S. Air Force aircraft spraying defoliant.JPG|U.S. Air Force aircraft spraying defoliant
File:VA002930 Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho.jpg|Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho, 1969
</gallery>
Health effects
There are various types of cancer associated with Agent Orange, including chronic B-cell leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, prostate cancer, respiratory cancer, lung cancer, and soft tissue sarcomas.<ref>{{cite web|titleWhat Is Agent Orange? What Types of Cancer Does It Cause?|urlhttps://www.roswellpark.org/cancertalk/202003/what-agent-orange-what-types-cancer-does-it-cause|access-date2021-12-07|websiteRoswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center|dateMarch 24, 2020 |languageen|archive-dateDecember 7, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211207222310/https://www.roswellpark.org/cancertalk/202003/what-agent-orange-what-types-cancer-does-it-cause|url-statuslive}}</ref> Some literature claims that neither Agent Orange nor its contaminants are carcinogenic in humans.<ref>{{cite journal|titleDioxin and cancer: a critical review|date2003 |doi10.1016/j.yrtph.2003.08.002 |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027323000300103X|access-date2025-01-09 |journalRegulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology |volume38 |issue3 |pages378–388 |pmid14623487 | vauthors Cole P, Trichopoulos D, Pastides H, Starr T, Mandel JS }}</ref>
Vietnamese people
{{main|Effects of Agent Orange on the Vietnamese people}}
The government of Vietnam states that 4 million of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; these figures include their children who were exposed.<ref name"The Washington Post" /> The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to Agent Orange contamination.<ref name"Jessica King" /> The United States government has challenged these figures as being unreliable.<ref name="ReferenceB" />
According to a study by Dr. Nguyen Viet Nhan, children in the areas where Agent Orange was used have been affected and have multiple health problems, including cleft palate, mental disabilities, hernias, and extra fingers and toes.<ref name"Agent Orange blights Vietnam" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.gaiadiscovery.com/latest-people/professor-nguyen-viet-nhan-helping-child-victims-of-agent-or.html|titleProfessor Nguyen Viet Nhan: Helping Child Victims of Agent Orange Defoliation |websiteGaia Discovery |dateDecember 13, 2010 |languageen|access-date2017-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225210710/http://www.gaiadiscovery.com/latest-people/professor-nguyen-viet-nhan-helping-child-victims-of-agent-or.html|archive-date2017-02-25|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastFox |firstDiane Niblack |titleLiving with Agent Orange: conversations in postwar Viet Nam |date2024 |publisherUniversity of Massachusetts Press |isbn978-1-68575-033-6 |seriesCulture and politics in the Cold War and beyond |locationAmherst}}</ref> In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women, and in the blood of U.S. military personnel who had served in Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite book|lastThornton|firstJoe|titlePandora's Poison: Chlorine, Health, and a New Environmental Strategy|publisherMIT Press|year2000|isbn978-0-262-70084-9|page[https://archive.org/details/pandoraspoison00joet/page/190 190]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/pandoraspoison00joet|url-accessregistration}}</ref> The most affected zones are the mountainous area along Truong Son (Long Mountains) and the border between Vietnam and Cambodia. The affected residents are living in substandard conditions with many genetic diseases.<ref>{{cite web |publisherVietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs |urlhttp://www.mofa.gov.vn/vi/tt_baochi/nr041126171753/ns050118101044 |titleỦng hộ nạn nhân chất độc da cam/Đi-ô-xin |trans-titleSupport for victims of Agent Orange / Dioxin |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080407084743/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/vi/tt_baochi/nr041126171753/ns050118101044 |archive-date2008-04-07 |languagevi}}</ref>{{sfn|IOM|1994|p=iii}}
In 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta-analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue.<ref name"1940-5030">{{cite journal|urlhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/birth-defects-caused-agent-orange|lastKing|firstJesse|titleBirth Defects Caused by Agent Orange|journalEmbryo Project Encyclopedia|date2012-11-08|hdl10776/4202|issn1940-5030|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130801042017/http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/birth-defects-caused-agent-orange|archive-dateAugust 1, 2013|access-dateFebruary 6, 2021}}</ref> Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects/relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange/dioxin "appears" to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese-funded studies, but 1.29 in the rest of the world. There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still-births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect.{{sfn|Ngo|Taylor|Roberts|Nguyen|2006}} The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies.<ref name="1940-5030" />
Twenty-eight of the former U.S. military bases in Vietnam where the herbicides were stored and loaded onto airplanes may still have high levels of dioxins in the soil, posing a health threat to the surrounding communities. Extensive testing for dioxin contamination has been conducted at the former U.S. airbases in Da Nang, Phù Cát District and Biên Hòa. Some of the soil and sediment on the bases have extremely high levels of dioxin requiring remediation. The Da Nang Air Base has dioxin contamination up to 350 times higher than international recommendations for action.<ref>{{cite report |urlhttp://www.hatfieldgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/AgentOrangeReports/UNDP1391/UNDP1391_Final_VRT_%20Report_and_Appendices.pdf |titleEvaluation of Contamination at the Agent Orange Dioxin Hot Spots in Bien Hoa, Phu Cat and Vicinity, Vietnam |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190425050941/https://www.hatfieldgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/AgentOrangeReports/UNDP1391/UNDP1391_Final_VRT_%20Report_and_Appendices.pdf |archive-date2019-04-25 |publisherOffice of the National Committee 33, Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment |locationHanoi, Vietnam |authorViet Nam – Russia Tropical Centre |dateJune 2009 |idUNDP1391.2}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |author((Hatfield Consultants Office of the National Steering Committee 33)) |urlhttp://www.hatfieldgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/AgentOrangeReports/DANDI1283/DANDI1283_Final_Report.pdf |titleAssessment of dioxin contamination in the environment and human population in the vicinity of Da Nang Airbase, Viet Nam. |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190425053450/https://www.hatfieldgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/AgentOrangeReports/DANDI1283/DANDI1283_Final_Report.pdf |archive-date2019-04-25 |idDANDI1283.4 |locationVancouver, Canada |publisherHatfield Consultants |date2007 |typeFinal Report}}</ref> The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate.<ref name"Agent Orange blights Vietnam">{{Cite news|lastDenselow |firstRobin |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/227467.stm|workBBC News|titleAgent Orange blights Vietnam|dateDecember 3, 1998|access-dateApril 23, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090125013903/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/227467.stm|archive-dateJanuary 25, 2009|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<gallery mode"packed" widths"200">
File:Agent Orange Deformities (3786919757).jpg|A person with birth deformities associated with prenatal exposure to Agent Orange
File:Agent-Orange-dioxin-skin-damage-Vietnam.jpg|Major Tự Đức Phang was exposed to dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange.
File:A vietnamese Professor is pictured with a group of handicapped children.jpg|A group of handicapped children in Ho Chi Minh, some of them affected by Agent Orange
File:Two Vietnameses pose in front of the billboard.jpg|Kan Lay, 55 years old, and her son, Ke Van Bec, 14 years old, A Luoi Valley, Vietnam, December 2004.
</gallery>
Vietnam veterans
poster in Vietnamese describing how 'safe' Agent Orange is, intended to refute the "communist's propaganda". However, scientists within the United States had been protesting the use of Agent Orange since 1966, on the basis that it was a chemical weapon used indiscriminately, even before its toxic effects to humans were established in print.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Herbicides |first1Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to |titleHistory of the Controversy Over the Use of Herbicides |journalVeterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam |date1994 |urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK236351/ |publisherNational Academies Press (US) |languageen}}</ref>]]
While in Vietnam, U.S. and Free World Military Assistance Forces soldiers were told not to worry about Agent Orange and were persuaded the chemical was harmless.<ref name"Hermann">{{cite web |lastHermann |firstKenneth J. |urlhttp://politicalaffairs.net/killing-me-softly-how-agent-orange-murders-vietnam-s-children/ |titleKilling Me Softly: How Agent Orange Murders Vietnam's Children |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140917092644/http://politicalaffairs.net/killing-me-softly-how-agent-orange-murders-vietnam-s-children/ |archive-date2014-09-17 |workPolitical Affairs |dateApril 25, 2006}}</ref> After returning home, Vietnam veterans from all countries that served began to suspect their ill health or the instances of their wives having miscarriages or children born with birth defects might be related to Agent Orange and the other toxic herbicides to which they had been exposed in Vietnam.
U.S veterans
U.S. Veterans began to file claims in 1977 to the Department of Veterans Affairs for disability payments for health care for conditions they believed were associated with exposure to Agent Orange, or more specifically, dioxin, but their claims were denied unless they could prove the condition began when they were in the service or within one year of their discharge.<ref>{{cite report |urlhttps://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43790.pdf |titleVeterans Exposed to Agent Orange: Legislative History, Litigation, and Current Issues |last1Sidath |first1Viranga Panangala |last2Shedd |first2Daniel |dateNovember 18, 2014 |publisherCongressional Research Service |idR43790 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170321170713/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43790.pdf |archive-dateMarch 21, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In order to qualify for compensation, U.S. veterans must have served on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand during the Vietnam Era, where herbicides were tested and stored outside of Vietnam, veterans who were crew members on C-123 planes flown after the Vietnam War, or were associated with Department of Defense (DoD) projects to test, dispose of, or store herbicides in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.benefits.va.gov/compensation/claims-postservice-agent_orange.asp |titleVeterans Exposed to Agent Orange |dateJanuary 19, 2018 |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-dateFebruary 2, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180203125103/https://www.benefits.va.gov/compensation/claims-postservice-agent_orange.asp |archive-dateFebruary 3, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
By April 1993, the Department of Veterans Affairs had compensated only 486 victims, although it had received disability claims from 39,419 soldiers who had been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book |last1Fleischer |first1Doris Zames |last2Zames |first2Freida |titleThe disability rights movement: from charity to confrontation |publisherTemple University Press |year2001 |isbn978-1-56639-812-1 |page178 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3t84d8tLEVcC&pgPA178 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228092239/https://books.google.com/books?id3t84d8tLEVcC&pgPA178 |archive-date2017-02-28 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In a November 2004 Zogby International poll of 987 people, 79% of respondents thought the U.S. chemical companies which produced Agent Orange defoliant should compensate U.S. soldiers who were affected by the toxic chemical used during the war in Vietnam and 51% said they supported compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange victims.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://vietnamembassy-usa.org/relations/most-americans-favor-compensation-agent-orange-victims |firstHa |lastNguyen |titleMost Americans favor compensation for Agent Orange victims |publisherEmbassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the United States |dateNovember 19, 2004 |access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331115923/http://vietnamembassy-usa.org/relations/most-americans-favor-compensation-agent-orange-victims|archive-dateMarch 31, 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Australian and New Zealand veterans
Several official investigations in Australia failed to prove otherwise<ref>From the archives: Royal Commission findings clear Agent Orange | https://www.smh.com.au/national/from-the-archives-royal-commission-findings-clear-agent-orange-20190805-p52e0d.html</ref> even though extant American investigations had already established that defoliants were sprayed at U.S. airbases including Bien Hoa Air Base where Australian and New Zealand forces first served before being given their own Tactical area of responsibility (TAOR.) Even then, Australian and New Zealand non-military and military contributions saw personnel from both countries spread over Vietnam such as the hospitals at Bong Son and Qui Nhon, on secondments at various bases, and as flight crew and ground crew for flights into and out of Da Nang Air Base - all areas that were well-documented as having been sprayed.<ref>Maps of Heavily Sprayed Areas and Dioxin Hot Spots | https://www.aspeninstitute.org/programs/agent-orange-in-vietnam-program/maps-of-heavily-sprayed-areas-and-dioxin-hot-spots/</ref><ref>' Nurse in Vietnam - Frances Palmer ', URL: https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/memory/nurse-vietnam-frances-palmer, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 16-Nov-2022</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.vietnamwar.govt.nz/nz-vietnam-war/surgical-and-medical-support|titleSurgical and medical support|workVietnamWar.govt.nz, New Zealand and the Vietnam War|access-date2014-08-05|archive-date29 April 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140429150937/http://www.vietnamwar.govt.nz/nz-vietnam-war/surgical-and-medical-support|url-status=live}}</ref>
It wasn't until a group of Australian veterans produced official military records, maps, and mission data as proof that the TAOR controlled by Australian and New Zealand forces in Vietnam had been sprayed with the chemicals in the presence of personnel that the Australian government was forced to change their stance. Only in 1994 did the Australian government finally admit that it was true that defoliants had been used in areas of Vietnam where Australian forces operated and the effects of these may have been detrimental to some Vietnam veterans and their children.<ref>DVA (Department of Veterans' Affairs) (2023 ), Agent Orange and other chemicals in the Vietnam War, DVA Anzac Portal, accessed 24 January 2024, https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/vietnam-war-1962-1975/events/aftermath/agent-orange</ref>
It was only in 2015 that the official Australian War Memorial accepted rewriting the official history of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War to acknowledge that Australian soldiers were exposed to defoliants used in Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/win-for-vietnam-vets-with-agent-orange-war-history-to-be-rewritten-20140502-zr2fl.html|titleWin for Vietnam vets with Agent Orange war history to be rewritten|firstGregory|lastPemberton|dateMay 1, 2014|websiteThe Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref>
New Zealand was even slower to correct their error, with the government going as far as to deny the legitimacy of the Australian reports in a report called the "McLeod Report" published by Veterans Affairs NZ in 2001 thus infuriating New Zealand veterans and those associated with their cause.<ref>'Observing Agent Orange ', URL: https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/memory/observing-agent-orange, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 20-May-2020</ref><ref>' Agent Orange spraying - Ian Thorpe ', URL: https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/audio/agent-orange-spraying-ian-thorpe, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 10-Sep-2013</ref>
In 2006 progress was made in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding signed between the New Zealand government, representatives of New Zealand Vietnam veterans, and the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association (RSA) for monetary compensation for New Zealand Vietnam veterans who have conditions as evidence of association with exposure to Agent Orange, as determined by the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2008 the New Zealand government finally admitted that New Zealanders had in fact been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam and the experience was responsible for detrimental health conditions in veterans and their children.<ref>Māori war veteran's skin still peeling 50 years after Agent Orange exposure | URLhttps://www.rnz.co.nz/news/in-depth/443953/maori-war-veteran-s-skin-still-peeling-50-years-after-agent-orange-exposure (New Zealand Herald)</ref> Amendments to the memorandum made in 2021 meant that more veterans were eligible for an ex gratia payment of NZ$40,000.<ref>'More Vietnam Veterans to receive compensation for Agent Orange Exposure' | https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/more-vietnam-veterans-receive-compensation-agent-orange-exposure | (New Zealand Government)</ref>National Academy of Medicine (Institute of Medicine)Starting in the early 1990s, the federal government directed the Institute of Medicine (IOM), now known as the National Academy of Medicine, to issue reports every 2 years on the health effects of Agent Orange and similar herbicides. First published in 1994 and titled Veterans and Agent Orange, the IOM reports assess the risk of both cancer and non-cancer health effects. Each health effect is categorized by evidence of association based on available research data.<ref name"acs"/> The last update was published in 2016, entitled Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2014.
The report shows sufficient evidence of an association with soft tissue sarcoma; non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL); Hodgkin disease; Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); including hairy cell leukemia and other chronic B-cell leukemias.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |titleAgent Orange and Cancer Risk {{!}} American Cancer Society |urlhttps://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/chemicals/agent-orange-and-cancer.html |access-date2024-06-20 |websitewww.cancer.org |languageen}}</ref> Limited or suggested evidence of an association was linked with respiratory cancers (lung, bronchus, trachea, larynx); prostate cancer; multiple myeloma; and bladder cancer. Numerous other cancers were determined to have inadequate or insufficient evidence of links to Agent Orange.<ref name=":0" />
The National Academy of Medicine has repeatedly concluded that any evidence suggestive of an association between Agent Orange and prostate cancer is, "limited because chance, bias, and confounding could not be ruled out with confidence."<ref>{{cite book |last1Institute of Medicine |titleVeterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam: Update 11 |date2018 |publisherThe National Academies Press |locationWashington, DC |isbn978-0-309-47716-1 |urlhttp://nap.edu/25137 |access-date25 December 2018 |archive-dateFebruary 25, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225043448/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25137/veterans-and-agent-orange-update-11-2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
At the request of the Veterans Administration, the Institute Of Medicine evaluated whether service in these C-123 aircraft could have plausibly exposed soldiers and been detrimental to their health. Their report Post-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange-Contaminated C-123 Aircraft confirmed it.<ref name"c-123">{{cite report|author((Committee to Evaluate the Potential Exposure of Agent Orange/TCDD Residue and Level of Risk of Adverse Health Effects for Aircrew of Post-Vietnam C-123 Aircraft; Board on the Health of Select Populations))|titlePost-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange-Contaminated C-123 Aircraft|urlhttps://www.nap.edu/catalog/18848/post-vietnam-dioxin-exposure-in-agent-orange-contaminated-c-123-aircraft|access-date2015-09-03|workInstitute of Medicine|date|archive-dateMay 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501153932/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18848/post-vietnam-dioxin-exposure-in-agent-orange-contaminated-c-123-aircraft|url-statuslive}}</ref>
U.S. Public Health Service
Publications by the United States Public Health Service have shown that Vietnam veterans, overall, have increased rates of cancer, and nerve, digestive, skin, and respiratory disorders. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that in particular, there are higher rates of acute/chronic leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, throat cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, Ischemic heart disease, soft tissue sarcoma, and liver cancer.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/epidemiology/studies/heroes/index.asp|titleVietnam Era Health Retrospective Observational Study |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |languageen|access-date2017-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225131928/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/epidemiology/studies/heroes/index.asp|archive-date2017-02-25|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal |date1987-02-13 |titlePostservice mortality among Vietnam veterans. The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study |journalJAMA |volume257 |issue6 |pages790–795 |pmid3027422 |doi10.1001/jama.1987.03390060080028|hdl2027/ucbk.ark:/28722/h27w6770k |hdl-accessfree}}</ref> With the exception of liver cancer, these are the same conditions the U.S. Veterans Administration has determined may be associated with exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and are on the list of conditions eligible for compensation and treatment.<ref name"ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/><ref name"va-03-2010">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/diseases.asp |titleAgent Orange: Diseases Associated with Agent Orange Exposure |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |dateMarch 25, 2010 |access-dateMay 4, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100509191150/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/diseases.asp |archive-dateMay 9, 2010}}</ref>
Military personnel who were involved in storage, mixture and transportation (including aircraft mechanics), and actual use of the chemicals were probably among those who received the heaviest exposures.{{sfn|Frumkin|2003|p257}} Military members who served on Okinawa also claim to have been exposed to the chemical, but there is no verifiable evidence to corroborate these claims.<ref>{{cite news |lastMitchell |firstJon |urlhttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20110412zg.html |titleEvidence for Agent Orange on Okinawa |newspaperJapan Times |dateApril 12, 2011 |page12 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111011091450/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20110412zg.html |archive-dateOctober 11, 2011}}</ref>
Some studies have suggested that veterans exposed to Agent Orange may be more at risk of developing prostate cancer<ref>{{cite journal |last1Chamie |first1Karim |last2deVere White |first2Ralph W. |last3Lee |first3Denis |last4Ok |first4Joonha |last5Ellison |first5Lars M. |titleAgent Orange exposure, Vietnam War veterans, and the risk of prostate cancer |journalCancer |date17 October 2008 |volume113 |issue9 |pages2464–2470 |doi10.1002/cncr.23695 |pmid18666213 |s2cid7623342 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> and potentially more than twice as likely to develop higher-grade, more lethal prostate cancers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ansbaugh |first1Nathan |last2Shannon |first2Jackilen |last3Mori |first3Motomi |last4Farris |first4Paige E. |last5Garzotto |first5Mark |titleAgent Orange as a risk factor for high-grade prostate cancer |journalCancer |date1 July 2013 |volume119 |issue13 |pages2399–2404 |doi10.1002/cncr.27941 |pmid23670242 |pmc4090241 |refGarzotto, 2013}}</ref> However, a critical analysis of these studies and 35 others consistently found that there was no significant increase in prostate cancer incidence or mortality in those exposed to Agent Orange or 2,3,7,8-tetracholorodibenzo-p-dioxin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Chang |first1ET |last2Boffetta |first2P |last3Adami |first3HO |last4Cole |first4P |last5Mandel |first5JS |titleA critical review of the epidemiology of Agent Orange/TCDD and prostate cancer |journalEur J Epidemiol |date2014 |volume29 |issue10 |pages667–723 |doi10.1007/s10654-014-9931-2 |pmid25064616 |pmc4197347 |refChang, 2014}}</ref>
U.S. Veterans of Laos and Cambodia
During the Vietnam War, the United States fought the North Vietnamese, and their allies, in Laos and Cambodia, including heavy bombing campaigns. They also sprayed large quantities of Agent Orange in each of those countries. According to one estimate, the U.S. dropped {{convert|475,500|U.S.gal|abbron}} in Laos and {{convert|40,900|U.S.gal|abbron}} in Cambodia.{{sfn|Stellman|Stellman|Christian|Weber|2003}}<ref name"theatlantic.com">{{cite magazine |lastDunst |firstCharles |magazineThe Atlantic |date20 July 2019 |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/07/agent-orange-cambodia-laos-vietnam/591412/ |titleThe U.S.'s Toxic Agent Orange Legacy: Washington Has Admitted to the Long-Lasting Effects of Dioxin Use in Vietnam, But Has Largely Sidestepped the Issue in Neighboring Cambodia and Laos |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191014202833/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/07/agent-orange-cambodia-laos-vietnam/591412/ |archive-date2019-10-14}}</ref><ref name"Agent Orange's Legacy">{{cite news |last1Ana |first1Phann |last2Doyle |first2Kevin |titleAgent Orange's Legacy |dateMarch 20, 2004 |workThe Cambodia Daily |urlhttp://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/agent-oranges-legacy-884/ |access-dateMay 5, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140505104932/http://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/agent-oranges-legacy-884/ |archive-dateMay 5, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Because Laos and Cambodia were both officially neutral during the Vietnam War, the U.S. attempted to keep secret its military operations in those countries, from the American population and has largely avoided compensating American veterans and CIA personnel stationed in Cambodia and Laos who suffered permanent injuries as a result of exposure to Agent Orange there.<ref name"theatlantic.com"/><ref name"The New York Times">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/us-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html |title4 Decades on, U.S. Starts Cleanup of Agent Orange in Vietnam |access-dateMay 5, 2014 |locationNew York |workThe New York Times |dateAugust 9, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150415012709/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/us-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html |archive-dateApril 15, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
One noteworthy exception, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, is a claim filed with the CIA by an employee of "a self-insured contractor to the CIA that was no longer in business." The CIA advised the Department of Labor that it "had no objections" to paying the claim and Labor accepted the claim for payment:{{blockquote|Civilian Exposure to Agent Orange in Vietnam: GAO-05-371 April 2005.Figure 3: Overview of the Workers' Compensation Claims Process for Contract Employees: " ... Of the 20 claims filed by contract employees [of the united States government], 9 were initially denied by the insurance carriers and 1 was approved for payment. ... The claim that was approved by Labor for payment involved a self-insured contractor to the CIA that was no longer in business. Absent an employer or insurance carrier, the CIA--acting in the role of the employer and the insurance carrier--stated that it "had no objections" to paying the claim. Labor reviewed the claim and accepted it for payment."<ref>[https://www.gao.gov/htext/d05371.html 'Agent Orange: Limited Information Is Available on the Number of Civilians Exposed in Vietnam and Their Workers' Compensation Claims,'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226193512/https://www.gao.gov/htext/d05371.html |dateFebruary 26, 2021}} GAO report number GAO-05-371, April 22, 2005.</ref>}}
Ecological impact
{{see also|Environmental impact of war}}
About 17.8% or {{convert|3100000|ha|sqkm sqmi}} of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium. The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover, and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas.{{sfn|Furukawa|2004|p215}} Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely. Animal species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were, respectively, 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals.<ref>{{cite book|lastChiras |firstDaniel D.|titleEnvironmental science|year2010|edition8th|publisherJones & Bartlett|isbn978-0-7637-5925-4|page[https://archive.org/details/environmentalsci8thechir/page/499 499]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/environmentalsci8thechir|url-access=registration}}</ref>
Dioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas. The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification.<ref name"Vallero">{{cite book|lastVallero |firstDaniel A.|titleBiomedical ethics for engineers: ethics and decision making in biomedical and biosystem engineering|year2007|publisherAcademic Press|isbn978-0-7506-8227-5|page73|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAeT56Pi8LFYC&pgPA73|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331131023/https://books.google.com/books?idAeT56Pi8LFYC&pgPA73|archive-date2017-03-31|url-statuslive}}</ref> The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases.{{sfn|Furukawa|2004|pages221–222}}Sociopolitical impactAmerican policy during the Vietnam War was to destroy crops, accepting the sociopolitical impact that that would have.<ref nameTurse/> The RAND Corporation's Memorandum 5446-ISA/ARPA states: "the fact that the VC [the Vietcong] obtain most of their food from the neutral rural population dictates the destruction of civilian crops&nbsp;... if they are to be hampered by the crop destruction program, it will be necessary to destroy large portions of the rural economy – probably 50% or more".{{sfn|Verwey|1977|p115}} Crops were deliberately sprayed with Agent Orange and areas were bulldozed clear of vegetation forcing many rural civilians to cities.<ref nameTurse>{{cite book |lastTurse |firstNick |titleKill Anything That Moves: The Real American War in Vietnam |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPeFK5dkYZsEC&pgPT95 |date2013 |publisherHenry Holt and Company |isbn978-0-8050-9547-0 |pages95–99 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331041154/https://books.google.com/books?idPeFK5dkYZsEC&pgPT95 |archive-date2017-03-31 |url-statuslive}}</ref>Legal and diplomatic proceedingsInternationalThe extensive environmental damage that resulted from usage of the herbicide prompted the United Nations to pass Resolution 31/72 and ratify the Environmental Modification Convention. Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare, but it does require case-by-case consideration.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpmhuemt/cpmhuemt.html |titleConvention on the Prohibition of the Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques |publisherAudiovisual Library of International Law |dateDecember 10, 1976 |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191111230644/http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpmhuemt/cpmhuemt.html |archive-dateNovember 11, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule76 |titlePractice Relating to Rule 76. Herbicides |year2013 |websiteCustomary IHL Database |publisherInternational Committee of the Red Cross |access-date24 August 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130922212319/http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule76 |archive-date22 September 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Article 2(4) of Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons contains the "Jungle Exception", which prohibits states from attacking forests or jungles "except if such natural elements are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or military objectives or are military objectives themselves".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://geneva-s3.unoda.org/static-unoda-site/pages/templates/the-convention-on-certain-conventional-weapons/PROTOCOL%2BIII.pdf |titleConvention on Certain Conventional Weapons, Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons |publisher=United Nations Office of Disarmament Affairs
|dateApril 10, 1981}}</ref> This exception voids any protection of any military and civilian personnel from a napalm attack or something like Agent Orange, and it has been argued that it was clearly designed to cover situations like U.S. tactics in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book |lastDetter |firstIngrid |titleThe Law of War |publisherAshgate |date2013 |page255 |isbn978-1-4094-6495-2}}</ref>
Class action lawsuit
Since at least 1978, several lawsuits have been filed against the companies which produced Agent Orange, among them Dow Chemical, Monsanto, and Diamond Shamrock.<ref nameEncNatSec>{{cite encyclopedia |titleAgent Orange |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of United States National Security |editor-firstRichard J. |editor-lastSamuel |publisherSAGE Publications |date2005 |isbn978-1-4522-6535-3 |page6}}</ref> In 1978, army veteran Paul Reutershan sued Dow Chemical for $10 million, after he was diagnosed with terminal cancer that he believed was a result of Agent Orange exposure. After Reutershan died in December 1978, his attorneys added additional plaintiffs and refiled the lawsuit as a class action.<ref name"SCHUCKPH19880315">{{cite book | author-lastSchuck |author-firstPeter H. | date15 March 1988 | titleAgent Orange on Trial: Mass Toxic Disasters in the Courts | publisherBelknap Press | urlhttps://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674010260 | isbn978-0-674-01026-0}}</ref><ref name"SILLSP20140215">{{cite book | author-lastSills |author-firstPeter | date15 February 2014 | titleToxic War: The Story of Agent Orange | publisherVanderbilt University Press |doi10.2307/j.ctv1675571 |jstorj.ctv1675571 | urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1675571 | isbn978-0-8265-1964-1}}</ref> That lawsuit would eventually represent thousands of veterans, and was considered one of the largest and most complex lawsuits ever brought in the US at that time.{{r|nBLUMENTHALR19840506|r{{Cite news | author-lastBlumenthal |author-firstRalph | date6 May 1984 | newspaperThe New York Times | titleVietnam Agent Orange Suit By Veterans Is Going To Trial | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/06/nyregion/vietnam-agent-orange-suit-by-veterans-is-going-to-trial.html | access-date11 December 2024 | quote=The vast product-liability case, a civil class action embodying potential damage claims in the billions of dollars, is viewed as the biggest and most complicated case of its kind ever undertaken.}}}}
Attorney Hy Mayerson was an early pioneer in Agent Orange litigation, working with environmental attorney Victor Yannacone in 1980 on the first class-action suits against wartime manufacturers of Agent Orange. In meeting Dr. Ronald A. Codario, one of the first civilian doctors to see affected patients, Mayerson, so impressed by the fact a physician would show so much interest in a Vietnam veteran, forwarded more than a thousand pages of information on Agent Orange and the effects of dioxin on animals and humans to Codario's office the day after he was first contacted by the doctor.{{sfn|Wilcox|1983}} The corporate defendants sought to escape culpability by blaming everything on the U.S. government.<ref>{{Cite book|lastScott|firstWilbur J.|titleThe Politics of Readjustment: Vietnam Veterans Since the War|publisherTransaction Publishers|year1993|isbn978-0-202-30406-9|page130|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYLg8rVfYO9EC&pgPA130|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228024316/https://books.google.com/books?idYLg8rVfYO9EC&pgPA130|archive-date2017-02-28|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1980, Mayerson, with Sgt. Charles E. Hartz as their principal client, filed the first U.S. Agent Orange class-action lawsuit in Pennsylvania, for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to toxic dioxins in the defoliant.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1347&dat19800125&idZdMSAAAAIBAJ&pg5065,3012612 |titleDying Veteran May Speak From Beyond The Grave In Court |workLakeland Ledger |date1980-01-25 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130606050816/http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1347&dat19800125&idZdMSAAAAIBAJ&sjid0_oDAAAAIBAJ&pg5065,3012612 |archive-date2013-06-06 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Attorney Mayerson co-wrote the brief that certified the Agent Orange Product Liability action as a class action, the largest ever filed as of its filing.<ref>{{cite news |lastCroft |firstSteve |urlhttp://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID270939 |titleAgent Orange |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120321165559/http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID270939 |archive-date2012-03-21 |workCBS Evening News |dateMay 7, 1980}}</ref> Hartz's deposition was one of the first ever taken in America, and the first for an Agent Orange trial, for the purpose of preserving testimony at trial, as it was understood that Hartz would not live to see the trial because of a brain tumor that began to develop while he was a member of Tiger Force, special forces, and LRRPs in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mayerson.com/html/about.html |titleAbout the Firm |publisherThe Mayerson Law Offices |access-dateMay 4, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090924024336/http://www.mayerson.com/html/about.html |archive-dateSeptember 24, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The firm also located and supplied critical research to the veterans' lead expert, Dr. Codario, including about 100 articles from toxicology journals dating back more than a decade, as well as data about where herbicides had been sprayed, what the effects of dioxin had been on animals and humans, and every accident in factories where herbicides were produced or dioxin was a contaminant of some chemical reaction.{{sfn|Wilcox|1983}}
The chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans' medical problems. However, on May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class-action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin. The companies agreed to pay $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them.<ref>{{Cite book|editorStanley, Jay|editor2Blair, John D.|titleChallenges in military health care: perspectives on health status and the provision of care|publisherTransaction Publishers|year1993|isbn978-1-56000-650-3|page164|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8k-WIJYwIF4C&pgPA164|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228022008/https://books.google.com/books?id8k-WIJYwIF4C&pgPA164|archive-date2017-02-28|url-statuslive}}</ref> Slightly over 45% of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone.<ref>{{Cite book|lastHarrington|firstJohn C.|titleThe challenge to power: money, investing, and democracy|publisherChelsea Green Publisher|year2005|isbn978-1-931498-97-5|page[https://archive.org/details/challengetopower00harr_0/page/260 260]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/challengetopower00harr_0|url-accessregistration}}</ref> Many veterans who were victims of Agent Orange exposure were outraged the case had been settled instead of going to court and felt they had been betrayed by the lawyers. "Fairness Hearings" were held in five major American cities, where veterans and their families discussed their reactions to the settlement and condemned the actions of the lawyers and courts, demanding the case be heard before a jury of their peers. Federal Judge Jack B. Weinstein refused the appeals, claiming the settlement was "fair and just". By 1989, the veterans' fears were confirmed when it was decided how the money from the settlement would be paid out. A totally disabled Vietnam veteran would receive a maximum of $12,000 spread out over the course of 10 years. Furthermore, by accepting the settlement payments, disabled veterans would become ineligible for many state benefits that provided far more monetary support than the settlement, such as food stamps, public assistance, and government pensions. A widow of a Vietnam veteran who died of Agent Orange exposure would receive $3,700.<ref name"oxford-milhist-725">{{Cite encyclopedia |lastWilcox |firstFred A. |editor1-lastChambers |editor1-firstJohn Whiteclay|editor2-lastAnderson |editor2-firstFred|encyclopediaThe Oxford companion to American military history|titleToxic Agents|publisherOxford University Press|year1999|isbn978-0-19-507198-6|page725|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham/page/725}}</ref>
In 2004, Monsanto spokesman Jill Montgomery said Monsanto should not be liable at all for injuries or deaths caused by Agent Orange, saying: "We are sympathetic with people who believe they have been injured and understand their concern to find the cause, but reliable scientific evidence indicates that Agent Orange is not the cause of serious long-term health effects."<ref>{{Cite news|titleAgent Orange Victims Sue Monsanto|lastFawthrop|firstTom|workCorpWatch|dateNovember 4, 2004|urlhttp://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id11638|access-dateFebruary 1, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180126185411/http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id11638|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref>
On 22 August 2024, the Court of Appeal of Paris dismissed an appeal filed by Tran To Nga against 14 US corporations that supplied Agent Orange for the US army during the war in Vietnam.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |date2024-08-22 |titleFrench court rejects appeal in Agent Orange lawsuit by French-Vietnamese ex-journalist |urlhttps://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240822-french-court-dismisses-appeal-in-agent-orange-case |access-date2024-08-28 |websiteFrance 24 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date2024-08-22 |titleFrench court dismisses appeal in Agent Orange case |urlhttps://www.lemonde.fr/en/police-and-justice/article/2024/08/22/french-court-dismisses-appeal-in-agent-orange-case_6720003_105.html# |access-date2024-08-28 |languageen}}</ref> The lawyers said that Nga will take her case to France's highest appeals court.<ref name":1" /><ref name":2">{{Cite web |date2024-08-22 |titleParis court rejects appeal against chemicals giant over Vietnam War use of Agent Orange |urlhttps://www.politico.eu/article/paris-court-rejects-agent-orange-appeal-against-bayer-monsanto/ |access-date2024-08-28 |websitePOLITICO |languageen-GB}}</ref> Only military veterans from the United States and its allies in the war have won compensation so far.<ref>{{Cite web |date2023-06-17 |titleThe Vietnamese octogenarian fighting for Agent Orange victims |urlhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/06/17/asia-pacific/vietnamese-woman-agent-orange-lawsuits/ |access-date2024-05-10 |websiteThe Japan Times |languageen}}</ref> Some of the agrochemical companies in the U.S. have compensated U.S. veterans, but not to Vietnamese victims.<ref name":2" />New Jersey Agent Orange CommissionIn 1980, New Jersey created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects. The commission's research project in association with Rutgers University was called "The Pointman Project". It was disbanded by Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 1996.<ref>{{cite news|last1Prestin|first1Terry|titleAgent Orange Panel Closes|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/03/nyregion/new-jersey-daily-briefing-agent-orange-panel-closes.html|access-date13 September 2014|workThe New York Times|atSection B; page 1; column 1|dateJuly 3, 1996|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140913214450/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/03/nyregion/new-jersey-daily-briefing-agent-orange-panel-closes.html|archive-date13 September 2014|url-statuslive}}</ref> During the first phase of the project, commission researchers devised ways to determine trace dioxin levels in blood. Prior to this, such levels could only be found in the adipose (fat) tissue. The project studied dioxin (TCDD) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group; the levels were found to be higher in the exposed group.<ref>{{cite journal |first1Peter C. |last1Kahn |first2Michael |last2Gochfeld |first3Martin |last3Nygren |first4Marianne |last4Hansson |first5Christoffer |last5Rappe |first6Henry |last6Velez |first7Therese |last7Ghent-Guenther |first8Wayne P. |last8Wilson |titleDioxins and Dibenzofurans in Blood and Adipose Tissue of Agent Orange—Exposed Vietnam Veterans and Matched Controls |journalJAMA |volume259 |issue11 |dateMarch 18, 1988 |pages1661–7 |doi10.1001/jama.1988.03720110023029|pmid3343772}}</ref> The second phase of the project continued to examine and compare dioxin levels in various groups of Vietnam veterans, including Soldiers, Marines, and Brownwater Naval personnel.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyyvmcMsNnB4C&qThe+Pointman+Project+rutgers&pgPA30|titleEncyclopedia of the Veteran in America|lastPencak|firstWilliam|publisherABC-CLIO|year2009|isbn978-0-313-08759-2|page30|access-dateFebruary 11, 2022|archive-dateNovember 26, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211126071609/https://books.google.com/books?idyyvmcMsNnB4C&qThe+Pointman+Project+rutgers&pgPA30|url-statuslive}}</ref>
U.S. Congress
In 1991, Congress enacted the Agent Orange Act, giving the Department of Veterans Affairs the authority to declare certain conditions "presumptive" to exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin, making these veterans who served in Vietnam eligible to receive treatment and compensation for these conditions.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/ |authorOffice of Public Health and Environmental Hazards |titleAgent Orange |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |date2009-11-11 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091101154548/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/ |archive-date2009-11-01}}</ref> The same law required the National Academy of Sciences to periodically review the science on dioxin and herbicides used in Vietnam to inform the Secretary of Veterans Affairs about the strength of the scientific evidence showing association between exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and certain conditions.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www7.nationalacademies.org/ocga/laws/PL102-4.asp |titlePL 102-4 and The National Academy of Sciences |publisherThe National Academies |date1981-11-03 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120803022853/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/ocga/laws/PL102-4.asp |archive-date2012-08-03}}</ref> The authority for the National Academy of Sciences reviews and addition of any new diseases to the presumptive list by the VA expired in 2015 under the sunset clause of the Agent Orange Act of 1991.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://nsarchive.gwu.edu/radiation/dir/mstreet/commeet/meet3/brief3.gfr/tab_g/br3g1f.txt |titleAgent Orange Act of 1991 |publisherGeorge Washington University |access-date2017-03-30 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170201132816/http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/radiation/dir/mstreet/commeet/meet3/brief3.gfr/tab_g/br3g1f.txt |archive-date2017-02-01}}</ref> Through this process, the list of 'presumptive' conditions has grown since 1991, and currently the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes mellitus, Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as conditions associated with exposure to the herbicide. This list now includes B cell leukemias, such as hairy cell leukemia, Parkinson's disease and ischemic heart disease, these last three having been added on August 31, 2010. Several highly placed individuals in government are voicing concerns about whether some of the diseases on the list should, in fact, actually have been included.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://archive.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2010/08/31/aging_vets_costs_concern_obamas_deficit_co_chair|firstMike |lastBaker|titleAging vets' costs concern Obama's deficit co-chair|workBoston.com|agencyAssociated Press|date2010-08-31|access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170521144122/http://archive.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2010/08/31/aging_vets_costs_concern_obamas_deficit_co_chair/|archive-date2017-05-21|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2011, an appraisal of the 20-year long Air Force Health Study that began in 1982 indicates that the results of the AFHS as they pertain to Agent Orange, do not provide evidence of disease in the Operation Ranch Hand veterans caused by "their elevated levels of exposure to Agent Orange".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Buffler|first1Patricia A.|last2Ginevan|first2Michael E.|last3Mandel|first3Jack S.|last4Watkins|first4Deborah K.|date2011-09-01|titleThe Air Force Health Study: An Epidemiologic Retrospective|journalAnnals of Epidemiology|languageen|volume21|issue9|pages673–687|doi10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.02.001|pmid21441038|issn1047-2797}}</ref>
The VA initially denied the applications of post-Vietnam C-123 aircrew veterans because as veterans without "boots on the ground" service in Vietnam, they were not covered under VA's interpretation of "exposed". In June 2015, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs issued an Interim final rule providing presumptive service connection for post-Vietnam C-123 aircrews, maintenance staff and aeromedical evacuation crews. The VA now provides medical care and disability compensation for the recognized list of Agent Orange illnesses.<ref>{{cite press release|urlhttp://www.va.gov/opa/pressrel/includes/viewPDF.cfm?id2714|titleVA Expands Disability Benefits for Air Force Personnel Exposed to Contaminated C-123 Aircraft|publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs|date2015-06-18|access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161228123649/http://www.va.gov/opa/pressrel/includes/viewPDF.cfm?id2714|archive-date2016-12-28|url-statuslive}}</ref>
U.S.–Vietnamese government negotiations
In 2002, Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange. Following the conference, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam, and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange.{{sfn|Young|2009|p310}} These negotiations broke down in 2005, when neither side could agree on the research protocol and the research project was canceled. More progress has been made on the environmental front. In 2005, the first U.S.-Vietnam workshop on remediation of dioxin was held.{{sfn|Young|2009|p310}}
Starting in 2005, the EPA began to work with the Vietnamese government to measure the level of dioxin at the Da Nang Air Base. Also in 2005, the Joint Advisory Committee on Agent Orange, made up of representatives of Vietnamese and U.S. government agencies, was established. The committee has been meeting yearly to explore areas of scientific cooperation, technical assistance and environmental remediation of dioxin.<ref>{{cite press release |url http://vietnam.usembassy.gov/pr081209.html |title US, Vietnam to Hold Fourth Joint Advisory Meeting on Agent Orange/Dioxin |publisherEmbassy of the United States, Hanoi |access-date August 11, 2011|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20111015102640/http://vietnam.usembassy.gov/pr081209.html|archive-date October 15, 2011}}</ref>
A breakthrough in the diplomatic stalemate on this issue occurred as a result of United States President George W. Bush's state visit to Vietnam in November 2006. In the joint statement, President Bush and President Triet agreed "further joint efforts to address the environmental contamination near former dioxin storage sites would make a valuable contribution to the continued development of their bilateral relationship."<ref>{{Cite press release|urlhttps://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/prs/76322.htm|titleJoint Statement Between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the United States of America |publisherUnited States Department of State |access-date2017-03-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330081119/https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/prs/76322.htm|archive-date2017-03-30|url-statuslive}}</ref> On May 25, 2007, President Bush signed the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 into law for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that included an earmark of $3 million specifically for funding for programs for the remediation of dioxin 'hotspots' on former U.S. military bases, and for public health programs for the surrounding communities;{{sfn|Martin|2009|p2}} some authors consider this to be completely inadequate, pointing out that the Da Nang Airbase alone will cost $14 million to clean up, and that three others are estimated to require $60 million for cleanup.<ref name"fawthrop-suffering" /> The appropriation was renewed in the fiscal year 2009 and again in FY 2010. An additional $12 million was appropriated in the fiscal year 2010 in the Supplemental Appropriations Act and a total of $18.5 million appropriated for fiscal year 2011.<ref>{{cite press release |lastLeahy |firstPatrick |url http://leahy.senate.gov/press/press_releases/release/?idaaea045d-2239-4e5d-bc0e-87575d887daa |title Statement of Senator Patrick Leahy on the Legacy of Agent Orange |access-date August 11, 2011 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120325221817/http://www.leahy.senate.gov/press/press_releases/release/?idaaea045d-2239-4e5d-bc0e-87575d887daa |archive-date March 25, 2012 |url-status = live}}</ref>
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated during a visit to Hanoi in October 2010 that the U.S. government would begin work on the clean-up of dioxin contamination at the Da Nang Airbase.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/22/AR2010072200713.html|titleIn Hanoi, Clinton highlights closer ties with Vietnam, pushes for human rights|lastDeYoung|firstKaren|date2010-07-22|newspaperThe Washington Post|access-date2017-03-29|languageen-US|issn0190-8286|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330174330/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/22/AR2010072200713.html|archive-date2017-03-30|url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2011, a ceremony was held at Da Nang airport to mark the start of U.S.-funded decontamination of dioxin hotspots in Vietnam. Thirty-two million dollars has so far been allocated by the U.S. Congress to fund the program.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13808753|titleUS helps Vietnam to eradicate deadly Agent Orange|date2011-06-17|workBBC News|access-date2017-03-29|languageen-GB|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170701222125/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13808753|archive-date2017-07-01|url-statuslive}}</ref> A $43 million project began in the summer of 2012, as Vietnam and the U.S. forge closer ties to boost trade and counter China's rising influence in the disputed South China Sea.<ref>{{cite web|lastIves|firstMike|titleUS starts landmark Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/us-starts-landmark-agent-orange-cleanup-vietnam-100542424.html|workYahoo! News|access-date8 August 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120810080122/http://news.yahoo.com/us-starts-landmark-agent-orange-cleanup-vietnam-100542424.html|archive-date10 August 2012|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit in U.S. courts
On January 31, 2004, a victim's rights group, the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/dioxin (VAVA), filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn, against several U.S. companies for liability in causing personal injury, by developing, and producing the chemical, and claimed that the use of Agent Orange violated the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, 1925 Geneva Protocol, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Dow Chemical and Monsanto were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the U.S. military and were named in the suit, along with the dozens of other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). On March 10, 2005, Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Eastern District – who had presided over the 1984 U.S. veterans class-action lawsuit – dismissed the lawsuit, ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs' claims. He concluded Agent Orange was not considered a poison under international humanitarian law at the time of its use by the U.S.; the U.S. was not prohibited from using it as a herbicide; and the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_us_rule76|titleUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Practice Relating to Rule 76. Herbicides |websiteCustomary IHL Database |publisherInternational Committee of the Red Cross|access-date2020-02-01|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160307030911/https://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_us_rule76|archive-date2016-03-07|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the dismissal statement issued by Weinstein, he wrote "The prohibition extended only to gases deployed for their asphyxiating or toxic effects on man, not to herbicides designed to affect plants that may have unintended harmful side-effects on people."<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/10/nyregion/agent-orange-case-for-millions-of-vietnamese-is-dismissed.html|titleAgent Orange Case for Millions of Vietnamese Is Dismissed|date2005-03-10|workThe New York Times|access-date2017-03-29|issn0362-4331|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170420095400/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/10/nyregion/agent-orange-case-for-millions-of-vietnamese-is-dismissed.html|archive-date2017-04-20|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite court|urlhttp://www.vn-agentorange.org/10_03_05_agentorange.pdf |litigantsMDL No. 381 |date2005 |courtE.D.N.Y. |opinionNo. 04-CV-400 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191014195438/http://www.vn-agentorange.org/10_03_05_agentorange.pdf|archive-date14 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The Department of Defense's Advanced Research Project Agency's (ARPA) Project AGILE was instrumental in the United States' development of herbicides as a military weapon, an undertaking inspired by the British use of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T to destroy jungle-grown crops and bushes during the Malayan emergency. The United States considered British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legally accepted tactic of war. On November 24, 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that herbicide use in Vietnam would be lawful, saying that "[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of helicopters for destroying crops by chemical spraying."<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Literary Cold War, 1945 to Vietnam |urlhttps://archive.org/details/literarycoldwarv00piet |url-accesslimited |firstAdam |lastPiette |dateMay 25, 2009 |pages[https://archive.org/details/literarycoldwarv00piet/page/n209 201]–202 |publisherEdinburgh University Press |isbn978-0-7486-3527-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastRusk |firstDean |urlhttps://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d275 |sectionMemorandum From the Secretary of State to the President |titleForeign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963 |volumeI, Vietnam, 1961 |publisherUnited States Department of State |dateNovember 24, 1961 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181211050023/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/d275|archive-date2018-12-11|url-statuslive |oclc=220954388}}</ref>}}
Author and activist George Jackson had written previously that:<blockquote>If the Americans were guilty of war crimes for using Agent Orange in Vietnam, then the British would be also guilty of war crimes as well since they were the first nation to deploy the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare and used them on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency. Not only was there no outcry by other states in response to the United Kingdom's use, but the U.S. viewed it as establishing a precedent for the use of herbicides and defoliants in jungle warfare.</blockquote>The U.S. government was also not a party in the lawsuit because of sovereign immunity, and the court ruled the chemical companies, as contractors of the U.S. government, shared the same immunity. The case was appealed and heard by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan on June 18, 2007. Three judges on the court upheld Weinstein's ruling to dismiss the case. They ruled that, though the herbicides contained a dioxin (a known poison), they were not intended to be used as a poison on humans. Therefore, they were not considered a chemical weapon and thus not a violation of international law. A further review of the case by the entire panel of judges of the Court of Appeals also confirmed this decision. The lawyers for the Vietnamese filed a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case. On March 2, 2009, the Supreme Court denied certiorari and declined to reconsider the ruling of the Court of Appeals.<ref>{{cite court |urlhttps://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/US/AgentOrange_AppealsJudgement_22-2-2008.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/US/AgentOrange_AppealsJudgement_22-2-2008.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |litigantsVietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin v. Dow Chemical |date2008 |court2d Cir. |opinionNo. 05-1953-cv}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename/docketfiles/08-470.htm |titleDocket No. 08-470 |dateMarch 2, 2009 |publisherSupreme Court of the United States |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308181023/https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename%2Fdocketfiles%2F08-470.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Help for those affected in Vietnam
To assist those who have been affected by Agent Orange/dioxin, the Vietnamese have established "peace villages", which each host between 50 and 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, there were 11 such villages, thus granting some social protection to fewer than a thousand victims. U.S. veterans of the war in Vietnam and individuals who are aware and sympathetic to the impacts of Agent Orange have supported these programs in Vietnam. An international group of veterans from the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War working with their former enemy—veterans from the Vietnam Veterans Association—established the Vietnam Friendship Village outside of Hanoi.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.vietnamfriendship.org|titleVietnam Friendship Village Project|access-dateAugust 18, 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080917012142/http://www.vietnamfriendship.org/|archive-date17 September 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The center provides medical care, rehabilitation and vocational training for children and veterans from Vietnam who have been affected by Agent Orange. In 1998, The Vietnam Red Cross established the Vietnam Agent Orange Victims Fund to provide direct assistance to families throughout Vietnam that have been affected. In 2003, the Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange (VAVA) was formed. In addition to filing the lawsuit against the chemical companies, VAVA provides medical care, rehabilitation services and financial assistance to those injured by Agent Orange.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://vava.org.vn/|titleHội Nạn nhân chất độc da cam/dioxin Việt Nam|trans-titleVietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin |websitevava.org.vn|languagevi-VN|access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170326221003/http://vava.org.vn/|archive-date2017-03-26|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Vietnamese government provides small monthly stipends to more than 200,000 Vietnamese believed affected by the herbicides; this totaled $40.8 million in 2008. The Vietnam Red Cross has raised more than $22 million to assist the ill or disabled, and several U.S. foundations, United Nations agencies, European governments and nongovernmental organizations have given a total of about $23 million for site cleanup, reforestation, health care and other services to those in need.<ref>{{cite report |authorNgô Quang Xuân |titleStatement to the United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee of Asia, Pacific and Global Environment |dateJune 2009 |page3}}</ref>
Vuong Mo of the Vietnam News Agency described one of the centers:<ref>{{cite web|titleLiving with the sufferings|urlhttps://vietnam.vnanet.vn/english/living-with-the-sufferings/17917.html|websitevietnam.vnanet.vn|date2005-12-07|access-date2021-01-03|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210103181452/https://vietnam.vnanet.vn/english/living-with-the-sufferings/17917.html|archive-date2021-01-03|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<blockquote>May is 13, but she knows nothing, is unable to talk fluently, nor walk with ease due to for her bandy legs. Her father is dead and she has four elder brothers, all mentally retarded&nbsp;... The students are all disabled, retarded and of different ages. Teaching them is a hard job. They are of the 3rd grade but many of them find it hard to do the reading. Only a few of them can. Their pronunciation is distorted due to their twisted lips and their memory is quite short. They easily forget what they've learned&nbsp;... In the Village, it is quite hard to tell the kids' exact ages. Some in their twenties have a physical statures as small as the 7- or 8-years-old. They find it difficult to feed themselves, much less have mental ability or physical capacity for work. No one can hold back the tears when seeing the heads turning round unconsciously, the bandy arms managing to push the spoon of food into the mouths with awful difficulty&nbsp;... Yet they still keep smiling, singing in their great innocence, at the presence of some visitors, craving for something beautiful.</blockquote>
On June 16, 2010, members of the U.S.-Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange/Dioxin unveiled a comprehensive 10-year Declaration and Plan of Action to address the toxic legacy of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam. The Plan of Action was released as an Aspen Institute publication and calls upon the U.S. and Vietnamese governments to join with other governments, foundations, businesses, and nonprofits in a partnership to clean up dioxin "hot spots" in Vietnam and to expand humanitarian services for people with disabilities there.<ref name"chicagotribune.com">{{cite news |urlhttp://www.chicagotribune.com/health/agentorange/chi-agent-orange-actionplandec08,0,7945266.story |titlePublic-private group has plan in the works to resolve issue |workChicago Tribune |firstJason |lastGrotto |date2009-12-08 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130522082810/http://www.chicagotribune.com/health/agentorange/chi-agent-orange-actionplandec08,0,7945266.story |archive-date2013-05-22 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |firstMargie |lastMason |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37735860 |titlePlan addresses Agent Orange legacy in Vietnam |workNBC News |date2010-06-16 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305083530/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/37735860/ |archive-date2016-03-05 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttp://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2010/1001.spc-rep.html |titleSpecial Report: Agent Orange |magazineWashington Monthly |dateJanuary–February 2010 |access-date2012-07-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120901175643/http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2010/1001.spc-rep.html |archive-date2012-09-01 |pages22–40}}</ref> On September 16, 2010, Senator Patrick Leahy acknowledged the work of the Dialogue Group by releasing a statement on the floor of the United States Senate. The statement urges the U.S. government to take the Plan of Action's recommendations into account in developing a multi-year plan of activities to address the Agent Orange/dioxin legacy.<ref>{{cite book |titleCongressional Record—Senate |pageS7168 |dateSeptember 16, 2010 |urlhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-2010-09-16/pdf/CREC-2010-09-16-pt1-PgS7168-3.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312201512/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-2010-09-16/pdf/CREC-2010-09-16-pt1-PgS7168-3.pdf |archive-date2017-03-12 |publisher=United States Government Publishing Office}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
Use outside of Vietnam
Australia
In 2008, Australian researcher Jean Williams claimed that cancer rates in Innisfail, Queensland, were 10 times higher than the state average because of secret testing of Agent Orange by the Australian military scientists during the Vietnam War. Williams, who had won the Order of Australia medal for her research on the effects of chemicals on U.S. war veterans, based her allegations on Australian government reports found in the Australian War Memorial's archives. A former soldier, Ted Bosworth, backed up the claims, saying that he had been involved in the secret testing. Neither Williams nor Bosworth have produced verifiable evidence to support their claims. The Queensland health department determined that cancer rates in Innisfail were no higher than those in other parts of the state.<ref>{{cite news |lastMcMahon |first Barbara |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/19/australia |titleAustralia cancer deaths linked to Agent Orange |newspaperThe Guardian |dateMay 19, 2008 |access-dateMarch 30, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330180951/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/19/australia |archive-dateMarch 30, 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Canada
The U.S. military, with the permission of the Canadian government, tested herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the forests near Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick.<!-- for three days in 1966 and four days in 1967.--><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vietnam-war |titleVietnam War |firstVictor |lastLevant |encyclopediaThe Canadian Encyclopedia |dateNovember 13, 2011 |publisherHistorica Canada |access-dateApril 18, 2011 |archive-dateNovember 20, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211120175727/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/vietnam-war |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2007, the government of Canada offered a one-time ex gratia payment of $20,000 as compensation for Agent Orange exposure at CFB Gagetown.<ref>{{Cite news |titlePeople angry with Agent Orange package turn to class-action lawsuit |dateSeptember 13, 2007 |workAmherst Daily News |urlhttp://www.amherstdaily.com/Living/Health/2007-09-14/article-385472/People-angry-with-Agent-Orange-package-turn-to-class-action-lawsuit/1 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120729043648/http://www.amherstdaily.com/Living/Health/2007-09-14/article-385472/People-angry-with-Agent-Orange-package-turn-to-class-action-lawsuit/1 |archive-dateJuly 29, 2012 |access-dateOctober 1, 2007}}</ref> On July 12, 2005, Merchant Law Group, on behalf of over 1,100 Canadian veterans and civilians who were living in and around CFB Gagetown, filed a lawsuit to pursue class action litigation concerning Agent Orange and Agent Purple with the Federal Court of Canada.<ref>{{Cite news| titleAgent Orange Class Action| publisherMerchant Law Group |urlhttp://www.merchantlaw.com/agentop.html| access-dateOctober 1, 2007| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071002150348/http://www.merchantlaw.com/agentop.html| archive-date 2 October 2007}}</ref> On August 4, 2009, the case was rejected by the court, citing lack of evidence.<ref>{{cite news |lastBerry |firstShawn |titleMoncton judge rules in Agent Orange lawsuit |workTimes & Transcript |locationMoncton |dateAugust 4, 2009}}</ref>
In 2007, the Canadian government announced that a research and fact-finding program initiated in 2005 had found the base was safe.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/78220517/Veterans-Affairs-Canada-Agent-Orange-Benefits-Rev-1-0 |titleVeterans Affairs Canada Agent Orange Benefits Rev 1.0 |access-date6 July 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120901034332/http://www.scribd.com/doc/78220517/Veterans-Affairs-Canada-Agent-Orange-Benefits-Rev-1-0 |archive-date1 September 2012}}</ref> A legislative commission in the State of Maine found in 2024 that the Canadian investigation was "incorrect, biased, and based upon, in some cases, incomplete data and poor study design—at times exacerbated by the rapid period in which these reports were required to be conducted and issued."<ref>{{Cite news |date2024-03-02 |titleCanadian study into Agent Orange use at Gagetown base was incorrect, biased, says U.S. inquiry |urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-gagetown-base-agent-orange-herbicides/ |access-date2024-03-04 |workThe Globe and Mail |language=en-CA}}</ref>
On February 17, 2011, the Toronto Star revealed that Agent Orange had been employed to clear extensive plots of Crown land in Northern Ontario.<ref name"StarExclusive">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/940243--star-exclusive-agent-orange-soaked-ontario-teens |titleAgent Orange "soaked" Ontario teens |firstDiana |lastZlomislic |access-dateFebruary 17, 2011 |locationToronto |workThe Star |dateFebruary 17, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110218153326/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/940243--star-exclusive-agent-orange-soaked-ontario-teens |archive-dateFebruary 18, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The Toronto Star reported that, "records from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s show forestry workers, often students and junior rangers, spent weeks at a time as human markers holding red, helium-filled balloons on fishing lines while low-flying planes sprayed toxic herbicides including an infamous chemical mixture known as Agent Orange on the brush and the boys below."<ref name"StarExclusive" /> In response to the Toronto Star article, the Ontario provincial government launched a probe into the use of Agent Orange.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/940878--ontario-probes-agent-orange-poisoning|titleOntario probes Agent Orange poisoning |firstDiana |lastZlomislic|access-dateFebruary 17, 2011|locationToronto|workThe Star|dateFebruary 17, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219015755/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/940878--ontario-probes-agent-orange-poisoning|archive-dateFebruary 19, 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Guam
An analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around Andersen Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Agana. Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was stored or used on Guam. Several Guam veterans have collected evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.<ref name"Dimond2013">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thedailybeast.com/the-hero-project/articles/2013/09/25/were-vets-who-served-in-guam-exposed-to-agent-orange-and-denied-benefits.html |titleWere Vets Who Served in Guam Exposed to Agent Orange and Denied Benefits? |last1Dimond |first1Diane |dateSeptember 25, 2013 |workThe Daily Beast |access-dateSeptember 29, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130928223244/http://www.thedailybeast.com/the-hero-project/articles/2013/09/25/were-vets-who-served-in-guam-exposed-to-agent-orange-and-denied-benefits.html |archive-dateSeptember 28, 2013}}</ref>
South Korea
Agent Orange was used in South Korea in the late 1960s<ref>{{cite web |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |titleAgent Orange: Information for Veterans Who Served in Vietnam |urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/agentorange/reviews/ao_newsletter_jul06.pdf |access-dateAugust 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090723222329/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/agentorange/reviews/ao_newsletter_jul06.pdf |archive-dateJuly 23, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref> and in 1999, about 20,000 South Koreans filed two separated lawsuits against U.S. companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they filed an appeal.<ref name"AlfanoCBS2006">{{cite web |last1Alfano |first1Sean |titleAgent Orange Makers Lose S. Korea Suit |urlhttp://www.cbsnews.com/news/agent-orange-makers-lose-s-korea-suit/ |websiteCBS News |access-date11 August 2016 |date26 January 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160821073352/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/agent-orange-makers-lose-s-korea-suit/ |archive-date21 August 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In January 2006, the South Korean Appeals Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. The ruling acknowledged that "the defendants failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendants had higher levels of dioxins than standard", and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a "causal relationship" between Agent Orange and a range of diseases, including several cancers. The judges failed to acknowledge "the relationship between the chemical and peripheral neuropathy, the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims".<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-01-26-agent-orange-damages_x.htm |titleKorea orders Agent Orange payments |websiteUSA Today |date2006-01-26 |access-date2017-03-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170226131319/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-01-26-agent-orange-damages_x.htm |archive-date2017-02-26 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2011, the United States local press KPHO-TV in Phoenix, Arizona, alleged that in 1978 that the United States Army had buried 250 55-gallon drums ({{convert|13,750|U.S.gal|abbron}}) of Agent Orange in Camp Carroll, the U.S. Army base located in Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.kpho.com/news/27892124/detail.html |titleMilitary Secrets Exposed |workKPHO-TV |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514170728/http://www.kpho.com/news/27892124/detail.html |archive-dateMay 14, 2011 |date=May 13, 2011}}</ref>
Currently, veterans who provide evidence meeting VA requirements for service in Vietnam and who can medically establish that anytime after this 'presumptive exposure' they developed any medical problems on the list of presumptive diseases, may receive compensation from the VA. Certain veterans who served in South Korea and are able to prove they were assigned to certain specified around the Korean Demilitarized Zone, during a specific time frame are afforded similar presumption.<ref>38 CFR [https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID017bd13585179c730649591e5a2c5a9b&mctrue&nodese38.1.3_1307&rgndiv8 § 3.307(a)(6)(iv)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210519002814/https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID2860bbfc07cb48ce7b1a57605477646e&mctrue&nodese38.1.3_1307&rgndiv8 |dateMay 19, 2021}}</ref>
New Zealand
, New Zealand, 1968]]
{{further|New Zealand in the Vietnam War#Agent Orange}}
The use of Agent Orange has been controversial in New Zealand, because of the exposure of New Zealand troops in Vietnam and because of the production of herbicide used in Agent Orange which has been alleged at various times to have been exported for use in the Vietnam War and to other users by the Ivon Watkins-Dow chemical plant in Paritutu, New Plymouth. What is fact is that from 1962 until 1987, 2,4,5T herbicide was manufactured at the Ivon Watkins-Dow plant for domestic use in New Zealand. It was widely used by farmers and in New Zealand agriculture as a weed killer. This fact was the basis of a 2005 New Zealand Media story that claimed that the herbicide had been allegedly exported to U.S. military bases in South East Asia. However the claim was not proven, a fact which the Media did not subsequently report.<ref>'At a price: manufacturing Agent Orange in NZ? ', URL: https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/memory/price-manufacturing-agent-orange-nz {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220209005521/https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/memory/price-manufacturing-agent-orange-nz |dateFebruary 9, 2022}}, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 04-Jul-2014</ref> There have been continuing claims, as yet unproven, that the suburb of Paritutu has also been polluted.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.nzherald.co.nz/dioxin/news/article.cfm?c_id675&objectid10412402 |titleConcern prompts review of Dioxin study |newspaperNew Zealand Herald |dateNovember 25, 2006 |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160624211354/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/dioxin/news/article.cfm?c_id675&objectid10412402 |archive-dateJune 24, 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> However, the agriscience company Corteva (which split from DowDupont in 2019) agreed to clean up the Paritutu site in September 2022.<ref>'chemical-giant-corteva-commits-to-total-cleanup-of-controversial-new-plymouth-site', URL https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki-daily-news/news/129905030/chemical-giant-corteva-commits-to-total-cleanup-of-controversial-new-plymouth-site</ref>
Philippines
Herbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite report |titlePreliminary Proposals for the Study of Persistence of Herbicides in Forest and Mangrove Soil |last1Fryer |first1J. D. |last2Blackman |first2G. E. |dateJanuary 1972 |publisherCommittee on the Effect of Herbicides in Vietnam, National Academy of Sciences}}</ref>Johnston Atoll
circa 1973.]]
, circa 1976.]]
The U.S. Air Force operation to remove Herbicide Orange from Vietnam in 1972 was named Operation Pacer IVY, while the operation to destroy the Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1977 was named Operation Pacer HO. Operation Pacer IVY collected Agent Orange in South Vietnam and removed it in 1972 aboard the ship MV Transpacific for storage on Johnston Atoll.<ref name"Young">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.jonmitchellinjapan.com/uploads/4/0/4/0/4040871/okinawa_report_package_2013_pdf.pdf |titleInvestigations into Allegations of Herbicide Orange on Okinawa, Japan |lastYoung |firstAlvin L. |publisherUnited States Department of Defence |dateJanuary 2013 |access-dateMarch 14, 2013 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308172145/https://www.jonmitchellinjapan.com/uploads/4/0/4/0/4040871/okinawa_report_package_2013_pdf.pdf |url-statuslive}}</ref> The EPA reports that {{cvt|1800000|U.S.gal|L|orderflip}} of Herbicide Orange was stored at Johnston Island in the Pacific and {{cvt|480000|U.S.gal|L|orderflip}} at Gulfport, Mississippi.<ref nameSierra>{{cite web |urlhttp://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/910096MY.PDF |titleFinal report of the Federal Task Force for Hazardous Materials Management of the Western Federal Regional Council Region IX, August 1, 1973 to June 30, 1977 |last1Bourns |first1Charles T. |dateMarch 1, 1978 |publisherUS Environmental Protection Agency |access-date16 February 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140110002238/http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/910096MY.PDF |archive-date10 January 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Research and studies were initiated to find a safe method to destroy the materials, and it was discovered they could be incinerated safely under special conditions of temperature and dwell time.<ref nameSierra /> However, these herbicides were expensive, and the Air Force wanted to resell its surplus instead of dumping it at sea.<ref name"Guam" /> Among many methods tested, a possibility of salvaging the herbicides by reprocessing and filtering out the TCDD contaminant with carbonized (charcoaled) coconut fibers. This concept was then tested in 1976 and a pilot plant constructed at Gulfport.<ref name=Sierra />
From July to September 1977 during Operation Pacer HO, the entire stock of Agent Orange from both Herbicide Orange storage sites at Gulfport and Johnston Atoll was subsequently incinerated in four separate burns in the vicinity of Johnston Island aboard the Dutch-owned waste incineration ship {{ship|MT|Vulcanus}}.<ref name"Guam">{{cite report |titlePhase II Environmental Baseline Survey, Johnston Atoll |dateApril 2005 |authorEarthTech |chapterAppendix B |pageB19-B20 |chapter-urlhttp://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130421032235/http://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf |archive-dateApril 21, 2013 |access-dateAugust 19, 2012}}</ref>
As of 2004, some records of the storage and disposition of Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll have been associated with the historical records of Operation Red Hat.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.va.gov/vetapp14/Files1/1403511.txt|titleEntitlement to service connection for diabetes mellitus, claimed as due to herbicide exposure or ionizing radiation.|dateFebruary 10, 2014|publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs|access-dateMarch 30, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331025728/https://www.va.gov/vetapp14/Files1/1403511.txt|archive-dateMarch 31, 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Okinawa, Japan
There have been dozens of reports in the press about use and/or storage of military formulated herbicides on Okinawa that are based upon statements by former U.S. service members that had been stationed on the island, photographs, government records, and unearthed storage barrels. The U.S. Department of Defense has denied these allegations with statements by military officials and spokespersons, as well as a January 2013 report authored by Dr. Alvin Young that was released in April 2013.<ref name"Young"/><ref name"blanket2013">{{cite news |urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2013/06/04/issues/as-evidence-of-agent-orange-in-okinawa-stacks-up-u-s-sticks-with-blanket-denial/ |lastMitchell |firstJon |titleAs evidence of agent orange in Okinawa stacks up US sticks with blanket denial |dateJune 4, 2013 |newspaperJapan Times |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416223910/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2013/06/04/issues/as-evidence-of-agent-orange-in-okinawa-stacks-up-u-s-sticks-with-blanket-denial/ |archive-dateApril 16, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
included a statement confirming records of Agent Orange storage in Okinawa.<ref name="Ecological" />]]
In particular, the 2013 report rebuts articles written by journalist Jon Mitchell as well as a statement from "An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll" a 2003 publication produced by the United States Army Chemical Materials Agency that states, "in 1972, the U.S. Air Force also brought about 25,000 200L drums ({{convert|5,000,000|L|abbron}}) of the chemical, Herbicide Orange (HO) to Johnston Island that originated from Vietnam and was stored on Okinawa."<ref name"Ecological">{{cite report |last1Lobel |first1Phillip |last2Schreiber |first2Elizabeth A. |last3McCloskey |first3Gary |last4O'Shea |first4Leo |date2003 |publisherChemical Materials Agency, United States Department of the Army |titleAn Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll |page4 |urlhttp://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid003673775 |access-dateJuly 2, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120915235915/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid003673775 |archive-dateSeptember 15, 2012}}</ref> The 2013 report states: "The authors of the [2003] report were not DoD employees, nor were they likely familiar with the issues surrounding Herbicide Orange or its actual history of transport to the Island." and detailed the transport phases and routes of Agent Orange from Vietnam to Johnston Atoll, none of which included Okinawa.<ref name="Young"/>
1971 Fort Detrick report describes Tactical Herbicide stockpiles of U.S. Government restricted materials on Okinawa at Kadena AFB, in Thailand, and Vietnam.<ref name"Stockpile" /><ref name"Detrick1971">{{Cite report |lastDarrow |firstRobert A. |dateSeptember 1971 |titleHistorical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program, 1967–1971 |publisherPlant Sciences Laboratories, United States Army Chemical Corps |locationFort Detrick |page49 |docketA Resume of the Activities of the Subcommittee on Defoliation/Anticrop Systems (Vegetation Control Subcommittee) for the Joint Technical Coordinating Group/Chemical-Biological}}</ref>]]
Further official confirmation of restricted (dioxin containing) herbicide storage on Okinawa appeared in a 1971 Fort Detrick report titled "Historical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program", which mentions that the environmental statement should consider "Herbicide stockpiles elsewhere in PACOM (Pacific Command) U.S. Government restricted materials Thailand and Okinawa (Kadena AFB)."<ref name"Stockpile">{{cite journal |title'Herbicide Stockpile' at Kadena Air Base, Okinawa: 1971 U.S. Army report on Agent Orange |firstJon |lastMitchell |urlhttps://apjjf.org/2013/11/1/Jon-Mitchell/3883/article.html |journalThe Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume11 |issue1 No. 5 |dateJanuary 14, 2012 |access-dateFebruary 2, 2013 |archive-dateAugust 16, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200816141552/https://apjjf.org/2013/11/1/Jon-Mitchell/3883/article.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> The 2013 DoD report says that the environmental statement urged by the 1971 report was published in 1974 as "The Department of Air Force Final Environmental Statement", and that the latter did not find Agent Orange was held in either Thailand or Okinawa.<ref name"Young"/><ref name"blanket2013"/>ThailandAgent Orange was tested by the United States in Thailand during the Vietnam War. In 1999, buried drums were uncovered and confirmed to be Agent Orange.<ref>{{cite news |titleAgent Orange Found Under Resort Airport |urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/1999/05/26/agent-orange-found-under-resort-airport/ |workChicago Tribune |locationChicago, Illinois |dateMay 26, 1999 |agencyTribune News Services |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140105085210/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1999-05-26/news/9905260083_1_agent-orange-chemical-birth-defects |archive-dateJanuary 5, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Workers who uncovered the drums fell ill while upgrading the airport near Hua Hin District, 100&nbsp;km south of Bangkok.<ref>{{cite news |firstBoonthan |lastSakanond |titleThailand: Toxic Legacy of the Vietnam War |urlhttp://www.ipsnews.net/1999/05/thailand-toxic-legacy-of-the-vietnam-war/ |locationBangkok, Thailand |dateMay 19, 1999 |agencyInter Press Service |access-dateFebruary 1, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190707064407/http://www.ipsnews.net/1999/05/thailand-toxic-legacy-of-the-vietnam-war/ |archive-dateJuly 7, 2019 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Vietnam-era veterans whose service involved duty on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand anytime between February 28, 1961, and May 7, 1975, may have been exposed to herbicides and may qualify for VA benefits.<ref name"VA.gov">{{citation-attribution|1{{cite web |urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/thailand.asp |titleThailand Military Bases and Agent Orange Exposure – Public Health |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-date10 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170227062320/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/thailand.asp |archive-date27 February 2017 |url-status=live}} }}</ref>
A declassified Department of Defense report written in 1973, suggests that there was a significant use of herbicides on the fenced-in perimeters of military bases in Thailand to remove foliage that provided cover for enemy forces.<ref name"VA.gov"/> In 2013, the VA determined that herbicides used on the Thailand base perimeters may have been tactical and procured from Vietnam, or a strong, commercial type resembling tactical herbicides.<ref name"VA.gov"/>
United States
The University of Hawaiʻi has acknowledged extensive testing of Agent Orange on behalf of the United States Department of Defense in Hawaii along with mixtures of Agent Orange on Hawaii Island in 1966 and on Kaua'i Island in 1967–1968; testing and storage in other U.S. locations has been documented by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.<ref>{{cite news |last1Keever |first1Beverly Deepe |titleUniversity vulnerable to pitfalls of secret experiments |urlhttp://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/03/27/editorial/special2.html |access-date30 March 2017 |workHonolulu Star-Bulletin |dateMarch 27, 2005 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170325150042/http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/03/27/editorial/special2.html |archive-date25 March 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titlePublic Health. Herbicide Tests and Storage Outside Vietnam |urlhttps://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/tests-storage/index.asp |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-date30 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331024515/https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/tests-storage/index.asp |archive-date31 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1971, the C-123 aircraft used for spraying Agent Orange were returned to the United States and assigned various East Coast USAF Reserve squadrons, and then employed in traditional airlift missions between 1972 and 1982. In 1994, testing by the Air Force identified some former spray aircraft as "heavily contaminated" with dioxin residue. Inquiries by aircrew veterans in 2011 brought a decision by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs opining that not enough dioxin residue remained to injure these post-Vietnam War veterans. On 26 January 2012, the U.S. Center For Disease Control's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry challenged this with their finding that former spray aircraft were indeed contaminated and the aircrews exposed to harmful levels of dioxin. In response to veterans' concerns, the VA in February 2014 referred the C-123 issue to the Institute of Medicine for a special study, with results released on January 9, 2015.<ref>{{cite web |titleAgent Orange Residue on Post-Vietnam War Airplanes |urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/residue-c123-aircraft/index.asp |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-dateApril 2, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150401063001/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/residue-c123-aircraft/index.asp |archive-dateApril 1, 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"c-123"/>
In 1978, the EPA suspended spraying of Agent Orange in national forests.<ref>{{cite book |lastNicosia |firstGerald |titleHome to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5hq2_JFvV0kC&pgPA446 |year2004 |publisherCarroll & Graf |isbn978-0-7867-1403-2 |page446 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330183525/https://books.google.com/books?id5hq2_JFvV0kC&pgPA446 |archive-date2017-03-30 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Agent Orange was sprayed on thousands of acres of brush in the Tennessee Valley for 15 years before scientists discovered the herbicide was dangerous. Monroe County, Tennessee, is one of the locations known to have been sprayed according to the Tennessee Valley Authority. Forty-four remote acres were sprayed with Agent Orange along power lines throughout the National Forest.<ref>{{cite news |titleThe defoliant Agent Orange, which contains dioxin, was sprayed... |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/05/12/The-defoliant-Agent-Orange-which-contains-dioxin-was-sprayed/8912421560000/ |workUnited Press International |access-date2020-02-01 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190822110845/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/05/12/The-defoliant-Agent-Orange-which-contains-dioxin-was-sprayed/8912421560000/ |archive-date2019-08-22 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1983, New Jersey declared a Passaic River production site to be a state of emergency. The dioxin pollution in the Passaic River dates back to the Vietnam era, when Diamond Alkali manufactured it in a factory along the river. The tidal river carried dioxin upstream and down, contaminating a {{convert|17|mi|abbron}} stretch of riverbed in one of New Jersey's most populous areas.<ref name"wsj.com">{{Cite Q|Q114385850|access-date=2022-10-03}}</ref>
A December 2006 Department of Defense report listed Agent Orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the United States, Canada, Thailand, Puerto Rico, Korea, and in the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|Young|2006|p5–6}} The Veteran Administration has also acknowledged that Agent Orange was used domestically by U.S. forces in test sites throughout the United States. Eglin Air Force Base in Florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |titleReport on DoD Herbicides Outside of Vietnam |urlhttp://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/agentorange/dod_herbicides_outside_vietnam.pdf |publisherUnited States Department of Veterans Affairs |access-dateSeptember 7, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140611133859/http://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/agentorange/dod_herbicides_outside_vietnam.pdf |archive-dateJune 11, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Cleanup programs
In February 2012, Monsanto agreed to settle a case covering dioxin contamination around a plant in Nitro, West Virginia, that had manufactured Agent Orange. Monsanto agreed to pay up to $9 million for cleanup of affected homes, $84 million for medical monitoring of people affected, and the community's legal fees.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-02-24/monsanto-says-it-settled-west-virginia-lawsuits-over-nitro-plant |titleMonsanto Settles West Virginia Lawsuits Over Nitro Plant |lastKaskey |firstJack |dateFebruary 24, 2012 |publisherBloomburg |access-date26 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150302023817/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-02-24/monsanto-says-it-settled-west-virginia-lawsuits-over-nitro-plant |archive-date2 March 2015 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.wvgazettemail.com/News/201311220094|titleSupreme Court affirms Monsanto pollution settlement in Nitro|dateNovember 22, 2013|workCharleston Gazette-Mail|last1Ward|first1Ken Jr. |access-date30 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151205022132/http://www.wvgazettemail.com/News/201311220094|archive-date5 December 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref>
On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time the U.S. government has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. Danang was the primary storage site of the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai is a hotspot for dioxin and so is Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to the Vietnamese newspaper Nhân Dân, the U.S. government provided $41 million to the project. As of 2017, some {{convert|110,000|m3|abbron}} of soil have been cleaned.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://phys.org/news/2016-10-vietnam-danang-dioxin-clean-up.html|titleVietnam, US launch Danang dioxin clean-up|dateOctober 18, 2016|workPhys.org|access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170301160741/https://phys.org/news/2016-10-vietnam-danang-dioxin-clean-up.html|archive-date2017-03-01|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-usa-agentorange-idUSBRE87803K20120809|titleU.S. starts its first Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam|lastHo|firstBinh Minh|dateAugust 9, 2012|access-dateMarch 30, 2017|workReuters|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151016051735/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/09/us-vietnam-usa-agentorange-idUSBRE87803K20120809|archive-dateOctober 16, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Naval Construction Battalion Center at Gulfport, Mississippi was the largest storage site in the United States for Agent Orange.<ref name"WLOX"/> It was about {{convert|30|acre|abbron}} in size and was still being cleaned up in 2013.<ref name"WLOX">{{cite news |titleAgent Orange clean at Navy Seabee base is the focus at public meeting |firstNatalie |lastCampen |workWLOX |locationGulfport, Mississippi |dateJuly 9, 2013 |urlhttp://www.wlox.com/story/22793893/agent-orange-clean-at-navy-seabee-base-is-the-focus-at-public-meeting/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190228191918/http://www.wlox.com/story/22793893/agent-orange-clean-at-navy-seabee-base-is-the-focus-at-public-meeting/ |archive-date2019-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |titlePublic Health Assessment, Naval Construction Battalion Center Gulfport, Mississippi, Facility No. MS2170022626 |dateApril 2005 |author((Federal Facilities Assessment Branch, Division of Health Assessment and Consultation, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry)) |urlhttps://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/pha/navalconstructionbattalioncentergulfport/ncbcgulfportfinalrelease041205.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170504173628/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/NavalConstructionBattalionCenterGulfport/NCBCGulfportFinalRelease041205.pdf |archive-date2017-05-04}}</ref>
In 2016, the EPA laid out its plan for cleaning up an {{convert|8|mi|abbron}} stretch of the Passaic River in New Jersey, with an estimated cost of $1.4 billion. The contaminants reached to Newark Bay and other waterways, according to the EPA, which has designated the area a Superfund site.<ref name"wsj.com"/> Since destruction of the dioxin requires high temperatures over {{convert|1,000|C|abbron}}, the destruction process is energy intensive.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs225/en/|titleDioxins and their effects on human health|websiteWorld Health Organization|dateOctober 4, 2016|languageen-GB|access-date2017-03-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170409235849/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs225/en/|archive-date2017-04-09|url-statuslive}}</ref>
See also
* Environmental impact of war
* Orange Crush (song)
* Rainbow herbicides
* Scorched earth
* Teratology
* Vietnam Syndrome
References
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
General and cited references
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite report|lastBuckingham|firstWilliam H. Jr. |titleOperation Ranch Hand: The Airforce and Herbicides in Southeast Asia 1961–1971|publisherOffice of Air Force History, United States Air Force|year1982|urlhttp://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-100928-054.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161123145823/http://www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-100928-054.pdf|archive-dateNovember 23, 2016}}
* {{Cite journal|lastButler|firstDavid A.|titleThe early history of scientific and medical research on agent orange|journalBrooklyn Journal of Law and Policy|year2005|volume13|issue2|page527|urlhttp://www.bluewaternavy.org/History%20of%20Agent%20Orange_butler.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100923050959/http://bluewaternavy.org/History%20of%20Agent%20Orange_butler.pdf|archive-date=2010-09-23}}
* {{Cite journal|doi10.3322/canjclin.53.4.245|lastFrumkin |firstH. |titleAgent Orange and cancer: an overview for clinicians |journalCA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians |volume53 |issue4 |pages245–55 |year2003 |pmid12924777 |citeseerx10.1.1.522.4715 |s2cid33647665}}
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* {{cite book |refCITEREFIOM1994 |authorInstitute of Medicine, Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides |titleVeterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2YQTHJlt5l4C |year1994 |publisherNational Academies Press |isbn978-0-309-04887-3 |doi10.17226/2141 |pmid25144022 |access-dateFebruary 11, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 24, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124233039/https://books.google.com/books?id2YQTHJlt5l4C |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|authorInstitute of Medicine|titleVeterans and Agent Orange: Herbicide/Dioxin Exposure and Type 2 Diabetes|publisherNational Academies Press|dateOctober 11, 2000|urlhttp://www.iom.edu/Reports/2000/Veterans-and-Agent-Orange-HerbicideDioxin-Exposure-and-Type-2-Diabetes.aspx|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131207030802/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2000/Veterans-and-Agent-Orange-HerbicideDioxin-Exposure-and-Type-2-Diabetes.aspx|archive-date=December 7, 2013}}
* {{Cite book|lastKolko |firstGabriel |titleAnatomy of a war: Vietnam, the United States, and the modern historical experience |locationNew York |publisherThe New Press |date1994 |isbn=978-1-56584-218-2}}
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* {{cite report |lastMartin |firstMichael F. |urlhttps://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34761.pdf |titleVietnamese Victims of Agent Orange and US-Vietnam Relations |publisherCongressional Research Service |dateMay 28, 2009 |idRL34761 |access-dateFebruary 11, 2022 |archive-dateJuly 4, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210704100221/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34761.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last1Ngo|first1Anh D.|last2Taylor|first2Richard|last3Roberts|first3Christine L.|last4Nguyen|first4Tuan V.|titleAssociation between Agent Orange and birth defects: systematic review and meta-analysis|journalInternational Journal of Epidemiology|dateMarch 16, 2006|urlhttp://www.vn-agentorange.org/edmaterials/ije_paper.pdf|doi10.1093/ije/dyl038|volume35|issue5|pages1220–1230|pmid16543362|doi-accessfree|access-dateSeptember 6, 2010|archive-dateJune 17, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110617005958/http://www.vn-agentorange.org/edmaterials/ije_paper.pdf|url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book|last1Nicosia|first1Gerald|last2Swofford|first2Anthony|titleHome to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans Movement|publisherCarroll & Graf|year2004|isbn978-0-7867-1403-2}}
* NTP (National Toxicology Program); [https://web.archive.org/web/20100528114626/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/521_Web.pdf "Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Female Harlan Sprague-Dawley Rats (Gavage Studies)"], CASRN 1746–01–6, April 2006.
* {{Cite book|lastPellow |firstDavid N. |titleResisting global toxics: transnational movements for environmental justice |date2007 |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |publisherThe MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-16244-9}}
* {{Cite book|lastSchuck|firstPeter|titleAgent Orange on trial: mass toxic disasters in the courts|publisherHarvard University Press|year1987|isbn978-0-674-01026-0|url=https://archive.org/details/agentorangeontri00schu}}
* {{Cite journal|authorStanford Biology Study Group|titleThe Destruction of Indochina|journalBulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume27|issue5|dateMay 1971|issn0096-3402|pages36–40|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idagsAAAAAMBAJ&pgPA36|doi10.1080/00963402.1971.11455366|access-dateFebruary 11, 2022|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170227232156/https://books.google.com/books?idagsAAAAAMBAJ&pgPA36|url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite journal|last1Stellman|first1Jeanne Mager|last2Stellman|first2Steven D.|last3Christian|first3Richard|last4Weber|first4Tracy|last5Tomasallo|first5Carrie|titleThe Extent and patterns of usage of Agent Orange and other Herbicides in Vietnam|journalNature|volume422|issue6933|dateApril 17, 2003|pages681–687|urlhttp://www.vn-agentorange.org/edmaterials/nature01537.pdf|doi10.1038/nature01537|pmid12700752|bibcode2003Natur.422..681S|s2cid4419223|access-dateSeptember 6, 2010|archive-dateJuly 28, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110728164756/http://www.vn-agentorange.org/edmaterials/nature01537.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|lastVerwey|firstWil D.|titleRiot control agents and herbicides in war: their humanitarian, toxicological, ecological, military, polemological, and legal aspects|publisherSijthoff|locationLeyden|year1977|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQgmHOdIjITsC|isbn978-90-286-0336-3|access-dateFebruary 11, 2022|archive-dateNovember 24, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124233027/https://books.google.com/books?idQgmHOdIjITsC|url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book|lastWilcox|firstFred|titleWaiting for an Army to Die: The Tragedy of Agent Orange|publisherRandom House |year1983|edition1st|isbn=978-0-932020-68-0}}
* {{cite web|lastYoung|firstAlvin L.|titleThe History of the US Department of Defense Programs for the Testing, Evaluation, and Storage of Tactical Herbicides|dateDecember 2006|urlhttp://www.dod.mil/pubs/foi/reading_room/TacticalHerbicides.pdf|access-dateSeptember 7, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100805100647/http://www.dod.mil/pubs/foi/reading_room/TacticalHerbicides.pdf|archive-date5 August 2010}}
* {{Cite book|lastYoung|firstAlvin L.|titleThe History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange|publisherSpringer|year2009|isbn978-0-387-87485-2|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1iCHpk2fZksC|access-dateFebruary 11, 2022|archive-dateNovember 24, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124233029/https://books.google.com/books?id1iCHpk2fZksC|url-statuslive}} – both of Young's books [https://books.google.com/books?id1iCHpk2fZksC were commissioned] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124233029/https://books.google.com/books?id1iCHpk2fZksC |date=November 24, 2021}} by the U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment)
{{refend}}
Further reading
Books
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |lastArnold |firstJason Ross |titleSecrecy in the Sunshine Era: The Promise and Failures of U.S. Open Government Laws |publisherUniversity Press of Kansas |year2014 |isbn978-0-7006-1992-4 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700619924}} see pages 245–252.
* {{Cite book |lastBouny |firstAndré |titleAgent Orange: Apocalypse Viêt Nam |publisherDemi-Lune editions |year2010 |isbn978-2-917112-11-3 |language=fr}} with a foreword by Howard Zinn.
* {{Cite book |editorCapdeville, Y |editor2Gendreau, F. |editor3Meynard, J. |titleL'agent orange au Viet-nam: Crime d'hier, tragédie d'aujourd'hui |publisherTiresias editions |year2005 |isbn978-2-915293-23-4 |languagefr}}
* {{Cite book |lastCecil |firstPaul Frederick |titleHerbicidal warfare: the Ranch Hand Project in Vietnam |publisherPraeger |year1986 |isbn978-0-275-92007-4}}
* {{Cite book |lastDai |firstLe Cao |titleAgent Orange in the Vietnam War: History and Consequences |publisherVietnam Red Cross Society |year=2000}}
* {{Cite book |lastFox |firstDiane Niblack |titleLiving with Agent Orange |publisherUniversity of Massachusetts Press |year2024 |isbn978-1-62534-747-3 |locationAmherst and Boston |pages}}
* {{Cite book |lastGibbs |firstLois Marie |titleDying From Dioxins |publisherSouth End Press |year1995 |isbn978-0-89608-525-1 |chapterAgent Orange and Vietnam Veterans |pages14–20 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMuMFYQ8CbEgC&pgPA14 |access-dateFebruary 11, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 24, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124234652/https://books.google.com/books?idMuMFYQ8CbEgC&pgPA14 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastGriffiths |firstPhilip Jones |titleAgent Orange: Collateral Damage in Vietnam |publisherAlpen Editions |year2004 |isbn978-1-904563-05-1 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/agentorangecolla0000grif}}
* {{Cite book |last1Linedecker |first1Clifford |last2Ryan |first2Michael |last3Ryan |first3Maureen |titleKerry: Agent Orange and an American Family |publisherSt. Martins Press |year1982 |edition1st |isbn=978-0-312-45112-7}}
* {{cite book |last1Martini |first1Edwin A. |titleAgent Orange: History, Science, and the Politics of Uncertainty |locationAmherst, Massachusetts |publisherUniversity of Massachusetts Press |date2012}}
* {{Cite book |lastSchecter |firstArnold |titleDioxins and health |publisherSpringer |year1994 |isbn978-0-306-44785-3}}
* {{Cite book |lastSills |firstPeter |titleToxic War: The Story of Agent Orange |publisherVanderbilt University Press |year2014 |isbn978-0-8265-1962-7}}
* {{Cite book |last1Uhl |first1Michael |last2Ensign |first2Tod |titleGI Guinea Pigs: How the Pentagon Exposed Our Troops to Dangers Deadlier than War |edition1st |publisherPlayboy Press |year1980 |isbn=978-0-87223-569-4}}
* {{Cite book |lastWilcox |firstFred |titleScorched Earth: Legacies of Chemical Warfare in Vietnam |publisherSeven Stories Press |year2011 |isbn978-1-60980-138-0}}
* {{Cite book |lastZierler |firstDavid |titleThe Invention of Ecocide |publisherUniversity of Georgia Press |year2011 |isbn978-0-8203-3827-9}}
* {{refend}}
Government/NGO reports
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/congress/tran-thi-hoan-testimony-7-15-10.pdf "Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Ms. Tran Thi Hoan"], Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/congress/testimony-dr-phuong-house-2010.pdf "Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Dr. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong"], Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929054634/http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1363 Agent Orange Policy], American Public Health Association, 2007
* [https://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/en/exe-sum-final.pdf "Assessment of the health risk of dioxins"], World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130222170309/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1983/Jul-Aug/buckingham.html Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia] History of Operation Ranch Hand, 1983
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111023070436/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADW139.pdf "Agent Orange Dioxin Contamination in the Environment and Food Chain at Key Hotspots in Viet Nam"] Boivin, TG, et al., 2011
* {{Cite book|last1Young|first1Alvin L.|titleThe History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange|edition|publisherOffice of the Under Secretary of Defense|year2008|isbn|urlhttps://home.army.mil/detrick/application/files/8715/8031/4270/Agent_Orange_A_History_of_its_Use_Disposition_and_Environmental_Fate_Final_Report_30_Jun_08.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://home.army.mil/detrick/application/files/8715/8031/4270/Agent_Orange_A_History_of_its_Use_Disposition_and_Environmental_Fate_Final_Report_30_Jun_08.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}News
* Fawthrop, Tom; [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/feb/10/agentofsuffering Agent of suffering], Guardian, February 10, 2008
* Cox, Paul; [http://www.vvaw.org/veteran/article/?id=949 "The Legacy of Agent Orange is a Continuing Focus of VVAW"], The Veteran, Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Volume 38, Number 2, Fall 2008.
* Barlett, Donald P. and Steele, James B.; [https://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2008/05/monsanto200805?currentPage=1 "Monsanto's Harvest of Fear"], Vanity Fair May 2008
* Quick, Ben [http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/2862 "The Boneyard"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110102211108/http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/2862 |dateJanuary 2, 2011}} Orion Magazine, March/April 2008
* Cheng, Eva; [http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/35957 "Vietnam's Agent Orange victims call for solidarity"], Green Left Weekly, September 28, 2005
* [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-02/05/content_303315.htm Children and the Vietnam War 30–40 years after the use of Agent Orange]
* Tokar, Brian; [http://www.zcommunications.org/monsanto-a-checkered-history-by-brian-tokar "Monsanto: A Checkered History"], Z Magazine, March 1999
Video
* Agent Orange: The Last Battle. Dir. Stephanie Jobe, Adam Scholl. DVD. 2005
* [http://bellanova.it/MKP/AgenteNaranja.html HADES]. Dir. Caroline Delerue, screenplay by Mauro Bellanova, 2011
* {{cite web |dateAugust 23, 2017 |titleThe Man with the Wooden Face |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vAPO7iK9Mn7A |publisherMoviehead Pictures |viaYouTube |access-dateFebruary 11, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 24, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124234654/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vAPO7iK9Mn7A&glUS&hlen |url-status=live}} Short film by James Nguyen.
* [https://www.vietnamthesecretagent.com Vietnam: The Secret Agent]. Dir. Jacki Ochs, 1984
Photojournalism
* [http://cnnphotos.blogs.cnn.com/2013/01/30/effects-of-agent-orange-ongoing-silently-in-children/ CNN] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151221122930/http://cnnphotos.blogs.cnn.com/2013/01/30/effects-of-agent-orange-ongoing-silently-in-children/ |dateDecember 21, 2015}}
* [http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/photo-gallery/2015/4/photos-in-vietnam-the-after-effects-of-agent-orange-persist.html Al Jazeera America]
External links
{{Commons category|Agent Orange}}
* [http://www.epa.gov/dioxin U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Dioxin Web site]
* [http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/ Agent Orange] Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards, U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs
* [http://www.birthdefects.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/2017-Vietnam-Veterans-004.pdf Report from the National Birth Defects Registry - Birth Defects in Vietnam Veterans' Children]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120915235915/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003673775 "An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll"]
{{Vietnam War}}
{{Rainbow Herbicides}}
{{Pollution}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agent Orange}}
Category:1961 introductions
Category:Aftermath of the Vietnam War
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Auxinic herbicides
Category:Canada and the Vietnam War
Category:Carcinogens
Category:Defoliants
Category:Dioxins
Category:Environmental controversies
Category:Environmental impact of war
Category:Environmental racism
Category:Imperial Chemical Industries
Category:Malayan Emergency
Category:Medical controversies
Category:Military equipment of the Vietnam War
Category:Monsanto
Category:Operation Ranch Hand
Category:Teratogens
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.247015
|
2551
|
Astronomical year numbering
|
Astronomical year numbering is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).
The prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled ante Christum (BC), and immediately before years labeled post Christum (AD) on the mean motion pages in his Tabulæ Astronomicæ, thus adding the designation 0 to Kepler's Christi. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his Tables astronomiques, simply labeling this year 0, which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled avant Jesus-Christ (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled après Jesus-Christ (after Jesus Christ or AD).
Fred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time.
Signed years without the year zero
Although he used the usual French terms "avant J.-C." (before Jesus Christ) and "après J.-C." (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel (1890–1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.
Version 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes date and dateTime. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility.
See also
Julian day, another calendar commonly used by astronomers
Astronomical chronology
Holocene calendar
ISO 8601
References
Category:Calendar eras
Category:Chronology
Category:Specific calendars
Year numbering
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.258563
|
2552
|
Adam of Bremen
|
thumb|A facsimile of Adam of Bremen's magnum opus.
Adam of Bremen (; ; before 1050 – 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church). He was "one of the foremost historians and early ethnographers of the medieval period".
In his chronicle, he included a chapter mentioning the Norse outpost of Vinland, and was thus the first European to write about the New World.
Life
Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen, then its own margravate. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085). From his chronicles, it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of Magister Adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the Magdeburger Domschule.
In 1066 or 1067, he was invited by Archbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the Bremen Cathedral's school.
References
Further reading
Chłopacka Hanna: Adam Bremeński. In: Słownik Starożytności Słowiańskich. Vol. 1. 1961, p. 3-4.
External links
Adamus Bremensis: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (Lat.)
Category:11th-century German historians
Category:11th-century writers in Latin
Category:11th-century births
Category:1080s deaths
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:Chroniclers from the Holy Roman Empire
Category:History of Bremen (city)
Category:History of Hamburg
Category:People from Meissen
Category:History of Uppsala
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_of_Bremen
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.265680
|
2553
|
Ab urbe condita
|
{{Short description|Ancient Roman calendar era}}
{{about|the year numbering system|the book|Ab urbe condita (Livy)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{italic title}}
of Pacatian, usurper of Roman emperor Philip in 248. It reads ROMAE AETER[NAE] AN[NO] MIL[LESIMO] ET PRIMO, 'To eternal Rome, in its one thousand and first year.']]
and with a decorated initial, from the medieval Chronicle of Saint Pantaleon]]
Ab urbe condita ({{IPA|la|ab ˈʊrbɛ ˈkɔndɪtaː|lang}}; 'from the founding of the City'), or {{lang|la|anno urbis conditae}} ({{IPA|la|ˈannoː ˈʊrbɪs ˈkɔndɪtae̯|lang}}; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753&nbsp;BC, the traditional founding of Rome.<ref>{{Cite web|titleDefinition of AB URBE CONDITA|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ab+urbe+condita|access-date2021-07-13|websitemerriam-webster.com|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleDefinition of ANNO URBIS CONDITAE|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anno+urbis+conditae|access-date2021-07-13|websitemerriam-webster.com|languageen}}</ref> It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to a given year in Ancient Rome. In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1&nbsp;BC would be written AUC&nbsp;753, whereas AD&nbsp;1 would be AUC&nbsp;754. The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27&nbsp;BC would be AUC&nbsp;727. The current year AD&nbsp;{{CURRENTYEAR}} would be AUC&nbsp;{{sum|{{CURRENTYEAR}}|753}}.
Usage of the term was more common during the Renaissance, when editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the false impression that the convention was commonly used in antiquity. In reality, the dominant method of identifying years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year.<ref>{{cite book |last1Flower |first1Harriet I. |titleThe Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic |date2014 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9781107032248 |page51}}</ref> In late antiquity, regnal years were also in use, as in Roman Egypt during the Diocletian era after AD 293, and in the Byzantine Empire from AD 537, following a decree by Justinian.Use
{{see also|Founding of Rome#Chronological disagreements}}
Prior to the Roman state's adoption of the Varronian chronology – created by Titus Pomponius Atticus and Marcus Terentius Varro – there were many different dates posited for when the city was founded. This state of confusion required picking a canonical founding date for one to use an AUC date. The Varronian chronology, constructed from fragmentary sources and demonstrably about four years off of absolute events {{circa|340&nbsp;BC}},<ref>{{Cite book |lastForsythe |firstGary |titleA critical history of early Rome |date2005 |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn978-0-520-94029-1 |locationBerkeley |oclc70728478 |page279 }}</ref> placed the founding of the city on 21 April 753&nbsp;BC. This date, likely arrived at by mechanical calculation but accepted with a variance of one year by the Augustan-era {{lang|la|fasti Capitolini}}, has become the traditional date.<ref>{{Cite book |lastCornell |firstTim |titleThe beginnings of Rome |date1995 |publisherRoutledge |isbn0-415-01596-0 |locationLondon |oclc31515793 |page73 }} Varro likely arrived at 753&nbsp;BC by counting seven generations of 35 years from his date for the founding of the republic in 509&nbsp;BC.</ref>
From the time of Claudius ({{Reigned|AD&nbsp;41|51}}) onward, this calculation superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the anniversary of the city, in AD 47,<ref>{{cite book |last1Tacitus |first1Cornelius |author1-linkTacitus |editor1-lastFurneaux |editor1-firstHenry |editor1-linkHenry Furneaux |titleAnnals XI|publisherClarendon Press |locationOxford |page17|edition1907|quoteludi saeculares octingentesimo post Romam conditam|langla}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Bilynskyj Dunning |first1Susan |titlesaeculum |urlhttps://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8233 |websiteOxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |publisherOxford University Press |doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8233 |date20 November 2017|isbn978-0-19-938113-5 }}</ref> the eight hundredth year from the founding of the city.<ref>{{cite book |last1Hobler |first1Francis |titleRecords of Roman history, from Cnaeus Pompeius to Tiberius Constantinus, as exhibited on the Roman coins |date1860 |publisherJohn Bowyer Nichols |locationLondon |page=222}}</ref> Hadrian, in AD 121, and Antoninus Pius, in AD 147 and AD 148, held similar celebrations respectively.
In AD 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states "[y]ear one thousand and first", which is an indication that the citizens of the empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Sæculum Novum.
Calendar era
{{see|Calendar era}}
The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in {{auc|525|AD|maingreg|alinksoff}}, as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter. Dionysius did not use the AUC convention, but instead based his calculations on the Diocletian era. This convention had been in use since AD 293, the year of the tetrarchy, as it became impractical to use regnal years of the current emperor.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastThomas |firstJ. David |dateJanuary 1971 |titleOn Dating by Regnal Years of Diocletian, Maximian and the Caesars |urlhttps://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.CDE.2.308234 |journalChronique d'Égypte |languagefr |volume46 |issue91 |pages173–179 |doi10.1484/J.CDE.2.308234 |issn0009-6067}}</ref> In his Easter table, the year {{auc|532|AD|maingreg|alinksoff}} was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284 or, as stated by Dionysius: "sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare" ("but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ").<ref>Migne, Jacques-Paul. 1865. [https://books.google.com/books?idLcEYeL-4ZuEC&dq%22in+hoc+tomo+LXVII&pg=PP10 Liber de Paschate] (Patrologia Latina 67), p. 481, § XX, note f</ref> Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1.<ref>Blackburn, B. & Holford-Strevens, L, The Oxford Companion to the Year (Oxford University Press, 2003 corrected reprinting, originally 1999), pp. 778–780.</ref>
The year AD 1 corresponds to AUC 754, based on the epoch of Varro. Thus:
{| class=wikitable
|-
! colspan=2 | Year
! colspan1 rowspan2 | Event
|-
! AUC !! BC/AD
|-
| 1 || 753 BC || Foundation of the Kingdom of Rome
|-
| 244 || 510 BC || Overthrow of the Roman monarchy
|-
| 259 || 495 BC || Death in exile of King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
|-
| 490 || 264 BC || Punic Wars
|-
| 709 || 45 BC || First year of the Julian calendar
|-
| 710 || 44 BC || The assassination of Julius Caesar
|-
| 727 || 27 BC || Augustus became the first Roman emperor, starting the Principate
|-
| 753 || 1 BC || Astronomical Year 0
|-
| 754 || AD 1 || Approximate birth date of Jesus, approximated by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525 (AUC 1278)
|-
| 1000 || AD 247 || 1,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome
|-
| 1037 || AD 284 || Diocletian became Roman emperor, starting the Dominate
|-
| 1229 || AD 476 || Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the armies of Odoacer
|-
| 1246 || AD 493 || Establishment of the Ostrogothic Kingdom
|-
| 1306 || AD 553 || Italy under Eastern Roman control
|-
| 1507 || AD 754 || Foundation of the Papal States
|-
| 1553 || AD 800 || Creation of the Holy Roman Empire
|-
| 1824 || AD 1071 || Defeat of the Eastern Romans at the Battle of Manzikert
|-
| 1957 || AD 1204 || Sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders
|-
| 2000 || AD 1247 || 2,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome
|-
| 2206 || AD 1453 || Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire
|-
|2336
|AD 1582
|First year of the Gregorian calendar
|-
| 2559 || AD 1806 || Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
|-
| 2667-2671 || AD 1914-1918 || World War I
|-
| 2675 || AD 1922 || End of the Ottoman Sultanate
|-
| 2692-2698 || AD 1939-1945 || World War II
|-
| {{#expr:{{LASTYEAR}}+753}} || AD {{LASTYEAR}} || Last year
|-
| {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}+753}} || AD {{CURRENTYEAR}} || Current year
|-
| {{#expr:{{NEXTYEAR}}+753}} || AD {{NEXTYEAR}} || Next year
|-
|}
See also
{{Portal|Ancient Rome}}
* Calendar era
* History of Italy
* List of Latin phrases
* Roman calendar
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
* {{wiktionary inline}}
{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Chronology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:ab urbe condita}}
Category:1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Empire
Category:8th century BC in the Roman Kingdom
Category:Calendar eras
Category:Chronology
Category:Latin words and phrases
Category:Roman calendar
Category:Diocletian
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.275497
|
2559
|
Arapaoa Island
|
{{Short description|Island in Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Arapaoa Island
| local_name | image_name Southern end of Arapawa Island.jpg
| image_caption = Southern end of Arapaoa Island
| image_map = NZ-Arapawa I.png
| image_map_caption = Arapaoa Island relative to the South Island
| map | coordinates {{coord|-41.18951|174.30290|display=it}}
| map_caption | nickname
| location = Marlborough Sounds
| archipelago | total_islands
| major_islands | area_km2 75
| length_km = 28
| width_km = 4
| highest_mount = Narawhia
| elevation_m = 559.4
| population = 50
| population_as_of | density_km2
| ethnic_groups | country New Zealand
| country_admin_divisions_title = Region
| country_admin_divisions = Marlborough District
| additional_info =
}}
Arapaoa Island (formerly spelled Arapawa Island) is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north-east tip of the South Island of New Zealand. The island has a land area of {{convert|75|km²|sqmi|0|abbrin}}. Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route between Wellington in the North Island to Picton. Cook Strait's narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island's Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island.HistoryAccording to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.theprow.org.nz/maori/geographic-names-tetauihu/ |titleNew and altered geographic names of Te Tau Ihu |year2014 |websitetheprow.org.nz |access-date7 November 2015}}</ref>
It was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, and confirmed that what the indigenous people had told him was correct – Aotearoa is composed of two main islands.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGerard |firstStephen |titleStrait of Adventure |publisherA.H. & A.W. Reed |year1938 |isbn |editionFirst |locationWellington |pages50 |idLibrary Assigned ID AAZ-4784; Government Document Classification Numbers 00031477 00 00263798 00}}</ref> Cook is not known for naming places after himself, and it is speculated that Joseph Banks bestowed the name Cook Strait.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCook Strait {{!}} Toitū Te Whenua – Land Information New Zealand |urlhttps://www.linz.govt.nz/our-work/new-zealand-geographic-board/place-name-stories/place-names-cooks-voyages/cook-strait |access-date1 December 2023 |websitewww.linz.govt.nz |language=en}}</ref> This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis. A monument at Cook's Lookout was erected in 1970.
From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827, however initially could only salvage baleen until the station was equipped to process whale oil from 1830 onwards, targeting right whales.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q58677530}}</ref> Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand). The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation. In the 2000s the former whalers from the Perano and Heberley families, who live on Arapawa, joined a Department of Conservation whale spotting programme to assess how the humpback whale population has recovered since the end of whaling.<ref>{{Cite web|lastJohnston|firstKirsty|date26 July 2011|titleKillers to conservationists|urlhttps://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/whale-survey/5308931/Killers-to-conservationists|url-statuslive|access-date15 May 2021|websiteStuff|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210515233356/https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/whale-survey/5308931/Killers-to-conservationists |archive-date15 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastAngeloni|firstAlice|date12 January 2020|titleWhaling: The rise and fall of New Zealand's oldest, most ruthless industry|urlhttps://www.stuff.co.nz/national/117728125/whaling-rise-and-fall-of-new-zealands-oldest-most-ruthless-industry|url-statuslive|access-date15 May 2021|websiteStuff|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200112182208/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/117728125/whaling-rise-and-fall-of-new-zealands-oldest-most-ruthless-industry |archive-date12 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleInterview with Joe (Joseph) Heberley|urlhttps://tiaki.natlib.govt.nz/#detailsecatalogue.502107|url-statuslive|access-date15 May 2021|websitetiaki.natlib.govt.nz|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160204000402/https://tiaki.natlib.govt.nz/ |archive-date4 February 2016 }}</ref>
An Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft struck the 11,000-volt power lines linking the island and the mainland over Tory Channel in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family died, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other family from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.{{cn|date=August 2024}}
In August 2014, the spelling of the island's name was officially changed from Arapawa to Arapaoa.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.linz.govt.nz/regulatory/place-names/recent-place-name-decisions-and-place-names-interest/nzgb-decisions-august |titleNZGB decisions |dateAugust 2014 |publisherLand Information New Zealand |access-date7 November 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151121203027/http://www.linz.govt.nz/regulatory/place-names/recent-place-name-decisions-and-place-names-interest/nzgb-decisions-august |archive-date21 November 2015 }}</ref>
Conservation
Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island.<ref>{{cite journal|lastMeurk|firstC. D|author2Ward J.C. |author3Jane G. |author4Walls G.Y. |year1999|titleArapawa Island: flora and ecological notes |journalCanterbury Botanical Society |issue33 |pages77–98 |urlhttp://bts.nzpcn.org.nz/bts_pdf/Cant_1999_33__77-98.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bts.nzpcn.org.nz/bts_pdf/Cant_1999_33__77-98.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow. About {{convert|200|ha}} at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.stuff.co.nz/marlborough-express/news/6962568/Tree-poisoning-work-for-island|titleTree poisoning work for island |lastNicoll |firstJared |date22 June 2012|workThe Marlborough Express|access-date=24 February 2013}}</ref>
Arapaoa Island is known for the breeds of domestic animals found only on the island – the Arapawa pig, Arapawa sheep and Arapawa goat. They became established in the 19th century, but the origin of the breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers. These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.
The small Brothers Islands, which lie off the northeast coast of Arapaoa Island, are a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara.
See also
* List of islands of New Zealand
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
{{Commons category}}
* Philp, Matt. 2011. [https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/the-sound-of-the-sea/ The Sound of the Sea.] New Zealand Geographic, 110.
* Heberley, Heather. 1996. Weather permitting. Whatamango Bay, N.Z. : Cape Catley. {{ISBN|0908561490}}
* Heberley, Heather. 1997. Flood tide. Whatamango Bay, N.Z. : Cape Catley. {{ISBN|090856161X}}
{{Marlborough Region|state=collapsed}}
{{Tōtaranui / Queen Charlotte Sound|state=collapsed}}
Category:Islands of the Marlborough Sounds
Category:Whaling stations in New Zealand
Category:Whaling in New Zealand
Category:Cook Strait Ferry
Category:Populated places in the Marlborough Sounds
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Administrative law
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{{short description|Branch of law governing administrative agencies}}
{{Redirect|Administrative procedure law|the specific law in China|Administrative Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China}}
{{distinguish|Administrative process}}
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{{More citations needed|date=December 2012}}
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{{Administrative law}}
Administrative law is a division of law governing the activities of executive branch agencies of government. Administrative law includes executive branch rulemaking (executive branch rules are generally referred to as "regulations"), adjudication, and the enforcement of laws. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law.
Administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government that are part of the executive branch in such areas as international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration, and transport.
Administrative law expanded greatly during the 20th century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.
Civil law countries often have specialized administrative courts that review these decisions.
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In the last fifty years, administrative law, in many countries of the civil law tradition, has opened itself to the influence of rules posed by supranational legal orders, in which judicial principles have strong importance: it has led, for one, to changes in some traditional concepts of the administrative law model, as has happened with the public procurements or with judicial control of administrative activity and, for another, has built a supranational or international public administration, as in the environmental sector or with reference to education, for which, within the United Nations' system, it has been possible to assist to a further increase of administrative structure devoted to coordinate the States' activity in that sector.<ref>Sabino Cassese, "Administrative Law without the State? The Challenge of Global Regulation", 37 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 2005, p. 663 and ff., Vincenzo Ferraro, L'organizzazione della pubblica amministrazione scolastica. La peculiare integrazione tra gli ordinamenti globali, internazionali e sovranazionali, Torino, 2023, {{ISBN|979-8-3973-2552-3}}</ref>
In civil law countries
{{See also|Administrative court}}
Unlike most common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases that as a rule apply procedural rules that are specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.
Brazil
In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States). In 1998 a constitutional reform led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (Art. 37 of the Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.
Chile
{{Main|Law of Chile#Administrative law}}
In Chile, the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each ministry has one or more under-secretaries that act through public service to meet public needs. There is no single specialized court to deal with actions against the administrative entities, but there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.
China
{{Main|Administrative law in China}}
Administrative law in China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy, and disciplinary committees for the Chinese Communist Party.
In 1989, China established its Administrative Litigation Law, which provides and avenue for people to challenge government action.<ref name":Zhang">{{Cite book |lastZhang |firstAngela Huyue |titleHigh Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy |publisherOxford University Press |year2024 |isbn9780197682258}}</ref>{{Rp|page8}} In 2014, it was amended to lower the burdens on those challenging administrative actions.<ref name":Zhang" />{{Rp|page8}}
In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introducing a rotation system. The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. The General Administrative Procedure Law is underway.
France
{{main|Administrative law in France}}
<!-- "Administrative law in France" and "French administrative law" redirect here. See MOS:HIDDENLINKADVICE. -->
In France, there is a dual jurisdictional system with the judiciary branch responsible for civil law and criminal law, and the administrative branch having jurisdiction when a government institution is involved.<ref name"MDLJ-OrgJustice">{{cite web |languagefr |date15 September 2021 |authorFrench Ministry of Justice |author-linkFrench Ministry of Justice |titleL'organisation de la justice en France |trans-titleOrganization of justice in France |websiteMinistère de la Justice |publisher|urlhttp://www.justice.gouv.fr/organisation-de-la-justice-10031/ |quoteLes juridictions françaises se répartissent en deux ordres : un ordre judiciaire et un ordre administratif. Les juridictions de l'ordre judiciaire sont compétentes pour régler les litiges opposant les personnes privées et pour sanctionner les auteurs d'infractions aux lois pénales. ... Les juridictions de l'ordre administratif sont compétentes dès qu'une personne publique est en cause (une municipalité ou un service de l'État par exemple). |trans-quoteThe French courts are divided into two orders: a judicial order and an administrative order. The courts of the judicial order are responsible for settling disputes between private individuals and for punishing the perpetrators of criminal offenses. ... The administrative courts have jurisdiction as soon as a public entity is involved (a municipality or a government department for example). |access-date=4 March 2023}}</ref>
Most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?oldActionrechJuriAdmin&idTexteCETATEXT000007634187 C.E, 31 juillet 1912, Société des Granits Porphyroïdes des Vosges] and [https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexte=CETATEXT000007636499 C.E, Sect., 19 octobre 1956, Société Le Béton]</ref> are handled by administrative courts, which use the ''Conseil d'État (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts.<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexteCETATEXT000007636304 C.E, Ass., 7 février 1947, Aillières] and [https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexteCETATEXT000007637848 C.E, Ass., 12 juillet 1969, L'Étang]</ref> The main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives d'appel. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called "droit administratif''".<ref>{{cite journal|lastGarner|firstJames W.|titleFrench Administrative Law|journalThe Yale Law Journal|dateApril 1924|volume33 |issue6 |pages597–627|doi10.2307/787920 |jstor787920 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol33/iss6/3 }}</ref>
Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (jurisprudence constante) and legal doctrine ({{Interlanguage link|principes généraux du droit|fr}} and {{Interlanguage link|principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République|fr}}), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include:
*Right to fair trial (droit à la défense),<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?oldActionrechJuriAdmin&idTexteCETATEXT000007636208 C.E, Sect., 6 mai 1944, Dame Veuve Trompier-Gravier] and CE, Ass, 26 octobre 1945, Aramu</ref> including for internal disciplinary bodies
*Right to challenge any administrative decision before an administrative court (droit au recours)<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexteCETATEXT000007636577&dateTexte C.E, Ass., 17 février 1950, ''Ministre de l'agriculture c/ Dame Lamotte]</ref>
*Equal treatment of public service users (égalité devant le service public)<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexte=CETATEXT000007636309 C.E, Sect., 28 juin 1948, Société du Journal l'Aurore]</ref>
*Equal access to government employment (égalité d'accès à la fonction publique) without regard for political opinions<ref>
[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexteCETATEXT000007637425&dateTexte C.E, Ass., 28 mai 1954, Barrel]</ref>
*Freedom of association (liberté d'association)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/documentation/dossiers-thematiques/2001-anniv.-loi-de-1901-relative-au-contrat-d-association/conseil-d-etat-decision-du-11-juillet-1956.16464.html |titleC.E, Ass., 11 juillet 1945, Amicale des Annamites de Paris |access-date2016-07-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160919195810/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/documentation/dossiers-thematiques/2001-anniv.-loi-de-1901-relative-au-contrat-d-association/conseil-d-etat-decision-du-11-juillet-1956.16464.html |archive-date2016-09-19 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*Right to entrepreneurship (Liberté du Commerce et de l'industrie, lit. freedom of commerce and industry)<ref>[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexte=CETATEXT000007636581 C.E, Ass., 22 juin 1951, Daudignac]</ref>
*Right to legal certainty (Droit à la sécurité juridique)<ref>[https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?idTexte=CETATEXT000008241143 C.E, Ass., 24 mars 2006, Sté KPMG et autres]</ref>
French administrative law, the basis of continental administrative law, has had a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.
{{Expand section|dateJune 2008}} Germany In Germany, administrative law ({{langx|de|Verwaltungsrecht}}) includes all law that specifically governs the legal relationships between public authorities and private persons, and that is not more precisely described as constitutional law. It sets out the tasks, aims and powers, as well as the organization and procedure, for all public authorities ({{langx|de|Behörden}}). As a field of legal study, administrative law has been differentiated from other branches of public law since the late 19th century in Germany;<ref>H. P. Bull and V. Mehde, Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht mit Verwaltungslehre [Generally Applicable Administrative Law, Also Comprising the Study of Administration''], 10th ed. (Heidelberg: C.F. Müller, 2022), at margin notes 501 and 502.</ref> the precise delimitations of "administration" as a concept, however, are in contention.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 2, at margin notes 8 and 9}} Administrative law defines all aspects of public administration in the modern German state, whose legal culture emphasizes private persons' subjective rights (also, pursuant to art.&nbsp;19{{sub|IV}} of the current German Constitution of 1949, such rights must be fully justiciable). The final say on the interpretation of the law lies with the courts of administrative jurisdiction ({{langx|de|Verwaltungsgerichte}}), and the law usually permits close judicial scrutiny of public authorities' exercise of discretion.<ref>M. Jestaedt, "Maßstäbe des Verwaltungshandelns" [Yardsticks of Administrative Action] in D. Ehlers; H. Pünder (eds.), Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht [Generally Applicable Administrative Law], 16th ed. (Heidelberg: C.F. Müller, 2022), § 22, passim.</ref>
Constitutional context
Central legal principles of the Rechtsstaat (rule of law) that pervade administration ‒ mostly developed before the adoption of the modern 1949 Constitution, but strengthened and expanded after its advent by their new conceptual foundation ‒ include:<ref>Cf. S. Detterbeck, Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht [Generally Applicable Administrative Law], 21st ed. (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2023), at margin notes 226 et seqq.</ref>
* The principle of the lawfulness of the executive ({{lang|de|Gesetzmäßigkeit der Verwaltung}}): administrative authorities are bound to act where a law (of parliament, or of delegated legislation) prescribes it, and to not violate any laws (artt. 1{{sub|III}} and 20{{sub|III}} of the Constitution).{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 6, at margin note 2}} Where its actions may burden or comparatively disadvantage a person, they must rest on a grant of authority by the legislature: this concept is called the {{lang|de|(grundrechtliche) Vorbehalt des Gesetzes}} or {{lang|de|Eingriffsvorbehalt}}, meaning that limiting interference with (fundamental) rights is a sphere of action that is reserved to statute.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 6, at margin note 16}}
* The principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of non-retroactivity.
* The principle of proportionality, which means that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate.<ref>Oberrath, Öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht pp. 12–14</ref>
The vast majority of public administration in Germany is performed by its component federal entities ({{langx|de|(Bundes-)Länder}}), which are responsible for the execution both of federal laws and their own laws (execution of the laws directly by authorities of the Federal Republic being the exceptional case, as established by artt. 83 et seqq. of the Constitution).
Scope of administrative law
German legal scholarship does not have an agreed-upon definition for public administration.
In one sense, administration – more precisely, everything that is subject to administrative law – is conceptualized as being all state activity of a certain type (material definition of public administration). This approach leads to disputes about whether to treat acts of public authority as acts of administration (and therefore executive) even when they are performed by component parts of the state (that is to say, the government) that the law formally classifies as a legislative or a judicial body: For instance, the parliament may impose a fine on one of its members for misbehavior, or a presiding judge may direct a disruptive member of the public to be removed from the viewing gallery.
The opposite approach – the formalist definition of public administration – begins its examination by considering all those public authorities intended (judging by their lawful charter, organizational context, internal structure, and performed tasks) to do the work of public administration, and equates their functioning with public administration. There is some danger of circular reasoning, since the formal categorization of the organizational unit may, in turn, derive from some material conception of its function. Some functions that might, in the material view, be seen as not of the executive type, and thus not as belonging to the field of administration (such as the creation of rules with the force of law, which are usually thought of as legislative), would then be held to the standards of administrative law, and not another field of law.
This discussion is of seen as being of particular importance when considering the role of administrative law in maintaining the division of government powers. For this purpose, a traditional approach tries negatively to define administration by subtracting those operations of the state which cannot be called administration, namely law-making and adjudication.<ref>{{harvnb|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 1, at margin note 6}} name Otto Mayer (Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht, 1895/96, vol. I, p. 7) and Walter Jellinek (Verwaltungsrecht, 1928, p. 6) as early and influential proponents of this model.</ref> Using this negative definition, though, requires law-making and adjudication to be defined first, and leaves some activities that are a poor fit for the term "administration", such as the cabinet government's political leadership decisions, within the bounds of the definition.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 1, at margin note 6}}
Positive definitions abound, but none has won out over the others, or been entirely convincing to scholars of German administrative law.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 1, at margin note 8}} Nevertheless, certain features may be seen as being characteristic of administration: According to Maurer and Waldhoff, administration is social engineering (exerting influence on the non-state, societal domain) (1), oriented towards some conception of the (ever-changing) public interest (2), that consists of taking action in the present, with a view to engineering the future (3), and that comprises concrete measures to regulate individual cases and to realize particular plans (4).{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 1, at margin notes 9–12}}
Scholarly treatises of German administrative law are almost always split into two parts: doctrines and rules that can be found across-the-board ({{lang|de|allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht}}); and doctrines and rules that exist only in certain parts of administrative law ({{langx|de|besonderes Verwaltungsrecht|litspecial administrative law}}) – e.g. police law, urban planning law, or local government law. General administrative law Germany's principal piece of legislation concerning the legal forms and principles common to most fields{{efn|With regard to the law of social safety nets and welfare ({{langx|de|Sozialrecht}}), the VwVfG is supplanted by Volume X of the Social Law Code ({{langx|de|Zehntes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch}}, abbreviated SGB X), and other general rules for administration in this area may be found in parts of Volume I and IV; the Revenue Code ({{langx|de|Abgabenordnung}}, abbreviated AO) also supersedes the VwVfG with respect to the procedures of the tax authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 3, at margin note 2}}.</ref>}} of its public administration is the Law on Administrative Procedure ({{langx|de|Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz}}, abbreviated VwVfG); before the enactment of this law in 1977, these rules had only been general principles developed in the scholarly literature and the courts.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 3, at margin note 2}} The VwVfG is not a full codification of the generally applicable ground rules of German administrative law, since it mostly only determines the procedure to be followed by public authorities in the fulfillment of their tasks, rather than mandating the substance of public administration.{{sfn|Maurer|Waldhoff|2024|loc§ 5, at margin note 1}} The VwVfG is a federal law that only applies to administration carried out by the German federal authorities. All 16 German {{lang|de|Länder}} have, however, enacted a Law on Administrative Procedure of their own that is nearly word-for-word identical with the federal VwVfG.
The standard<ref>M. Knauff in F. Schoch and J.-P. Schneider (eds.), Verwaltungsrecht [Administrative Law] (loose-leaf collection) (Munich: C.H. Beck), VwVfG-Kommentar [Article-by-Article commentary on the VwVfG] (last updated by supplement no. 4, Nov 2023), §&nbsp;35, at margin note 40.</ref> form of administrative action is the {{lang|de|Verwaltungsakt}} (administrative ordinance). Pursuant to VwVfG&nbsp;§&nbsp;35, an administrative ordinance exists where: a public authority (1) issues any decree, decision, or other official measure (2), in a matter of public law (3), with immediate legal effects outside the administration (4), to put in place a rule for an individual case (5).
Specialized administrative law
German legal scholarship traditionally organizes the body of German administration-related law into the following fields, each with its particular legal doctrines and written rules:
* the law governing preventative measures against hazards to common goods (or, if civil process cannot be timely availed to remedy the hazard, against individual goods), especially public safety and order ({{langx|de|Polizeirecht|litPolice law}} or {{langx|de|Gefahrenabwehrrecht|litDefense against hazards law}});
* environmental protection law ({{langx|de|Umweltschutzrecht}}, including protection against emissions ({{langx|de|Immisionsschutz}}) and wildlife protection ({{langx|de|Naturschutz}}));
* Urban and land use planning law ({{lang|de|Städtebaurecht}} and {{lang|de|Raumordnungsrecht}});
* the law regulating commerce and trades ({{langx|de|Gewerberecht}}).
{{Expand section|dateJune 2008}} Judicial application The law governing the adjudication of questions of administrative law before the courts of general administrative jurisdiction ({{langx|de|Verwaltungsgerichte}}) is the Code on Administrative Courts ({{langx|de|Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung}}, abbreviated VwGO), which was enacted in 1960.{{sfn|Hufen|2024|loc§ 2, at margin note 22}} Though the VwGO was not conceived as a full codification of court process for the courts of general administrative jurisdiction, and VwGO § 173 directs these courts to apply Germany's Code of Civil Procedure wherever the VwGO lacks special rules, proceedings before the courts of general administrative jurisdiction are mostly distinct from civil proceedings before the courts of general jurisdiction.{{sfn|Hufen|2024|loc§ 1, at margin note 2}} The VwGO also does not apply to the courts of special administrative jurisdiction over tax disputes ({{langx|de|Finanzgerichte}}) or over social benefits disputes ({{langx|de|Sozialgerichte}}).{{sfn|Hufen|2024|loc§ 2, at margin note 22}}
Italy
{{main|Italian administrative law}}
In Italy, administrative law is known as {{Lang|it|Diritto amministrativo|italic=yes}}, a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens.
Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.<ref>{{cite journal|lastGalli|firstRocco|titleCorso di diritto amministrativo|journalCEDAM|date2011}}</ref> Netherlands In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations. There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act ({{Lang|nl|Algemene wet bestuursrecht|italicyes}} or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe. It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. Another act about judicial procedures in general is the {{Lang|nl|Algemene termijnenwet|italic=yes}} (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures.
On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision ({{Lang|nl|besluit|italicyes}}) made by an administrative agency ({{Lang|nl|bestuursorgaan|italicyes}}) within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body that made it. This is called {{Lang|nl|bezwaar|italicyes}}. This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of {{Lang|nl|bezwaar|italicyes}}, a different system is used called {{Lang|nl|administratief beroep|italicyes}} (administrative appeal). The difference with {{Lang|nl|bezwaar|italicyes}} is that {{Lang|nl|administratief beroep|italicyes}} is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. {{Lang|nl|Administratief beroep|italicyes}} is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney ({{Lang|nl|officier van justitie|italic=yes}}), after which the decision can be appealed in court.
Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, (for instance the Central Appeals Tribunal for social security or Trade and Industry Appeals Tribunal for social-economic administrative law.<ref>https://www.rechtspraak.nl/English/Judicial-system-and-legislation/administrative-law/Paginas/Specialized-Supreme-Administrative-Courts.aspx, Specialized Supreme Administrative Courts, Rechtspraak.nl</ref>) but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).
Sweden
.]]
In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases and is completely separate from the system of general courts.<ref>[http://www.domstol.se/templates/DV_InfoPage____2317.aspx The Swedish courts] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090227084349/http://www.domstol.se/templates/DV_InfoPage____2317.aspx |date2009-02-27 }}, accessed on February 20, 2009</ref> This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts ({{Lang|sv|förvaltningsrätt|italicyes}}) as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal ({{Lang|sv|kammarrätt|italicyes}}) as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden ({{Lang|sv|Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen|italic=yes}}) as the third tier.
Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system of general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts ({{Lang|sv|migrationsdomstol|italicyes}}) with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal ({{Lang|sv|Migrationsöverdomstolen|italicyes}}).
Taiwan (ROC)
{{Main|Law of Taiwan#Administrative Law}}
In Taiwan the recently enacted Constitutional Procedure Act (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993), the Justices of the Constitutional Court of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation. As of 2019, this council has made 757 interpretations.<ref>{{cite web|title Interpretations of the Constitutional Court of ROC|url https://www.judicial.gov.tw/constitutionalcourt/EN/p03.asp |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306111410/https://www.judicial.gov.tw/constitutionalcourt/EN/p03.asp |archive-date2019-03-06 }}</ref>
Turkey
In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.{{sfn|Ogurlu|Kucukali|2009}}<ref>Administrative Sanctioning System in Turkey, www.idare.gen.tr/ogurlu-administrative.htm</ref>
Ukraine
{{Main|Ukrainian administrative law}}
Administrative law in Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.law-property.in.ua/images/books/apuvsu.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.law-property.in.ua/images/books/apuvsu.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleAdministrative law of Ukraine nowadays (the beginning of the 21st century): monograph. Edited by Valentyn Galunko. – Kherson, 2010.}}{{Dead link|dateJuly 2018 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
In common law countries
Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to the review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.
While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal, the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.
The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality.
The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.
{{Globalize|article|USA|2namethe United States|dateApril 2015}}
Australia
{{main|Australian administrative law}}
Canada
{{main|Canadian administrative law}}
Singapore
{{main|Administrative law in Singapore}}
United Kingdom
{{main|United Kingdom administrative law}}
United States
{{Main|United States administrative law}}
, whose headquarters is shown above.]]
In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.
In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.
Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.
The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority,{{sfn|New York v. Fed. Energy Regulatory Comm'n}} and must comply with the requirements of the APA.
At the state level, the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted. It incorporates basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a "model", and not a "uniform", act. A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states. Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981. The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act (MSAPA) which maintains the continuity with earlier ones. The reason for the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure.{{sfn|Vértesy|2013}}
The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the Administrative Law Review, a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.
Historical development
Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice from 1994 to 2022, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy (3d Ed., 1992):
* English antecedents & the American experience to 1875
* 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law
* 1930 – 1945: the New Deal
* 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law
* 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process
* 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation
Agriculture
The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.
See also
* Constitutionalism
* Rule of law
* Rechtsstaat
References
Literature
*{{cite book
| author-last1 = Maurer
| author-first1 = Hartmut
| author-link1 = :de:Hartmut Maurer
| author-last2 = Waldhoff
| author-first2 = Christian
| author-link2 = :de:Christian Waldhoff
| title = Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht
| trans-title = Generally Applicable Administrative Law
| edition = 21st
| year = 2024
| publication-place = Munich
| publisher = C.H. Beck
| isbn = 978-3-406-80559-2
| oclc = 1415299836
}}
*{{cite book
| author-last = Hufen
| author-first = Friedhelm
| author-link = :de:Friedhelm Hufen
| title = Verwaltungsprozessrecht
| trans-title = Law of Judicial Procedure in Administrative Matters
| edition = 13th
| year = 2024
| publication-place = Munich
| publisher = C.H. Beck
| isbn = 978-3-406-80591-2
| oclc = 1416406060
}}
*{{cite encyclopedia
| editor-last = Uhlmann
| editor-first = Felix
| editor-link = :de:Felix Uhlmann
| title = Codification of Administrative Law: A Comparative Study on the Sources of Administrative Law
| url https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/monograph?docidb-9781509954957
| year = 2023
| publication-place = London; Oxford et al.
| publisher = Bloomsbury (Hart imprint)
| isbn = 978-1-50995-492-6
| oclc = 1336890409
| hdl = 20.500.12657/74778
| doi = 10.5040/9781509954957
}}
*{{cite book
| author-last1 = Bell
| author-first1 = John
| author-link1 = John Bell (legal scholar)
| author-last2 = Lachère
| author-first2 = François
| title = Contemporary French Administrative Law
| url https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/4817E7D30FB21B384C1C987917DDA08F/9781316511169AR.pdf/Contemporary_French_Administrative_Law.pdf?event-typeFTLA
| year = 2022
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-1-316-51116-9
| oclc = 1274200490
| doi = 10.1017/9781009057127
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last = Vértesy
| first = László
| date = 2013
| title = The Model State Administrative Procedure Act in the USA
| url = http://dieip.hu/wp-content/uploads/2013-3-10.pdf
| journal = De Iurisprudentia et Iure Publico
| access-date = 2019-07-31
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190730072005/http://dieip.hu/wp-content/uploads/2013-3-10.pdf
| archive-date = 2019-07-30
| url-status = dead}}
*{{cite report
| last1 = Ogurlu
| first1 = Yucel
| last2 = Kucukali
| first2 = Canan
| chapter = Appendix I: Focus on ICT in Turkish Judicial System
| chapter-url = https://rm.coe.int/european-commission-for-the-efficiency-of-justice-cepej-use-of-informa/1680788281
| page = 50
| archive-date = 1 October 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121001122715/http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/cepej/series/Etudes7TIC_en.pdf
| editor-last = Velicogna
| editor-first = Marco
| title = Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in European Judicial Systems (CEPEJ Studies No. 7)
| year = 2009
| publisher = European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) – Council of Europe (COE)
}} <small>Please note that the year of publication given is inferred from the metadata; the report does not give its publication date.</small>
*{{cite encyclopedia
| author-last1 = Mannori
| author-first1 = Luca
| author-last2 = Sordi
| author-first2 = Bernardo
| title = Chapter 6: Science of Administration and Administrative Law
| doi = 10.1007/978-90-481-2964-5_6
| editor-last1 = Canale
| editor-first1 = Damiano
| editor-last2 = Grossi
| editor-first2 = Paolo
| editor-link2 = Paolo Grossi (judge)
| editor-last3 = Hofmann
| editor-first3 = Hasso
| editor-link3 = Hasso Hofmann
| encyclopedia = A History of the Philosophy of Law in the Civil Law World, 1600–1900
| year = 2009
| series = A Treatise of Legal Philosophy and General Jurisprudence, vol. 9
| publisher = Springer Science+Business
| publication-place = Dordrecht et al.
| isbn = 978-90-481-2963-8
| oclc = 695695442
}}
*{{cite book
| author-last = Singh
| author-first = Mahendra Pal
| author-link = Mahendra Pal Singh
| title = German Administrative Law in Common Law Perspective
| year = 2001
| edition = 2nd
| series = Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht, vol. 149
| publication-place = Berlin et al.
| publisher = Springer
| isbn = 9783540423652
| oclc = 48111934
}}
*{{cite book
| author-last = Merkl
| author-first = Adolf Julius
| author-link = :de:Adolf Julius Merkl
| title = Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht
| trans-title = General Theory of Administrative Law
| year = 1999
| orig-date = 1927
| publication-place = Vienna
| publisher = Verlag Österreich
| isbn = 9783704614131
| oclc = 260010534
}}
Cases
* {{cite court
| ref={{harvid|New_York_v._Fed._Energy_Regulatory_Comm'n}}
| litigants = New York v. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
| vol = 535
| reporter = U.S.
| opinion = 1
| pinpoint = 18
| court | date 2002
| url | quote
| postscript = .
}}
Further reading
{{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box}}
*{{cite book
|last=Davis
|first=Kenneth Culp
|year=1975
|title=Administrative Law and Government
|location=St. Paul, MN
|publisher=West Publishing
}}
*{{citation
|last1=Page
|first1=Edward C.
|last2=Robson
|first2=William Alexander
|date=24 August 2022
|title=Administrative law
|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |
url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/administrative-law
|access-date=21 January 2023
}}.
Notes
Explanatory notes
{{notelist}}
Citation footnotes
{{columns-list
|colwidth=30em
|small=yes
|{{reflist}}
}}
{{Law}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Administrative Law}}
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_law
|
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Arthur Phillip
|
{{Short description|British colonial administrator (1738–1814)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Australian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Arthur Phillip
| image = Arthur Phillip - Wheatley ML124 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Captain Arthur Phillip, 1786, by Francis Wheatley
| order = 1st
| office = Governor of New South Wales
| term_start = 7 February 1788
| term_end = 10 December 1792
| monarch = George&nbsp;III
| predecessor = Position established
| successor = John Hunter
| birth_date {{Birth date|dfyes|1738|10|11}}
| birth_place = Cheapside, London, England
| death_date {{Death date and age|dfyes|1814|8|31|1738|10|11}}
| death_place = Bath, Somerset, England
| allegiance = {{ubl|Kingdom of Great Britain|Kingdom of Portugal}}
| branch = {{ubl|Royal Navy|Portuguese Navy}}
| rank = Admiral of the Blue
| battles = {{tree list}}
* Seven Years' War
** Battle of Minorca
** Raid on St Malo
** Siege of Havana
* Spanish-Portuguese War
* American Revolutionary War
{{tree list/end}}
}}
Arthur Phillip (11&nbsp;October 1738 – 31&nbsp;August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales.
Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753. He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship Fortune. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War against France, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant to Michael Everitt aboard {{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}}. With Everitt, Phillip also served on {{HMS|Union|1756|6}} and {{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}}. Phillip was promoted to lieutenant on 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763. Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, he served in the war against Spain. Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip, in command of {{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}, was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before he reached his destination. In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe.
In 1786, Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales. On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson – the site of Sydney, Australia, today. Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts. However, his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet's voyage had been rejected. Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply. Phillip wanted harmonious relations with the local indigenous peoples, in the belief that everyone in the colony was a British citizen and was protected by the law as such, therefore the indigenous peoples had the same rights as everyone under Phillip's command. Eventually, cultural differences between the two groups of people led to conflict. The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources. By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place.
On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones. He had planned to return to Australia, but medical advisors recommended he resign from the governorship. His health recovered and he returned to active duty in the Navy in 1796, holding a number of commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles. He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805. He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814. As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools.
Early life
Arthur Phillip was born on 11&nbsp;October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London. He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman. His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard {{HMS|Tartar|1702|6}} on 13&nbsp;August 1732.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} At the time of Arthur Phillip's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p=5}}
There are no surviving records of Phillip's early childhood. His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income.{{sfn|Parker|2009|pp2–3}} Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel aged nine.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p9}} On 22&nbsp;June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p9}} In accordance with the school's curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography. His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was "unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes".{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p12}}
Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year.{{sfn|Parker|2009|p4}} At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune, a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead. Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1&nbsp;December, and spent the next few months aboard the Fortune, awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p12}}
Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes.{{sfn|Tink|2009|pp30–31}} A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his "smooth pear of a skull" as quoted by Robert Hughes.{{sfn|Hughes|1986|p67}}
Early maritime career
Whaling and merchant expeditions
In April 1754 Fortune headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p30}} As an apprentice Phillip's responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p15}} Food was scarce, and Fortune{{'}}s 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird's eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p16}} The ship returned to England on 20&nbsp;July 1754. The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p22}} The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year's whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27&nbsp;July.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p25}}Royal Navy and the Seven Years' War
{{further|Great Britain in the Seven Years' War}}
Dockyard on the River Thames, c. 1751. Painting by John Cleveley the Elder. National Maritime Museum, London.]]
On 16&nbsp;October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant aboard the 68-gun {{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}},{{sfn|Parker|2009|p5}} commanded by his mother's cousin, Captain Michael Everitt.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} As a member of Buckingham{{'}}s crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng's Mediterranean fleet.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p30}} The Buckingham was Rear-Admiral Temple West's flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20&nbsp;May 1756.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}}
Phillip moved on 1&nbsp;August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun {{HMS|Union|1756|6}}, which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5–12&nbsp;June 1758. Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28&nbsp;December 1758 to the 64-gun {{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}},{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p30}} On 7&nbsp;June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p30}} With the coming of peace on 25&nbsp;April 1763, he was retired on half-pay.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p30}}Retirement and the Portuguese NavyIn July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison ({{nee|Tibbott}}), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p31}} The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p31}} Margaret Phillip died in August 1792 and is buried at Llanycil, Bala, North Wales with her companion, Mrs Cane.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}} The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard {{HMS|Egmont|1768|6}}, a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p=31}}
In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, Nossa Senhora do Pilar. On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences.{{sfn|King|1999}}{{sfn|Goldston-Morris|1997|p=4}} A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney.{{sfn|The World|1789}} Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship San Agustín, on 19&nbsp;April 1777, off Santa Catarina.{{sfn|King|1999}} The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the Santo Agostinho, under Phillip's command.{{sfn|King|1999}} The action was reported in the English press:
<blockquote>
Madrid, 28 Aug. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.{{sfn|Norfolk Chronicle|1777}}
</blockquote>
Recommissioned into Royal Navy
{{quote box|width25em|quote[Phillip] is an officer of education and principle, he gives way to reason and does not, before doing so fall into exaggerated and unbearable excesses of temper{{nbsp}}... he is very clean-handed; is an officer of great truth and very brave; and is no flatterer, saying what he thinks but without temper or want of respect.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p31}}|sourceCorrespondence of Luís, 2nd Marquis Lavradio, Viceroy of Brazil, 1778.}}
In 1778, with Britain again at war, Phillip was recalled to Royal Navy service and on 9 October was appointed first lieutenant of the 74-gun {{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}} as part of the Channel fleet.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p65}} Promoted to commander on 2&nbsp;September 1779 and given command of the 8-gun fireship HMS Basilisk.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} With Spain's entry into the conflict, Phillip had a series of private meetings with the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich, sharing his charts and knowledge about the South American coastlines.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p67}}
Phillip was promoted to post-captain on 30&nbsp;November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun {{HMS|Ariadne|1776|6}}. Ariadne was sent to the Elbe to escort a transport ship carrying a detachment of Hanoverian troops, arriving at the port of Cuxhaven on 28 December, the estuary froze over trapping Ariadne in the harbour. In March 1782, Phillip arrived in England with the Hanoverian troops.{{sfn|Pembroke|2013|p=71}} In the following months Ariadne got a new lieutenant, Philip Gidley King, whom Phillip took under his wing. Ariadne was used to patrol the Channel where on 30&nbsp;June, she captured the French frigate Le Robecq.{{sfn|King|1999}}
With a change of government on 27 March 1782, Sandwich retired from the Admiralty, Lord Germain was replaced as Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs by Earl of Shelburne, before 10 July 1782, in another change of government Thomas Townshend replaced him, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like Sandwich and Germain, he turned to Phillip for planning advice.{{sfn|Frost|Moutinho|1995|p114}} The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy's East India squadron for an attack on Manila.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p114}} On 27&nbsp;December 1782, Phillip, took charge of the 64-gun {{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p114}} The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun {{HMS|Grafton|1771|6}}, the 74-gun {{HMS|Elizabeth|1769|6}}, Europa, and the 32-gun frigate {{HMS|Iphigenia|1780|6}}, sailed on 16&nbsp;January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill.{{sfn|Frost|1987|p114}} Shortly after the ships' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25&nbsp;April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.{{sfn|Frost|1980|p209}}Survey work in EuropeAfter his return to England in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France, and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports.{{sfn|Frost|1987|pp129–133}} There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.{{sfn|Frost|1980|pp115–116}}{{sfn|Frost|1980|p129}}
Colonial service
{{see also|Convicts in Australia}}
Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales.{{sfn|Frost|Moutinho|1995|p110}}{{Sfn|Gascoigne|1998|p187}} Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Under Banks' guidance, Matra rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (24&nbsp;August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).{{sfn|Carter|1988|p5}} Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia.{{sfn|Barton|1889|locchapter 1.4}}{{sfn|Kemp|2018|locchapter 2}} This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion.{{sfn|Kemp|2018|locchapter 2}}
In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet. His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay. Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island's native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes.{{sfn|Atkinson|1990|p22}}{{sfn|King|2003|pp21–22}}
Voyage to Colony of New South Wales
{{See also|First Fleet}}
On 25&nbsp;October 1786, the 20-gun {{HMS|Sirius|1786|6}}, lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip. The armed tender HMAT Supply (also known as {{HMS|Supply|1759|6}}),<ref>https://www.australianhistoryresearch.info/hmat-supply-vs-hms-supply/</ref> under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}}{{sfn|Thompson|2006}}{{sfn|Berney|2014}} On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to Sirius to command in the absence of Phillip, who as governor of the colony, would be where the seat of government was to be fixed.{{sfn|Hunter|1793|loc=chapter 1}}
The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip's command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13&nbsp;May 1787; {{HMS|Hyaena|1778|6}} provided an escort out of British waters.{{sfn|Phillip|1789|locchapter 2}}{{sfn|Frost|2012|p118}}{{sfn|Horne|1972}} On 3&nbsp;June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife.{{sfn|Gutenberg|2019}} On 10&nbsp;June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.{{sfn|Gutenberg|2019}} The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5&nbsp;August and stayed for a month to resupply.{{sfn|Gutenberg|2019}}{{sfn|King|2018|p10}} The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4&nbsp;September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13&nbsp;October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay. On 25&nbsp;November, Phillip transferred from the Sirius to the faster Supply, and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet. However, this "flying squadron", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible.{{sfn|Frost|2012|p175}} Supply reached Botany Bay on 18&nbsp;January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19&nbsp;January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20&nbsp;January.{{sfn|Phillip|1789|loc=chapter 2}}{{sfn|Gutenberg|2019}}
, Australia in 1788]]
Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source. Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip's differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, "custodian of over a thousand convicts" for whom he was responsible.{{sfn|Tyrrell|2018|p29}} After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26&nbsp;January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney.{{sfn|Sydney}}{{sfn|Morison|1944}} This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7&nbsp;February 1788 in Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: "being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security."{{sfn|Phillip|1788}}Establishing a settlement
{{See also|History of Australia (1788–1850)}}
, 1937.]]
On 26&nbsp;January, the Union Jack was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George&nbsp;III.{{sfn|Phillip|1789|locchapter 7}}{{sfn|Collins|1798|locchapter 1}} The next day, sailors from Sirius, a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents.{{sfn|Collins|1798|locchapter 1}}{{sfn|Tench|1789|locchapter 9}}{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp. His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west.{{sfn|Tench|1789|locchapter 9}}{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement's provisions.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} On 29&nbsp;January, the governor's portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day.{{sfn|Tench|1789|locchapter 9}} The female convicts disembarked on 6&nbsp;February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor's house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} On 7&nbsp;February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}}{{sfn|Phillip|1789|loc=chapter 8}}
On 15&nbsp;February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of 23, including 15 convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony.{{sfn|Shaw|1967}}
Governor of New South Wales
When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent. Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}}
Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the Alexander, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables' possessions.{{sfn|Macquarie}}
Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: "The laws of this country [England] will of course, be introduced in [New] South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves."{{sfn|Britton|1894|p=53}} Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences. The settlement's supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males' rations.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}} In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies. They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day. Phillip gave the rest a reprieve. They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}}
The governor also expanded the settlement's knowledge of the landscape. Two officers from Sirius, Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove. Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}}
The fleet's ships left over the next months, with Sirius and Supply remaining in the colony under command of the governor. They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways. Scurvy broke out, so Sirius left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies. The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony.{{sfn|Hunter|1793|loc=chapter 5}}
]]
As an experienced farmhand, Phillip's appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better. James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791.{{sfn|Morgan|2016}}{{sfn|Gray|1966}} When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony's first land grant.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967b}}
In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but {{HMS|Guardian|1784|6}}, carrying more supplies, was disabled en&nbsp;route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again.{{sfn|Rees|2009}}{{sfn|Britton|1894|p367}} Supply, the only ship left under colonial command after Sirius was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies.{{sfn|Parsons|1966}}{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018b}} The colony's isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London.{{sfn|Tink|2009|pp37–38}}
In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps. On 11&nbsp;December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the Atlantic, which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}} Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23&nbsp;July 1793.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}}{{sfn|Pembroke|2013}}
Military personnel in colony
The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps. As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition. Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen.{{sfn|Moyal|2017}}
Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO's, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship's Complement of Marines aboard Sirius and Supply, bringing the total to 246 who departed England.{{sfn|Moore|1987}}
Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor's actions to the Home Office.{{sfn|Macmillan|1967}} Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities. Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect. In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}}
Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of {{HMS|Gorgon|1785|6}} on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps.{{sfn|Stanley|1986|page18}} On 18 December 1791, Gorgon left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines. There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip's aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps.{{sfn|Stanley|1986|page18}} Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers. The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, with Governor Phillip on Atlantic.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}}
Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain.{{sfn|Fletcher|1967a}}
Relations with indigenous peoples
Phillip's official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to "conciliate their affections", to "live in amity and kindness with them", and to punish anyone who should "wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations".{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p42}} The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay. When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p44}}{{sfn|Berney|2014}} Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished.{{sfn|Berney|2014}}
After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p44}} Part of Phillip's early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora's language, beliefs, and customs.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|pp44–45}}
By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors. The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs. Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p45}} Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained.{{sfn|Berney|2014}}{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p45}} Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p=45}}
Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly. Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way. Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering. He ordered his men not to retaliate.{{sfn|Tink|2009|pp42–43}}{{sfn|Tench|1789}} Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it. Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family.{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p46}}
Even though there were now friendly relations with the Indigenous people around Sydney Cove, the same couldn't be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p43}} Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, "to put to death ten{{nbsp}}... [and] cut off the heads of the slain{{nbsp}}... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief".{{sfn|Tink|2009|p43}} Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended.{{sfn|Tink|2009|p43}}{{sfn|Karskens|2016|p48}}
On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the Atlantic.{{sfn|SBS}}{{sfn|Tench|1789|p167}}Later life and deathPhillip's estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire.{{sfn|Flynn|2016|p5}} Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Parish Church, in the Church of England on 8 May 1794.{{sfn|Flynn|2016|p=6}}
His health recovered, he was recommissioned in March 1796 to the 74-gun {{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}} as part of the Channel fleet.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun {{HMS|Swiftsure|1787|6}}.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun {{HMS|Blenheim|1761|6}}, command of which he held until December of that year.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} During 1798–99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}}
In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}} Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814.{{sfn|Hiscocks|2018a}}
Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed.{{sfn|Flynn|2016|p9}} He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath.{{sfn|Sydney Gazette|1815}} He was buried nearby at St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton.{{sfn|Flynn|2016|p10}} His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online.{{sfn|Will}} Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location.{{sfn|Flynn|2016|p10}}{{sfn|Withington|2014|p8}} An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip's birthdate by the Britain–Australia Society.<ref>{{Cite web |date30 August 2024 |titleThe Britain-Australia Society West Country Branch – Admiral Arthur Phillip Birthday Commemoration, Friday October 11th, 2024 |urlhttps://rcsbath.org/2024/08/30/the-britain-australia-society-west-country-branch-admiral-arthur-phillip-birthday-commemoration-friday-october-11th-2024/ |access-date31 December 2024 |website=rcsbath.org}}</ref>
In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson alleged that Phillip's remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: "Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies."{{sfn|60 Minutes}}
Legacy
, near Bath, England. The memorial to the first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, is on the right hand wall]]
]]
A number of places in Australia bear Phillip's name, including Port Phillip,<ref>Port Phillip Conservation Council: [http://home.vicnet.net.au/~phillip/env2stud.htm Excerpts from the 'Port Phillip Survey 1957-1963'] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070920091236/http://home.vicnet.net.au/~phillip/env2stud.htm|date20 September 2007}}</ref> Phillip Island (Victoria),<ref>{{Cite web |titlePhillip Island |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Phillip-Island |access-date31 December 2024 |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |languageen}}</ref> Phillip Island (Norfolk Island),<ref>{{Cite web |date18 November 2023 |titlePhillip Island |urlhttps://www.norfolkisland.net/norfolk-island/phillip-island/ |access-date31 December 2024 |websiteDiscover Norfolk Island |languageen-AU}}</ref> Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district,<ref>{{Citation |titleHistory of Sydney streets |date4 December 2012 |urlhttps://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/-/media/corporate/files/publications/history/history-of-sydney-streets/history-of-sydney-streets.xls?downloadtrue |publisherCity of Sydney}}</ref> and St Phillip's Church, Sydney.<ref>{{cite NSW HD|2423855|St Philip's Church of England Including Interior and Grounds|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow.{{sfn|Withington|2014|p25}} There is a memorial fountain honouring him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGovernor Phillip fountain |urlhttps://dictionaryofsydney.org/structure/governor_phillip_fountain |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240225022410/https://dictionaryofsydney.org/structure/governor_phillip_fountain |archive-date25 February 2024 |access-date31 December 2024 |websiteThe Dictionary of Sydney}}</ref> There is a 1786 portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London,<ref>{{Cite web |titleArthur Phillip |urlhttps://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw04984/Arthur-Phillip |access-date31 December 2024 |websiteNational Portrait Gallery |languageen}}</ref> and another by the same painter painted in 1787 in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCaptain Arthur Phillip c 1787 |urlhttps://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/collection-items/captain-arthur-phillip |access-date31 December 2024 |websiteState Library of New South Wales|date9 March 2018 }}</ref>
Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his Dictionary of Australian Biography:
{{blockquote|Steadfast in mind, modest, without self seeking, Phillip had imagination enough to conceive what the settlement might become, and the common sense to realize what at the moment was possible and expedient. When almost everyone was complaining he never himself complained, when all feared disaster he could still hopefully go on with his work. He was sent out to found a convict settlement, he laid the foundations of a great dominion.{{sfn|Serle|1949}}}}
200th anniversary
As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014.{{sfn|Westminster}}{{sfn|Withington|2014|pp3–7}} In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: "This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton."{{sfn|Westminster}}{{sfn|Withington|2014|pp4–6}} A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014.{{sfn|Pembroke|2014}} A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney,{{sfn|Decent|2014}} and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.{{sfn|Museum of Sydney}}
In popular culture
Phillip has been played by a number of actors in movies and television programs, including:
*Sir Cedric Hardwicke in Botany Bay (1953){{sfn|TCM|1953}}
*Edward Hepple in The Hungry Ones (1963)<ref>{{Cite news |date10 July 1963 |title"THE HUNGRY ONES" |urlhttps://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/47510555 |access-date7 January 2025 |work=Australian Women's Weekly}}</ref>
*Wynn Roberts in Prelude to Harvest (1963)<ref>{{Cite web |lastKornits |firstDov |date21 August 2021 |titleForgotten Australian TV Plays: Prelude to Harvest |urlhttps://www.filmink.com.au/forgotten-australian-tv-plays-prelude-to-harvest/ |access-date7 January 2025 |websiteFilmInk |languageen-AU}}</ref>
*Peter Collingwood in The Timeless Land (1980)<ref>{{Cite AV media |urlhttps://watch.plex.tv/show/the-timeless-land |titleThe Timeless Land |languageen |access-date7 January 2025 |via=watch.plex.tv}}</ref>
*Sam Neill in The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant (2005){{sfn|Apple|2005}}
*David Wenham in Banished (2015){{sfn|BBC|2015}}
He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play ''Our Country's Good, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of The Recruiting Officer. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers.{{sfn|Wertenbaker|1988|p=2}}
His life was the focus of I'll Meet You in Botany Bay, a 1945 radio play.<ref>{{Cite book |lastRees |firstLeslie |urlhttps://archive.org/details/australiandrama10000rees/mode/1up?q%22meet+you+in+botany+bay%22 |titleAustralian drama, 1970-1985 : a historical and critical survey |date1987 |publisherNorth Ryde, NSW, Australia : Angus & Robertson Publishers |othersInternet Archive |isbn978-0-207-15354-9}}</ref> See also
* Historical Records of Australia''
* Journals of the First Fleet
* History of smallpox in Australia
References
Citations
{{Reflist|16em}}
Sources
{{Refbegin|2}}
*{{Cite journal|lastAtkinson|firstAlan|date1990|titleThe First Plans For Governing New South Wales, 1786–87|journalAustralian Historical Studies|volume24|issue94|pages22–40|doi10.1080/10314619008595830|s2cid143682560 |issn=1940-5049}}
* {{cite book|lastBarton|firstG. B.|author-linkGeorge Burnett Barton|titleHistory of New South Wales From the Records, Volume I {{endash}} Governor Phillip 1783{{endash}}1789|urlhttp://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks12/1204171h.html|publisherCharles Potter, Government Printer|date1889|isbn978-0-908094-63-9|via=Project Gutenberg Australia}}
* {{Cite web|lastBerney|firstLeila|date10 October 2014|titleOn This Day: Arthur Phillip Born|urlhttp://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/10/on-this-day-arthur-phillip-born|access-date20 October 2021|publisher=Australian Geographic}}
* {{cite book|titleHistory of New South Wales From the Records, Volume II {{endash}} Phillip and Grose 1789{{endash}}1794|lastBritton|firstAlexander|year1894|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks12/1204371h.html|publisherCharles Potter, Government Printer|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|isbn978-93-5415-443-0}}
* {{cite news |lastBroughton |firstW. |titleSydney: Sitting Magistrate W. Broughton Esq. |workThe Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser |page2 |publisherG. Howe |ref{{harvid|Sydney Gazette|1815}}|date1 April 1815 |urlhttp://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/629090 |access-date11 August 2007}}
* {{Cite book|lastCarter|firstHarold B.|titleInterpreting Australia: British Perceptions of Australia Since 1770|publisherSir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies|year1988|editor-last1Delamothe|editor-first1Tony|pages4–23|chapterBanks, Cook and the Century Natural History Tradition|editor-last2Bridge|editor-first2Carl|isbn978-0-902499-98-0}}
* {{cite book|lastCollins|firstDavid|author-linkDavid Collins (lieutenant governor)|year1798|titleAn Account of the English Colony of NSW Vol 1|publisherT. Cadell Jr & W. Davies|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00010.html|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|isbn=978-0-7243-0003-7}}
* {{cite news|lastDecent|firstTom|date28 August 2014|titleArthur Phillip, NSW's First Governor, Memorialised With Bronze Bust|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/arthur-phillip-nsws-first-governor-memorialised-with-bronze-bust-20140828-109iey.html|newspaperThe Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=19 October 2021}}
* {{Cite book|lastFletcher|firstB. H.|year1967|ref{{harvid|Fletcher|1967b}}|titleRuse, James (1759–1837) |chapterJames Ruse (1759–1837) |publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ruse-james-2616 |access-date=10 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/phillip-arthur-2549 |publisher Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |lastFletcher|firstB. H.|year1967|ref{{harvid|Fletcher|1967a}}|titlePhillip, Arthur (1738–1814)|chapterArthur Phillip (1738–1814) |access-date=18 October 2021}}
* {{cite journal|lastFlynn|firstMichael|year2016|titleA Diminutive Enigma {{endash}} New Perspectives on Arthur Phillip, First Governor of New South Wales|publisherUTS ePRESS|journalSydney Journal|issue1|volume5|pages3–19|doi10.5130/sj.v5i1.5724|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|titleConvicts and Empire: A Naval Question, 1776–1811|firstAlan|lastFrost|author-linkAlan Frost|year1980|publisherOxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-554255-4}}
*{{cite book|titleArthur Phillip, 1738–1814: His Voyaging|firstAlan|lastFrost|author-linkAlan Frost|year1987|publisherOxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-554701-6}}
* {{cite book|titleThe Precarious Life of James Mario Matra: Voyager with Cook, American Loyalist, Servant of Empire|first1Alan|last1Frost|author1-linkAlan Frost|first2Isabel|last2Moutinho|year1995|publisherThe Miegunyah Press|isbn=978-0-522-84667-6}}
* {{Cite book|lastFrost|firstAlan|author-linkAlan Frost|titleThe First Fleet: The Real Story|date2012|publisherBlack Inc|isbn=978-1-86395-561-4}}
* {{Cite book|lastGascoigne|firstJohn|titleScience in The Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, The British State and The Uses Science in The Age of Revolution|date1998|isbn978-0-521-55069-7|publisherCambridge University Press}}
* {{cite journal|firstMaurine|lastGoldston-Morris|titleThe Life of Admiral Arthur Phillip, RN, 1738–1814|publisherNaval Historical Society of Australia|journalMonograph No. 58|date1997}}
* {{Cite book|lastGray|firstA. J.|year1966|titleDodd, Henry Edward (c. 1752–1791)|chapterHenry Edward Dodd (C. 1752–1791) |publisher Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/dodd-henry-edward-1984|access-date10 October 2021}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://morethannelson.com/officer/henry-lidgbird-ball/|titleHenry Lidgbird Ball|lastHiscocks|firstRichard|date2018|websiteMorethannelson.com|publisher|access-date2 October 2021|ref={{harvid|Hiscocks|2018b}}}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://morethannelson.com/officer/arthur-phillip/|titleArthur Phillip|lastHiscocks|firstRichard|date2018|websiteMorethannelson.com|publisher|access-date2 October 2021|ref={{harvid|Hiscocks|2018a}}}}
* {{cite book|title The Australian People: Biography of a Nation|last Horne|first Donald|publisher Angus and Robertson|year 1972|isbn 978-0-207-12496-9|location = Sydney, NSW}}
* {{Cite book|lastHughes|firstRobert|titleThe Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia, 1787–1868|year1986|publisherCollins Harvill|isbn978-0-330-29892-6|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fatalshorehistor00hugh|url-accessregistration}}
* {{cite book|lastHunter|firstJohn|author-linkJohn Hunter (Royal Navy officer)|titleAn Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Norfolk Island|date1793|publisherPrinted for John Stockdale|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00063.html|isbn978-1-5471-8889-5|via=Project Gutenberg Australia}}
* {{Cite journal|lastKarskens|firstGrace|year2016|titlePhillip and the Eora|publisherUTS ePRESS|journalSydney Journal|urlhttps://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/sydney_journal/article/download/5728/6113|access-date10 October 2021|volume5|issue2|pages39–55|doi10.5130/sj.v5i1.5728|doi-accessfree|hdl1959.4/unsworks_79306|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite book|lastKemp|firstDavid|titleThe Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860|date2018|publisherMelbourne University Publishing|isbn 978-0-522-87334-4}}
* {{cite journal|lastKing|firstRobert J.|titleNorfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770-1814|date2003|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41563142|journalThe Great Circle|volume25|issue2|pages20–41|publisher Australian Association for Maritime History|jstor=41563142}}
* {{cite journal|lastKing|firstRobert J.|urlhttp://www.australiaonthemap.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Map_Matters_35.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.australiaonthemap.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Map_Matters_35.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleArthur Phillip and the First Fleet at Rio de Janeiro |journalMap Matters|issue35|date2018|pages10–16|access-date20 October 2021}}
* {{Cite speech |lastKing |firstRobert J. |eventV Simpósio de HistóriaMarítimo e Naval Iber-americano |date29 October 1999 |titleArthur Phillip Defensor de Colónia, Governador de Nova Gales do Sul |trans-titleArthur Phillip: Defender of Colônia, Governor of New South Wales |publisherVancouver Island University |urlhttp://web.viu.ca/black/amrc/index.htm?Research/Papers/PHILLIP2.HTM&2}}
* {{Cite book|lastMacmillan|firstDavid S. |year1967|title Ross, Robert (1740–1794)|chapterRobert Ross (1740–1794) |publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ross-robert-2608|access-date10 October 2021}}
* {{cite book|lastMoore|firstJohn|titleThe First Fleet Marines, 1786–1792|date1987|publisherQueensland University Press|isbn 978-0-7022-2065-4}}
* {{Cite web|lastMorgan|firstDavid|year2016|titleHenry Dodd: The Faithful Servant|urlhttps://stjohnsonline.org/bio/henry-dodd/ |websiteSt John's Online|access-date=10 October 2021}}
* {{Cite magazine |lastMorison |firstSamuel Eliot |author-linkSamuel Eliot Morison |date22 May 1944 |titleThe Gilberts & Marshalls: A Distinguished Historian Recalls the Past of Two Recently Captured Pacific Groups |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbk8EAAAAMBAJ&q%22Thomas+Gilbert%22+captain+pacific&pgPA91 |magazineLife Magazine |access-date=1 July 2015}}
* {{cite web|lastMoyal |firstAnn |year2017 |titleArthur Phillip: 1788. The Foundation Year |publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/essay/21/text34967 |access-date=9 October 2021}}
* {{cite book|titleArthur Phillip: Australia's First Governor|firstDerek|lastParker|year2009|publisherWoodslane Press|isbn978-1-921203-99-2}}
* {{cite book | urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ball-henry-lidgbird-1734/text1911 | publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |lastParsons|first Vivienne | titleBall, Henry Lidgbird (1756–1818) | chapterHenry Lidgbird Ball (1756–1818) | year1966|access-date20 October 2021}}
* {{cite speech|lastPembroke|firstMichael|title"We Were All Once Migrants" – Arthur Phillip, Founder of Modern Australia|urlhttps://michaelpembroke.com/speeches/st-james-church-speech/|date31 August 2014|access-date19 October 2021|location=St James church, Sydney}}
* {{cite book|titleArthur Phillip: Sailor, Mercenary, Governor, Spy|firstMichael|lastPembroke|year2013|publisherHardie Grant Books|isbn978-1-74270-508-8}}
* {{cite book|lastSerle |firstPercival |author-linkPercival Serle|chapterPhillip, Arthur (1738–1814)|chapter-urlhttp://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks15/1500721h/0-dict-biogP-Q.html#phillip1 |titleDictionary of Australian Biography|publisherAngus and Robertson|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|access-date3 March 2011 |year1949}}
* {{cite book|lastPhillip|firstArthur|date1789|titleThe Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00101.html|publisherPrinted for John Stockdale, Piccadilly|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|isbn}}
* {{Cite archive|ref{{harvid|Phillip|1788}}|collection19: Letter from Arthur Phillip to the Marquis of Lansdowne, 3 July 1788|institutionMitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales|item-urlhttps://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110320991 |item-idSAFE/MLMSS 7241 (Safe 1/234)|firstArthur|lastPhillip|itemDigitised Letter}}
* {{cite book|firstSiân|lastRees|titleThe Floating Brothel: The Extraordinary True Story of Female Convicts Bound for Botany Bay|year2009|publisherHachette Australia |isbn978-0-7336-2463-6}}
* {{cite book|lastShaw|firstA. G. L.|year1967|urlhttps://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/king-philip-gidley-2309|titleKing, Philip Gidley (1758–1808)|chapterPhilip Gidley King (1758–1808) |publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|access-date5 October 2021}}
* {{cite book|lastStanley|firstPeter|titleThe Remote Garrison: The British Army in Australia, 1788–1870|date1986|publisherKangaroo Press|isbn 978-0-86417-091-0}}
* {{cite book|lastTench|firstWatkin|author-linkWatkin Tench|year1789|titleA Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00083.html|publisherJ. Deerett|isbn=978-1-4656-1004-1}}
* {{cite web |lastThompson|firstStephen|date2006|title1790 HMS Sirius Anchor and Cannon |urlhttp://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibition/objectsthroughtime/sirius-anchor-cannon/index.html |websiteObjects Through Time |publisherMigration Heritage Centre, New South Wales |access-date20 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |title The Governors of New South Wales | first Andrew | last Tink |chapter Phillip, Arthur|editor-last1 Clune|editor-first1David |editor-first2Ken|editor-last2Turner |year 2009 | publisher The Federation Press |pages30–48| isbn 978-1-86287-743-6 }}
*{{Cite book|lastTyrrell|firstIan|titleRiver Dreams - the people and landscape of the Cooks River|publisherUNSWPress|year2018|isbn978-1-74223-574-5|location=Sydney}}
* {{cite book | lastWertenbaker| firstTimberlake |author-linkTimberlake Wertenbaker| titleOur Country's Good | locationLondon | publisherMethuen | year1988 | isbn 978-0-413-19770-2}}
* {{cite web|lastWithington|firstRon|titlePeerless Pilgrimage|urlhttp://www.fellowshipfirstfleeters.org.au/images/journal6.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fellowshipfirstfleeters.org.au/images/journal6.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|publisherBritain-Australia Society|access-date19 October 2021|date2014}}
* {{cite news|date16 April 1789|workThe World|ref{{harvid|The World|1789}}|title Botany Bay|quote=Mr. Philip, who has this command, has the aid of experience. He had a similar expedition entrusted him by PORTUGUL, to carry convicts to South America.}}
* {{cite news|date20 September 1777|workNorfolk Chronicle|ref{{harvid|Norfolk Chronicle|1777}}|titleMonday's Post}}
* {{cite web|titleArthur Phillip|urlhttps://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/arthur-phillip#i13632|publisherWestminster Abbey|access-date19 October 2021|ref={{harvid|Westminster}}}}
* {{cite web|titleThe First Governor – A Bicentenary Symposium on Arthur Phillip|date2 July 2014|urlhttp://sydneylivingmuseums.com.au/events/first-governor-bicentenary-symposium-arthur-phillip|publisherMuseum of Sydney|ref{{harvid|Museum of Sydney}}|access-date31 August 2014}}
* {{cite web| titleThe First Fleet| url http://gutenberg.net.au/first-fleet.html |date19 December 2019 |ref{{harvid|Gutenberg|2019}}| publisher Project Gutenberg | access-date 2 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/69464/Botany-Bay/ |title Botany Bay |last|first |date1953 |publisherTurner Classic Movies |ref{{harvid|TCM|1953}}|access-date19 October 2021}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://tv.apple.com/ca/show/the-incredible-journey-of-mary-bryant/umc.cmc.2a2x28forf2cqx0wrbf3ojafo |titleThe Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant|date2005|ref{{harvid|Apple|2005}}|access-date=29 April 2022}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/profiles/4N5S7T2rtkgHfDsSzDgcm0t/cast-characters |titleBBC - Banished - Cast & Characters|date2015|ref{{harvid|BBC|2015}}|access-date=29 April 2022}}
* {{cite web|titleSydney's European History|ref{{harvid|Sydney}}|date2017|urlhttp://www.discoversydney.com.au/sydney/history.html|websiteDiscoversydney.com.au|access-date20 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/colonial_case_law/nsw/cases/case_index/1788/cable_v_sinclair/ |titleCable v. Sinclair [1788] NSWKR 7; [1788] NSWSupC 7 |publisherMacquarie University Law School |ref{{harvid|Macquarie}} |access-date1 July 2015 |archive-date22 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201022093716/http://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/colonial_case_law/nsw/cases/case_index/1788/cable_v_sinclair/ |url-statusdead }}
* {{cite video |urlhttp://www.sbs.com.au/firstaustralians/ |titleFirst Australians |publisherBlackfella Films, SBS, and Screen Australia |year2008 |ref{{harvid|SBS}}|access-date26 September 2012}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://www.spanglefish.com/admiralarthurphillip|titleThe Last Will and Testament of Admiral Arthur Phillip a.k.a. Governor Arthur Phillip|ref{{harvid|Will}}|websiteSpanglefish.com|access-date=11 July 2019}}
* {{cite web |ref{{harvid|60 Minutes}}|titleLost the plot – story transcript |urlhttp://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id262243&_cobroptus |website60 Minutes |publisherNinemsn |access-date25 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080130050212/http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id262243&_cobroptus |archive-date30 January 2008 |date=22 April 2007}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last1Becke|first1Louis|author1-linkGeorge Lewis Becke|last2Jeffery|first2Walter|titleAdmiral Phillip: The Founding of New South Wales|seriesBuilders of Great Britain|year1899|publisherT. Fisher Unwin|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks13/1302981h.html|isbn978-1-4097-7279-8|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|ref=none}}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Commons category|Arthur Phillip}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id Phillip,+Arthur |name Arthur Phillip }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname Arthur Phillip |sopt t }}
* [http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020292b.htm B. H. Fletcher, "Phillip, Arthur (1738–1814)"], Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333.
{{-}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-gov}}
{{s-new |district}}
{{s-ttl |titleGovernor of New South Wales |years1788–1792}}
{{S-aft|after=John Hunter}}
{{S-end}}
{{NewSouthWales Governors}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Phillip, Arthur}}
Category:Governors of New South Wales
Category:Australian city founders
Category:National founders
Category:Royal Navy admirals
Category:1738 births
Category:1814 deaths
Category:Australian penal colony administrators
Category:Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War
Category:Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Category:People from the City of London
Category:English people of German descent
Category:Port Phillip
Category:18th-century Australian people
Category:People educated at the Royal Hospital School
Category:Colony of New South Wales people
Category:Sea captains
Category:Military personnel from the City of Westminster
Category:First Fleet
Category:People from Marylebone
Category:British people in whaling
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Phillip
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.340392
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2564
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April 10
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{{About|the day of the year|the song by Garbage|April Tenth}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 428 &ndash; Nestorius becomes the Patriarch of Constantinople.<ref>{{cite book|lastJurgens|firstWilliam A.|titleThe Faith of the Early Fathers. Volume 3: St. Augustine to the End of the Patristic Age|locationCollegeville, Minn.|publisherLiturgical Press|date1979|isbn9780814604328|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrkvLsueY_DwC|pages201–202}}</ref>
* 837 &ndash; Halley's Comet makes its closest approach to Earth at a distance equal to 0.0342 AU (5.1&nbsp;million kilometres/3.2&nbsp;million miles).<ref>{{cite book|lastSeargent|firstDavid|titleThe Greatest Comets in History: Broom Stars and Celestial Scimitars|locationNew York|publisherSpringer Verlag|date2008|isbn9780387095127|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDFgMAaU3vA8C|pages44–45}}</ref>
*1407 &ndash; Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama visits the Ming dynasty capital at Nanjing and is awarded the title "Great Treasure Prince of Dharma".<ref>{{cite book|lastLal|firstDinesh|titleIndo-Tibet-China Conflict|locationDelhi|publisherKalpaz Publications|date2008|isbn9788178357140|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkFGhwZxeG5kC|page46}}</ref>
*1500 &ndash; Ludovico Sforza is captured by Swiss troops at Novara and is handed over to the French.<ref>{{cite book|lastJohnson|firstArthur Henry|titleEurope in the Sixteenth Century, 1494-1598|locationLondon|publisherRivingtons|date1902|oclc796491389|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyaM-AAAAYAAJ|page111}}</ref>
*1545 &ndash; The settlement of Villa Imperial de Carlos V (now the city of Potosí) in Bolivia is founded after the discovery of huge silver deposits in the area.<ref>{{cite book|lastLougheed|firstVivien|titleUnderstanding Bolivia—A Travellers History|locationMadeira Park, BC|publisherHarbour Publishing|date2008|isbn9781550174441|page44|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|titleBolivia: Country Study Guide. Volume 1: Strategic Information and Developments|locationWashington, D.C.|publisherInternational Business Publications|date2017|isbn978-1438773971|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtEqtDwAAQBAJ|page44}}</ref>1601–1900
*1606 &ndash; The Virginia Company of London is established by royal charter by James I of England with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America.
*1710 &ndash; The Statute of Anne, the first law regulating copyright, comes into force in Great Britain.
*1717 &ndash; Robert Walpole resigns from the British government, commencing the Whig Split which lasts until 1720.<ref>Black, Jeremy. Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of George I, 1714-1727. p.80</ref>
*1724 &ndash; Bach leads the first performance of his cantata Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen, BWV 66, his first cantata composed for Easter in Leipzig.<ref>{{cite web | url http://www.bach-digital.de/receive/BachDigitalWork_work_00000082?langen | title Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen BWV 66.2; BWV 66; BC A 56 | publisher Bach Digital website | date = 2024 }}</ref>
*1741 &ndash; War of the Austrian Succession: Prussia gains control of Silesia at the Battle of Mollwitz.
*1809 &ndash; Napoleonic Wars: The War of the Fifth Coalition begins when forces of the Austrian Empire invade Bavaria.
*1815 &ndash; The Mount Tambora volcano begins a three-month-long eruption, lasting until July 15. The eruption ultimately kills 71,000 people and affects Earth's climate for the next two years.
*1816 &ndash; The Federal government of the United States approves the creation of the Second Bank of the United States.
*1821 &ndash; Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople is hanged by the Ottoman government from the main gate of the Patriarchate and his body is thrown into the Bosphorus.
* 1821 &ndash; Greek War of Independence: the island of Psara joins the Greek struggle for independence.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://aegean-maritime-museum.gr/en/exhibits-history/1821/112-konstantinos-kanaris-2 | titleConstantine Kanaris }}</ref>
*1826 &ndash; The 10,500 inhabitants of the Greek town of Missolonghi begin leaving the town after a year's siege by Turkish forces. Very few of them survive.
*1858 &ndash; After the original Big Ben, a {{Convert|14.5|tonne|lb}} bell for the Palace of Westminster, had cracked during testing, it is recast into the current {{convert|13.76|tonne|lb}} bell by Whitechapel Bell Foundry.
*1864 &ndash; Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg is proclaimed emperor of Mexico during the French intervention in Mexico.
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: A day after his surrender to Union forces, Confederate General Robert E. Lee addresses his troops for the last time.
*1866 &ndash; The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh.<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1868 &ndash; At Arogee in Abyssinia, British and Indian forces defeat an army of Emperor Tewodros II. While 700 Ethiopians are killed and many more injured, only two British/Indian troops die.
*1872 &ndash; The first Arbor Day is celebrated in Nebraska.
*1875 &ndash; India: Arya Samaj is founded in Mumbai by Swami Dayananda Saraswati to propagate his goal of social reform.
*1887 &ndash; On Easter Sunday, Pope Leo XIII authorizes the establishment of the Catholic University of America.
*1896 &ndash; 1896 Summer Olympics: The Olympic marathon is run ending with the victory of Greek athlete Spyridon Louis.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLocal hero Spyridon Louis earns cult status in marathon |urlhttps://olympics.com/en/news/local-hero-louis-earns-cult-status-in-marathon |access-date11 October 2022 |websiteOlympics}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; British suffer a sharp defeat by the Boers south of Brandfort. 600 British troops are killed and wounded and 800 taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite book|lastBurbank|firstRichard|titleTwentieth Century Music|locationNew York City, USA|publisherFacts on File Publication, New York City, NY|year1984|isbn0-87196-464-3|page13}}|</ref>
1901–present
*1912 &ndash; RMS Titanic sets sail from Southampton, England on her maiden and only voyage.
*1916 &ndash; The Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA) is created in New York City.
*1919 &ndash; Mexican Revolution leader Emiliano Zapata is ambushed and shot dead by government forces in Morelos.
* 1919 &ndash; The Third Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents is held by the Makhnovshchina at Huliaipole.<ref>{{cite book|firstColin|lastDarch|titleNestor Makhno and Rural Anarchism in Ukraine, 1917–21|year2020|locationLondon|publisherPluto Press|isbn978-0745338880|oclc1225942343|page=49}}</ref>
*1925 &ndash; The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is first published in New York City, by Charles Scribner's Sons.
*1938 &ndash; The 1938 German parliamentary election and referendum seeks approval for a single list of Nazi candidates and the recent annexation of Austria.
*1939 &ndash; Alcoholics Anonymous, A.A.'s "Big Book", is first published.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: The Axis powers establish the Independent State of Croatia.
*1944 &ndash; Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler escape from Birkenau death camp.
*1963 &ndash; One hundred twenty-nine American sailors die when the submarine {{USS|Thresher|SSN-593|6}} sinks at sea.
*1968 &ndash; The TEV Wahine, a New Zealand ferry sinks in Wellington harbour due to a fierce storm – the strongest winds ever in Wellington. Out of the 734 people on board, fifty-three died.
*1970 &ndash; Paul McCartney announces that he is leaving The Beatles for personal and professional reasons.<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1971 &ndash; Ping-pong diplomacy: In an attempt to thaw relations with the United States, China hosts the U.S. table tennis team for a week-long visit.
*1972 &ndash; Tombs containing bamboo slips, among them Sun Tzu's Art of War and Sun Bin's lost military treatise, are discovered by construction workers in Shandong.
* 1972 &ndash; Vietnam War: For the first time since November 1967, American B-52 bombers reportedly begin bombing North Vietnam.
*1973 &ndash; Invicta International Airlines Flight 435 crashes in a snowstorm on approach to Basel, Switzerland, killing 108 people.
*1979 &ndash; Red River Valley tornado outbreak: A tornado lands in Wichita Falls, Texas killing 42 people.
*1988 &ndash; The Ojhri Camp explosion kills or injures more than 1,000 people in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan.
*1991 &ndash; Italian ferry {{ship|MS|Moby Prince||6}} collides with an oil tanker in dense fog off Livorno, Italy, killing 140.
* 1991 &ndash; A rare tropical storm develops in the South Atlantic Ocean near Angola; the first to be documented by satellites.
*1998 &ndash; The Good Friday Agreement is signed in Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhat is the Good Friday Agreement? |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/good-friday-agreement-northern-ireland-protocol-b2100417.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date13 August 2022 |languageen |date14 June 2022}}</ref>
*2009 &ndash; President of Fiji Ratu Josefa Iloilo announces the abrogation of the constitution and assumes all governance in the country, creating a constitutional crisis.
*2010 &ndash; Polish Air Force Tu-154M crashes near Smolensk, Russia, killing 96 people, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and dozens of other senior officials and dignitaries.
*2016 &ndash; The Paravur temple accident in which a devastating fire caused by the explosion of firecrackers stored for Vishu, kills more than one hundred people out of the thousands gathered for seventh day of Bhadrakali worship.
* 2016 &ndash; An earthquake of 6.6 magnitude strikes 39&nbsp;km west-southwest of Ashkasham, impacting India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Srinagar and Pakistan.
*2019 &ndash; Scientists from the Event Horizon Telescope project announce the first ever image of a black hole, which was located in the centre of the M87 galaxy.
*2023 &ndash; A mass shooting occurs at the Old National Bank in Louisville, Kentucky that leaves five victims dead and eight wounded.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://globalnews.ca/news/9612695/louisville-shooting-police-investigation/|titleLouisville shooting: At least 6 dead, including suspect, at downtown bank - National &#124; Globalnews.ca|websiteGlobal News}}</ref>Births<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->Pre-1600
* 401 &ndash; Theodosius II, Roman emperor (d. 450)
*1018 &ndash; Nizam al-Mulk, Persian scholar and vizier (d. 1092)
*1472 &ndash; Margaret of York, English princess (d. 1472)
*1480 &ndash; Philibert II, duke of Savoy (d. 1504)
*1487 &ndash; William I, count of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1559)
*1512 &ndash; James V, king of Scotland (d. 1542)
*1579 &ndash; Augustus II, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1666)
*1583 &ndash; Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher and jurist (d. 1645)<ref nameChase2017 />1601–1900
*1603 &ndash; Christian, Prince-Elect of Denmark (d. 1647)
*1651 &ndash; Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, German mathematician, physicist, and physician (d. 1708)
*1656 &ndash; René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian settler, founded Rimouski (d. 1718)
*1704 &ndash; Benjamin Heath, English scholar and author (d. 1766)
*1707 &ndash; Michel Corrette, French organist, composer, and author (d. 1795)
*1713 &ndash; John Whitehurst, English geologist and clockmaker (d. 1788)
*1755 &ndash; Samuel Hahnemann, German-French physician and academic (d. 1843)
*1762 &ndash; Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1834)
*1769 &ndash; Jean Lannes, French marshal (d. 1809)
*1778 &ndash; William Hazlitt, English essayist and critic (d. 1830)
*1794 &ndash; Matthew C. Perry, English-Scottish American commander (d. 1858)
*1806 &ndash; Juliette Drouet, French actress (d. 1883)
* 1806 &ndash; Leonidas Polk, Scottish-American general and bishop (d. 1884)
*1827 &ndash; Lew Wallace, American general, lawyer, and politician, 11th Governor of New Mexico Territory (d. 1905)
*1829 &ndash; William Booth, English minister, founded The Salvation Army (d. 1912)<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1847 &ndash; Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-American journalist, publisher, and politician, founded Pulitzer, Inc. (d. 1911)<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1864 &ndash; Eugen d'Albert, Scottish-German pianist and composer (d. 1932)
*1865 &ndash; Jack Miner, American-Canadian farmer, hunter, and environmentalist (d. 1944)
*1867 &ndash; George William Russell, Irish author, poet, and painter (d. 1935)
*1868 &ndash; George Arliss, English actor and playwright (d. 1946)
* 1868 &ndash; Asriel Günzig, Moravian rabbi (d. 1931)
*1873 &ndash; Kyösti Kallio, Finnish farmer, banker, and politician, 4th President of Finland (d. 1940)
*1875 &ndash; George Clawley, English footballer (d. 1920)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.11v11.com/players/george-clawley-44244/|titleGeorge Clawley|website11v11.com|access-date30 March 2020}}</ref>
*1877 &ndash; Alfred Kubin, Austrian author and illustrator (d. 1959)
*1879 &ndash; Coenraad Hiebendaal, Dutch rower and physician (d. 1921)
*1880 &ndash; Frances Perkins, American sociologist, academic, and politician, United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1965)<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1880 &ndash; Montague Summers, English clergyman and author (d. 1948)
*1886 &ndash; Johnny Hayes, American runner and trainer (d. 1965)
*1887 &ndash; Bernardo Houssay, Argentinian physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
*1889 &ndash; Louis Rougier, French philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1982)
*1891 &ndash; Frank Barson, English footballer and coach (d. 1968)
*1893 &ndash; Otto Steinböck, Austrian zoologist (d. 1969)
*1894 &ndash; Ben Nicholson, British painter (d. 1982)
*1897 &ndash; Prafulla Chandra Sen, Indian accountant and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1990)
*1900 &ndash; Arnold Orville Beckman, American chemist, inventor, and philanthropist (d. 2004)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Dhananjay Ramchandra Gadgil, Indian economist (d. 1971)
*1903 &ndash; Patroklos Karantinos, Greek architect (d. 1976)<ref>{{Cite web |titleGRI-2019-23821.pdf |urlhttp://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/303506/files/GRI-2019-23821.pdf |access-date11 October 2022 |websiteikee.lib.auth.gr |language=Greek}}</ref>
* 1903 &ndash; Clare Turlay Newberry, American author and illustrator (d. 1970)
*1906 &ndash; Steve Anderson, American hurdler (d. 1988)
*1910 &ndash; Margaret Clapp, American scholar and academic (d. 1974)
* 1910 &ndash; Helenio Herrera, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1997)
* 1910 &ndash; Paul Sweezy, American economist and publisher, founded the Monthly Review (d. 2004)
*1911 &ndash; Martin Denny, American pianist and composer (d. 2005)
* 1911 &ndash; Maurice Schumann, French journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign and European Affairs for France (d. 1998)
*1912 &ndash; Boris Kidrič, Austrian-Slovenian politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovenia (d. 1953)
*1913 &ndash; Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (d. 2001)
*1914 &ndash; Jack Badcock, Australian cricketer (d. 1982)
*1915 &ndash; Harry Morgan, American actor and director (d. 2011)
* 1915 &ndash; Leo Vroman, Dutch-American hematologist, poet, and illustrator (d. 2014)
*1916 &ndash; Lee Jung-seob, Korean painter (d. 1956)
*1917 &ndash; Jagjit Singh Lyallpuri, Indian politician (d. 2013)
* 1917 &ndash; Robert Burns Woodward, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)<ref nameChase2017>{{cite book |titleChase's Calendar of Events 2017: The Ultimate Go-To Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months |date23 September 2016 |publisherBernan Press |isbn978-1-59888-859-1 |pages217–218 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq-xrDQAAQBAJ&pgPA218 |languageen}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (d. 2014)
*1921 &ndash; Chuck Connors, American baseball player and actor (d. 1992)<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1921 &ndash; Jake Warren, Canadian soldier and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States (d. 2008)
* 1921 &ndash; Sheb Wooley, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2003)
*1923 &ndash; Roger Gaillard, Haitian historian and author (d. 2000)
* 1923 &ndash; Jane Kean, American actress and singer (d. 2013)
* 1923 &ndash; Floyd Simmons, American decathlete and actor (d. 2008)
* 1923 &ndash; Sid Tickridge, English footballer (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.stamford-bridge.com/player.php?id547&surnameTickridge&firstnameSid|titleSid Tickridge|websitestamford-bridge.com|access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1923 &ndash; John Watkins, South African cricketer (d. 2021)
*1924 &ndash; Kenneth Noland, American soldier and painter (d. 2010)
*1925 &ndash; Angelo Poffo, American wrestler and promoter (d. 2010)
*1926 &ndash; Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (d. 2014)
* 1926 &ndash; Junior Samples, American comedian (d. 1983)
*1927 &ndash; Norma Candal, Puerto Rican actress (d. 2006)
* 1927 &ndash; Marshall Warren Nirenberg, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010)
*1929 &ndash; Mike Hawthorn, English race car driver (d. 1959)
* 1929 &ndash; Liz Sheridan, American actress (d. 2022)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.tmz.com/2022/04/15/jerry-seinfelds-mother-liz-sheridan-dead-dies/|titleJerry Seinfeld's TV Mom Liz Sheridan Dead at 93|websiteTMZ|date15 April 2022 }}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Max von Sydow, Swedish-French actor (d. 2020)
*1930 &ndash; Claude Bolling, French pianist, composer, and actor (d. 2020)
* 1930 &ndash; Dolores Huerta, American activist, co-founded the United Farm Workers<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1930 &ndash; Spede Pasanen, Finnish film director and producer, comedian, and inventor (d. 2001)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.iltalehti.fi/viihde/a/2016041021392870|titleSpede Pasanen olisi täyttänyt tänään 86 vuotta - näistä rakastettu koomikko muistetaan|firstOlli|lastMartela|workIltalehti|dateApril 10, 2016|access-dateFebruary 6, 2022|languagefi}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Kishori Amonkar, Indian classical vocalist (d. 2017)
*1932 &ndash; Delphine Seyrig, Swiss/Alsatian French actress (d. 1990)
* 1932 &ndash; Omar Sharif, Egyptian actor and screenwriter (d. 2015)
*1933 &ndash; Rokusuke Ei, Japanese composer and author (d. 2016)
* 1933 &ndash; Helen McElhone, Scottish politician (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite web |titleThe ex-MPs who died in 2013 - part two |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-25449128 |websiteBBC News |access-date9 March 2022 |date=27 December 2013}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; David Halberstam, American journalist and author (d. 2007)
*1935 &ndash; Patrick Garland, English actor and director (d. 2013)
* 1935 &ndash; Peter Hollingworth, Australian bishop, 23rd Governor General of Australia
* 1935 &ndash; Christos Yannaras, Greek philosopher, theologian and author (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIEp3DwAAQBAJ&qChristos+Yannaras&pgPA60 | titleVersöhnung und Vergöttlichung: Sündenbekenntnis und Mysterium der Sündenvergebung in der rumänisch-orthodoxen Theologie | isbn9783791771175 | last1Brandiu | first1Sorin | date6 April 2016 | publisherVerlag Friedrich Pustet }}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; John A. Bennett, American soldier (d. 1961)
* 1936 &ndash; David A. Hardy, British artist<ref>{{cite web|titleHardy, David A|websiteEncyclopedia of Science Fiction|date21 August 2023|accessdate17 February 2024|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/hardy_david_a}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; John Howell, English long jumper
* 1936 &ndash; John Madden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web|titleJohn Madden, Hall of Fame coach and broadcaster, dies at 85|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/john-madden-oakland-raiders-coach-dies-nfl-cd81635dd3aac611af9e9424ec08d24a|authorDubow, Josh|websiteAPNews.com|dateDecember 28, 2021|access-dateDecember 28, 2021}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Bobby Smith, American singer (d. 2013)
*1937 &ndash; Bella Akhmadulina, Soviet and Russian poet, short story writer, and translator (d. 2010)
*1938 &ndash; Don Meredith, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2010)
*1939 &ndash; Claudio Magris, Italian scholar, author, and translator
*1940 &ndash; Gloria Hunniford, British radio and television host
*1941 &ndash; Chrysostomos II of Cyprus, (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://orthodoxtimes.com/archbishop-chrysostomos-ii-of-cyprus-celebrates-his-78th-birthday/ | titleArchbishop Chrysostomos II of Cyprus celebrates his 78th Birthday &#124; Orthodox Times (En) }}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Harold Long, Canadian politician (d. 2013)
* 1941 &ndash; Paul Theroux, American novelist, short story writer, and travel writer<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1942 &ndash; Nick Auf der Maur, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1998)
* 1942 &ndash; Ian Callaghan, English footballer
* 1942 &ndash; Stuart Dybek, American novelist, short story writer, and poet
*1943 &ndash; Andrzej Badeński, Polish-German sprinter (d. 2008)
* 1943 &ndash; Margaret Pemberton, English author
*1945 &ndash; Kevin Berry, Australian swimmer (d. 2006)
*1946 &ndash; David Angell, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2001)
* 1946 &ndash; Bob Watson, American baseball player and manager (d. 2020)
* 1946 &ndash; Adolf Winkelmann, German director, producer, and screenwriter
*1947 &ndash; David A. Adler, American author and educator
* 1947 &ndash; Bunny Wailer, Jamaican singer-songwriter and drummer (d. 2021)
*1948 &ndash; Mel Blount, American football player
* 1948 &ndash; Jim Burns, Welsh artist<ref>{{cite web|titleBurns, Jim|websiteEncyclopedia of Science Fiction|dateSeptember 12, 2022|accessdateFebruary 17, 2024|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/burns_jim}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Daniel Mangeas, French banker and sportscaster
* 1949 &ndash; Eric Troyer, American singer-songwriter, keyboardist and guitarist
*1950 &ndash; Ken Griffey, Sr., American baseball player and manager
* 1950 &ndash; Eddie Hazel, American guitarist (d. 1992)
*1951 &ndash; David Helvarg, American journalist and activist
*1952 &ndash; Narayan Rane, Indian politician, 16th Chief Minister of Maharashtra
* 1952 &ndash; Masashi Sada, Japanese singer, lyricist, composer, novelist, actor, and producer
* 1952 &ndash; Steven Seagal, American actor, producer, and martial artist
*1953 &ndash; David Moorcroft, English runner and businessman
* 1953 &ndash; Pamela Wallin, Swedish-Canadian journalist, academic, and politician
*1954 &ndash; Paul Bearer, American wrestler and manager (d. 2013)
* 1954 &ndash; Anne Lamott, American author and educator
* 1954 &ndash; Peter MacNicol, American actor<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1954 &ndash; Juan Williams, Panamanian-American journalist and author
*1955 &ndash; Marit Breivik, Norwegian handball player and coach<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleMarit Breivik |first1Thomas |last1Aune |first2Rolf |last2Bryhn |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date22 August 2023 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Marit_Breivik |languageno|access-date22 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1955 &ndash; Lesley Garrett, English soprano and actress
* 1955 &ndash; Mike Rinder, Australian-American former Scientologist, critic (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |lastLevenson |firstMichael |dateJanuary 6, 2025 |titleMike Rinder, Scientology Spokesman Turned Critic, Dies at 69 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/06/us/mike-rinder-dead-scientology-critic.html |access-dateJanuary 7, 2025 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*1956 &ndash; Carol V. Robinson, English chemist and academic
*1957 &ndash; Aliko Dangote, Nigerian businessman, founded Dangote Group
* 1957 &ndash; John M. Ford, American author and poet (d. 2006)
* 1957 &ndash; Steve Gustafson, Spanish-American bass player
* 1957 &ndash; Rosemary Hill, English historian and author
*1958 &ndash; Bob Bell, Northern Irish engineer
* 1958 &ndash; Yefim Bronfman, Uzbek-American pianist
* 1958 &ndash; Brigitte Holzapfel, German high jumper
*1959 &ndash; Babyface, American singer-songwriter and producer
* 1959 &ndash; Yvan Loubier, Canadian economist and politician
* 1959 &ndash; Brian Setzer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1960 &ndash; Steve Bisciotti, American businessman, co-founded Allegis Group
* 1960 &ndash; Katrina Leskanich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1960 &ndash; Terry Teagle, American basketball player
*1961 &ndash; Nicky Campbell, Scottish broadcaster and journalist<ref>{{cite web |titleNicky Campbell |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba83f2522 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180319125542/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba83f2522 |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 19, 2018 |websiteBFI |access-date11 August 2022 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1961 &ndash; Carole Goble, English computer scientist and academic
* 1961 &ndash; Mark Jones, American basketball player
*1962 &ndash; Steve Tasker, American football player and sportscaster
*1963 &ndash; Warren DeMartini, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1963 &ndash; Jeff Gray, American baseball player and coach
* 1963 &ndash; Doris Leuthard, Swiss lawyer and politician, 162nd President of the Swiss Confederation
*1965 &ndash; Tim Alexander, American drummer and songwriter
* 1965 &ndash; Anna-Leena Härkönen, Finnish author<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://annaleenaharkonen.com/about-the-author.html|titleAbout the Author|websiteannaleenaharkonen.com|access-date10 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1966 &ndash; Brad William Henke, American football player and actor (d. 2022)
*1966 &ndash; Steve Claridge, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster
*1967 &ndash; Donald Dufresne, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1967 &ndash; David Rovics, American singer-songwriter
*1968 &ndash; Metin Göktepe, Turkish photographer and journalist (d. 1996)
* 1968 &ndash; Orlando Jones, American actor, producer, and screenwriter
*1969 &ndash; Steve Glasson, Australian lawn bowler
* 1969 &ndash; Ekaterini Koffa, Greek sprinter
*1970 &ndash; Enrico Ciccone, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1970 &ndash; Leonard Doroftei, Romanian-Canadian boxer
* 1970 &ndash; Kenny Lattimore, American singer-songwriter
* 1970 &ndash; Q-Tip, American rapper, producer, and actor
* 1971 &ndash; Indro Olumets, Estonian footballer and coach
* 1971 &ndash; Al Reyes, Dominican-American baseball player
*1972 &ndash; Ian Harvey, Australian cricketer
* 1972 &ndash; Priit Kasesalu, Estonian computer programmer, co-created Skype
* 1972 &ndash; Gordon Buchanan, Scottish film maker
*1973 &ndash; Guillaume Canet, French actor and director
* 1973 &ndash; Roberto Carlos, Brazilian footballer and manager
* 1973 &ndash; Aidan Moffat, Scottish singer-songwriter
* 1973 &ndash; Christopher Simmons, Canadian-American graphic designer, author, and academic
*1974 &ndash; Eric Greitens, American soldier, author and politician
* 1974 &ndash; Petros Passalis, Greek footballer
*1975 &ndash; Chris Carrabba, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1975 &ndash; Terrence Lewis, Indian dancer and choreographer
* 1975 &ndash; David Harbour, American actor
*1976 &ndash; Clare Buckfield, English actress
* 1976 &ndash; Yoshino Kimura, Japanese actress and singer
* 1976 &ndash; Sara Renner, Canadian skier
*1977 &ndash; Stephanie Sheh, Taiwanese-American voice actress, director, and producer
*1978 &ndash; Sir Christus, Finnish guitarist (d. 2017)
*1979 &ndash; Iván Alonso, Uruguayan footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Kenyon Coleman, American football player
* 1979 &ndash; Rachel Corrie, American author and activist (d. 2003)
* 1979 &ndash; Tsuyoshi Domoto, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor
* 1979 &ndash; Sophie Ellis-Bextor, English singer-songwriter
* 1979 &ndash; Pavlos Fyssas, Greek rapper (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.naftemporiki.gr/story/1852688/rap-monsters-festival-sto-xalandri-oi-neoi-to-fonaksan-dunata-paulos-fussas-paron | titleRap Monsters Festival στο Χαλάνδρι: Οι νέοι το φώναξαν δυνατά "Παύλος Φύσσας, παρών" | date=4 November 2022 }}</ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Peter Kopteff, Finnish footballer
*1980 &ndash; Sean Avery, Canadian ice hockey player and model
* 1980 &ndash; Charlie Hunnam, English actor
* 1980 &ndash; Shao Jiayi, Chinese footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Kasey Kahne, American race car driver
* 1980 &ndash; Andy Ram, Israeli tennis player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.atptour.com/en/players/andy-ram/r399/overview|titleAndy Ram &#124; Overview &#124; ATP Tour &#124; Tennis|website=ATP Tour}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Bryce Soderberg, American singer-songwriter and bass player
*1981 &ndash; Laura Bell Bundy, American actress and singer
* 1981 &ndash; Liz McClarnon, English singer and dancer
* 1981 &ndash; Michael Pitt, American actor, model and musician<ref name=Chase2017 />
* 1981 &ndash; Alexei Semenov, Russian ice hockey player
*1982 &ndash; Andre Ethier, American baseball player
* 1982 &ndash; Chyler Leigh, American actress and singer
*1983 &ndash; Jamie Chung, American actress
* 1983 &ndash; Andrew Dost, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1983 &ndash; Ryan Merriman, American actor
* 1983 &ndash; Hannes Sigurðsson, Icelandic footballer
*1984 &ndash; Faustina Agolley, Australian television host
* 1984 &ndash; Jeremy Barrett, American figure skater
* 1984 &ndash; Mandy Moore, American singer-songwriter and actress
* 1984 &ndash; David Obua, Ugandan footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Damien Perquis, French-Polish footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Gonzalo Javier Rodríguez, Argentinian footballer
*1985 &ndash; Barkhad Abdi, Somali-American actor and director
* 1985 &ndash; Willo Flood, Irish footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Jesús Gámez, Spanish footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Dion Phaneuf, Canadian ice hockey player
*1986 &ndash; Olivia Borlée, Belgian sprinter
* 1986 &ndash; Fernando Gago, Argentine footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Corey Kluber, American baseball pitcher
* 1986 &ndash; Vincent Kompany, Belgian footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Tore Reginiussen, Norwegian footballer
*1987 &ndash; Ahmed Adel Abdel Moneam, Egyptian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleFIFA Club World Cup Japan 2008 Presented By TOYOTA — List Of Players |urlhttps://www.fifa.com/mm/document/tournament/competition/95/12/84/fcwc2008_2008_squadlists_1205.pdf |websiteFIFA.com |publisherFédération Internationale de Football Association |date5 December 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081209121359/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/tournament/competition/95/12/84/fcwc2008_2008_squadlists_1205.pdf |archive-date9 December 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Shay Mitchell, Canadian actress and model
* 1987 &ndash; Hayley Westenra, New Zealand soprano
*1988 &ndash; Chris Heston, American baseball pitcher
* 1988 &ndash; Kareem Jackson, American football player<ref>{{cite web|titleKareem Jackson|url http://www.nfl.com/player/kareemjackson/496735/profile|websiteNFL.com|access-date11 April 2020|language=en}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Haley Joel Osment, American actor<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1989 &ndash; Charlie Culberson, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web|titleCharlie Culberson|urlhttps://www.espn.com/mlb/player/batvspitch?id29955|publisherESPN}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Ben Amos, English footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Andile Jali, South African footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Ricky Leutele, Australian-Samoan rugby league player
* 1990 &ndash; Maren Morris, American singer
* 1990 &ndash; Alex Pettyfer, English actor
*1991 &ndash; AJ Michalka, American actress and singer
*1992 &ndash; Jack Buchanan, Australian rugby league player
* 1992 &ndash; Sadio Mané, Senegalese footballer
* 1992 &ndash; Chaz Mostert, Australian racing driver<ref>{{Cite web |titleChaz Mostert |urlhttps://www.supercars.com/drivers/chaz-mostert/ |access-date2022-12-27 |websiteSupercars |language=en}}</ref>
* 1992 &ndash; Daisy Ridley, English actress<ref name=Chase2017 />
*1993 &ndash; Sofia Carson, American singer and actress
*1994 &ndash; Siobhan Hunter, Scottish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleSiobhan Hunter - Player Profile - Football |urlhttps://www.eurosport.co.uk/football/siobhan-hunter_prs458956/person.shtml |websiteEurosport UK |access-date28 April 2020}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Ian Nelson, American actor
*1996 &ndash; Thanasi Kokkinakis, Australian tennis player
* 1996 &ndash; Audrey Whitby, American actress
*1997 &ndash; Claire Wineland, American activist and author (d. 2018)<ref>{{Cite web|date2018-04-10|titleHappy 21st Birthday To The Inspirational Claire Wineland!|urlhttps://northstarmoving.com/blog/2018/happy-21st-birthday-to-the-inspirational-claire-wineland/|access-date2021-06-15|websiteMoving Happiness Home|languageen-US}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Anna Pogorilaya, Russian figure skater
*2000 &ndash; Fidias Panayiotou, Cypriot internet celebrity and politician<ref>{{Cite web |lastCebeci |firstNazlican |titleChi è Fidias Panayiotou? Età, nazionalità e numero di follower dello youtuber e influencer eletto al Parlamento europeo da indipendente |urlhttps://www.tag24.it/1119765-chi-e-fidias-panayiotou/ |languageit |access-date2024-10-30}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Ky Baldwin, Australian singer and actor
* 2001 &ndash; Noa Kirel, Israeli singer
<!--No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 879 &ndash; Louis the Stammerer, king of West Francia (b. 846)
* 943 &ndash; Landulf I, prince of Benevento and Capua
* 948 &ndash; Hugh of Arles, king of Italy
*1008 &ndash; Notker of Liège, French bishop (b. 940)
*1216 &ndash; Eric X, king of Sweden (b. 1180)
*1282 &ndash; Ahmad Fanakati, chief minister under Kublai Khan
*1309 &ndash; Elisabeth von Rapperswil, Swiss countess (b. 1261)
*1362 &ndash; Maud, English noblewoman (b. 1339)
*1500 &ndash; Michael Tarchaniota Marullus, Greek scholar and poet
*1533 &ndash; Frederick I, king of Denmark and Norway (b. 1471)
*1545 &ndash; Costanzo Festa, Italian composer
*1585 &ndash; Gregory XIII, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1502)<ref>{{cite web |titleGregory XIII {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Gregory-XIII |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date27 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1598 &ndash; Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (b. 1548)
*1599 &ndash; Gabrielle d'Estrées, French mistress of Henry IV of France (b. 1571)
1601–1900
*1601 &ndash; Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish soldier and poet (b. 1562)
*1619 &ndash; Thomas Jones, English-Irish archbishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b. 1550)
*1640 &ndash; Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1578)
*1644 &ndash; William Brewster, English official and pilgrim leader (b. 1566)
*1646 &ndash; Santino Solari, Swiss architect and sculptor (b. 1576)
*1667 &ndash; Jan Marek Marci, Czech physician and author (b. 1595)
*1704 &ndash; Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, German cardinal (b. 1629)
*1756 &ndash; Giacomo Antonio Perti, Italian composer (b. 1661)
*1760 &ndash; Jean Lebeuf, French historian and author (b. 1687)
*1786 &ndash; John Byron, English admiral and politician, 24th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1723)
*1806 &ndash; Horatio Gates, English-American general (b. 1727)
*1813 &ndash; Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1736)
*1821 &ndash; Gregory V of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (b. 1746)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://ec-patr.org/people/grigorios-e-a-10-pr/ | titleΓρηγόριος Ε´ (α) &#91;10 Ἀπρ.&#93; – Οικουμενικό Πατριαρχείο | date=3 September 2019 }}</ref>
*1823 &ndash; Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Austrian philosopher and academic (b. 1757)
*1871 &ndash; Lucio Norberto Mansilla, Argentinian general and politician (b. 1789)
*1889 &ndash; William Crichton, Scottish engineer and shipbuilder (b. 1827)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.gracesguide.co.uk/William_Crichton|titleWilliam Crichton|websiteGrace's Guide|access-dateJanuary 15, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.blf.fi/artikel.php?id4253|titleCRICHTON, William (1827–1889)|workBiogradiskt lexikon för Finland |access-dateJanuary 15, 2022 |languagesv}}</ref>
1901–present
*1909 &ndash; Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic (b. 1837)
*1919 &ndash; Emiliano Zapata, Mexican general (b. 1879)
*1920 &ndash; Moritz Cantor, German mathematician and historian (b. 1829)
*1931 &ndash; Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American poet, painter, and philosopher (b. 1883)
*1935 &ndash; Rosa Campbell Praed, Australian novelist (b. 1851)
*1938 &ndash; King Oliver, American cornet player and bandleader (b. 1885)
*1942 &ndash; Carl Schenstrøm, Danish actor and director (b. 1881)
*1943 &ndash; Andreas Faehlmann, Estonian-German sailor and engineer (b. 1898)
*1945 &ndash; Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer and typographer (b. 1882)
*1947 &ndash; Charles Nordhoff, English-American lieutenant and author (b. 1887)
*1950 &ndash; Fevzi Çakmak, Turkish field marshal and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1876)
*1954 &ndash; Auguste Lumière, French director and producer (b. 1862)
* 1954 &ndash; Oscar Mathisen, Norwegian speed skater (b. 1888)
*1955 &ndash; Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, French priest, theologian, and philosopher (b. 1881)
*1958 &ndash; Chuck Willis, American singer-songwriter (b. 1928)
*1960 &ndash; André Berthomieu, French director and screenwriter (b. 1903)
*1962 &ndash; Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1886)
* 1962 &ndash; Stuart Sutcliffe, Scottish artist and musician (b. 1940)
*1965 &ndash; Lloyd Casner, American race car driver, founded Casner Motor Racing Division (b. 1928)
* 1965 &ndash; Linda Darnell, American actress (b. 1923)
*1966 &ndash; Evelyn Waugh, English soldier, novelist, journalist and critic (b. 1903)
*1968 &ndash; Gustavs Celmiņš, Latvian lieutenant and politician (b. 1899)
*1969 &ndash; Harley Earl, American businessman (b. 1893)
*1975 &ndash; Walker Evans, American photographer (b. 1903)
* 1975 &ndash; Marjorie Main, American actress (b. 1890)
*1978 &ndash; Hjalmar Mäe, Estonian politician (b. 1901)
*1979 &ndash; Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite book|author1F. Maurice Speed|author2Speed|titleFilm Review: 1979-1980|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjeia-Mi28JwC|date1 November 1979|publisherPenguin Group (USA) Incorporated|isbn978-0-8015-2632-9|page=168}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Kay Medford, American actress and singer (b. 1919)
*1981 &ndash; Howard Thurman, American author, philosopher and civil rights activist (b. 1899)
*1983 &ndash; Issam Sartawi, Palestinian activist (b. 1935)
*1985 &ndash; Zisis Verros, Greek chieftain of the Macedonian Struggle (b. 1880)
*1986 &ndash; Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (b. 1948)
*1988 &ndash; Ezekias Papaioannou, Greek Cypriot politician (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://e-shocknews.com/?p50828 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190805201920/http://e-shocknews.com/?p50828 | archive-date2019-08-05 | titleΕζεκίας Παπαϊωάννου :108 χρόνια από τη γέννηση του &#124; e-SHOCKnews }}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Kevin Peter Hall, American actor (b. 1955)
* 1991 &ndash; Martin Hannett, English guitarist and producer (b. 1948)
* 1991 &ndash; Natalie Schafer, American actress (b. 1900)
*1992 &ndash; Sam Kinison, American comedian and actor (b. 1953)
*1993 &ndash; Chris Hani, South African activist and politician (b. 1942)
*1994 &ndash; Sam B. Hall, Jr., American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1924)
*1995 &ndash; Morarji Desai, Indian politician, 4th Prime Minister of India (b. 1896)
*1997 &ndash; Michael Dorris, American author and academic (b. 1945)
* 1998 &ndash; Seraphim of Athens, Greek archbishop (b. 1913)
*1999 &ndash; Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, German-American biochemist and physician (b. 1910)
* 1999 &ndash; Jean Vander Pyl, American actress and voice artist (b. 1919)
*2000 &ndash; Peter Jones, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1920)
* 2000 &ndash; Larry Linville, American actor (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite news |title'M*A*S*H' actor Linville dead at 60 |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2000/SHOWBIZ/TV/04/11/larry.linville/ |workCNN |dateApril 11, 2000 |access-date=April 21, 2018}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Little Eva, American singer (b. 1943)
*2004 &ndash; Jacek Kaczmarski, Polish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and poet (b. 1957)
* 2004 &ndash; Sakıp Sabancı, Turkish businessman and philanthropist, founded Sabancı Holding (b. 1933)
*2005 &ndash; Norbert Brainin, Austrian violinist (b. 1923)
* 2005 &ndash; Scott Gottlieb, American drummer (b. 1970)
* 2005 &ndash; Archbishop Iakovos of America (b. 1911)
* 2005 &ndash; Al Lucas, American football player (b. 1978)<ref>{{cite news |lastFoster |firstChris |titleArena Football Player Dies After Injury |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-apr-11-sp-arena11-story.html |access-dateJune 26, 2012 |newspaperLos Angeles Times |date=April 11, 2005}}</ref>
* 2005 &ndash; Wally Tax, Dutch singer-songwriter (b. 1948)
*2006 &ndash; Kleitos Kyrou, Greek poet and translator (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.timesnews.gr/kleitos-kyroy-otan-stoys-dromoys-vrontoysan-poiisi/ | titleΚλείτος Κύρου: "Όταν στους δρόμους βροντούσαν" &#124; Ποίηση | date=21 February 2022 }}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Charles Philippe Leblond, French-Canadian biologist and academic (b. 1910)
* 2007 &ndash; Dakota Staton, American singer (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite news|titleObituary: Dakota Staton / Acclaimed vocalist and Pittsburgh native|lastGuidry|firstNate|urlhttp://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07103/777638-122.stm |workPittsburgh Post-Gazette|access-dateJune 7, 2011|date=April 12, 2007}}</ref>
*2009 &ndash; Deborah Digges, American poet and educator (b. 1950)
* 2009 &ndash; Ioannis Patakis, Greek politician (b. 1940)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.rizospastis.gr/story.do?id5037615 | titleRizospastis.gr - "Εφυγε" ο Γιάννης Πατάκης | date11 April 2009 }}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Casualties in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash included:
** Ryszard Kaczorowski, Polish soldier and politician, 6th President of the Republic of Poland (b. 1919)
** Maria Kaczyńska, Polish economist, First Lady of Poland (b. 1942)
** Lech Kaczyński, Polish lawyer and politician, 4th President of Poland (b. 1949)
** Anna Walentynowicz, Ukrainian-Polish journalist and activist (b. 1929)
* 2010 &ndash; Dixie Carter, American actress and singer (b. 1939)
*2012 &ndash; Raymond Aubrac, French engineer and activist (b. 1914)
* 2012 &ndash; Barbara Buchholz, German theremin player and composer (b. 1959)
* 2012 &ndash; Lili Chookasian, Armenian-American operatic singer (b. 1921)
* 2012 &ndash; Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (b. 1922)
* 2012 &ndash; Akin Omoboriowo, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b. 1932)
*2013 &ndash; Lorenzo Antonetti, Italian cardinal (b. 1922)
* 2013 &ndash; Raymond Boudon, French sociologist and academic (b. 1934)
* 2013 &ndash; Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Bangladeshi activist (b. 1911)
* 2013 &ndash; Robert Edwards, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
* 2013 &ndash; Olive Lewin, Jamaican anthropologist, musicologist, and author (b. 1927)
* 2013 &ndash; Gordon Thomas, English cyclist (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite news|last Griffiths|first Kathie|title Shipley-born Olympic cyclist Gordon 'Tiny' Thomas dies at age of 91|newspaper Telegraph & Argus|publisher Newsquest|date 2013-04-16|url http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk/news/10356542.Shipley_born_Olympic_cyclist_Gordon__Tiny__Thomas_dies_at_age_of_91/|access-date 2013-04-16}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Angela Voigt, German long jumper (b. 1951)
*2014 &ndash; Dominique Baudis, French journalist and politician (b. 1947)
* 2014 &ndash; Jim Flaherty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Canadian Minister of Finance (b. 1949)
* 2014 &ndash; Richard Hoggart, English author and academic (b. 1918)
* 2014 &ndash; Sue Townsend, English author and playwright (b. 1946)
*2015 &ndash; Richie Benaud, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1930)
* 2015 &ndash; Raúl Héctor Castro, Mexican-American politician and diplomat, 14th Governor of Arizona (b. 1916)
* 2015 &ndash; Judith Malina, German-American actress and director, co-founded The Living Theatre (b. 1926)
* 2015 &ndash; Rose Francine Rogombé, Gabonese lawyer and politician, President of Gabon (b. 1942)<ref>Jacques Jarele Sika, [http://www.gabonews.com/fr/actus/necrologie/article/france-rose-rogombe-a-tire-sa-reverence-a-paris "France : Rose Rogombé a tiré sa révérence à Paris"], Gabonews, 10 April 2015 {{in lang|fr}}.</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Peter Walsh, Australian farmer and politician, 6th Australian Minister for Finance (b. 1935)
*2016 &ndash; Howard Marks, Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer, and legalisation campaigner (b. 1945)
*2023 &ndash; Al Jaffee, American cartoonist (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite news |last1Genzlinger |first1Neil |titleAl Jaffee, King of the Mad Magazine Fold-In, Dies at 102 |workThe New York Times |date10 April 2023 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/10/obituaries/al-jaffee-king-of-the-mad-magazine-fold-in-dies-at-102.html |access-date=April 10, 2023}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; O. J. Simpson, American football player, actor, and broadcaster (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite web |lastShapiro |firstEmily |last2Chile |first2Patricio |dateApril 11, 2024 |titleOJ Simpson, former football star acquitted of murder, dies at 76 |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/oj-simpson-former-football-star-acquitted-murder-dies/story?id16354000 |access-date2024-04-11 |websiteABC News |language=en}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Fulbert of Chartres
**James, Azadanus and Abdicius
**Mikael Agricola (Lutheran)
**Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (Episcopal Church)
**William of Ockham (Anglicanism)
**William Law (Anglicanism)
**April 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan)
*Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
*Siblings Day (International observance)<ref nameChase2017 /> References {{reflist}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/10 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day10}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/10 Historical Events on April 10]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_10
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.425028
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2573
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Angus, Scotland
|
{{Short description|Council area of Scotland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Angus
| native_name = {{native name|gd|Aonghas}}
| settlement_type = Lieutenancy and council area
| image_skyline | imagesize
| image_alt | image_caption
| image_flag | flag_alt
| image_shield = Coat of arms of the Angus Area Council.svg
| shield_alt | shield_link
| image_blank_emblem | blank_emblem_size
| blank_emblem_type | blank_emblem_link
| etymology | nickname
| motto | image_map Angus UK location map.svg
| map_alt | map_caption Angus shown within Scotland
| coordinates {{coord|56|40|N|2|55|W|region:GB_type:adm2nd|displayinline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Sovereign state
| subdivision_name = United Kingdom
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = Scotland
| subdivision_type2 | subdivision_name2
| subdivision_type3 = Lieutenancy area
| subdivision_name3 | subdivision_type4
| subdivision_name4 | established_title Unitary authority
| established_date = 1 April 1996
| established_title1 | established_date1
| established_title2 | established_date2
| named_for | seat_type Administrative{{nbsp}}HQ
| seat = Forfar Town and County Hall
| parts_type | parts
<!-- Government -->
| government_footnotes <ref name"Council leadership">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.angus.gov.uk/council_committees_and_elections |titleCouncil, committees and elections |websiteAngus Council |access-date7 September 2024}}</ref>
| government_type = Council
| governing_body = Angus Council
| leader_title = Control
| leader_name {{UK council control|GSSS12000041}}
| leader_title1 | leader_name1
| leader_title2 | leader_name2
| leader_title3 = MPs
| leader_name3 {{Collapsible list |title2 MPs
|Dave Doogan (SNP)
|Stephen Gethins (SNP)
}}
| leader_title4 = MSPs
| leader_name4 {{Collapsible list |title2 MSPs
|Mairi Gougeon (SNP)
|Graeme Dey (SNP)
}}
<!-- Area -->
<!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion -->
| area_footnotes <ref name"popstats">{{UK subdivision statistics citation}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 {{UK subdivision area|GSSS12000041}}
| area_land_km2 | area_water_km2
| area_rank {{Scottish council area rank|GSSS12000041}}
<!-- Population -->
| population_footnotes <ref name"popstats" />
| population_as_of = {{UK subdivision statistics year}}
| population_total {{UK subdivision population|GSSS12000041}}
| population_rank {{Scottish council population rank|GSSS12000041}}
| population_density_km2 {{UK subdivision density|GSSS12000041}}
| population_demonym =
<!-- demographics (section 1) -->
| demographics_type1 | demographics1_footnotes
| demographics1_title1 | demographics1_info1
<!-- demographics (section 2) -->
| demographics_type2 | demographics2_footnotes
| demographics2_title1 | demographics2_info1
| timezone1 = GMT
| utc_offset1 = +0
| timezone1_DST = BST
| utc_offset1_DST = +1
<!-- Codes -->
| postal_code_type = Postcode areas
| postal_code | area_code_type Dialling codes
| area_code | iso_code GB-ANS
| blank1_name = GSS code
| blank1_info = S12000041
| website = {{URL|angus.gov.uk}}
}}
Angus ({{langx|sco|Angus}}; {{langx|gd|Aonghas}}) is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross. Main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the east of the county.
Angus was historically a province, and later a sheriffdom and county (called Forfarshire or the County of Forfar until 1928), bordering Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west; southwards it faced Fife across the Firth of Tay. The county included Dundee until 1894, when it was made a county of a city. The pre-1894 boundaries of Angus continue to be used as a registration county. Between 1975 and 1996 Angus was a lower-tier district within the Tayside region. The district took on its modern form and powers in 1996, since when the local authority has been Angus Council.
History
Etymology
The name "Angus" indicates the territory of the eighth-century Pictish king, Óengus I.<ref>{{Cite book |titlePlace-names of Great Britain and Ireland |lastField |firstJohn |date1980 |publisherDavid & Charles |isbn0389201545 |locationNewton Abbot, Devon|oclc6964610|page24}}</ref>PrehistoryThe area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period. Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500&nbsp;BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.<ref name"Douglasmuir">{{cite journal|lastKendrick |firstJill |otherscontributions by Barclay, Gordon J.; Cowie, Trevor G.; Saville, Alan; illustrations by Townshend, Angela; Braby, Alan |date1996 |urlhttps://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?tarch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_125/125_029_067.pdf |titleExcavation of a Neolithic enclosure and an Iron Age settlement at Douglasmuir, Angus |journalProceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume125 |pages29–67 |doi10.9750/PSAS.125.29.67 |s2cid53586923 |url-statusdead |archive-date11 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611100003/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_125/125_029_067.pdf}}</ref>
Bronze Age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town. These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet.<ref>{{cite journal |lastJervise |firstAndrew |author-linkAndrew Jervise |date1863 |titleNotice of Stone Cists and an Urn, found near Arbroath, Forfarshire |journalProceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume5 |pages100–102 |doi10.9750/PSAS.005.100.102 |s2cid253299093 |urlhttps://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?tarch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_005/5_100_102.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-date11 June 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070611232404/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_005/5_100_102.pdf}}</ref> Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery<ref>{{cite journal |lastWatkins |firstTrevor |otherscontributions by Barclay, G. |date1978 |titleExcavation of a settlement and souterrain at Newmill, near Bankfoot, Perthshire |journalProceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume110 |pages165–208 |doi10.9750/PSAS.110.165.208 |s2cid210268478 |urlhttps://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?tarch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_110/110_165_208.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-date11 June 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070611215131/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_110/110_165_208.pdf}}</ref> and at West Grange of Conan,<ref>{{cite journal |lastJervise |firstAndrew |date1863 |titleAn account of the excavation of the round or "bee-hive" shaped house, and other underground chambers, at West Grange of Conan, Forfarshire |journalProceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume4 |pages429–499 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6o0vAAAAYAAJ&pgPA492 |url-statuslive |archive-date11 June 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070611154458/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_004/4_492_499.pdf}}</ref> as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.Medieval and later history
The county is traditionally associated with the Pictish territory of Circin, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Cé (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South. The most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.
Angus is first recorded as one of the provinces of Scotland in 937, when Dubacan, the Mormaer of Angus, is recorded in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba as having died at the Battle of Brunanburh.<ref>{{cite book |lastWoolf |firstAlex |year2007 |titleFrom Pictland to Alba 789–1070 |publisherEdinburgh University Press |locationEdinburgh |isbn9780748612345 |page175}}</ref>
The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140220180351/http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm|url-statusdead|titleAngus Council: Arbroath Abbey|archive-date20 February 2014}}</ref> marked Scotland's establishment as an independent nation. Partly on this basis, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland.<ref>The Herald, [https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12396196.first-kingdom-is-angus-really-the-birthplace-of-scotland-councillors-say-claim-is-historically-valid/ First kingdom: is Angus really the birthplace of Scotland? Councillors say claim is historically valid], published 11 March 2005, accessed 21 June 2023</ref> It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Lighthouse, described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World.<ref>Wikipedia Foundation, Bell Rock Lighthouse, accessed 21 June 2023</ref>Administrative historyAngus was one of the ancient provinces of Scotland, under the authority of the Mormaer or Earl of Angus. From at least the thirteenth century the area formed the basis for a shire (the area administered by a sheriff) based in Forfar: the Sheriff of Forfar.<ref>{{cite book |last1Warden |first1Alexander |titleAngus or Forfarshire, the land and people, Volume 2 |date1881 |publisherCharles Alexander & Co. |locationDundee |pages225–226 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7_4HAAAAQAAJ&pgPA225 |access-date5 August 2024}}</ref>
Over time, Scotland's shires became more significant than the old provinces, with more administrative functions being given to the sheriffs. The older territory called Angus was therefore gradually eclipsed in legal importance by the shire of Forfar (or Forfarshire) which covered the same area. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were established for each shire, which would serve as the main administrative body for the area until the creation of county councils in 1890. Following the Acts of Union in 1707, the English term 'county' came to be used interchangeably with the older term 'shire'.<ref>{{cite web |last1Brown |first1Keith |titleAct of the convention of estates of the kingdom of Scotland etc. for a new and voluntary offer to his majesty of £72,000 monthly for the space of twelve months, 23 January 1667 |urlhttp://www.rps.ac.uk/trans/1667/1/10 |websiteRecords of the Parliament of Scotland |publisherUniversity of St Andrews |access-date=25 February 2023}}</ref>
, built 1871 as the county's main courthouse, also served as the first meeting place of the county council in 1890]]
Elected county councils were established in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, taking most of the functions of the commissioners (which were eventually abolished in 1930). The county's five largest burghs, being Arbroath, Brechin, Dundee, Forfar, and Montrose, were deemed capable of managing their own affairs and so were excluded from the administrative area of the county council.<ref>{{cite book |titleGuide to local government in parishes, counties and burghs |date1892 |publisherRoyal College of Physicians |locationEdinburgh |pagesxxiii–xxx |urlhttps://archive.org/details/b21905678/page/n29/mode/2up |access-date31 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleThe County Council Magazine |date1890 |publisherF. Warne and Company |locationLondon |page284 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnfAZAAAAYAAJ&pgPA284 |access-date31 December 2021 |chapterPreparing for the elections in Scotland}}</ref> The county council held its first official meeting on 22 May 1890 at the County Buildings (now known as Forfar Sheriff Court), the county's main courthouse, which also served as the meeting place for the commissioners of supply. Robert Haldane-Duncan, 3rd Earl of Camperdown, a Liberal peer, was appointed the first chairman of the county council.<ref>{{cite news |titleForfarshire County Council |urlhttps://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date5 August 2024 |workArbroath Herald |date29 May 1890 |page6}}</ref><ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland|num LB31610|descCounty Offices, Market Street, Forfar|access-date18 July 2021}}</ref>
The 1889 Act also led to a review of boundaries, with exclaves being transferred to a county they actually bordered, and parishes which straddled more than one county being adjusted such that each parish was entirely in a single county. There were several such changes affecting the boundaries of Forfarshire.<ref>{{cite book |last1Shennan |first1Hay |titleBoundaries of counties and parishes in Scotland as settled by the Boundary Commissioners under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 |date1892 |publisherW. Green |locationEdinburgh |page188|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_meygAAAAMAAJ/page/n225/mode/2up |access-date=5 August 2024}}</ref>
Dundee was subsequently made a county of itself in 1894, also removing the city from Forfarshire for judicial and lieutenancy purposes.<ref>{{cite web |titleDundee Corporation Act 1894 (57 & 58 Vict. c.lxxiv)|urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/57-58/74/contents/enacted |websitelegislation.gov.uk |publisherThe National Archives |access-date5 February 2023}}</ref> Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose were brought within the administrative area of the county council in 1930, although Arbroath was classed as a large burgh, allowing its council to continue to deliver most local government functions itself.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|typeact|actLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1929|year1929|chapter25|accessdate22 April 2023}}</ref>
In May 1928 the county council resolved to use the name 'Angus' for the area rather than the 'County of Forfar'.<ref>{{cite news |titleAngus displaces Forfarshire: Council decision on county name |urlhttps://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date4 August 2024 |workCourier and Advertiser |date3 May 1928 |locationDundee |page5}}</ref> The council petitioned the government to officially change the name too. The government responded by directing all departments to use Angus, but noted that the legal name would remain Forfar until such time as it could be changed by statute.<ref>{{cite news |title'Angus' or 'Forfar' - Scottish Office and county name |urlhttps://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date4 August 2024 |workThe Scotsman |date12 July 1928 |locationEdinburgh |page15}}</ref> The statutory change of name from Forfar to Angus eventually took place in 1947 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1947.<ref>{{cite web |titleLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1947, Section 127 |urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/10-11/43/part/VI/crossheading/change-of-name/enacted |websitelegislation.gov.uk |publisherThe National Archives |access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref>
Angus County Council was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland's counties, burghs and landward districts with a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. A new Angus district was created covering most of the pre-1975 county, with the exceptions being that Monifieth and a number of villages immediately north of Dundee were transferred to an enlarged City of Dundee district, and Kettins was transferred to Perth and Kinross. Angus District Council was a lower-tier district level authority subordinate to the Tayside Regional Council.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|typeact|actLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1973|year1973|chapter65|accessdate17 April 2023}}</ref> A lieutenancy area covering the same area as the new district was created at the same time.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|typesi|siThe Lord-Lieutenants Order 1975|year1975|number428|access-date3 August 2024}}</ref>
Further local government reforms in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 saw the regions and districts created in 1975 abolished and replaced with council areas providing all local government services. Angus district became one of the new council areas, taking on the functions of the abolished Tayside Regional Council. The council area regained Monifieth and the villages north of Dundee as part of the same reforms.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|typeact|actLocal Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994|year1994|chapter39|accessdate17 April 2023}}</ref> The Angus lieutenancy area was adjusted to match the new council area in 1996. The Lord Lieutenant of Angus is appointed by the monarch.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|typesi|siThe Lord-Lieutenants (Scotland) Order 1996|year1996|number731|access-date3 August 2024}}</ref> The boundaries of the historic county of Angus (as it was prior to the removal of Dundee in 1894) are still used for some limited official purposes connected with land registration, being a registration county.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ros.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/14921/LandMassCoverageReport2015-proofed.pdf |titleLand Mass Coverage Report |publisherRegisters of Scotland |access-date2015-05-16 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303232505/https://www.ros.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/14921/LandMassCoverageReport2015-proofed.pdf |archive-date3 March 2016 |url-statusdead }}</ref>Geography
, highest of the Sidlaws, in southern Angus]]
Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the Grampian Mountains, Mounth hills and Five Glens of Angus, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill farming. Glas Maol – the highest point in Angus at {{convert|1,068|m|ft|abbr=off}} – can be found here, on the tripoint boundary with Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills (such as the Sidlaws) bordering the sea; this area is well populated, with the larger towns. In between lies Strathmore (the Great Valley), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Aberdeen Angus cattle.
Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin and wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSaltmarshes and estuaries {{!}} The Wildlife Trusts |urlhttps://www.wildlifetrusts.org/where_see_estuaries_saltmarshes |access-date2022-05-09 |websitewildlifetrusts.org}}</ref> Angus's coast is fairly regular, the most prominent features being the headlands of Scurdie Ness and Buddon Ness.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRitchie |firstGayle |titleScurdie Ness lighthouse: Saviour of seafarers |urlhttps://www.thecourier.co.uk/fp/lifestyle/2087755/saviour-of-seafarers/ |access-date2022-05-09 |websiteThe Courier |date2 April 2021}}</ref> The main bodies of water in the county are Loch Lee, Loch Brandy, Carlochy, Loch Wharral, Den of Ogil Reservoir, Loch of Forfar, Loch Fithie, Rescobie Loch, Balgavies Loch, Crombie Reservoir, Monikie Reservoirs, Long Loch, Lundie Loch, Loch of Kinnordy, Loch of Lintrathen, Backwater Reservoir, Auchintaple Loch, Loch Shandra.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAngus Post Codes & Zip Codes List |urlhttps://ukpostcode.org/location/GB-SCT/Angus?page129 |access-date23 December 2023 |websiteUK Post Code}}</ref>
Demography
Population structure
{{Historical populations
|title=Historical Angus population
|type=Ireland
|1801|65,068
|1811|69,376
|1821|74,436
|1831|84,630
|1841|106,890
|1851|119,357
|1911|118,748
|1921|101,767
|1931|93,803
|1941|95,290
|1951|96,777
|1961|93,666
|1971|90,554
|1981|98,685
|1991|107,866
|2001|108,400
|2011|116,000
|source<br/><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10056755/cube/TOT_POP|titleAngus District through time &#124; Population Statistics &#124; Total Population|websitevisionofbritain.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/census/table_page.jsp?tab_idS1911COU_M1&u_id10145958&showDB&min_c6&max_c10|titleVision of Britain; 1911 Census: County Report|websitevisionofbritain.org.uk}}</ref>}}
In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.
Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to 'O' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.
Language in Angus
The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%.<ref>{{cite web |titleScotlands Census Results Online (SCROL) |workComparative Population Profile: Angus Council Area Scotland |urlhttp://www.scrol.gov.uk/scrol/browser/profile.jsp?profilePopulation&mainAreaAngus&mainLevelCouncilArea |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref> These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category !! Number !! Percentage
|-
| All people || 108,400 || 100
|-
| Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it || 351 || 0.32
|-
| Speaks reads and writes Gaelic || 238 || 0.22
|-
| Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic || 188 || 0.17
|-
| Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic || 59 ||0.05
|-
| Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic || 61 || 0.06
|-
| Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic || 13 || 0.01
|-
| Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic || 22 || 0.02
|-
| Other combination of skills in Gaelic || 7 || 0.01
|-
| No knowledge of Gaelic || 107,461 || 99.13
|}
Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%. This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.
Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century.<ref>Forsyth, 1997; Forsyth, 2006{{full citation needed|dateJuly 2016}}</ref> Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |lastSmout |firstT.&nbsp;C. |author-linkChristopher Smout |titleA history of the Scottish people: 1650–1830 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idr4SRmgEACAAJ&pgPP1 |year2001 |publisherFontana Press |isbn978-0-00-686027-3}}{{page needed|dateJuly 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastWithers |firstCharles W. J. |author-linkCharles W. J. Withers |titleGaelic in Scotland, 1698-1981: The Geographical History of a Language |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv21iAAAAMAAJ&pgPP1 |year1984 |publisherJohn Donald Publishers |locationEdinburgh |isbn978-0-85976-097-3}}{{page needed|dateJuly 2016}}</ref>
Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.<ref>{{cite report |publisherAngus Council |titleGaelic Language Plan 2014–2019 |urlhttp://www.angus.gov.uk/download/downloads/id/968/angus_gaelic_plan_2014_-_english_version.pdf |date17 September 2014 |access-date6 August 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160817060508/http://www.angus.gov.uk/download/downloads/id/968/angus_gaelic_plan_2014_-_english_version.pdf |archive-date17 August 2016 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
{{Clear}}
Government
{{main|Angus Council}}
Community council areas
{{As of|2018}} Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.angus.gov.uk/have_your_say/community_councils/find_your_community_council |titleFind your community council |publisherAngus Council |access-date7 January 2018}}</ref> The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing.
Parliamentary representation
UK Parliament
Angus is represented by two MPs for the UK Parliament.
*Angus and Perthshire Glens – covers the following wards: Kirriemuir and Dean, Brechin and Edzell, Forfar and District, and Montrose and District, and parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw; currently represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party, who was also the MP for the old Angus constituency.
*Arbroath and Broughty Ferry – cover parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw and Carnoustie and District from the old Dundee East constituency, and Arbroath East and Lunan, Arbroath West, Letham and Friockheim, and Monifieth and Sidlaw, and a part of Carnoustie and District from the now-abolished Angus constituency; currently represented by Stephen Gethins of the Scottish National Party.
Scottish Parliament
Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.
*Angus North and Mearns – covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.
*Angus South – covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.
In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region.
Transport
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.
There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast.<ref name"auto">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.thecourier.co.uk/fp/news/local/dundee/1045951/dundee-airport-to-introduce-new-routes-to-london-city-and-belfast/|titleDundee Airport to introduce new routes to London City and Belfast|firstStefan|lastMorkis|date20 December 2019 }}</ref>
Settlements
{{Location map+|Scotland Angus
|caption={{left|The largest settlements in Angus.}}
|float=right
|width=500
|places {{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.561|-02.586}}|positionright|labelArbroath|label_size=}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.64423|-2.88842}}|positionright|labelForfar|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.708|-2.467}}|positiontop|labelMontrose|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.501|-2.710}}|positionright|labelCarnoustie|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.481|-2.820}}|positionright|labelMonifieth|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.72994|-2.65533}}|positionright|labelBrechin|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.66921|-3.00510}}|positionright|labelKirriemuir|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.492695|-3.055644}}|positiontop|labelBirkhill|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.628654|-2.77093}}|positionright|labelLetham|label_size}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.69|-2.47}}|positionbottom|labelFerryden|label_size}}
<!-- Bordering council areas -->
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.91|-2.65}}|positionright|labelAberdeenshire|marksize0|label_size=120}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.478|-2.85}}|positionleft|labelDundee City|marksize0|label_size=120}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.412|-2.855}}|positionleft|labelFife|marksize0|label_size=120}}
{{Location map~|Scotland Angus|coordinates {{coord|56.65|-3.47}}|positionright|labelPerth and Kinross|marksize0|label_size=120}}
}}
Arbroath is the largest town in the modern county, followed by Forfar, the county town and administrative centre, and Montrose.
Largest settlements by population:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Settlement
!Population ({{Scottish settlement population citation|year}})<ref>{{Scotland settlement population citation}}</ref>
|-
|Arbroath
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Arbroath}}
|-
|Forfar
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Forfar}}
|-
|Montrose
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Montrose}}
|-
|Carnoustie
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Carnoustie}}
|-
|Monifieth
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Monifieth}}
|-
|Brechin
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Brechin}}
|-
|Kirriemuir
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Kirriemuir}}
|-
|Birkhill
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Birkhill and Muirhead}}
|-
|Letham
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Letham}}
|-
|Ferryden
|{{Scottish locality populations|name|POP=Ferryden and Inchbraoch}}
|-
|}
Historic parishes
{{See also|List of civil parishes in Scotland}}
Forfarshire was divided into parishes, some of which share the name with current settlements:<ref>{{Cite web |titleAngus & Kincardineshire, Parishes in Angus (Forfarshire)|urlhttps://www.ancestor.abel.co.uk/Angus/intro.html#alin|access-date2024-06-23|websiteancestor.abel.co.uk}}</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth10em|stylewidth: 500px;|
* Aberlemno
* Airlie
* Alyth (part of)
* Arbirlot
* Arbroath
* Auchterhouse
* Barry
* Brechin
* Careston
* Carmyllie
* Clova
* Cortachy
* Coupar
* Craig
* Dun
* Dundee
* Dunnichen
* Eassie
* Edzell
* Farnell
* Fern
* Forfar
* Fowlis Easter
* Glamis
* Glenisla
* Guthrie
* Inverarity
* Inverkeilor
* Kettins
* Kingoldrum
* Kinnell
* Kinnettles
* Kirkden/Friockheim
* Kirriemuir
* Lethnot
* Liff
* Lintrathen
* Lochlee
* Logie Pert
* Lunan
* Lundie
* Mains and Strathmartine
* Maryton
* Menmuir
* Monifieth
* Monikie
* Montrose
* Murroes/Muirhouse
* Nevay
* Newtyle
* Oathlaw
* Panbride
* Rescobie
* Ruthven
* St Vigeans
* Stracathro
* Tannadice
* Tealing
}}
Education
Secondary schools in Angus:
* Arbroath Academy
* Arbroath High School
* Brechin High School
* Carnoustie High School
* Forfar Academy
* Monifieth High School
* Montrose Academy
* Webster's High School
Places of interest
* Aberlemno Sculptured Stones
* Arbroath Abbey
* Barry Mill
* Brechin Cathedral
* Brechin Castle
* Brechin Round Tower
* Caledonian Railway (Brechin)
* Cairngorms National Park
* Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve
* Eassie Stone
* Edzell Castle
* Glamis Castle
* Glenesk Folk Museum
* House of Dun
* Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve
* Meffan Institute
* Monboddo House
* Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
* Montrose Basin Nature Reserve
* Montrose Museum
Sister areas
* {{flagicon|China}} – Yantai, Shandong, China.<ref>{{cite report |titleA Review of Angus Council's "Angus in China" Initiative and "Sister Area" Agreement with Yantai |publisherAngus Council |date15 November 2001 |urlhttps://archive.angus.gov.uk/ccmeetings/reports/chiefexec/chx2001/1317.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archive.angus.gov.uk/ccmeetings/reports/chiefexec/chx2001/1317.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>SurnamesMost common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the 1881 United Kingdom census:<ref name"angus1881">{{cite web |titleMost Common Surnames in Angus |workForebears.co.uk |date1881 |urlhttp://forebears.co.uk/scotland/angus#surnames}}</ref>
# Smith
# Robertson
# Anderson
# Stewart
# Scott
# Mitchell
# Brown
# Duncan
# Milne
# Thomson
See also
*Earl of Angus
*List of places in Angus
*List of counties of Scotland 1890–1975
*Medieval Diocese of Angus
*Scheduled monuments in Angus
*List of Category A listed buildings in Angus
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category|Angus}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Angus
|list =
{{Angus Towns & Villages}}
{{Football in Angus}}
{{Rugby union in Angus}}
{{Earls of Angus}}
{{Angus elections}}
{{Wards of Angus}}
}}
{{Scotland subdivisions}}
{{Former local government regions of Scotland}}
{{Scotland counties}}
{{Scottish provinces|major}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Council areas of Scotland
Category:Provinces of Scotland
Category:Counties of Scotland
Category:Lieutenancy areas of Scotland
Category:Counties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Category:Districts of Scotland
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus,_Scotland
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.468338
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2575
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André the Giant
|
{{Short description|French wrestler and actor (1946–1993)}}
{{For|the film|André the Giant (film){{!}}André the Giant (film)}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox professional wrestler
| name = André the Giant
| image = André the Giant in the late '80s (close crop).jpg
| caption = André in 1989
| birth_name = André René Roussimoff
| names André Roussimoff<br />André the Giant<br />André the Giant Frenchman<br />The Ultimate Giant<br />Géant Ferré{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p4}}<br />Giant Machine<br />Jean Ferré{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=4}}<br />Monster Eiffel Tower<br />Monster Roussimoff<br />The Polish Giant
| children 1<ref name"Burkholder2015"/>
| height 7 ft 4 in<ref namewwe-bio/><ref nameWMIII/><ref name"Krugman2009"/><ref name"LapradeHebert2013"/><ref namebiography.com/><ref name="Picarello2002"/>
| weight 520 lb<ref namewwe-bio/><ref nameWMIII/><ref name"Picarello2002"/><ref name="Hornbaker2012"/>
| birth_date {{birth date|1946|5|19|dfy}}
| birth_place = Coulommiers, France
| death_date {{death date and age|1993|1|28|1946|5|19|dfy}}{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p387-388}}<ref>{{cite web |titleCopy of Andre the Giant's death certificate |urlhttps://findadeath.com/andre-the-giant/ |websiteFindadeath}}</ref>
| death_place = Paris, France
| billed = "Grenoble in the French Alps"
| trainer Michel Saulnier{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p17}}
| debut 25 January 1966{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p22}}<ref>{{cite web |titleAndre The Giant – Matches |urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr926&page4&s2500 |websiteCage Match |access-date3 March 2021|quote=25.01.1966, Wrestling in Europa, Jean Ferre defeats Ted Lamar}}</ref>
}}
{{Professional wrestling sidebar}}
André René Roussimoff ({{IPA|fr|ɑ̃dʁe ʁəne ʁusimɔf|lang}}; 19 May 1946 – 28 January 1993), better known by his ring name André the Giant, was a French professional wrestler and actor. Dubbed "the Eighth Wonder of the World", Roussimoff was known for his great size, which was a result of gigantism caused by excess human growth hormone.<ref name"wwearchive"/><ref name"AndreWebsite"/>
Beginning his career in 1966, Roussimoff relocated to North America in 1971. From 1973 to the mid-1980s, Roussimoff was booked by World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) promoter Vincent J. McMahon as a roving "special attraction" who wrestled for promotions throughout the United States, as well as in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling. During the 1980s wrestling boom, Roussimoff became a mainstay of the WWWF (by then renamed the World Wrestling Federation), being paired with the villainous manager Bobby Heenan and feuding with Hulk Hogan. The two headlined WrestleMania III in 1987, and in 1988, he defeated Hogan to win the WWF Championship, his sole world heavyweight championship, on the first episode of The Main Event. As his WWF career wound down after WrestleMania VI in 1990, Roussimoff wrestled primarily for All Japan Pro-Wrestling, usually alongside Giant Baba, until his sudden death.
After his death in 1993, Roussimoff became the inaugural inductee into the newly created WWF Hall of Fame. He was later a charter member of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame and the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame; the latter describes him as being "one of the most recognizable figures in the world both as a professional wrestler and as a pop culture icon."<ref name"PWHOF"/> Outside of wrestling, Roussimoff is best known for appearing as Fezzik, the giant in the 1987 film The Princess Bride. Early life André René Roussimoff was born on 19 May 1946<ref name"OWO">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/a/andre-the-giant.html|titleAndré the Giant Profile|access-date22 September 2008|websiteOnline World of Wrestling|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080921232831/http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/a/andre-the-giant.html|archive-date21 September 2008|url-statuslive}}</ref> in Coulommiers, Seine-et-Marne,{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p4}} the son of immigrants Boris Roussimoff (1907–1993) and Mariann Roussimoff Stoeff (1910–1997); his father was Bulgarian and his mother was Polish.{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p1-3}} He was raised Catholic. He had two older siblings and two younger. His childhood nickname was Dédé ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|eɪ|d|eɪ}}, {{IPA|fr|dede|lang}}). At birth, André weighed {{convert|6|kg|lb|orderflip}}; as a child, he displayed symptoms of gigantism, and was noted as "a good head taller than other kids", with abnormally long hands.{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p4-7}} In a 1970s television interview, Roussimoff stated that his mother was {{convert|5|ft|2|in|cm}} tall and his father {{convert|6|ft|2|in|cm}} tall, and that according to his father his grandfather was {{convert|7|ft|8|in|cm}} tall.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v1YH0e8Bv7EM | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/1YH0e8Bv7EM| archive-date22 November 2021 | url-statuslive|titleRare Andre the Giant 70s tv interview |workYouTube| date25 March 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> By the time he was 12, Roussimoff stood {{cvt|6|ft|3|in|cm|0|orderflip}}.
Roussimoff was an average student, though good at mathematics. When he was 14, Rousimoff decided against further schooling and joined the workforce, believing what he learned was sufficient for a career as a farmhand. He did not drop out of school, as compulsory education laws in France were no longer applicable to those aged 14 or older.{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p=10}}
Roussimoff spent years working on his father's farm in Molien, where, according to his brother Jacques, he could perform the work of three men. He also completed an apprenticeship in woodworking, and next worked in a factory that manufactured engines for hay balers. None of these brought him any satisfaction.<ref nameAEbio>{{cite episode |titleAndré the Giant |seriesBiography |networkA&E Network | airdate13 January 1998}}</ref> While Roussimoff was growing up in the 1950s, the Irish playwright Samuel Beckett was one of several adults who sometimes drove local children to school, including Roussimoff and his siblings.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.themarysue.com/samuel-beckett-andre-the-giant/|websitewww.themarysue.com|access-date27 February 2020|titleSamuel Beckett Used to Drive André the Giant to School, All They Talked About Was Cricket|date11 July 2011}}</ref> They had a surprising amount of common ground and bonded over their love of cricket, with Roussimoff recalling that the two rarely talked about anything else.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.balls.ie/american-sports/andre-the-giant-and-samuel-beckett-knew-each-other-and-loved-cricket-89483|titleAndre The Giant And Samuel Beckett Knew Each Other And Loved Cricket|lastO'Keeffe|firstEmmet|websiteBalls.ie|date25 July 2013 |languageen|access-date27 February 2020}}</ref>
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1964–1973)
At the age of 18, Roussimoff moved to Paris and was taught professional wrestling by a local promoter, Robert Lageat, who recognized the earning potential of Roussimoff's size. He trained at night and worked as a mover during the day to pay living expenses.<ref nameAEbio/> Roussimoff was billed as "Géant Ferré", a name based on the Picardian folk hero Grand Ferré. This later became "Jean Ferre".{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p4}} Canadian promoter and wrestler Frank Valois met Roussimoff in 1966, years later to become his business manager and adviser.
Roussimoff began his career wrestling in his native France. He made his TV debut that year on French national television against Le Petit Prince.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://wrestlingheritage.co.uk/wrestlers-l3/|titleWrestlers: L3|date4 August 2023}}</ref> In 1968 he defeated Franz van Buyten for the FFCP World Heavyweight Championship<ref nameffcp /> In 1969 he appeared on the United Kingdom's World of Sport program's regular wrestling slot and defeated Jim Hussey, father of Mark Rocco.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://itvwrestling.co.uk/69.html|titleitvwrestling.co.uk - 1969|websiteitvwrestling.co.uk}}</ref> Roussimoff also began making a name for himself wrestling in Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.<ref nameAEbio/>
He made his Japanese debut for the International Wrestling Enterprise in 1970, billed as "Monster Roussimoff".{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p7}} Wrestling as both a singles and tag team competitor, he quickly was made the IWA World Tag Team Champion alongside Michael Nador.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p7}}<ref nameIWAtagchamp>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wrestling-titles.com/japan/iwe/iwe-t.html |titleIWA World Tag Team Title |websiteWrestling Titles |access-date23 February 2011}}</ref> During his time in Japan, doctors first informed Roussimoff that he suffered from acromegaly.<ref nameAEbio/>
Roussimoff next moved to Montreal, Canada in 1971, where he became an immediate success, regularly selling out the Montreal Forum.<ref>{{cite book |titlePain and Passion |lastMcCoy |firstHeath |page96 |publisherECW Press | year2007 |isbn978-1-55022-787-1}}</ref> Promoters eventually ran out of plausible opponents for him and, as the novelty of his size wore off, the gate receipts dwindled.<ref nameAEbio/> Roussimoff was defeated by Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad in 1971,<ref name"ReferenceA">''The Sheik of Baghdad: Tales of Celebrity and Terror from Pro Wrestling's General Adnan'' Triumph Books 2005</ref> and wrestled numerous times in 1971 for Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association (AWA) as a special attraction. Touring special attraction (1973–1984) In 1973, Vincent J. McMahon, founder of the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), became Rousimoff's agent.<ref name"LapradeHebert2013"/> McMahon suggested several changes to Roussimoff's booking and presentation to enhance his starpower.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p9}} He felt Roussimoff should be portrayed as a large, immovable monster, and to enhance the perception of his size, McMahon discouraged Roussimoff from performing maneuvers such as dropkicks (although he was capable of performing such agile maneuvers before his health deteriorated in later life). He also began billing Roussimoff as "André the Giant" and set up a travel-intensive schedule, lending him to wrestling associations around the world,<ref nameLegends>{{cite book |titleWWE Legends |lastSolomon |firstBrian |pages[https://archive.org/details/wwelegends00solo/page/68 68–71] |publisherPocket Books |year2006 |isbn978-0-7434-9033-7 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/wwelegends00solo/page/68}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleDusty: Reflections of an American Dream |lastRhodes |firstDusty |authorlinkDusty Rhodes |pages95–96 |publisherSports Publishing LLC|year2005 |isbn978-1-58261-907-1}}</ref> to keep him from becoming overexposed in any area.<ref nameAEbio/> Promoters had to guarantee Roussimoff a certain amount of money as well as pay McMahon's WWF booking fee.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp12–13}}
On 24 March 1973, Roussimoff debuted in the World Wide Wrestling Federation (later World Wrestling Federation) as a fan favorite, defeating Frank Valois and Bull Pometti in a handicap match in Philadelphia. Two days later he made his debut in New York's Madison Square Garden, defeating Buddy Wolfe.<ref nameLegends/><ref name"official">{{cite web|titleThe Official Site of André the Giant: Biography|urlhttp://www.andrethegiant.com/about/bio.html|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100515195202/http://www.andrethegiant.com/about/bio.html|archive-date15 May 2010|access-date27 May 2021}}</ref><ref name"WWWF73">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/73.htm |titleWWWF @ New York City, NY – Madison Square Garden – March 26, 1973 |websiteThe History of WWE |access-date=13 February 2011}}</ref>
Roussimoff was one of professional wrestling's most beloved babyfaces throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. As such, Gorilla Monsoon often stated that Roussimoff had not been defeated in 15 years by pinfall or submission prior to WrestleMania III. He had lost matches outside of the WWF: a loss to Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad, Iraq in 1971,<ref name"ReferenceA"/> pinfall losses to Don Leo Jonathan in Montreal in 1972,{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p118}} Killer Kowalski in Quebec City in 1972<ref>{{cite web |titleEvents Database - Grand Prix|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id1&nr354551 |websiteCage Match |access-date6 March 2023|quote18.12.1972}}</ref> two draws and a countout loss to The Sheik in Toronto in 1974<ref>{{cite web |titleEvents Database - MLW |urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr926&page4&s2500 |websiteCage Match |access-date3 March 2021|quote17.02.1974, Texas Death Match, The Sheik (w/Abdullah Farouk) defeats Andre The Giant (w/Frank Valois) (3:32)}}</ref> after a fireball was thrown in Andre's face, knockout to Jerry Lawler in Memphis in 1975<ref>{{cite web |titleJerry "The King" Lawler Vs. Andre The Giant [1975] |urlhttps://shitloadsofwrestling.tumblr.com/post/71783872831/jerry-the-king-lawler-vs-andre-the-giant#:~:textIt's%20a%20little%20known%20fact,midget%20defeated%20Andre%20The%20Giant!%E2%80%9D |websiteShitloads Of Wrestling |access-date6 April 2021}}</ref> and a count out to Lawler in Louisville in 1977,<ref>{{cite web |titleEvents Database -NWA Mid-America |urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id1&nr339642|websiteCage Match |access-date12 January 2023}}</ref> draw with Bobo Brazil at a battle royal in Detroit in 1976,<ref>{{cite web |titleNWA: Big Time Wrestling (02.14.76) |urlhttps://pdrwrestling.net/2016/08/30/nwa-big-time-wrestling-02-14-76/ |websitePDRwrestling |languageen |date31 August 2016}}</ref> Ronnie Garvin in Knoxville in 1978,{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p182}} Stan Hansen by disqualification in Japan in 1981, Kamala by countout in Toronto in 1984 and Canek in Mexico in 1984 and submission losses in Japan to Strong Kobayashi in 1972{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p109}} and Antonio Inoki in 1986.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p110}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.puroresucentral.com/inoki.html |titleAntonio Inoki: Career History |websitePuroresu Central |access-date=13 February 2011}}</ref> He also had sixty-minute time-limit draws with two of the three major world champions of the day, Harley Race in Houston in 1979 and Nick Bockwinkel in Chicago in 1976.
(top) and André the Giant during the Superdome Showdown professional wrestling event on 2 August 1980, in New Orleans]]
In 1976, at the second Showdown at Shea, Roussimoff fought professional boxer Chuck Wepner in an unscripted boxer-versus-wrestler fight. The wild fight was shown via telecast as part of the undercard of the Muhammad Ali versus Antonio Inoki fight and ended when he threw Wepner over the top rope and outside the ring and won via count-out.
In 1980, he feuded with Hulk Hogan, when, unlike their more famous matches in the late 1980s, Hogan was the villain and Roussimoff was the hero, wrestling him at Shea Stadium's third Showdown at Shea event and in Pennsylvania, where after Roussimoff pinned Hogan to win the match, Hogan bodyslammed him much like their legendary WrestleMania III match in 1987. The feud continued in Japan in 1982 and 1983 with their roles reversed and with Antonio Inoki also involved.
One of Roussimoff's feuds pitted him against the "Mongolian Giant" Killer Khan. According to the storyline, Khan snapped Roussimoff's ankle during a match on 2 May 1981 in Rochester, New York by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his knee-drop.<ref nameMainEvent>{{cite book |titleMain Event: WWE in the Raging 80s |lastShields |firstBrian |pages[https://archive.org/details/mainevent00bria/page/55 55–58] |publisherPocket Books |year2006 |isbn978-1-4165-3257-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/mainevent00bria/page/55}}</ref> In reality, he had broken his ankle getting out of bed the morning before the match.<ref nameAEbio/>{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p48}} The injury and subsequent rehabilitation was worked into the existing Roussimoff/Khan storyline. After a stay at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston, Roussimoff returned with payback on his mind. The two battled on 20 July 1981, at Madison Square Garden in a match that resulted in a double disqualification.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe History of Professional Wrestling: The Results WWF 1963–1989 |lastCawthon |firstGraham |pages339 |publisherCreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |year2013 |isbn978-1-4928-2597-5}}</ref> Their feud continued as fans filled arenas up and down the east coast to witness their matches. On 14 November 1981 at the Philadelphia Spectrum, he decisively defeated Khan in what was billed as a "Mongolian stretcher match", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp48–60}} The same type of match was also held in Toronto. In early 1982 the two also fought in a series of matches in Japan with Arnold Skaaland in Roussimoff's corner. World Wrestling Federation (1984–1991) Feud with the Heenan Family (1984–1987)
versus King Kong Bundy and Big John Studd in tag team match at Madison Square Garden in October 1985]]
In 1982, Vincent J. McMahon sold the World Wide Wrestling Federation to his son, Vince McMahon<ref>{{cite book |titleNational Wrestling Alliance: The Untold Story of the Monopoly That Strangled Pro Wrestling |lastHornbaker |firstTim |page193 |publisherECW Press | year2007 |isbn978-1-55022-741-3}}</ref> As McMahon began to expand his newly acquired promotion to the national level, he required his wrestlers to appear exclusively for him. McMahon signed Roussimoff to these terms in 1984, although he still allowed him to work in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp69–70}}
Roussimoff feuded with Big John Studd over which of the two men was the "true giant" of wrestling.<ref nameMainEvent/> Throughout the early to mid-1980s, Roussimoff and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try to determine who the real giant of wrestling was. In 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level when he and partner Ken Patera knocked out Roussimoff during a televised tag-team match and proceeded to cut off his hair.<ref nameMainEvent/> After gaining revenge on Patera, Roussimoff met Studd in a "body slam challenge" at the first WrestleMania, held 31 March 1985, at Madison Square Garden in New York City.<ref name"Shields2010">{{cite book |firstBrian |lastShields |titleMain Event: WWE in the Raging 80s |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKtv7Nj2C9QUC&pgPA150 |date15 June 2010 |publisherSimon and Schuster |isbn978-1-4516-0467-2 |pages150–}}</ref> Roussimoff slammed Studd to win the match and collect the $15,000 prize, then proceeded to throw cash to the fans before having the bag taken from him by Studd's manager, Bobby "The Brain" Heenan.<ref nameWMIfacts>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm1/factsstats/ |titleWrestleMania I Facts/Stats |websiteWWE | access-date14 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051021042204/http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm1/factsstats/ |archive-date=21 October 2005}}</ref>
At WrestleMania 2 on 7 April 1986, Roussimoff continued to display his dominance by winning a twenty-man battle royal which featured top National Football League stars and wrestlers.<ref nameWM2>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm2/results/ |titleWrestleMania 2 results |websiteWWE | access-date14 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051029102035/http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm2/results/ |archive-date29 October 2005}}</ref> He last eliminated Bret Hart to win the contest.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=107}}
Following a final tour with New Japan Pro-Wrestling in mid-1986, and a win in Austria over CWA World champion Otto Wanz,<ref nameotto1>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr374&page4|titleOtto Wanz » Matches|website=Cage Match}}</ref> Roussimoff began appearing exclusively with the World Wrestling Federation.
After WrestleMania 2, Roussimoff continued his feud with Studd and King Kong Bundy. Around this time, Roussimoff requested a leave of absence to tend to his health, since the effects from his acromegaly were beginning to take their toll, as well as to tour Japan. He had also been cast in the film The Princess Bride. To explain his absence, a storyline was developed in which Heenan—suggesting that Roussimoff was secretly afraid of Studd and Bundy, whom Heenan bragged were unbeatable—challenged Roussimoff and a partner of his choosing to wrestle Studd and Bundy in a televised tag-team match. When Roussimoff failed to show, WWF president Jack Tunney indefinitely suspended him.<ref nameEncyclopedia>{{cite book |titleWWE Encyclopedia |last1Shields |first1Brian |last2Sullivan |first2Kevin |pages[https://archive.org/details/wweencyclopediad0000shie/page/12 12–13] |publisherDK |year2009 |isbn978-0-7566-4190-0 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/wweencyclopediad0000shie/page/12}}</ref> Later in the summer of 1986, upon Roussimoff's return to the United States, he began wearing a mask and competing as the "Giant Machine" in a stable known as the Machines.<ref name"OWO"/> Big Machine and Super Machine were the other members; Hulk Hogan (as "Hulk Machine") and Roddy Piper (as "Piper Machine") were also one-time members. The WWF's television announcers sold the Machines—a gimmick that was copied from the New Japan Pro-Wrestling character "Super Strong Machine", played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/m/machines.html |titleThe Machines' Profile |websiteOnline World of Wrestling |access-date8 July 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070621210036/http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/m/machines.html |archive-date21 June 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> —as "a new tag-team from Japan" and claimed not to know the identities of the wrestlers, even though it was obvious to fans that it was Roussimoff competing as the Giant Machine. Heenan, Studd, and Bundy complained to Tunney, who eventually told Heenan that if it could be proven that Roussimoff and the Giant Machine were the same person, Roussimoff would be fired. Roussimoff thwarted Heenan, Studd, and Bundy at every turn. Then, in late 1986, the Giant Machine "disappeared" and Roussimoff was reinstated. Foreshadowing Roussimoff's heel turn, Heenan expressed his approval of the reinstatement but did not explain why. Alliance with Bobby Heenan and Ted DiBiase (1987–1989)
{{see also|André the Giant–Hulk Hogan rivalry|Heenan Family|Mega Bucks}}
(foreground) during parts of his feud with Hulk Hogan.]]
Roussimoff agreed to turn heel in early 1987 to be the counter to the biggest "babyface" in professional wrestling at that time, Hulk Hogan.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p131}} On an edition of ''Piper's Pit'' in 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three years; Roussimoff came out to congratulate him, shaking Hogan's hand with a strong grip, which surprised the Hulkster.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp132–133}} On the following week's ''Piper's Pit'', Roussimoff was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "the only undefeated wrestler in wrestling history." Although he had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in WWF, he had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate him and ended up being the focal point of the interview. Apparently annoyed, Roussimoff walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp134–135}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/87.htm |titleWWF @ East Rutherford, NJ – Meadowlands – January 5, 1987 |websiteThe History of WWE |access-date2 April 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110510061259/http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/87.htm |archive-date10 May 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> A discussion between Roussimoff and Hogan was scheduled, and on a ''Piper's Pit'' that aired 7 February 1987, the two met.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/87.htm |titleWWF @ Tampa, FL – SunDome – January 26, 1987 |websiteThe History of WWE |access-date27 March 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110510061259/http://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/87.htm| archive-date10 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hogan was introduced first, followed by Roussimoff, who was led by longtime rival Bobby Heenan.
Speaking on behalf of his new protégé, Heenan accused Hogan of being Roussimoff's friend only so he would not have to defend his title against him. Hogan tried to reason with Roussimoff, but his pleas were ignored as he challenged Hogan to a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania III. Hogan was still seemingly in disbelief as to what Roussimoff was doing, prompting Heenan to say "You can't believe it? Maybe you'll believe this, Hogan" before Roussimoff ripped off the T-shirt and crucifix from Hogan, with the crucifix scratching Hogan's chest, causing him to bleed.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp=136–139}}
Following Hogan's acceptance of his challenge on a later edition of ''Piper's Pit, the two were part of a 20-man over-the-top-rope battle-royal on 14 March edition of Saturday Night's Main Event X'' at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit.<ref name"history623">{{cite book |titleThe History of Professional Wrestling: The Results WWF 1963–1989 |lastCawthon |firstGraham |pages623 |publisherCreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |year2013 |isbn978-1-4928-2597-5}}</ref> Although the battle royal was won by Hercules, Roussimoff claimed to have gained a psychological advantage over Hogan when he threw the WWF World Heavyweight Champion over the top rope. The match, which was actually taped on 21 February 1987,<ref name"history623"/> aired only two weeks before WrestleMania III to make it seem like Hogan had met his match in André the Giant.<ref>{{cite AV media |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vkIfSsZa186w | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131207120921/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vkIfSsZa186w| archive-date7 December 2013 | url-statusdead|titleBattle Royal with Hulk Hogan and Andre The Giant |date8 July 2013 |authorWWE |via=YouTube}}</ref>
At WrestleMania III, he was billed at {{cvt|236|kg|lb|orderflip}},<ref nameWMIII>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm3/mainevent/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060116004246/http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm3/mainevent/ |url-statusdead |archive-date16 January 2006 |titleWrestleMania III – André the Giant vs. Hulk Hogan – WWE Championship |websiteWWE | access-date15 February 2011|quoteIt was billed as the biggest main event in the history of sports entertainment: Hollywood Hogan vs. André the Giant. Hogan, in his third year as WWE Champion, was set for the biggest challenge of his life in the form of the 7-foot-4, 520-pound Roussimoff, who betrayed his former best friend in exchange for his long-awaited shot at the championship.}}</ref> and the stress of such immense weight on his bones and joints resulted in constant pain.<ref nameAEbio/> After recent back surgery, he was also wearing a brace underneath his wrestling singlet.{{sfnp|Assael|Mooneyham|2002|pp71–72}} In front of a record crowd, Hogan won the match after body-slamming Roussimoff (later dubbed "the bodyslam heard around the world"), followed by Hogan's running leg drop finisher.<ref nameWMIII/> Years later, Hogan claimed that Roussimoff was so heavy, he felt more like {{cvt|700|lb|kg|orderflip}}, and that he tore his latissimus dorsi muscle when slamming him.
Another myth about the match is that no one, not even WWF owner Vince McMahon, knew until the day of the event whether Roussimoff would lose the match. In reality, he agreed to lose the match sometime before, mostly for health reasons. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the first time that Hogan had successfully body-slammed him in a WWF match. A then-heel Hogan had slammed a then-face Roussimoff following their match at the Showdown at Shea on 9 August 1980, though Roussimoff was somewhat lighter (around {{cvt|470|lb|kg|orderflip}}) and more athletic at the time (Hogan also slammed him in a match in Hamburg, Pennsylvania, a month later).<ref>{{cite AV media|titleHulk Hogan: The Ultimate Anthology|mediumDVD |publisherWWE | date2006}}</ref> This took place in the territorial days of American wrestling three years before WWF began national expansion, so many of those who watched WrestleMania III had never seen the Giant slammed (Roussimoff had also previously allowed Harley Race, El Canek and Stan Hansen, among others, to slam him).{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p157}}<ref>{{cite book |titleKing of the Ring: The Harley Race Story |lastRace |firstHarley |authorlinkHarley Race |page90 |publisherSports Publishing L.L.C. |year2004 |isbn978-1-58261-818-0}}</ref>
By the time of WrestleMania III, the WWF went national, giving more meaning to the Roussimoff–Hogan match that took place then. The feud between Roussimoff and Hogan simmered during the summer of 1987, as Roussimoff's health declined. The feud began heating up again when wrestlers were named the captains of rival teams at the inaugural Survivor Series event. During their approximately one minute of battling each other during the match, Hogan dominated Roussimoff and was on the brink of knocking him from the ring, but was tripped up by his partners, Bundy and One Man Gang, and would be counted out. Roussimoff went on to be the sole survivor of the match, pinning Bam Bam Bigelow<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/survivorseries/history/1987/mainevent/ |titleSurvivor Series 1987 – Main Event |websiteWWE |access-date15 February 2011}}</ref> before Hogan returned to the ring to attack André and knock him out of the ring. Roussimoff later got revenge when, after Hogan won a match against Bundy on ''Saturday Night's Main Event, he snuck up from behind and began choking Hogan to the brink of unconsciousness, not letting go even after an army of seven face-aligned wrestlers ran to the ring to try to pull him away; it took Hacksaw Jim Duggan breaking a piece of wood over his back (which he no-sold) for him to let go, after which Hogan was pulled to safety. As was the case with the SNME'' battle royal a year earlier, the series of events was one of the pieces that helped build interest in a possible one-on-one rematch between Hogan and Roussimoff, and to make it seem that Roussimoff was certain to win easily when they did meet. Meanwhile, Rousimoff returned to Germany in December 1987 for another match with Wanz, which he lost by countout.<ref nameotto1/><ref nameotto2>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.profightdb.com/wrestlers/otto-wanz-4816.html | titleOtto Wanz: Profile & Match Listing - Internet Wrestling Database (IWD) }}</ref>
In the meantime, the "Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase failed to persuade Hogan to sell him the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. After failing to defeat Hogan in a subsequent series of matches, DiBiase turned to Roussimoff to win it for him.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp=172–175}} He and DiBiase had teamed several times in the past, including in Japan and in the WWF in the late 1970s and early 1980s when both were faces at the time, but this was not acknowledged during this new storyline. The earlier attack and DiBiase's insertion into the feud set up the Hogan-Roussimoff rematch on The Main Event, to air 5 February 1988, on a live broadcast on NBC. Acting as his hired gun, Roussimoff won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Hogan (his first singles title) in a match where it was later revealed that appointed referee Dave Hebner was "detained backstage", and a replacement (whom Hogan afterwards initially accused of having been paid by DiBiase to get plastic surgery to look like Dave,<ref>Hulk Hogan postmatch interview, The Main Event NBC television, 5 February 1988</ref> but was revealed to have been his evil twin brother, Earl Hebner),<ref>"A WWF Magazine Investigative Report: Dave Hebner's Shadow," WWF Magazine, June 1988, p. 30.</ref> who made a three-count on Hogan while Hogan's left shoulder was off the mat.
After winning, Roussimoff "sold" the title to DiBiase; the transaction was declared invalid by then-WWF president Jack Tunney and the title was declared vacant.<ref namewwechamp>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/304454122 |titleAndre the Giant's first reign |websiteWWE | access-date15 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050624001310/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/wwechampionship/304454122 |archive-date24 June 2005}}</ref> This was shown on WWF's NBC program The Main Event. At WrestleMania IV, Roussimoff and Hulk Hogan fought to a double disqualification in a WWF title tournament match (with the idea in the storyline saying that Roussimoff was again working on DiBiase's behalf in giving DiBiase a clearer path in the tournament). Afterward, Roussimoff and Hogan's feud died down after a steel cage match held at WrestleFest on 31 July 1988, in Milwaukee. Hogan was the winner.
derived from Roussimoff's fear of snakes.]]
At the inaugural SummerSlam pay-per-view held at Madison Square Garden, Roussimoff and DiBiase (billed as The Mega Bucks) faced Hogan and WWF World Heavyweight Champion "Macho Man" Randy Savage (known as The Mega Powers) in the main event, with Jesse "The Body" Ventura as the special guest referee.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/summerslam/history/1988/mainevent1/ |titleSummerSlam 1988 main event match details |websiteWWE | access-date6 March 2011}}</ref> During the match, the Mega Powers' manager, Miss Elizabeth, distracted the Mega Bucks and Ventura when she climbed up on the ring apron, removed her yellow skirt and walked around in a pair of red panties. This allowed Hogan and Savage time to recover and eventually win the match with Hogan pinning DiBiase. Savage forced Ventura's hand down for the final three-count, due to Ventura's character historically being at odds with Hogan, and his unwillingness to count the fall.
Concurrent with the developing feud with the Mega Powers, Roussimoff was placed in a feud with Jim Duggan, which began after Duggan knocked out Roussimoff with a two-by-four board during a television taping. Despite Duggan's popularity with fans, Roussimoff regularly got the upper hand in the feud.
Roussimoff's next major feud was against Jake "The Snake" Roberts. In this storyline, it was said Roussimoff was afraid of snakes, something Roberts exposed on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'' when he threw his snake, Damien, on the frightened Roussimoff; as a result, he suffered a kayfabe mild heart attack and vowed revenge. During the next few weeks, Roberts frequently walked to ringside carrying his snake in its bag during Roussimoff's matches, causing the latter to run from the ring in fright. Throughout their feud (which culminated at WrestleMania V), Roberts constantly used Damien to gain a psychological edge over the much larger and stronger Roussimoff.
In 1989, Roussimoff and the returning Big John Studd briefly reprised their feud, beginning at WrestleMania V, when Studd was the referee in the match with Roberts, this time with Studd as a face and Roussimoff as the heel.
During the late summer and autumn of 1989, Roussimoff engaged in a brief feud, consisting almost entirely of house shows (non-televised events), and one televised match on 28 October 1989, at Madison Square Garden with then-WWF Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior. Roussimoff began to wear face paint with a similar design to The Warrior and began called himself "The Ultimate Giant" when he appeared on The Brother Love Show.<ref>{{Citation |titleAndre the ULTIMATE Giant on The Brother Love show (1989) | date9 February 2016 |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vKVMDUjAwPPo |access-date12 April 2023 |languageen}}</ref> The younger Warrior, the WWF's rising star, regularly squashed the aging Roussimoff in an attempt to showcase his star quality and promote him as the "next big thing".{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp297–300}}<ref>{{cite book |titleHitman: My Real Life in the Cartoon World of Wrestling |lastHart |firstBret |authorlinkBret Hart |page[https://archive.org/details/hitmanmyreallife00hart/page/233 233] |publisherGrand Central Publishing |year2008 |isbn978-0-446-53972-2 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/hitmanmyreallife00hart/page/233}}</ref>
Colossal Connection (1989–1990)
{{Main|Colossal Connection}}
In late 1989, Roussimoff was joined with fellow Heenan Family member Haku to form a new tag team called the Colossal Connection, in part to fill a void left by the departure of Tully Blanchard and Arn Anderson (the Brain Busters, who were also members of Heenan's stable) from the WWF, and also to continue to keep the aging Roussimoff in the main event spotlight. His last singles match was a loss to The Ultimate Warrior in 20 seconds at a house show in Cape Girardeau, Missouri on 11 December 1989.<ref>{{cite web |titleAndre The Giant - Matches |urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr926&page4&year1989&promotion1 |websiteCage Match |access-date6 April 2021}}</ref> The Colossal Connection immediately targeted WWF Tag Team Champions Demolition (who had recently won the belts from the Brain Busters). At a television taping on 13 December 1989, the Colossal Connection defeated Demolition to win the titles.<ref nametagchamp>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/3044541321111121 |titleAndre the Giant and Haku's first reign |websiteWWE |access-date15 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050720013735/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/3044541321111121 |archive-date20 July 2005}}</ref> Roussimoff and Haku successfully defended their title, mostly against Demolition, until WrestleMania VI on 1 April 1990, when Demolition took advantage of a mistimed move by the champions to regain the belts.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/3044541321241 |titleDemolition's third reign |websiteWWE |access-date15 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051128115003/http://www.wwe.com/inside/titlehistory/worldtagteam/3044541321241 |archive-date28 November 2005}}</ref> After the match, a furious Heenan blamed him for the title loss and after shouting at him, before Heenan slapped him in the face; an angry Roussimoff responded with a slap of his own that sent Heenan staggering from the ring.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp=321–322}} Roussimoff also caught Haku's kick attempt, sending him reeling from the ring as well, prompting support and turning Roussimoff face for the first time since 1987. Due to his ongoing health issues, Roussimoff was unable to wrestle at the time of WrestleMania VI and Haku actually wrestled the entire match against Demolition without tagging him in.
On weekend television shows following WrestleMania VI, Bobby Heenan vowed to spit in Roussimoff's face when he came crawling back to the Heenan Family. He wrestled one more time with Haku, teaming up to face Demolition on a house show in Honolulu on 10 April, Roussimoff was knocked out of the ring and The Colossal Connection lost via count-out. After the match, Roussimoff and Haku would fight each other, marking the end of the team. His final WWF match of 1990 came at a combined WWF/All Japan/New Japan show on 13 April in Tokyo, Japan when he teamed with Giant Baba to defeat Demolition in a non-title match. Roussimoff won by pinning Smash.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/90.htm |title1990 |workThe History of WWE |access-date1 June 2016}}</ref>
Sporadic appearances (1990–1991)
Roussimoff returned in the winter of 1990, but it was not to the World Wrestling Federation. Instead, Roussimoff made an interview appearance for Herb Abrams' fledgling Universal Wrestling Federation on 11 October in Reseda, California.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/indy/uwf/uwfcards.html |titleHerb Abram's Universal Wrestling Federation Cards |workPro-Wrestling History |access-date1 June 2016}}</ref> (the segment aired in 1991). He appeared in an interview segment with Captain Lou Albano and put over the UWF.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vRSE0klOkkII | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160317213931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vRSE0klOkkII| archive-date17 March 2016 | url-statusdead|titleAndre the Giant & Lou Albano UWF January 1991 |date23 October 2014 |access-date1 June 2016 |viaYouTube}}</ref> The following month on 30 November at a house show in Miami, Florida, the World Wrestling Federation announced his return as a participant in the 1991 Royal Rumble (to be held in Miami two months later). Roussimoff was also mentioned as a participant on television but would ultimately back out due to a leg injury.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vv-VFCvdFtbc | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131207181239/http://www.youtube.com/watch?vv-VFCvdFtbc| archive-date7 December 2013 | url-statusdead|titleWWF Primetime 1991 Royal Rumble Report |authorMrYoyo123321 |date29 December 2009 |access-date1 June 2016 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
His on-air return finally took place at the WWF's Super-Stars & Stripes Forever USA Network special on 17 March 1991, when he came out to shake the hand of Big Boss Man after an altercation with Mr. Perfect.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/91.htm |title1991 |websitethehistoryofwwe.com |access-date3 January 2022 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016103837/http://thehistoryofwwe.com:80/91.htm |archive-date16 October 2007 }}</ref> The following week at WrestleMania VII, he came to the aid of the Boss Man in his match against Mr. Perfect.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p326}} Roussimoff finally returned to action on 26 April 1991, in a six-man tag-team matchup when he teamed with The Rockers in a winning effort against Mr. Fuji and The Orient Express at a house show in Belfast, Northern Ireland.<ref name"thehistoryofwwe.com">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/91.htm |title1991 |workThe History of WWE |access-date1 June 2016}}</ref> On 11 May 1991 he participated in a 17-man battle-royal at a house show in Detroit, which was won by Kerry Von Erich.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://imgur.com/a/n3Ya3DX|titleAndre's Last WWF Match|websiteImgur}}</ref> This was Andre's final WWF match, although he was involved in several subsequent storylines. His last major WWF storyline following WrestleMania VII had the major heel managers (Bobby Heenan, Sensational Sherri, Slick, and Mr. Fuji) trying to recruit Roussimoff one-by-one, only to be turned down in various humiliating ways (e.g. Heenan had his hand crushed, Sherri received a spanking, Slick got locked in the trunk of the car he was offering to Roussimoff, and Mr. Fuji got a pie in his face). Finally, Jimmy Hart appeared live on WWF Superstars to announce that he had successfully signed Roussimoff to tag-team with Earthquake. When asked to confirm this by Gene Okerlund, Roussimoff denied the claims. This led to Earthquake's attacking Roussimoff from behind (injuring his knee).<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/91.htm |titleWWF Show Results 1991 |access-date5 March 2011 |firstGraham |lastCawthon |quote(Date: May 6, 1991 Shown: June 1, 1991) Included an in-ring interview by Gene Okerlund in which André the Giant refused Jimmy Hart's offer to become his manager only to have his knee attacked by Earthquake, using Hart's megaphone}}</ref> Jimmy Hart would later get revenge for the humiliation by secretly signing Tugboat and forming the Natural Disasters.<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.thehistoryofwwe.com/91.htm |titleWWF Show Results 1991 |access-date5 March 2011 |firstGraham |lastCawthon |quote(Date: May 28, 1991 Shown: June 15, 1991)Earthquake & WWF Tag Team Champions the Nasty Boys (w/ Jimmy Hart) defeated Tugboat & the Bushwhackers at 4:05 when Earthquake pinned Luke with a sit-down splash after Tugboat attacked both of his teammates; after the match, Tugboat embraced with his new friends}}</ref> This led to Roussimoff's final major WWF appearance at SummerSlam 1991, where he seconded the Bushwhackers in their match against the Disasters.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p333}} Roussimoff was on crutches at ringside, and after the Disasters won the match, they set out to attack him, but the Legion of Doom made their way to ringside and got in between them and the Giant, who was preparing to defend himself with one of his crutches. The Disasters left the ringside area as they were outnumbered by the Legion of Doom, the Bushwhackers and Roussimoff, who struck both Earthquake and Typhoon (the former Tugboat) with the crutch as they left. His final WWF appearance came at a house show in Paris, France, on 9 October 1991. He was in Davey Boy Smith's corner as the Bulldog faced Earthquake; Smith hit Earthquake with Roussimoff's crutch, allowing Smith to win. All Japan Pro Wrestling; Universal Wrestling Association (1990–1992) After WrestleMania VI, Roussimoff spent the rest of his in-ring career in All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) and Mexico's Universal Wrestling Association (UWA), where he performed under the name "André el Gigante". He toured with AJPW three times per year, from 1990 to 1992, usually teaming with Giant Baba in tag-team matches.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p335}}
Roussimoff made a couple of guest appearances for Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation, in 1991, feuding with Big John Studd, though he never had a match in the promotion.
In his last U.S. television appearance, Andre appeared on World Championship Wrestling's (WCW) Clash of the Champions XX special that aired on TBS on 2 September 1992, where he gave a brief interview.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=336}} During the same event, he appeared alongside Gordon Solie and was later seen talking with him during the gala celebrating the 20th anniversary of wrestling on TBS.
He did his final tour of Mexico in 1992 in a selection of six-man tag matches alongside Bam Bam Bigelow and a variety of Lucha Libre stars facing among others Bad News Allen and future WWF Champions Mick Foley and Yokozuna.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr926&page4&year1992&promotion68 |titleMatches: Andre The Giant: Wrestlers Database |workThe Internet Wrestling Database |firstPhilip |lastKreikenbohm}}</ref> Roussimoff made his final tour with AJPW from October to December 1992; he wrestled what became the final match of his career on 4 December 1992, teaming with Giant Baba and Rusher Kimura to defeat Haruka Eigen, Masanobu Fuchi, and Motoshi Okuma.<ref name"KreikenbohmAJPW"/> Acting career Roussimoff branched out into acting again in the 1970s and 1980s, after a 1967 French boxing film, making his USA acting debut playing a Sasquatch ("Bigfoot") in a two-part episode aired in 1976 on the television series The Six Million Dollar Man.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp18–19}} He appeared in other television shows, including The Greatest American Hero, B. J. and the Bear, The Fall Guy and 1990's Zorro.
Towards the end of his career, Roussimoff appeared in several films. He had an uncredited appearance in the 1984 film Conan the Destroyer as Dagoth,{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p79}} the resurrected horned giant god who is killed by Conan (Arnold Schwarzenegger). That same year, he also made an appearance in Micki & Maude (billed as André Rousimmoff). He appeared most notably as Fezzik, his own favorite role,<ref name"official"/> in the 1987 film The Princess Bride. The fact that Roussimoff found that no one stared at him on set during production was a novel and particularly gratifying experience.<ref>{{cite web |authorMatt |title12 Inconceivable Facts That Prove That 'The Princess Bride' Isn't Just Another 'Kissing Book' |urlhttps://www.throwbacks.com/12-inconceivable-facts-that-prove-that-the-princess-bride-isnt-just-another-kissing-book/ |websiteThrowbacks |date22 September 2017 |access-date22 August 2020}}</ref> Both the film and his performance retain a devoted following. In a short interview with Lanny Poffo, he stated that the movie meant so much to André that he made his wrestling pals watch an advanced copy of the VHS with him over and over again while supplying dinner, drinks, and sweetly asking each time, "Did you like my performance?".<ref>{{cite news |last1Farrell |first1Braeden |titleAndre the Giant Documentary - 12 Things Learned (And Facts Left Out!) |urlhttps://prowrestlingstories.com/pro-wrestling-stories/andre-the-giant-documentary/ |access-date17 September 2020 |workProWrestlingStories.com |date=3 October 2018}}</ref>
In his last film, he had a cameo role as a circus giant in the comedy Trading Mom, which was released in 1994, a year after his death.
Filmography
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1967
| Casse-tête chinois pour le judoka
| Fighter
| Film
|-
| 1976
| The Six Million Dollar Man
| Sasquatch
| Television (episodes: "The Secret of Bigfoot, Part 1" and "The Secret of Bigfoot Part 2")
|-
| 1981
| B. J. and the Bear
| Manny Felcher
| Television (episode: "Snow White and the Seven Lady Truckers, Part 1")
|-
| rowspan=2| 1982
| The Fall Guy
| Killer Typhoon (uncredited)
| Television (episode: "Ladies on the Ropes")
|-
| Les Brillant
| Jean Petit
| Television
|-
| 1983
| The Greatest American Hero
| Monster
| Television (episode: "Heaven Is in Your Genes")
|-
| rowspan=2| 1984
| Conan the Destroyer
| Dagoth (uncredited){{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=79}}
| rowspan=3|Film
|-
| Micki & Maude
| Himself{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=79}}
|-
| rowspan=2| 1985
| I Like to Hurt People
| Himself
|-
| ''The Goonies 'R' Good Enough
| Himself (uncredited)
| Music video
|-
| 1987
| The Princess Bride
| Fezzik<ref name="official"/>
| Film
|-
| 1994
| Trading Mom
| Circus Giant
| Film, posthumous release
|}
Personal life
Roussimoff was mentioned in the 1974 Guinness Book of World Records'' as the then-highest-paid wrestler in history. He earned an annual salary of approximately $400,000 ({{Inflation|US|400000|1974|fmteq|r-3}}) at this time.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=18}}
Robin Christensen is Roussimoff's only child. Her mother Jean Christensen (who died in 2008) became acquainted with her father through the wrestling business around 1972 or 1973. Christensen had regular contact with her father, but saw him only five times in her life. After his death, Christensen spoke positively about her father and became a guardian of his image and legacy.<ref name="Burkholder2015"/>
In 1989, Roussimoff was arrested and charged with assault after he attacked a KCRG-TV cameraman shooting his match with The Ultimate Warrior at Cedar Rapids, Iowa's Five Seasons Center. While acquitted on the assault charge, he was fined $100 ({{Inflation|US|100|1989|fmteq|r0}}) for criminal mischief and ordered to pay KCRG $233 ({{Inflation|US|233|1989|fmteq|r0}}) in damage to its equipment.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thegazette.com/crime-courts/andre-the-giant-vs-the-cedar-rapids-police-30-years-later/ |titleAndre the Giant vs. the Cedar Rapids Police: 30 years later |websiteThe Gazette (Cedar Rapids) |date18 October 2019 |access-date=19 February 2022}}</ref>
William Goldman, the author of the novel and the screenplay of The Princess Bride, wrote in his nonfiction work Which Lie Did I Tell? that Roussimoff was one of the gentlest and most generous people he ever knew. Whenever Roussimoff ate with someone in a restaurant, he would pay, but he would also insist on paying when he was a guest. On one occasion, after Roussimoff attended a dinner with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Wilt Chamberlain, Schwarzenegger had quietly moved to the cashier to pay before Roussimoff could, but then found himself being physically lifted, carried from his table and deposited on top of his car by Roussimoff and Chamberlain.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://uproxx.com/videos/2012/09/arnold-schwarzeneggers-dinner-wilt-chamberlain-andre-giant/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's Dinner With Wilt Chamberlain and Andre the Giant |websiteUproxx |date25 September 2012 |access-date=10 September 2014}}</ref>
Roussimoff owned a ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina, looked after by two of his close friends. When he was not on the road, he loved spending time at the ranch, where he tended to his cattle, played with his dogs, and entertained friends. While there were custom-made chairs and a few other modifications in his home to accommodate his size, tales that everything in his home was custom-made for a large man are said to be exaggerated. Since Roussimoff could not easily go shopping due to his fame and size, he was known to spend hours watching and purchasing items from the shopping channel QVC.<ref name"Burkholder2015"/> Health Roussimoff has been dubbed "the greatest drunk on Earth"{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p123}} for once consuming 119 {{convert|12|USfloz|mL|adjon}} beers (in total, over {{convert|41|L|imppt|dispsqbr}} or 11.16 gallons) in six hours.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://madconomist.com/5-coolest-beer-records |title5 Coolest Beer Records |websiteMadConomist |lastDavydov |firstDmitri |date20 May 2008 |access-date1 April 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121125091010/http://madconomist.com/5-coolest-beer-records |archive-date25 November 2012 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In an appearance on Late Night with David Letterman on 23 January 1984, Roussimoff told David Letterman he once drank 117 beers.<ref>{{Citation |titleAndré the Giant on Letterman, January 23, 1984 | date15 May 2016 |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v6fZAjN9euKk |languageen |access-date12 August 2022}}</ref> When Letterman asked if he was drunk, Roussimoff said he couldn't remember because he passed out. He also said he quit drinking beer 14 months prior to this appearance on Letterman.
On an episode of WWE's Legends of Wrestling, Mike Graham said Roussimoff once drank 156 {{convert|16|USfloz|mL|adjon}} beers (over {{convert|73|L|imppt|dispsqbr}} or 19.5 gallons) in one sitting, which was confirmed by Dusty Rhodes. The Fabulous Moolah wrote in her autobiography that Roussimoff drank 127 beers at the bar of the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading, Pennsylvania and later passed out in the lobby. The staff could not move him and had to leave him there until he awoke.<ref>{{cite book |lastEllison |firstLillian |authorlinkThe Fabulous Moolah |titleThe Fabulous Moolah: First Goddess of the Squared Circle|year2003 |isbn978-0-06-001258-8 |publisherReaganBooks |page160}}</ref>
In a shoot interview, Ken Patera recalled an occasion where Roussimoff was challenged by Dick Murdoch to a beer drinking contest. After nine or so hours, Roussimoff had drunk 116 beers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vB4VrdfU1Glo | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/B4VrdfU1Glo| archive-date22 November 2021 | url-statuslive|titleKen Patera tells an incredible Andre the Giant drinking story |websiteYouTube |date26 May 2016 |access-date28 June 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> A tale recounted by Cary Elwes in his book about the making of The Princess Bride has Roussimoff falling on top of somebody while drunk, after which the NYPD sent an undercover officer to follow Roussimoff around whenever he went out drinking in their city to make sure he did not fall on anyone again.<ref>{{cite book |last1Elwes |first1Cary |authorlinkCary Elwes |last2Layden |first2Joe |titleAs You Wish: Inconceivable Tales from the Making of The Princess Bride |year2014 |isbn978-1-4767-6402-3 |publisherTouchstone |page[https://archive.org/details/asyouwishinconce0000elwe/page/226 226] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/asyouwishinconce0000elwe/page/226}}</ref>
Another story also says prior to his famous WrestleMania III match, Roussimoff drank 14 bottles of wine.<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0250824/trivia | titleWrestleMania III (1987)| websiteIMDb}}</ref> Hulk Hogan stated that Roussimoff drank a case of 12 bottles of Pouilly-Fuissé during a three-hour bus journey.<ref name"Neish2024">{{cite web | urlhttps://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2024/04/andre-the-giant-drank-12-bottles-of-pouilly-fuisse-in-three-hours/ | titleAndre the Giant drank 12 bottles of Pouilly-Fuissé in three hours | date8 April 2024 |access-dateMay 13, 2024 |firstSarah |lastNeish |website=TheDrinksBusiness.com }}</ref>
An urban legend exists surrounding Roussimoff's 1987 surgery in which his size made it impossible for the anesthesiologist to estimate a dosage via standard methods; consequently, his alcohol tolerance was used as a guideline instead.<ref>[https://nypost.com/2013/10/27/true-stories-from-the-fake-world-of-pro-wrestling/ True stories from the fake world of wrestling], by David Shoemaker, at the New York Post; published 27 October 2013; retrieved 27 March 2014</ref> Some reports claim this is true.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.wrestlinginc.com/1111185/the-myth-behind-andre-the-giants-anesthesia-story/ | titleThe Myth Behind Andre the Giant's Anesthesia Story | date=22 November 2022 }}</ref>
While some stories of Rousimoff's eating have circulated, such as one dinner where he ate twelve 16-ounce steaks and fifteen lobsters in one sitting, according to his usual traveling partner, Tim White, Rousimoff only ate so much on occasion to show off, saying, "He had a substantial appetite, but for his size, it was completely normal."<ref>{{cite web |last1Rossen |first1Jake |last2Cohen |first2Mathew |title36 Larger-Than-Life Facts About André the Giant |date5 February 2024 |urlhttps://www.mentalfloss.com/posts/andre-the-giant-facts#:~:textAlthough%20he%20didn't%20order,lobsters%20in%20a%20single%20sitting. |publisherMental Floss |access-date26 February 2025}}</ref>
Roussimoff had severe pericardial effusion and underwent pericardiocentesis at Duke University Hospital in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbssports.com/wwe/news/being-andre-the-giant/|titleBeing Andre the Giant - CBSSports.com|workCBS Sports|date25 March 2015 |access-date10 July 2023}}</ref>DeathOn the morning of 28 January 1993, Roussimoff died of congestive heart failure and an apparent heart attack in his sleep, likely associated with his untreated acromegaly, at a Paris hotel, at the age of 46. After he visited and played cards in Molien with some of his oldest friends on the night of 27 January 1993, he returned to his hotel room around 1 a.m. CET on 28 January. That afternoon, Roussimoff was found dead in his room by hotel management and his chauffeur.{{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p387-388}}<ref name"official"/><ref>{{Cite web |lastWoodward |firstHamish |date28 December 2022 |titleThe Tragic Death Of Andre The Giant Explained - Atletifo |urlhttps://atletifo.com/wrestling/wwe/the-tragic-death-of-andre-the-giant/ |access-date28 January 2023 |languageen-GB}}</ref> He was in Paris at the time to attend his father's funeral.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/31/sports/andre-the-giant-46-professional-wrestler.html|titleAndre the Giant, 46, Professional Wrestler (Obituary) |newspaperThe New York Times |lastAssociated Press |date31 January 1993 |access-date23 June 2008}}</ref> While there, he decided to extend his stay there to be with his mother on her birthday.<ref name="Burkholder2015"/>
In his will, he specified that his remains should be cremated and "disposed of". Upon his death in Paris, his family in France held a funeral for him, intending to bury him near his father. When they learned of his wish to be cremated, his body was flown to the United States, where he was cremated according to his wishes.<ref name"Burkholder2015"/> His ashes were scattered at his ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina.<ref name"AEbio"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wral.com/news/local/video/4797970/ |titleAndre the Giant lived, died in small N.C. town |websiteWRAL News |locationRaleigh, NC |date24 March 2009 |access-date8 June 2012}}</ref> Additionally, in accordance with his will, he left his estate to his sole beneficiary: his daughter Robin.<ref>{{Cite AV media |titleAndré the Giant (film) |date10 April 2018 |languageen |publisherHBO |peopleJason Hehir (director)|time{{time needed|dateJanuary 2024}}}}</ref> Other media Roussimoff made numerous appearances as himself in video games, starting with WWF WrestleMania. He also appears posthumously in Virtual Pro Wrestling 64, WWF No Mercy, Legends of Wrestling, Legends of Wrestling II, Showdown: Legends of Wrestling, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006, WWE Legends of WrestleMania, WWE All Stars, WWE 2K14, WWE 2K15, WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19,<ref>{{cite web |last1Cole |first1Caitlin |titleComplete WWE 2K19 Roster |urlhttps://rumbleramble.com/complete-wwe-2k19-roster/ |websiteRumble Ramble |access-date30 April 2019 |date19 December 2018 |archive-date16 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416174956/https://rumbleramble.com/complete-wwe-2k19-roster/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> WWE 2K20, WWE 2K Battlegrounds, WWE 2K22, WWE 2K23, WWE 2K24, and many others.
In January 2005, WWE released André The Giant, a DVD focusing on the life and career of Roussimoff. The DVD is a reissue of the out-of-print André The Giant VHS made by Coliseum Video in 1985, with commentary by Michael Cole and Tazz replacing Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse Ventura's commentary on his WrestleMania match with Big John Studd. The video is hosted by Lord Alfred Hayes. Later matches, including his battles against Hulk Hogan while a heel, are not included on this VHS.
Legacy
—a wrestler often compared with Roussimoff due to his size—was the winner of the 2015 "André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal" at WrestleMania 31, and is posing alongside the André the Giant Memorial Trophy, which goes to the winner of the annual match.]]
* In 1993, when the then-World Wrestling Federation created the WWF Hall of Fame, André the Giant was the inaugural and sole inductee in the class of 1993.<ref name"wwebio">{{cite web |titleAndre the Giant: Bio|websiteWWE|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/superstars/halloffame/inductees/andrethegiant |access-date=2 April 2011}}</ref>
* Roussimoff was the inspiration for the 1998 film My Giant, written by his friend Billy Crystal, whom he had met during the filming of The Princess Bride.
* Paul Wight, better known as Big Show, is more similar in body structure to Roussimoff than any other wrestler since Roussimoff's death. He was originally billed as the son of André during his stint in WCW (when he was known as simply "the Giant") despite there being no biological relationship.{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|pp=341–342}} While also suffering from acromegaly, unlike Roussimoff, Wight did get surgery on his pituitary gland in the early 1990s, which successfully halted the progress of his condition. The former wrestler Giant González suffered from problems similar to those that Roussimoff had near the end of his life and died in 2010 due to diabetes complications.
* In 1999, he was the subject of an episode of A&E Biography, titled André the Giant: Larger Than Life. The documentary covered his childhood and early life in France, as well as the beginning of his wrestling career, his struggles with acromegaly, his personal life, and his final years. His brother, Jacques Roussimoff, was interviewed for the documentary, as were fellow wrestling personalities Gorilla Monsoon, Tim White, Arnold Skaaland, Vince McMahon, Freddie Blassie, Killer Kowalski, Rene Goulet, and Frenchy Bernard, as well as wrestling historian Sheldon Goldberg. Several of his longtime hometown friends were interviewed as well. The documentary described Roussimoff as pro wrestling's "first and only international attraction" and that "on his broad shoulders, wrestling rose from its status as a questionable sport to become big business, and some might argue, performance art."
* The Obey brand icon originated from wheatpaste posters that artist Shepard Fairey created based upon a photo of André the Giant that he had found in a newspaper.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/features/20071230-9999-mz1a30art.html |titleSocial ferment not always reflected in fermentation of artworks |firstRobert L. |lastPincus |access-date22 June 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121022111844/http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/features/20071230-9999-mz1a30art.html |archive-date22 October 2012 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Capcom's video game character Hugo, from the Street Fighter series (known as Andore in the Final Fight series) is based on him.
* The 2014 graphic novel André The Giant: The Life and The Legend (First Second Books), written and drawn by Box Brown, tells the story of his life and career. Research for the book included interviews with his fellow wrestlers and actors such as Christopher Guest, Mandy Patinkin and others.
* In 2017, Showtime released Waiting for Andre,<ref>{{cite web |titleSamuel Beckett and Andre the Giant |urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt6421548/ |websiteIMDb |access-date30 May 2021}}</ref> a semi-fictional movie about the friendship between playwright Samuel Beckett and Roussimoff during the time Beckett lived in Ussy-sur-Marne, outside of Paris. A novel of the movie was published the following year by Steffan Piper ({{ISBN|9781980756217}} / 198075621X from Amazon print on demand).
* On 10 March 2014, episode of Raw, WrestleMania XXX host Hulk Hogan announced that in honor of Roussimoff's legacy, WWE was establishing the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, that would take place at the event, with the winner receiving the André the Giant Memorial Trophy (made in the likeness of Roussimoff).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/2014-03-10/wwe-raw-results-26193637 |titleRaw results: Bryan occupies Raw and Triple H says 'YES!' ... with a twist |workWWE}}</ref> On 6 April 2014, at WrestleMania XXX, Cesaro won the match after eliminating Big Show using a body slam similar to the body slam Hulk Hogan used on Roussimoff at WrestleMania III.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wrestlezone.com/news/466849-and-the-winner-of-the-andre-the-giant-battle-royal-is |titleAnd the Winner of the Andre the Giant Battle Royal Is... |firstNick |lastPaglino |date6 April 2014 |workWrestlezone}}</ref> The battle royal has since become a yearly WrestleMania Weekend tradition. Biopics * In 1999, Biography produced and aired a documentary called Andre The Giant: Larger Than Life.<ref name"Turner Classic Movies 2023">{{cite web | titleAndre The Giant: Larger Than Life| websiteTurner Classic Movies | date30 March 2023 | urlhttp://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/459082/andre-the-giant-larger-than-life | access-date=3 April 2023}}</ref>
* On 9 May 2016, it was announced that a movie based on the 2015 authorized graphic novel biography André the Giant: Closer to Heaven was in the plans made by Lion Forge Comics along with producers Scott Steindorff, Dylan Russell and consulted by Roussimoff's daughter, Robin Christensen-Roussimoff.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://variety.com/2016/film/news/andre-the-giant-biopic-1201769286/|titleAndre The Giant Biopic in the Works (EXCLUSIVE)|firstDave|lastMcNary|date9 May 2016|workVariety|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref>
* On 10 April 2018, HBO aired a documentary film called André the Giant.
Championships and accomplishments
* 50th State Big Time Wrestling
** Texas Battle Royal (1977){{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p=180}}
* All Japan Pro Wrestling
** World's Strongest Tag Determination League East Sports Special Award (1991) – with Giant Baba<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id26&nr253|titleReal World Tag League 1991 " Tournaments Database " CAGEMATCH - The Internet Wrestling Database|lastKreikenbohm|firstPhilip|websitewww.cagematch.net|access-date12 February 2018}}</ref>
* Championship Wrestling from Florida
** NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.solie.org/titlehistories/flttnwa.html |titleNWA Florida Tag Team Title History |websiteSolie's Wrestling Title Histories |access-date18 February 2011}}</ref>{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=47}}
* Fédération Française de Catch Professionnel
** World Heavyweight Championship (France) (1 time)<ref nameffcp>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.wrestling-titles.com/europe/france/fr-world-h.html|titleWorld Heavyweight Title (France)|websitewww.wrestling-titles.com|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>
* Houston Wrestling
** Two-Ring Battle Royal (1974, 1975){{sfnp|Hébert|Laprade|2020|p=148}}
* International Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
** Class of 2021<ref>{{cite web |titleInduction Class 2021 {{!}} Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame |urlhttps://www.prowrestlinghall.org/induction |websiteIPWHF |access-date14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* International Wrestling Enterprise
** IWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Michael Nador{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p7}}<ref nameIWAtagchamp/><ref nameJan19F4W>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.f4wonline.com/other-wrestling/daily-pro-wrestling-history-0118-ivan-koloff-defeats-bruno-sammartino-wwwf-title | titlePro wrestling history (01/18): Ivan Koloff defeats Bruno Sammartino for WWWF title | date18 January 2019 | access-date18 January 2019 | workWrestling Observer Figure Four Online | firstBrian | lastHoops}}</ref>
* NWA Hollywood Wrestling
** Los Angeles Battle Royal (1975, 1980)<ref name"prowrestlinghistory.com">{{Cite web|urlhttp://prowrestlinghistory.com/|titlePro Wrestling History|websiteprowrestlinghistory.com}}</ref>
* NWA San Francisco
** Cow Palace Battle Royal (1977)<ref name="prowrestlinghistory.com"/>
* New Japan Pro-Wrestling
** International Wrestling Grand Prix (1985)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id26&nr2459&page2|titleInternational Wrestling Grand Prix (1985)|firstPhilip|lastKreikenbohm|publisherCagematch - The Internet Wrestling Database|date7 June 1985|access-date18 March 2022}}</ref>
** MSG League (1982)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id26&nr2186&page2|titleMSG League (1982)|firstPhilip|lastKreikenbohm|publisherCagematch - The Internet Wrestling Database|date1 April 1982|access-date15 March 2022}}</ref>
** MSG Tag League (1981) – with Rene Goulet<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id26&nr2445&page2|titleMSG Tag League (1981)|firstPhilip|lastKreikenbohm|publisherCagematch - The Internet Wrestling Database|date10 December 1981|access-date18 March 2022}}</ref>
** Sagawa Express Cup (1986)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id26&nr2174&page2|titleSagawa Express Cup (1986)|firstPhilip|lastKreikenbohm|publisherCagematch - The Internet Wrestling Database|date20 June 1986|access-date18 March 2022}}</ref>
** Greatest 18 Club inductee
* NWA Tri-State
** NWA United States Tag Team Championship (Tri-State version) (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wrestling-titles.com/us/midsouth/nwa/tri-us-t.html|titleNWA United States Tag Team Title (Tri-State) |websiteWrestling Titles |access-date24 February 2011}}</ref>{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=27}}
* Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
** Class of 2002<ref name"PWHOF">{{cite web|titleProfessional Wrestling Hall of Fame: Andre the Giant|urlhttp://www.pwhf.org/halloffamers/bios/andre.asp|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110104024432/http://pwhf.org/halloffamers/bios/andre.asp|archive-date4 January 2011|access-date27 May 2021|websiteProfessional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum}}</ref>
* Pro Wrestling Illustrated
** Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1977, 1982){{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p24}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.100megsfree4.com/wiawrestling/pages/pwi/pwimpoty.htm |titlePro Wrestling Illustrated Award Winners "Most Popular Wrestler of the Year" |websiteWrestling Information Archive |access-date21 March 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080415151636/http://www.100megsfree4.com/wiawrestling/pages/pwi/pwimpoty.htm |archive-date15 April 2008}}</ref>
** Match of the Year (1981) <small>vs. Killer Khan on 2 May</small>
** Match of the Year (1988) <small>vs. Hulk Hogan at The Main Event</small>{{sfnp|Krugman|2009|p=196}}
** Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1988)
** Editor's Award (1993)
** Ranked No. 3 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.100megsfree4.com/wiawrestling/pages/pwi/pwi500yr.htm|access-date6 September 2010|titlePro Wrestling Illustrated Top 500 – PWI Years|websiteWrestling Information Archive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110707054220/http://www.100megsfree4.com/wiawrestling/pages/pwi/pwi500yr.htm|archive-date7 July 2011}}</ref>
*Sports Illustrated
**Ranked No. 16 of the 20 Greatest WWE Wrestlers Of All Time <ref>{{cite magazine |last1Pullar III |first1Sid |title20 Greatest WWE Wrestlers Of All Time |urlhttps://www.si.com/fannation/wrestling/features/10-greatest-wwe-wrestlers-of-all-time |magazineSports Illustrated |date30 September 2024 |access-date=26 November 2024}}</ref>
* Stampede Wrestling
** Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)<ref>{{Cite episode |titleStampede Wrestling Hall of Fame: 1948-1990 |seriesShowdown at the Corral: A Tribute to Stu Hart |series-linkStu Hart 50th Anniversary Show |firstEd (host) |lastWhalen |networkShaw Cable |stationCalgary 7 |date15 December 1995 |time27:55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wrestling-titles.com/canada/ab/stampede/hof.html|titleStampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (1948–1990)|year2003|publisher=Puroresu Dojo}}</ref>
* World Championship Wrestling (Australia)
** NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Miller
* World Wrestling Federation/WWE
** WWF World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name=wwechamp/>
** WWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Haku<ref name=tagchamp/>
** WWE Bronze Statue (2013)<ref>{{YouTube|5DtNQcY6o_E|Triple H Reveals Life Size Statue of André the Giant}}</ref>
** Slammy Award (1 time)
*** Bobby "The Brain" Heenan Scholarship Award (1987) {{small|with The Islanders (Haku and Tama), Hercules, King Kong Bundy and Harley Race}}<ref name"TWN2">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.twnpnews.com/information/WWE/slammys1987.shtml|access-date22 February 2008|titleWWF Slammy Awards (1987)|publisher=TWNP News}}</ref>
** WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1993)<ref name="wwebio"/>
* Wrestling Observer Newsletter
** Feud of the Year (1981) <small>vs. Killer Khan</small>
** Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1989)
** Worst Feud of the Year (1984) <small>vs. Big John Studd</small>
** Worst Feud of the Year (1989) <small>vs. the Ultimate Warrior</small>
** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) <small>vs. Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania 3</small>
** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1989) <small>vs. the Ultimate Warrior on 31 October</small>
** Worst Tag Team (1990, 1991) <small>with Giant Baba</small>
** Worst Wrestler (1989, 1991, 1992)
** Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)
* Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame
** Class of 2016<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/hallofame.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150429003907/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/hallofame.html |url-statusdead |archive-date29 April 2015 |titleCanadian Wrestling Hall of Fame |date3 April 2016|workSlam! Wrestling|publisherCanadian Online Explorer}}</ref>
See also
* List of tallest people
* List of premature professional wrestling deaths
References
{{reflist|refs<ref name"AndreWebsite">{{cite web|titleAndré the Giant official website|urlhttp://www.andrethegiant.com/|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070704022027/http://www.andrethegiant.com/|archive-date4 July 2007|access-date27 May 2021|website=Andre The Giant}}</ref>
<ref namebiography.com>{{cite web|titleAndre the Giant|urlhttp://www.biography.com/people/andre-the-giant-9542226|websitebiography.com|publisherA&E Television Networks, LLC|access-date11 September 2015|quote=At his largest, Roussimoff was probably six feet eleven inches tall, though he was advertised as seven feet four inches.}}</ref>
<ref name"Burkholder2015">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cbssports.com/wwe/news/being-andre-the-giant/ |titleBeing Andre the Giant |websiteCBS Sports |firstDenny |lastBurkholder |date25 March 2015 |access-date22 February 2019 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220808174224/https://www.cbssports.com/wwe/news/being-andre-the-giant/ |archive-date=8 August 2022}}</ref>
<ref name"Hornbaker2012">{{cite book|authorTim Hornbaker|titleLegends of Pro Wrestling: 150 Years of Headlocks, Body Slams, and Piledrivers|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4yNrCgAAQBAJ&pgPA197|year2012|publisherSkyhorse Publishing Inc.|isbn978-1-61321-075-8|page197}}</ref>
<ref name"KreikenbohmAJPW">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id2&nr926&page4&promotion6|titleAndre The Giant - matches|websiteCagematch.net|lastKreikenbohm|firstPhilip|access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref>
<ref name"Krugman2009">{{cite book|authorMichael Krugman|titleAndre the Giant: A Legendary Life|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu8RNM7QmEqkC&pgPA149|year2009|publisherSimon and Schuster|isbn978-1-4391-8813-2|page149}}</ref>
<ref name"LapradeHebert2013">{{cite book|last1Laprade|first1Pat|last2Hebert|first2Bertrand|titleMad Dogs, Midgets and Screw Jobs: The Untold Story of How Montreal Shaped the World of Wrestling|date2013|publisherECW Press|locationCanada|page1911|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEy8bluWM_m4C&pgPA1911|access-date11 September 2015|quoteUpon his arrival in Quebec he was announced as 7' 4" inches...|isbn978-1770902961}}</ref>
<ref name"Picarello2002">{{cite book|authorRobert Picarello|titleMonsters of the Mat|urlhttps://archive.org/details/monstersofmat0000pica|url-accessregistration|year2002|publisherBerkley Boulevard Books|isbn978-0-425-18594-0|page[https://archive.org/details/monstersofmat0000pica/page/185 185]|quote...Andre the Giant, the 7-foot-4, 520-pound behemoth...}}</ref>
<ref namewwe-bio>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.wwe.com/superstars/andrethegiant|titleAndre The Giant WWE|access-date30 March 2022|publisher=WWE}}</ref>
<ref name"wwearchive">{{cite news|titleAndre the Giant: Bio|urlhttp://www.wwe.com/superstars/andrethegiant|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090501202657/http://www.wwe.com/superstars/halloffame/andrethegiant/bio/|archive-date1 May 2009|access-date27 May 2021|websiteWWE}}</ref>
}}
Further reading
* {{cite book|authorlink1Shaun Assael|last1Assael|first1Shaun|last2Mooneyham|first2Mike|year2002|titleSex, Lies and Headlocks: The Real Story of Vince McMahon and the World Wrestling Federation|publisherCrown Publishers|isbn978-0-609-60690-2|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sexliesheadlocks00shau}}
* {{cite book |last1Hébert |first1Bertrand |last2Laprade |first2Pat |titleThe Eighth Wonder of the World: The True Story of André the Giant |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtYPCDwAAQBAJ|date2020 |publisherECW Press |locationToronto, Ontario |isbn=978-1-77041-466-2}}
* {{cite book|lastKrugman|firstMichael|year2009|titleAndré the Giant: A Legendary Life|publisherPocket Books|isbn978-1-4165-4112-7|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu8RNM7QmEqkC}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{wwe superstar}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Professional wrestling profiles}}
{{André the Giant}}
{{Navboxes|list=
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Andre The Giant}}
Category:1946 births
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Category:20th-century French male actors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_the_Giant
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.519324
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2577
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Adrastea (moon)
|
{{Short description|Moon of Jupiter}}
{{For|the moon of Jupiter known by this name between 1955 and 1975|Ananke (moon)}}
{{For|the main-belt asteroid|239 Adrastea}}
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox planet
| name = Adrastea
| pronounced = {{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə}}<ref>as "Adrastia" in Noah Webster (1884) A Practical Dictionary of the English Language</ref>
| adjectives = Adrastean {{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə|n}}<ref>A.H. Clough (1905) ''Plutarch's lives: the translation called Dryden's'', vol. 3, p. 238.</ref><!--also 'Adrastæan Nemesis' from 1809 is the same name-->
| named_after = Ἀδράστεια Adrasteia
| image = File:adrastea.jpg
| image_scale | caption Image of Adrastea taken by Galileo spacecraft between November 1996 and June 1997
| discoverer =
{{plainlist |
* David C. Jewitt
* G. Edward Danielson
}}
| discovered = 8 July 1979
| mean_orbit_radius {{val|129000|ukm}}{{sfn|Evans Porco et al.|2002}}{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0015}}{{sfn|Evans Porco et al.|2002}}{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
| period {{val|0.29826|ud}} <br> (7 h, 9.5 min){{sfn|Evans Porco et al.|2002}}{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
| avg_speed 31.378 km/s{{efn|namecalculated}}
| inclination = 0.03° <br> (to Jupiter's equator){{sfn|Evans Porco et al.|2002}}{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
| satellite_of = Jupiter
| mean_radius {{val|8.2|2.0|ukm}}{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
| dimensions = 20&thinsp;×&thinsp;16&thinsp;×&thinsp;14 km{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
| volume {{val|p≈&thinsp;|2345|ukm<sup>3</sup>}}{{efn|namecalculated}}
| mass | density
| surface_grav | escape_velocity
| rotation = synchronous
| axial_tilt = zero{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
| albedo = {{val|0.10|0.045}}{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
| single_temperature = ≈&thinsp;122 K
}}
Adrastea ({{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə}}), also known as {{nowrap|Jupiter XV}}, is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by Voyager&nbsp;2 in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope.{{sfn|IAUC 3454}} It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus—the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.{{sfn|IAUC 3872}}
Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter's main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the Galileo spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.
Discovery and observations
Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in Voyager&nbsp;2 probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation {{nowrap|S/1979&nbsp;J&nbsp;1}}.{{sfn|IAUC 3454}}{{sfn|Jewitt Danielson et al.|1979}} Although it appeared only as a dot,{{sfn|Jewitt Danielson et al.|1979}} it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by Voyager&nbsp;1. The Galileo spacecraft was able to determine the moon's shape in 1998, but the images remain poor.{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}} In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.{{sfn|IAUC 3872}}
Although the Juno orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea.<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015AGUFM.P41B2066H JunoCam: Science and Outreach Opportunities with Juno<!-- Bot generated title -->] Hansen, C. J.; Orton, G. S. American Geophysical Union 12/2015</ref>
{{clear|left}}
Physical characteristics
Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14&nbsp;km across.{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}} A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (~1,200) km<sup>2</sup>. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea,{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}} around 0.86&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>,{{sfn|Anderson Johnson et al.|2005}} its mass can be estimated at 2{{E-sp|15}}&nbsp;kg. Amalthea's density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10–15%, and Adrastea may be similar.{{sfn|Anderson Johnson et al.|2005}}
No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
Orbit
Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at 70,200&nbsp;mph at a radius of about {{Convert|129,000|km|mi|abbron|spus|sigfig=1}} (1.806&nbsp;Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet's main ring.{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}} Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter's equator of 0.03°, respectively.{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.{{sfn|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}
The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis's), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea's then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
Relationship with Jupiter's rings
Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter's rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea's orbit.{{sfn|Burns Showalter et al.|1999}} More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter's main ring.{{sfn|Ockert-Bell Burns et al.|1999}} The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring,{{sfn|Ockert-Bell Burns et al.|1999}} but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea's orbit.{{sfn|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
Notes
{{notes
| notes =
{{efn
| name = calculated
| Calculated on the basis of other parameters.
}}
}}
References
{{reflist|20em}}
Cited sources
* {{cite journal| doi 10.1126/science.1110422| last1 Anderson | first1 J. D.| last2 Johnson | first2 T. V.| last3 Schubert | first3 G.| last4 Asmar | first4 S.| last5 Jacobson | first5 R. A.| last6 Johnston | first6 D.| last7 Lau | first7 E. L.| last8 Lewis | first8 G.| last9 Moore | first9 W. B.| date 27 May 2005| last10 Taylor | first10 A.| last11 Thomas | first11 P. C.| last12 Weinwurm | first12 G.| title Amalthea's Density is Less Than That of Water| journal Science| volume 308| issue 5726| pages 1291–1293| pmid 15919987| bibcode 2005Sci...308.1291A| s2cid 924257 | ref = {{sfnRef|Anderson Johnson et al.|2005}}}}
* {{cite journal| doi 10.1126/science.284.5417.1146| last1 Burns| first1 Joseph A.| last2 Showalter| first2 Mark R.| last3 Hamilton| first3 Douglas P.| last4 Nicholson| first4 Philip D.| last5 de Pater| first5 Imke| last6 Ockert-Bell| first6 Maureen E.| last7 Thomas| first7 Peter C.| date 14 May 1999| title The Formation of Jupiter's Faint Rings| journal Science| volume 284| issue 5417| pages 1146–1150| pmid 10325220| bibcode 1999Sci...284.1146B| ref {{sfnRef|Burns Showalter et al.|1999}}}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
| last1 = Burns
| first1 = Joseph A.
| last2 = Simonelli
| first2 = Damon P.
| last3 = Showalter
| first3 = Mark R.
| last4 = Hamilton
| first4 = Douglas P.
| last5 = Porco
| first5 = Carolyn C.
| last6 = Throop
| first6 = Henry
| last7 = Esposito
| first7 = Larry W.
| year = 2004
| pages = 241–262
| title = Jupiter's Ring-Moon System
| encyclopedia = Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| editor1-last = Bagenal
| editor1-first = Fran
| editor2-last = Dowling
| editor2-first = Timothy E.
| editor3-last = McKinnon
| editor3-first = William B.
| url = http://www.astro.umd.edu/~hamilton/research/preprints/BurSimSho03.pdf
| bibcode = 2004jpsm.book..241B
| isbn = 978-0-521-81808-7
| ref = {{sfnRef|Burns Simonelli et al.|2004}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| last1 = Evans
| first1 = M. W.
| last2 = Porco
| first2 = C. C.
| last3 = Hamilton
| first3 = D. P.
| date=September 2002
| title = The Orbits of Metis and Adrastea: The Origin and Significance of their Inclinations
| journal = Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
| volume = 34
| pages = 883
| bibcode = 2002DPS....34.2403E
| ref = {{sfnRef|Evans Porco et al.|2002}}
}}
* {{cite journal| doi 10.1126/science.206.4421.951| last1 Jewitt| first1 David C.| last2 Danielson| first2 G. Edward| last3 Synnott| first3 Stephen P.| date November 23, 1979| title Discovery of a New Jupiter Satellite| journal Science| volume 206| issue 4421| pages 951| pmid 17733911| bibcode 1979Sci...206..951J| s2cid 6391249| ref = {{sfnRef|Jewitt Danielson et al.|1979}}}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Marsden
|first=Brian G.
|date=February 25, 1980
|title=Editorial Notice
|journal=IAU Circular
|volume=3454
|url=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/03400/03454.html
|access-date=2012-03-28
|ref={{sfnRef|IAUC 3454}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725035158/http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/03400/03454.html
|archive-date=2011-07-25
}} (discovery)
* {{cite journal
| last = Marsden
| first = Brian G.
| date = September 30, 1983
| title = Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn
| journal = IAU Circular
| volume = 3872
| url = http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/03800/03872.html
| access-date = 2012-03-28
| ref = {{sfnRef|IAUC 3872}}
}} (naming the moon)
* {{cite journal| doi 10.1006/icar.1998.6072| last1 Ockert-Bell | first1 M. E.| last2 Burns | first2 J. A.| last3 Daubar | first3 I. J.| last4 Thomas | first4 P. C.| last5 Veverka | first5 J.| last6 Belton | first6 M. J. S.| last7 Klaasen | first7 K. P.| date 1 April 1999| title The Structure of Jupiter's Ring System as Revealed by the Galileo Imaging Experiment| journal Icarus| volume 138| issue 2| pages 188–213| bibcode 1999Icar..138..188O| ref {{sfnRef|Ockert-Bell Burns et al.|1999}}| doi-access free}}
* {{cite journal| doi 10.1006/icar.1998.5976| last1 Thomas | first1 P. C.| last2 Burns | first2 J. A.| last3 Rossier | first3 L.| last4 Simonelli | first4 D.| last5 Veverka | first5 J.| last6 Chapman | first6 C. R.| last7 Klaasen | first7 K.| last8 Johnson | first8 T. V.| last9 Belton | first9 M. J. S.| author10 Galileo Solid State Imaging Team| date September 1998| title The Small Inner Satellites of Jupiter| journal Icarus| volume 135| issue 1| pages 360–371| bibcode 1998Icar..135..360T| ref {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|1998}}| doi-access free}}External links* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130317224600/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?ObjectJup_Adrastea Adrastea Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2021-03-01|En-Adrastea (moon)-article.ogg}}{{Moons of Jupiter}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adrastea (Moon)}}
Category:Moons of Jupiter
19790708
Category:Discoveries by David C. Jewitt
Category:Discoveries by G. Edward Danielson
Category:Moons with a prograde orbit
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrastea_(moon)
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.531861
|
2578
|
Amalthea
|
Amalthea may refer to:
Amalthea (mythology), the foster-mother of Zeus in Greek mythology
Amalthea (moon), a moon of Jupiter
113 Amalthea, a main-belt asteroid
Cumaean Sibyl or Amalthea, a priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Cumae, a Greek colony near Naples, Italy
Lady Amalthea, a character in The Last Unicorn
Amalthea Cellars, a winery in New Jersey, United States
Ships
Amalthea (1863), a barquentine bombed by Anton Nilson in 1908
Amalthea (1881), a steam yacht built as Iolanthe, renamed Amalthæa, and later renamed
(1985), a cargo ship
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalthea
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.533729
|
2580
|
Ananke (disambiguation)
|
Ananke is a deity in Greek mythology. Ananke may also refer to:
Ananke (moon), a moon of Jupiter
Ananke group, a group of satellites of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Ananke
"Ananke", a short story by Stanisław Lem from Tales of Pirx the Pilot
Cosmopterix ananke, a moth of family Cosmopterigidae
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ananke_(disambiguation)
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.535062
|
2581
|
Apache HTTP Server
|
{{Short description|Open-source web server software}}
{{Technical|date=September 2010}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Apache HTTP Server
| logo = Apache HTTP server logo (2019-present).svg
| screenshot | caption
| author = Robert McCool
| developer = Apache Software Foundation
| released {{Start date and age|1995}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/ABOUT_APACHE.html|titleAbout the Apache HTTP Server Project|publisherApache Software Foundation|access-date2008-06-25|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080607122013/http://httpd.apache.org/ABOUT_APACHE.html|archive-date7 June 2008 |url-status live}}</ref>
| latest release version {{wikidata|property|preferred|references|edit|Q11354|P348|P548Q2804309}}
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|{{#time:Y|{{#invoke:wd|qualifier|raw|P348|P577}}}}|{{#time:m|{{#invoke:wd|qualifier|raw|P348|P577}}}}|{{#time:d|{{#invoke:wd|qualifier|raw|P348|P577}}}}}}
| latest preview version {{wikidata|property|preferred|references|edit|Q11354|P348|P548Q51930650}}
| latest preview date {{wikidata|qualifier|preferred|single|Q11354|P348|P548Q51930650|P577}}
| operating system Unix-like, Microsoft Windows,<ref>{{cite web|titleCompiling and Installing|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/install.html|websitehttpd.apache.org|publisherThe Apache Software Foundation|access-date9 May 2016|archive-date7 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160507054137/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/install.html|url-status=live}}</ref> OpenVMS
| programming language C<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://projects-old.apache.org/indexes/language.html |titleApache Software Foundation Index: Projects by Programming Language Index |access-date2016-02-27 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160302011644/http://projects-old.apache.org/indexes/language.html |archive-date=2016-03-02 }}</ref>
| genre = Web server
| license = Apache-2.0
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}
The Apache HTTP Server ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|p|æ|tʃ|i}} {{Respell|ə|PATCH|ee}}) is a free and open-source cross-platform web server, released under the terms of Apache License 2.0. It is developed and maintained by a community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation.
The vast majority of Apache HTTP Server instances run on a Linux distribution,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://secure1.securityspace.com/s_survey/data/man.201808/apacheos.html|titleOS/Linux Distributions using Apache|websitesecure1.securityspace.com|access-date2018-09-17|archive-date2018-09-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180918054337/https://secure1.securityspace.com/s_survey/data/man.201808/apacheos.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> but current versions also run on Microsoft Windows,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/platform/index.html.en|titlePlatform Specific Notes - Apache HTTP Server Version 2.4|websitehttpd.apache.org|access-date2019-01-21|archive-date2019-01-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190122044008/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/platform/index.html.en|url-statuslive}}</ref> OpenVMS,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://vmssoftware.com/products/secure-web-server/|titleSecure Web Server|access-date2020-10-20|websitevmssoftware.com|archive-date2020-10-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201022051216/https://vmssoftware.com/products/secure-web-server/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and a wide variety of Unix-like systems. Past versions also ran on NetWare, OS/2 and other operating systems,<ref nameolder/> including ports to mainframes.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/platform/ebcdic.html.en|titleThe Apache EBCDIC Port - Apache HTTP Server Version 2.4|websitehttpd.apache.org|access-date2019-08-16|archive-date2019-02-27|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190227063613/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/platform/ebcdic.html.en|url-status=live}}</ref>
Originally based on the NCSA HTTPd server, development of Apache began in early 1995 after work on the NCSA code stalled.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbout the Apache HTTP Server Project - The Apache HTTP Server Project |urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/ABOUT_APACHE.html |access-date2024-02-08 |websitehttpd.apache.org}}</ref> Apache played a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web,<ref>[http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html Netcraft Market Share] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100520142533/http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html |date2010-05-20 }} for Top Servers Across All Domains August 1995 - today (monthly updated)</ref> quickly overtaking NCSA HTTPd as the dominant HTTP server<!--
it's unclear what graphs is best representation of popularity but Microsoft topped out at 53% share (now down to 13%) in 2017 for "Web server developers: Market share for all sites" (but see also https://www.netcraft.com/active-sites/ ), so I'm commenting out:
, and has remained most popular since April 1996-->. In 2009, it became the first web server software to serve more than 100 million websites.<ref name"100millionsites">{{Cite web|urlhttps://news.netcraft.com/archives/2009/02/18/february_2009_web_server_survey.html|titleFebruary 2009 Web Server Survey|date18 February 2009 |publisherNetcraft|access-date2009-03-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090226092501/http://news.netcraft.com//archives//2009//02//18//february_2009_web_server_survey.html|archive-date 26 February 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
{{As of|2022|03}}, Netcraft estimated that Apache served 23.04% of the million busiest websites, while Nginx served
22.01%; Cloudflare at 19.53% and Microsoft Internet Information Services at 5.78% rounded out the top four. For some of Netcraft's other stats, Nginx is ahead of Apache.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMarch 2022 Web Server Survey |urlhttps://news.netcraft.com/archives/2022/03/29/march-2022-web-server-survey.html |access-date2022-06-18 |websiteNetcraft News |date29 March 2022 |languageen-gb |archive-date2022-05-28 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220528125224/https://news.netcraft.com/archives/2022/03/29/march-2022-web-server-survey.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> According to W3Techs' review of all web sites, in June 2022 Apache was ranked second at 31.4% and Nginx first at 33.6%, with Cloudflare Server third at 21.6%.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/web_server |titleUsage Statistics of Web Servers |websitew3techs.com |access-date2022-06-18 |archive-date2023-07-25 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230725191205/https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/web_server |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Name
According to The Apache Software Foundation, its name was chosen "from respect for the various Native American nations collectively referred to as Apache, well-known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance".<ref name"Apache Foundation">{{cite web |titleApache Foundation |urlhttps://www.apache.org/foundation/faq.html#name |websitewww.apache.org |access-date22 August 2018 |archive-date13 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211213004914/https://www.apache.org/foundation/faq.html#name |url-statuslive }}</ref> This was in a context in which it seemed that the open internet—based on free exchange of open source code—appeared to be soon subjected to a kind of conquer by proprietary software vendor Microsoft; Apache co-creator Brian Behlendorf—originator of the name—saw his effort somewhat parallel that of Geronimo, Chief of the last of the free Apache peoples.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vJUt2nb0mgwg&t234 | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/JUt2nb0mgwg| archive-date2021-11-22 | url-statuslive|title"Trillions and Trillions Served" documentary feature on The Apache Software Foundation |publisherTheApacheFoundation / Youtube |date2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vu_dhmGNeNEc&t2700 | archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/u_dhmGNeNEc| archive-date2021-11-22 | url-statuslive|titleA Foundation of Trust: Building a Blockchain Future : Brian Behlendorf |date2020-02-10 |publisherLong Now Foundation / YouTube }}{{cbignore}}</ref> But it conceded that the name "also makes a cute pun on 'a patchy web server'—a server made from a series of patches".
There are other sources for the "patchy" software pun theory, including the project's official documentation in 1995, which stated: "Apache is a cute name which stuck. It was based on some existing code and a series of software patches, a pun on 'A PAtCHy' server."<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.apache.org/info.html |titleInformation on the Apache HTTP Server Project |date1997-04-15 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19970415054031/http://www.apache.org/info.html |archive-dateApril 15, 1997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleApache Server Frequently Asked Questions|urlhttp://www.apache.org/docs/misc/FAQ.html#relate|access-date15 January 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19970106233141/http://www.apache.org/docs/misc/FAQ.html#relate |archive-date=1997-01-06}}</ref>
But in an April 2000 interview, Behlendorf asserted that the origins of Apache were not a pun, stating:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.linux-mag.com/id/472/|titleApache Power|workLinux Magazine |first Robert|last McMillan|date 15 April 2000|url-statususurped|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190128065900/http://www.linux-mag.com/id/472/ |archive-date = 28 January 2019}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
|The name literally came out of the blue. I wish I could say that it was something fantastic, but it was out of the blue. I put it on a page and then a few months later when this project started, I pointed people to this page and said: "Hey, what do you think of that idea?" ... Someone said they liked the name and that it was a really good pun. And I was like, "A pun? What do you mean?" He said, "Well, we're building a server out of a bunch of software patches, right? So it's a patchy Web server." I went, "Oh, all right." ... When I thought of the name, no. It just sort of connoted: "Take no prisoners. Be kind of aggressive and kick some ass."
}}
In January 2023, the US-based non-profit Natives in Tech accused the Apache Software Foundation of cultural appropriation and urged them to change the foundation's name, and consequently also the names of the software projects it hosts.<ref>{{Cite web |lastClaburn |firstThomas |date2023-01-11 |titleNative Americans ask Apache foundation to change name |urlhttps://www.theregister.com/2023/01/11/native_american_apache_software_foundation/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112000842/https://www.theregister.com/2023/01/11/native_american_apache_software_foundation/ |archive-date2023-01-12 |access-date2023-01-12 |websiteThe Register |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastPurdy |firstKevin |date2023-01-12 |titleIndigenous tech group asks Apache Foundation to change its name |urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2023/01/indigenous-tech-group-asks-apache-foundation-to-change-its-name/ |access-date2023-01-12 |websiteArs Technica |languageen-us |archive-date2023-01-12 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112181127/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2023/01/indigenous-tech-group-asks-apache-foundation-to-change-its-name/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
When Apache is running under Unix, its process name is {{code|httpd}}, which is short for "HTTP daemon".<ref>{{cite web |titleApache Docs |urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/invoking.html |websitehttpd.apache.org |access-date22 August 2018 |archive-date5 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180905182937/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/invoking.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>Feature overview
Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from authentication schemes to supporting server-side programming languages such as <!-- ATTENTION AUTO-EDITORS, THESE UNDERSCORES ARE INTENTIONAL -->Perl, Python, Tcl and PHP. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support (mod_ssl), a proxy module (mod_proxy), a URL rewriting module (mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).
Popular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip<!-- redirects to here -->, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of web pages served over HTTP. ModSecurity is an open source intrusion detection and prevention engine for Web applications. Apache logs can be analyzed through a Web browser using free scripts, such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors.
Virtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different websites. For example, one computer with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve <code>example.com</code>, <code>example.org</code>, <code>test47.test-server.example.edu</code>, etc.
Apache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, content negotiation and supports several graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
It supports password authentication and digital certificate authentication. Because the source code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large public library of Apache add-ons.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.webopedia.com/definitions/apache-web-server/|titleApache Web Server|workwebopedia.com|date23 March 1998|access-date12 May 2021|archive-date12 May 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512193103/https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/apache-web-server/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
A more detailed list of features is provided below:
* Loadable Dynamic Modules
* Multiple Request Processing modes (MPMs) including Event-based/Async, Threaded and Prefork.
* Highly scalable (easily handles more than 10,000 simultaneous connections)
* Handling of static files, index files, auto-indexing and content negotiation
* <kbd>.htaccess</kbd> per-directory configuration support<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/htaccess.html | title Apache HTTP Server Tutorial: .htaccess files | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-25 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160225155611/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/htaccess.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* Reverse proxy with caching<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_proxy.html | title mod_proxy | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2018-07-29 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180729204047/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_proxy.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
** Load balancing<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_proxy_balancer.html | title mod_proxy_balancer | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-13 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160213163641/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_proxy_balancer.html | url-status = live }}</ref> with in-band health checks
** Multiple load balancing mechanisms
** Fault tolerance and Failover with automatic recovery
** WebSocket, FastCGI, SCGI, AJP and uWSGI support with caching
** Dynamic configuration<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/howto/reverse_proxy.html#manager|titleBalancer Manager|publisherApache.org|access-date2016-02-19|archive-date2016-03-04|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304103556/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/howto/reverse_proxy.html#manager|url-status=live}}</ref>
* TLS/SSL with SNI and OCSP stapling support, via OpenSSL or wolfSSL.
* Name- and IP address-based virtual servers
* IPv6-compatible
* HTTP/2 support
* Fine-grained authentication and authorization access control<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/auth.html|titleAuthentication and Authorization|publisherApache.org|access-date2016-02-19|archive-date2018-01-31|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180131130634/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/auth.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* gzip compression and decompression
* URL rewriting<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_rewrite.html | title mod_rewrite | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-13 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160213152803/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_rewrite.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* Headers<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_headers.html | title mod_headers | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-21 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160221033800/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_headers.html | url-status live }}</ref> and content<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_sed.html | title mod_sed | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-03-04 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160304013210/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_sed.html | url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_substitute.html | title mod_substitute | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-03-04 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073406/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_substitute.html | url-status = live }}</ref> rewriting
* Custom logging with rotation
* Concurrent connection limiting
* Request processing rate limiting
* Bandwidth throttling
* Server Side Includes<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/ssi.html | title Apache httpd Tutorial: Introduction to Server Side Includes | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-18 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160218133535/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/ssi.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* IP address-based geolocation
* User and Session tracking<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_usertrack.html | title mod_usertrack | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2021-05-12 | archive-date 2021-05-12 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210512192558/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_usertrack.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* WebDAV
* Embedded Perl, PHP and Lua scripting
* CGI support<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/cgi.html | title Apache Tutorial: Dynamic Content with CGI | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2021-11-15 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211115181448/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/cgi.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* <code>public_html</code> per-user web-pages<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/public_html.html | title Per-user web directories | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-16 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160216122731/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/howto/public_html.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* Generic expression parser<ref>{{cite web| url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/expr.html| title Expressions in Apache HTTP Server| publisher Apache.org| access-date 2016-02-19| archive-date 2016-02-29| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160229120307/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/expr.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
* Real-time status views<ref>{{cite web | url https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_status.html | title mod_status | publisher Apache.org | access-date 2016-02-19 | archive-date 2016-02-13 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160213154107/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_status.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* FTP support (by a separate module)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/mod_ftp/mod/mod_ftp.html | title Apache Module: mod_ftp | publisherApache.org | access-date 2017-07-08 | archive-date2017-07-10 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170710072314/http://httpd.apache.org/mod_ftp/mod/mod_ftp.html | url-statuslive }}</ref>PerformanceInstead of implementing a single architecture, Apache provides a variety of MultiProcessing Modules (MPMs), which allow it to run in either a process-based mode, a hybrid (process and thread) mode, or an event-hybrid mode, in order to better match the demands of each particular infrastructure. Choice of MPM and configuration is therefore important. Where compromises in performance must be made, Apache is designed to reduce latency and increase throughput relative to simply handling more requests, thus ensuring consistent and reliable processing of requests within reasonable time-frames.{{clarify |dateAugust 2018}}<!--It isn't clear to a non-specialist like me why increasing throughput is different from handling more requests or why reducing latency (which sounds like increasing speed) wouldn't enable you to handle more requests. It also isn't clear how either of these represent a compromise in performance. Also, is Apache doing something that decreases latency and increases throughput _relative_ to what you would get by handling more requests, or is it decreasing latency and increasing throughput _rather_ than handling more requests? If the latter, "rather than" should replace "relative to" in that sentence.-->
For delivering static pages, Apache 2.2 series was considered significantly slower than nginx and varnish.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://nbonvin.wordpress.com/2011/03/14/apache-vs-nginx-vs-varnish-vs-gwan/|titleServing static files: a comparison between Apache, Nginx, Varnish and G-WAN|workSpoot!|date14 March 2011|access-date23 April 2014|archive-date24 April 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140424234153/http://nbonvin.wordpress.com/2011/03/14/apache-vs-nginx-vs-varnish-vs-gwan/|url-statuslive}}</ref> To address this issue, the Apache developers created the Event MPM, which mixes the use of several processes and several threads per process in an asynchronous event-based loop.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/worker.html|titleworker - Apache HTTP Server Version 2.2|workapache.org|access-date2021-05-12|archive-date2021-05-10|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210510050745/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/worker.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{clarify |dateAugust 2018 |reasonMixes the use of xyz with what? Or, if (a) several processes and (b) several processes per thread are the things being mixed, the sentence should read "...Event MPM, which uses several processes and several threads per process...". Also, can someone with more technical knowledge please explain why this approach is advantageous?}} This architecture as implemented in the Apache 2.4 series performs at least as well as event-based web servers, according to Jim Jagielski and other independent sources.<ref>{{cite web| url http://people.apache.org/~jim/presos/ACNA11/Apache_httpd_cloud.pdf| title Apache httpd 2.4| access-date 2012-02-08| archive-date 2012-01-27| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120127033804/http://people.apache.org/~jim/presos/ACNA11/Apache_httpd_cloud.pdf| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.slideshare.net/bryan_call/choosing-a-proxy-server-apachecon-2014|titlePicking a Proxy Server|date14 April 2014|access-date19 February 2016|archive-date3 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303105755/http://www.slideshare.net/bryan_call/choosing-a-proxy-server-apachecon-2014|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://blog.matsumoto-r.jp/?p1812|titleThroughput evaluation of Apache 2.4.1|date22 February 2012 |access-date2016-02-19|archive-date2016-03-02|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160302133533/http://blog.matsumoto-r.jp/?p1812|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, some independent but significantly outdated benchmarks show that it is still half as fast as nginx, e.g.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.eschrade.com/page/performance-of-apache-2-4-with-the-event-mpm-compared-to-nginx/|titlePerformance of Apache 2.4 with the event MPM compared to Nginx|workeschrade.com|date3 January 2014|access-date13 March 2014|archive-date13 March 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140313213901/http://www.eschrade.com/page/performance-of-apache-2-4-with-the-event-mpm-compared-to-nginx/|url-statuslive}}</ref>LicensingThe Apache HTTP Server codebase was relicensed to the Apache 2.0 License (from the previous 1.1 license) in January 2004,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0.html|titleApache License, Version 2.0|publisherThe Apache Software Foundation|dateJanuary 2004|access-date2013-05-21|archive-date2013-05-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130518072534/http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Apache HTTP Server 1.3.31 and 2.0.49 were the first releases using the new license.<ref>{{Cite newsgroup|titleFYI: Apache HTTP Server 2.0.49 Released|lastBurton|firstRichard Antony|newsgroupalt.apache.configuration|urlhttps://groups.google.com/d/msg/alt.apache.configuration/042hhGcLWUs/rDJdt5b927cJ|access-date=2018-02-16}}</ref>
The OpenBSD project did not like the change and continued the use of pre-2.0 Apache versions, effectively forking Apache 1.3.x for its purposes.<ref>{{Cite mailing list|urlhttp://marc.info/?lopenbsd-misc&m107714762916291|titleThe new apache license|lastde Raadt|firstTheo|author-linkTheo de Raadt|mailing-listopenbsd-misc|date18 February 2004|access-date2013-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.openbsd.org/policy.html|titleCopyright Policy|publisherOpenBSD|access-date2013-05-12|archive-date2017-11-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171113040622/http://www.openbsd.org/policy.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ports.su/www/apache-httpd-openbsd |titleapache-httpd-openbsd-1.3.20140502p2 – OpenBSD improved and secured version of Apache 1.3 |websiteOpenBSD ports |access-date2014-12-28 |archive-date2015-03-02 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150302031504/http://ports.su/www/apache-httpd-openbsd |url-statuslive }}</ref> They initially replaced it with Nginx, and soon after made their own replacement, OpenBSD Httpd, based on the Relayd project.<ref>{{cite news |last1Marvin |first1Rob |titleInside OpenBSD's new httpd Web server |urlhttps://sdtimes.com/httpd/inside-openbsds-new-httpd-web-server/ |access-date12 October 2019 |workSD Times |date25 March 2015 |archive-date12 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191012215958/https://sdtimes.com/httpd/inside-openbsds-new-httpd-web-server/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.openbsd.org/faq/upgrade52.html#nginx|titleOpenBSD Upgrade Guide: 5.1 to 5.2|workopenbsd.org|access-date2014-03-13|archive-date2017-12-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171222055544/http://www.openbsd.org/faq/upgrade52.html#nginx|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://undeadly.org/cgi?actionarticle&sid20140314080734|date2014-03-14|titleHeads Up: Apache Removed from Base|websiteOpenBSD Journal|editorjj|access-date2014-12-29|archive-date2014-10-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141018182803/http://www.undeadly.org/cgi?actionarticle&sid20140314080734|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.openbsd.org/faq/upgrade56.html#ToPorts|titleOpenBSD Upgrade Guide: 5.5 to 5.6|workopenbsd.org|access-date2014-12-29|archive-date2014-12-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141222025858/http://www.openbsd.org/faq/upgrade56.html#ToPorts|url-statuslive}}</ref>Versions
Version 1.1:
The Apache License 1.1 was approved by the ASF in 2000: The primary change from the 1.0 license is in the 'advertising clause' (section 3 of the 1.0 license); derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation.
Version 2.0:
The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004. The stated goals of the license included making the license easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.
Development
{|class"wikitable" style"float: right; margin-left: 1em;"
|+Versions of Apache HTTP Server
|-
!scope="col"|Version
!scope="col"|Initial release
!scope="col"|Latest release
|-
!scope="row" {{Version|o|1.3}}
|1998-06-06<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m90221040625561&w2|titleAnnouncement: Apache 1.3.0 Released !|date1998-06-06|access-date2015-01-06|archive-date2018-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181211203756/https://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m90221040625561&w2|url-status=live}}</ref>
|2010-02-03 (1.3.42)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/httpd-announce/201002.mbox/%3C20100203000334.GA19021%40infiltrator.stdlib.net%3E|titleApache HTTP Server 1.3.42 released (final release of 1.3.x)|workapache.org|access-date2015-01-06|archive-date2015-03-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150311184801/http://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/httpd-announce/201002.mbox/%[email protected]%3E|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row" {{Version|o|2.0}}
|2002-04-06<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m101810732100356&w2|titleOfficial Release: Apache 2.0.35 is now GA|date2002-04-06|access-date2015-01-06|archive-date2018-12-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181212084822/https://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m101810732100356&w2|url-status=live}}</ref>
|2013-07-10 (2.0.65)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/httpd-announce/201307.mbox/%3C20130710124920.2b8793ed.wrowe%40rowe-clan.net%3E|title[Announcement] Apache HTTP Server 2.0.65 Released|workapache.org|access-date2015-01-06|archive-date2015-07-28|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150728000646/http://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/httpd-announce/201307.mbox/%[email protected]%3E|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row" {{Version|o|2.2}}
|2005-12-01<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m113347470201565&w2|titleApache HTTP Server 2.2.0 Released|date2005-12-01|access-date2015-01-06|archive-date2018-12-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181212145848/https://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m113347470201565&w2|url-status=live}}</ref>
|2017-07-11 (2.2.34)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/www-announce/201707.mbox/%3CCACsi2512a0dKZm5SEb9GyNH6nMfs1+swpxyui3c+UZUwvi3vvg@mail.gmail.com%3E|title[Announce] Apache HTTP Server 2.2.34 Released|workapache.org|access-date2019-04-03|archive-date2020-08-21|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200821113300/https://mail-archives.apache.org/mod_mbox/www-announce/201707.mbox/%3CCACsi2512a0dKZm5SEb9GyNH6nMfs1+swpxyui3c+UZUwvi3vvg@mail.gmail.com%3E|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row" {{Version|c|2.4}}
|2012-02-21<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m132983471818384&w2|title[ANNOUNCEMENT] Apache HTTP Server 2.4.1 Released|date2012-02-21|access-date2015-07-17|archive-date2021-02-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210212205004/https://marc.info/?lapache-httpd-announce&m132983471818384&w2|url-status=live}}</ref>
|2025-01-23 (2.4.63)<ref>{{cite web |titleApache HTTP Server 2.4.63 Released |urlhttps://downloads.apache.org/httpd/Announcement2.4.html |archive-url|archive-date |access-date2025-02-20 |workapache.org}}</ref>
|-
|colspan"3"|{{Version|l|show010100}}
|}
The Apache HTTP Server Project is a collaborative software development effort aimed at creating a robust, commercial-grade, feature-rich and freely available source code implementation of an HTTP (Web) server. The project is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet and the Web to communicate, plan, and develop the server and its related documentation. This project is part of the Apache Software Foundation. In addition, hundreds of users have contributed ideas, code, and documentation to the project.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/ABOUT_APACHE.html|titleAbout the Apache HTTP Server Project - The Apache HTTP Server Project|authorDocumentation Group|workapache.org|access-date2021-05-12|archive-date2008-06-07|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080607122013/http://httpd.apache.org/ABOUT_APACHE.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url http://www.ohloh.net/p/apache| title The Apache HTTP Server Open Source Project on Ohloh. (n.d.). Ohloh, the open source network. Retrieved November 12, 2012| access-date February 8, 2012| archive-date March 9, 2012| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120309003935/https://www.ohloh.net/p/apache| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora/13/html/Managing_Confined_Services/chap-Managing_Confined_Services-The_Apache_HTTP_Server.html|titleChapter 4. The Apache HTTP Server|workfedoraproject.org|access-date2012-12-03|archive-date2012-11-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121125111059/http://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora/13/html/Managing_Confined_Services/chap-Managing_Confined_Services-The_Apache_HTTP_Server.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Apache 2.4 dropped support for BeOS, TPF, A/UX, NeXT, and Tandem platforms.<ref nameolder>{{cite web |urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/upgrading.html |titleUpgrading to 2.4 from 2.2 |quotePlatform support has been removed for BeOS, TPF, and even older platforms such as A/UX, Next, and Tandem. These were believed to be broken anyway. |access-date2021-05-12 |archive-date2021-05-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210510141206/https://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/upgrading.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Security
{{Disputed section|date=January 2021}}
Apache, like other server software, can be hacked and exploited. The main Apache attack tool is Slowloris, which exploits a bug in Apache software.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://isc.sans.edu/diary/Apache+HTTP+DoS+tool+mitigation/6613|titleApache HTTP DoS tool mitigation|lastZdrnja|firstBojan|publisherSANS Institute|date21 June 2009|access-date12 November 2021|archive-date12 November 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211112130802/https://isc.sans.edu/diary/Apache+HTTP+DoS+tool+mitigation/6613|url-statuslive}}</ref> It creates many sockets and keeps each of them alive and busy by sending several bytes (known as "keep-alive headers") to let the server know that the computer is still connected and not experiencing network problems. The Apache developers have addressed Slowloris with several modules to limit the damage caused; the Apache modules mod_limitipconn, mod_qos, mod_evasive, mod security, mod_noloris, and mod_antiloris have all been suggested as means of reducing the likelihood of a successful Slowloris attack.<ref name"ha.ckers.org">{{cite web |urlhttp://ha.ckers.org/slowloris |titleSlowloris HTTP DoS |access-date2009-06-26 |url-statusbot: unknown |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150426090206/http://ha.ckers.org/slowloris |archive-date26 April 2015 |dfdmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://bahumbug.wordpress.com/2009/07/01/mod_noloris-defending-against-dos/ |titlemod_noloris: defending against DoS |dateJuly 2009 |publisherniq's soapbox |access-date7 January 2012 |archive-date8 October 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111008151654/http://bahumbug.wordpress.com/2009/07/01/mod_noloris-defending-against-dos/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Since Apache 2.2.15, Apache ships the module mod_reqtimeout as the official solution supported by the developers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_reqtimeout.html |titlemod_reqtimeout |publisherApache.org |access-date2013-07-03 |archive-date2013-07-03 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130703041319/http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.4/mod/mod_reqtimeout.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>See also
{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
* .htaccess
* .htpasswd
* ApacheBench
* Comparison of web server software
* IBM HTTP Server
* LAMP (software bundle)
* XAMPP
* List of Apache modules
*List of free and open-source software packages
* POSSE project
* suEXEC
* Apache Tomcat - another web server developed by the Apache Software Foundation
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Wikibooks|Apache}}
* {{Official website}}
{{Apache Software Foundation}}
{{Web server software}}
{{Web interfaces}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1995 software
Category:Cross-platform free software
Category:Free software programmed in C
Category:Free web server software
Category:Reverse proxy
Category:Software using the Apache license
Category:Unix network-related software
Category:Web server software for Linux
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.575800
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2582
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Alph
|
Alph may refer to:
Alpheus River, a river on the Peloponnese
Alph River, a river in Antarctica
Alph Lake, a lake in Antarctica
Alph, a fictional river in the poem Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Alph, a character from Luminous Arc
Alph, a character from the game Pikmin 3
See also
ALF (disambiguation)
Alph Lyla, the in-house band of video game developer Capcom
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alph
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.577882
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2583
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Arbroath Abbey
|
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox church
| image = Arbroath Abbey1.jpg
| pushpin map = Scotland
| coordinates {{coord|56.5625|-2.582222|formatdms|type:landmark_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| founded date = 1178
| founder = King William the Lion
}}
Arbroath Abbey, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleArbroath|volume2|page339}}</ref> It was William's only personal foundation — he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.<ref>{{cite CE1913|wstitleAbbey of Arbroath|firstDavid Oswald Hunter|last Blair}}</ref>
The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
History
, depicting the murder of St Thomas]]
King William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Scottish Independence believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.
The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.
On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny went missing from Westminster Abbey. On 11 April 1951 the stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar.
Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.
In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched.<ref>[http://www.rampantscotland.com/let051119.htm] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080205010415/http://www.rampantscotland.com/let051119.htm|date2008-02-05}} Rampant Scotland Newsletter, 19 November 2005</ref> The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland's most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm |titleLocal History &#124; Historic Buildings &#124; Arbroath Abbey &#124; Angus Council |access-date2014-01-17 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140220180351/http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm |archive-date2014-02-20 }}Angus Council Website, Arbroath Abbey article (1998–2008)</ref> Campaigners believe that the Abbey's historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote "Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination"<ref>[http://arbroathworldheritage.blogspot.com/2005/11/world-heritage-site-status-arbroath.html] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110708023547/http://arbroathworldheritage.blogspot.com/2005/11/world-heritage-site-status-arbroath.html|date2011-07-08}} The Arbroath World Heritage Campaign, Points on Nomination (2005)</ref> In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining "We're simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it."<ref>[http://www.scotlandontv.tv/scotland_on_tv/video.html?vxSiteId60fdd544-9c52-4e17-be7e-57a2a2d76992&vxChannelMost%20Recent%20Videos&vxClipId1380_SMG1811&vxBitrate300 "Interview with Jim Millar, February 2008"]{{Dead link|dateMay 2019 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}, Group Chairman of the Arbroath Abbey Campaign</ref>Architectural descriptionThe Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly 'Early English' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured {{convert|276|ft|m}} long by {{convert|160|ft|m}} wide.<ref name"EB1911"/> What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway.
The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland.
of Arbroath Abbey, as observed from the west]]
In the summer of 2001, a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built.
See also
*Abbot of Arbroath, for a list of abbots and commendators
*1950 removal of the Stone of Scone
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
*{{Historic Environment Scotland|numSM90018|descArbroath Abbey and associated buildings, including the Abbot's House}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205005029/http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/arbroath/arbroathabbey/ ''Undiscovered Scotland's'' detailed history]
* https://web.archive.org/web/20140220180351/http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm
* http://www.arbroathabbeypageant.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716201840/http://www.angus.gov.uk/new/releases-archive/2003/2003-02-07a.html 2002 Angus Design Award]
{{Authority control}}
Category:1178 establishments
Category:12th century in Scotland
Category:Christian monasteries established in the 1170s
Category:Buildings and structures in Angus, Scotland
Category:History of Angus, Scotland
Category:Tironensian monasteries
Category:Category A listed buildings in Angus, Scotland
Category:Listed monasteries in Scotland
Category:Former Christian monasteries in Scotland
Category:Arbroath
Category:Thomas Becket
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Accounting
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{{short description|Measurement, processing and communication of financial information about economic entities}}
{{Redirect|Accountancy|the constituency in Hong Kong|Accountancy (constituency)|the game|Accounting (video game){{!}}Accounting (video game)}}
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{{Accounting |expanded=}}
{{Business administration}}
Accounting, also known as accountancy, is the process of recording and processing information about economic entities, such as businesses and corporations.<ref name"NP 2013">{{cite book |last1Needles |first1Belverd E. |titlePrinciples of Financial Accounting |last2Powers |first2Marian |publisherCengage Learning |year2013 |edition12 |seriesFinancial Accounting Series}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |dateNovember 1940 |titleAccounting Research Bulletins No. 7 Reports of Committee on Terminology |urlhttp://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deloitte/id/9342 |publisherCommittee on Accounting Procedure, American Institute of Accountants |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-date7 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140107100208/http://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deloitte/id/9342 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Accounting measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators.<ref name "UW Dept">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.foster.washington.edu/academic/departments/accounting/Pages/accounting.aspx |titleDepartment of Accounting |year2013 |websiteFoster School of Business |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-date19 March 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150319223850/http://www.foster.washington.edu/academic/departments/accounting/Pages/accounting.aspx |url-statuslive }}</ref> Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used interchangeably.<ref name"Ias">{{cite journal |titleThe introduction of International Accounting Standards in Europe: Implications for international convergence |date2005 |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0963818042000338013 |publisherTaylor & Francis Online |doi10.1080/0963818042000338013 |access-date3 April 2023 |archive-date3 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230403191956/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0963818042000338013 |url-statuslive |last1Schipper |first1Katherine |journalEuropean Accounting Review |volume14 |pages101–126 |s2cid=153931720 }}</ref>
Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, tax accounting and cost accounting.<ref name "WC 1981" /> Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information, including the preparation of financial statements, to the external users of the information, such as investors, regulators and suppliers.<ref name "HDF 2006"/> Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information for internal use by management to enhance business operations.<ref name "NP 2013"/><ref name "HDF 2006" /> The recording of financial transactions, so that summaries of the financials may be presented in financial reports, is known as bookkeeping, of which double-entry bookkeeping is the most common system.<ref name "L 2009">{{cite book |lastLung |firstHenry |year2009 |titleFundamentals of Financial Accounting |publisherElsevier }}</ref> Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities.
Accounting has existed in various forms and levels of sophistication throughout human history. The double-entry accounting system in use today was developed in medieval Europe, particularly in Venice, and is usually attributed to the Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli.<ref namejkdiwan>{{cite book|lastDIWAN|firstJaswith|titleACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEORIES|publisherMORRE|locationLONDON|idid# 94452|pages001–002}}</ref> Today, accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms,<ref name "Parliament Auditors 1"/> and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).<ref name "HDF 2006"/> GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the United States<ref name "NP 2013" /> and the Financial Reporting Council in the United Kingdom. As of 2012, "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).<ref nameglobalcon>{{Cite web|publisherIFRS Foundation and International Accounting Standards Board |websiteifrs.org |urlhttp://www.ifrs.org/Use+around+the+world/Use+around+the+world.htm?WBCMODEPresentationUnpublished |titleThe move towards global standards |year2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111225111828/http://www.ifrs.org/Use+around+the+world/Use+around+the+world.htm?WBCMODEPresentationUnpublished |archive-date25 December 2011 |url-statusdead |access-date27 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe importance of high quality accounting standards |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/openview/113ef6fb20852f7024ae491923c7e84c/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl3330 |access-date3 April 2023 |archive-date3 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230403192502/https://www.proquest.com/openview/113ef6fb20852f7024ae491923c7e84c/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl3330 | viaProQuest |url-statuslive }}</ref>
History
{{main article|History of accounting}}
'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495 (Museo di Capodimonte)]]
Accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations.<ref name "R 1992">Robson, Keith. 1992. "Accounting Numbers as 'inscription': Action at a Distance and the Development of Accounting." Accounting, Organizations and Society 17 (7): 685–708.</ref><ref name"NYSSCPA 2003">{{Citation | url http://www.nysscpa.org/trustedprof/archive/1103/tp24.htm | titleA History of ACCOUNTANCY | publisher New York State Society of CPAs | dateNovember 2003 | access-date 28 December 2013 | archive-date1 January 2015 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150101061851/http://www.nysscpa.org/trustedprof/archive/1103/tp24.htm | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"UniSA 2013">{{Citation | urlhttp://www.library.unisa.edu.au/about/exhibitions/historyacc.aspx | title The History of Accounting | publisherUniversity of South Australia | date 30 April 2013 | access-date28 December 2013 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131228180919/http://www.library.unisa.edu.au/about/exhibitions/historyacc.aspx | archive-date28 December 2013 | url-status dead }}</ref> One early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money;<ref name "R 1992" /> there is also evidence of early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran,<ref name "G 1980">{{cite book|lastکشاورزی|firstکیخسرو|titleتاریخ ایران از زمان باستان تا امروز (Translated from Russian by Grantovsky, E.A.) | year1980 | pages39–40 | languagefa}}</ref><ref name "OD 2008">Oldroyd, David & Dobie, Alisdair: Themes in the history of bookkeeping, The Routledge Companion to Accounting History, London, July 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-415-41094-6}}, Chapter 5, p. 96</ref> and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.<ref name "NYSSCPA 2003" /> By the time of Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information.<ref name"O 1995">{{Cite journal|lastOldroyd |firstDavid |titleThe role of accounting in public expenditure and monetary policy in the first century AD Roman Empire |journalThe Accounting Historians Journal |volume22 |issue2 |dateDecember 1995 |pages117–129 |publisherAcademy of Accounting Historians |doi10.2308/0148-4184.22.2.117 |jstor=40698165}}</ref>
Many concepts related to today's accounting seem to be initiated in medieval's Middle East. For example, Jewish communities used double-entry bookkeeping in the early-medieval period<ref>Parker, L. M., "Medieval Traders as International Change Agents: A Comparison with Twentieth Century International Accounting Firms", The Accounting Historians Journal, 16(2) (1989): 107–118.</ref><ref>Medieval Traders as International Change Agents: a Comment, Michael Scorgie, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 137–143</ref> and Muslim societies, at least since the 10th century also used many modern accounting concepts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hamid |first1Shaari |last2Craig |first2Russell |last3Clarke |first3Frank |titleBookkeeping and accounting control systems in a tenth-century Muslim administrative office |journalAccounting, Business & Financial History |dateJanuary 1995 |volume5 |issue3 |pages321–333 |doi=10.1080/09585209500000049 }}</ref>
The spread of the use of Arabic numerals, instead of the Roman numbers historically used in Europe, increased efficiency of accounting procedures among Mediterranean merchants,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Danna |first1Rafael |titleThe spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals in the tradition of European practical mathematics: A socio-economic perspective, thirteenth-sixteenth centuries |journalConference: The Economic History Society |date5–7 April 2019}}</ref> who further refined accounting in medieval Europe.<ref name"logica.ugent.be">{{cite web |lastHeeffer |firstAlbrecht |titleOn the curious historical coincidence of algebra and double-entry bookkeeping |work Foundations of the Formal Sciences |publisherGhent University |dateNovember 2009 | page11 |urlhttp://logica.ugent.be/albrecht/thesis/FOTFS2008-Heeffer.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://logica.ugent.be/albrecht/thesis/FOTFS2008-Heeffer.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> With the development of joint-stock companies, accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting.
The first published work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was the Summa de arithmetica, published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli (the "Father of Accounting").<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-mariotti/so-who-invented-double-en_b_3588941.html|titleSo, Who Invented Double Entry Bookkeeping? Luca Pacioli or Benedikt Kotruljević?|lastMariotti|firstSteve|date12 July 2013|websiteHuffington Post|languageen-US|access-date3 August 2018|archive-date10 September 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170910062611/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-mariotti/so-who-invented-double-en_b_3588941.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name "LW 1994">{{Cite journal|last1Lauwers |first1Luc |last2Willekens |first2Marleen |titleFive Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli |journalTijdschrift voor Economie en Management |year1994 |volumeXXXIX |issue3 |page302 |formatPDF download |publisherKU Leuven |urlhttps://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/119065/1/TEM1994-3_289-304p.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110820033441/https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/119065/1/TEM1994-3_289-304p.pdf |archive-date20 August 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century,<ref name"ICAEW 2013">{{Citation | urlhttps://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/accounting-history/resources/timeline | title Timeline of the History of the Accountancy Profession | publisherInstitute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales | year 2013 | access-date28 December 2013 | archive-date 11 October 2014 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141011141621/http://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/accounting-history/resources/timeline | url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{citation |urlhttp://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sazeff/PDF/Horizons,%20Part%20I%20(print).pdf |titleHow the U.S. Accounting Profession Got Where It Is Today: Part I |authorStephen A. Zeff |journalAccounting Horizons |pages189–205 |volume17 |issue3 |date2003 |doi10.2308/acch.2003.17.3.189 |access-date16 May 2020 |archive-date21 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220721003409/http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sazeff/PDF/Horizons,%20Part%20I%20(print).pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref> with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880.<ref name"Perks16">{{cite book |authorPerks, R. W. |year1993 |titleAccounting and Society |publisherChapman & Hall |locationLondon |isbn978-0-412-47330-2 |page16 }}</ref>
Etymology
]]
Both the words "accounting" and "accountancy" were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s and are derived from the words accompting and accountantship used in the 18th century.<ref name "LN 2009">Labardin, Pierre, and Marc Nikitin. 2009. "Accounting and the Words to Tell It: An Historical Perspective." Accounting, Business & Financial History 19 (2): 149–166.</ref> In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century), the verb "to account" had the form accounten, which was derived from the Old French word aconter,<ref name "B 1984">Baladouni, Vahé. 1984. "Etymological Observations on Some Accounting Terms." The Accounting Historians Journal 11 (2): 101–109.</ref> which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word computare, meaning "to reckon". The base of computare is putare, which "variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think".<ref name = "B 1984"/>
The word "accountant" is derived from the French word {{lang|fr|compter}}, which is also derived from the Italian and Latin word {{lang|la|computare}}. The word was formerly written in English as "accomptant", but in process of time the word, which was always pronounced by dropping the "p", became gradually changed both in pronunciation and in orthography to its present form.<ref>Pixley, Francis William: Accountancy—constructive and recording accountancy (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd, London, 1900), p4</ref>
Terminology
Accounting has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of transactions of the firm, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and "the principles and procedures of accounting"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant.<ref name "Cambridge Business Accounting">{{cite web |urlhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/business-english/accounting |titleaccounting noun – definition in the Business English Dictionary |year2013 |websiteCambridge Dictionaries Online |publisherCambridge University Press |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date2 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150702062650/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/business-english/accounting |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "Cambridge British Accounting">{{cite web |urlhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/accounting?qaccounting |titleaccounting noun – definition in the British English Dictionary & Thesaurus |year2013 |websiteCambridge Dictionaries Online |publisherCambridge University Press |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date2 November 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141102082918/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/accounting?qaccounting |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "MW 2013 accounting">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accounting |titleaccounting |year2013 |websiteMerriam-Webster |publisherMerriam-Webster, Incorporated |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date23 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220723235833/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accounting |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Accountancy refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant,<ref name "MW 2013 accountancy">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accountancy |titleaccountancy |year2013 |websiteMerriam-Webster |publisherMerriam-Webster, Incorporated |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date29 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220729092830/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/accountancy |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "Cambridge Business Accountancy">{{cite web |urlhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/business-english/accountancy?qaccountancy |titleaccountancy noun – definition in the Business English Dictionary |year2013 |websiteCambridge Dictionaries Online |publisherCambridge University Press |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date19 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141019020532/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/business-english/accountancy?qaccountancy |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "Cambridge British Accountancy">{{cite web |urlhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/accountancy?qaccountancy |titleaccountancy noun – definition in the British English Dictionary & Thesaurus |year2013 |websiteCambridge Dictionaries Online |publisherCambridge University Press |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date19 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141019014728/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/accountancy?qaccountancy |url-statuslive }}</ref> particularly in British English.<ref name "Cambridge Business Accounting" /><ref name "Cambridge British Accounting" />
Topics
Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems.<ref name "WC 1981">Weber, Richard P., and W. C. Stevenson. 1981. "Evaluations of Accounting Journal and Department Quality." The Accounting Review 56 (3): 596–612.</ref>Financial accounting
{{main article|Financial accounting}}
Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).<ref name = "HDF 2006">{{Citation
| last1 = Horngren
| first1 = Charles T.
| author-link1= Charles Thomas Horngren
| last2 = Datar
| first2 = Srikant M.
| author-link2= Srikant Datar
| last3 = Foster
| first3 = George
| title = Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis
| place = New Jersey
| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
| year = 2006
| edition = 12th
}}</ref> GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and changes over time to meet the needs of decision-makers.<ref name = "NP 2013" />
Financial accounting produces past-oriented reports—for example financial statements are often published six to ten months after the end of the accounting period—on an annual or quarterly basis, generally about the organization as a whole.<ref name "HDF 2006" />Management accounting
{{main article|Management accounting}}
Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information that can help managers in making decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. In management accounting, internal measures and reports are based on cost–benefit analysis, and are not required to follow the generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP).<ref name "HDF 2006" /> In 2014 CIMA created the [https://www.cgma.org/resources/reports/globalmanagementaccountingprinciples.html Global Management Accounting Principles (GMAPs)]. The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline.<ref nameFT>{{cite news|lastKing|firstI.|titleNew set of accounting principles can help drive sustainable success|newspaperFinancial Times|date23 October 2014|urlhttp://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0b595a98-59fa-11e4-8771-00144feab7de.html?siteeditionuk#axzz3Q8Lp1OP9|publisherft.com|access-date=28 January 2015}}</ref>
Management accounting produces past-oriented reports with time spans that vary widely, but it also encompasses future-oriented reports such as budgets. Management accounting reports often include financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments.<ref name "HDF 2006" />Intercompany accounting
{{main article|Intercompany accounting}}
Intercompany accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information between separate entities that are related, such as a parent company and its subsidiary companies. Intercompany accounting concerns record keeping of transactions between companies that have common ownership such as a parent company and a partially or wholly owned subsidiary. Intercompany transactions are also recorded in accounting when business is transacted between companies with a common parent company (subsidiaries).<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat is Intercompany Accounting? {{!}} F&A Glossary {{!}} BlackLine |urlhttps://www.blackline.com/resources/glossaries/intercompany-accounting/ |access-date2024-08-16 |websitewww.blackline.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastBeaver |firstScott |date2024-04-03 |titleWhat Is Intercompany Accounting? Best Practices and Management |urlhttps://www.netsuite.com/portal/resource/articles/accounting/intercompany-accounting.shtml |websitewww.netsuite.com}}</ref>
Auditing
{{main article|Financial audit|Internal audit}}
Auditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff,<ref name "B 1979">Baiman, Stanley. 1979. "Discussion of Auditing: Incentives and Truthful Reporting." Journal of Accounting Research 17: 25–29.</ref> and in the context of accounting it is the "unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization".<ref name "I 2013">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/audit.asp |titleAudit Definition |year2013 |websiteInvestopedia |publisherInvestopedia US |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date26 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220726065345/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/audit.asp |url-statuslive }}</ref> Audit is a professional service that is systematic and conventional.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Tredinnick|first1Luke|titleArtificial intelligence and professional roles|journalBusiness Information Review|dateMarch 2017|volume34|issue1|pages37–41|doi10.1177/0266382117692621|s2cid157743821|urlhttp://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/3812/3/OOTB-AI.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/3812/3/OOTB-AI.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
An audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an independent opinion on the financial statements. The auditor expresses an independent opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and "in all material respects". An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have not been consistently observed.<ref name "SAS 1 Responsibilities">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aicpa.org/Research/Standards/AuditAttest/DownloadableDocuments/AU-00110.pdf |titleResponsibilities and Functions of the Independent Auditor |dateNovember 1972 |websiteAICPA |access-date30 December 2013 |archive-date23 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210423141039/https://www.aicpa.org/Research/Standards/AuditAttest/DownloadableDocuments/AU-00110.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref>Information systems
{{main article|Accounting information system}}
An accounting information system is a part of an organization's information system used for processing accounting data.<ref nameOpenLearn>{{cite web|title1.2 Accounting information systems|urlhttp://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id365833|workIntroduction to the context of accounting|publisherOpenLearn|access-date=3 February 2014}}</ref>
Many corporations use artificial intelligence-based information systems. The banking and finance industry uses AI in fraud detection. The retail industry uses AI for customer services. AI is also used in the cybersecurity industry. It involves computer hardware and software systems using statistics and modeling.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Pathak|first1Jagdish|last2Lind|first2Mary R.|titleAudit Risk, Complex Technology, and Auditing Processes|journalEDPACS|dateNovember 2003|volume31|issue5|pages1–9|doi10.1201/1079/43853.31.5.20031101/78844.1|s2cid61767095}}</ref>
Many accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software. An enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources. These systems can be cloud based and available on demand via application or browser, or available as software installed on specific computers or local servers, often referred to as on-premise.
Tax accounting
{{main article|Tax accounting}}
Tax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns. The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting.<ref name"autogenerated2010">{{ Citation | last1 Droms| first1William G.| last2 Wright| first2Jay O.| title Finance and Accounting for nonfinancial Managers: All the Basics you need to Know| publisherBasic Books| year 2010| edition6th}}</ref> U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company. Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income).<ref name"autogenerated2010"/>
Forensic accounting
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
{{main article|Forensic accounting}}
Forensic accounting is a specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat is a Forensic Accountant? {{!}} Forensic CPA Society |urlhttps://www.fcpas.org/about-us/what-is-a-forensic-accountant/ |access-date2023-08-02 |languageen-US}}</ref> "Forensic" means "suitable for use in a court of law", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that forensic accountants generally have to work.
Political campaign accounting
{{main article|Political campaign accounting}}
Political campaign accounting deals with the development and implementation of financial systems and the accounting of financial transactions in compliance with laws governing political campaign operations. This branch of accounting was first formally introduced in the March 1976 issue of The Journal of Accountancy.<ref>{{cite journal |id{{ProQuest|198258865}} |last1Wagman |first1Barry E. |titlePolitical campaign accounting—New opportunities for the CPA |journalJournal of Accountancy |volume141 |issue3 |dateMarch 1976 |pages36 }}</ref> Organizations {{Category see also|Accounting organizations}} Professional bodies
{{main article|Professional accounting body}}
Professional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC),<ref name"ifac">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ifac.org/about-ifac/membership/members|titleIFAC Members|publisherifac.org|access-date25 March 2016|archive-date10 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160310092205/http://www.ifac.org/about-ifac/membership/members|url-statusdead}}</ref> including Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP), CPA Australia, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW). Some countries have a single professional accounting body and, in some other countries, professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) in the UK and Institute of management accountants in the United States.<ref name"Prince">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.accountingforsustainability.org/international_network/accounting-bodies-network |titleAccounting Bodies Network |websiteThe Prince's Accounting for Sustainability Project |access-date3 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140103155739/http://www.accountingforsustainability.org/international_network/accounting-bodies-network |archive-date3 January 2014 |url-statusdead |dfdmy-all }}</ref> Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant (AICPA) and chartered accountant.<ref name "AICPA CPA">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aicpa.org/BecomeACPA/GettingStarted/Pages/default.aspx |titleGetting Started |year2014 |websiteAICPA |access-date3 January 2014 |archive-date7 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140107234214/http://www.aicpa.org/BECOMEACPA/GETTINGSTARTED/Pages/default.aspx |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "ICAEW ACA">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.icaew.com/en/qualifications-and-programmes/aca |titleThe ACA Qualification |year2014 |websiteICAEW |access-date3 January 2014 |archive-date4 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140104034737/http://www.icaew.com/en/qualifications-and-programmes/aca |url-statuslive }}</ref> Firms
{{main article|Accounting networks and associations}}
Depending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms.<ref name "Parliament Auditors 1">{{cite web |urlhttps://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeconaf/119/11904.htm |titleAuditors: Market concentration and their role, CHAPTER 1: Introduction |year2011 |websiteUK Parliament |publisherHouse of Lords |access-date1 January 2014 |archive-date29 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220729092827/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeconaf/119/11904.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Accounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century. Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance of the auditing market by the "Big Five" accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers.<ref name "Parliament Auditors 2">{{cite web |urlhttps://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeconaf/119/11905.htm |titleAuditors: Market concentration and their role, CHAPTER 2: Concentration in the audit market |year2011 |websiteUK Parliament |publisherHouse of Lords |access-date1 January 2014 |archive-date28 March 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328230040/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeconaf/119/11905.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four.<ref name "FT Big Four">{{cite web |urlhttp://lexicon.ft.com/Term?termbig-four |titleDefinition of big four |year2014 |websiteFinancial Times Lexicon |publisherThe Financial Times Ltd |access-date1 January 2014 |archive-date2 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102195935/http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?termbig-four |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Standard-setters
{{See also|Accounting standards|Convergence of accounting standards}}
Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies. In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries.<ref name "NP 2013" /> Standards for international audit and assurance, ethics, education, and public sector accounting are all set by independent standard settings boards supported by IFAC. The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board sets international standards for auditing, assurance, and quality control; the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA)<ref name"ifac2">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ifac.org/ethics|titleIESBA &#124; Ethics &#124; Accounting &#124; IFAC|publisherifac.org|access-date25 March 2016|archive-date26 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160526235439/http://www.ifac.org/ethics|url-statusdead}}</ref> sets the internationally appropriate principles-based Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants; the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards;<ref name"ifac3">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ifac.org/education|titleIAESB &#124; International Accounting Education Standards Board &#124; IFAC|publisherifac.org|access-date25 March 2016|archive-date16 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160516184718/http://www.ifac.org/education|url-statusdead}}</ref> and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards.<ref name"ifac4">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ifac.org/public-sector|titleIPSASB &#124; International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board &#124; IFAC|publisherifac.org|access-date25 March 2016|archive-date27 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160527045153/http://www.ifac.org/public-sector|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Ias"/>
Organizations in individual countries may issue accounting standards unique to the countries. For example, in Australia, the Australian Accounting Standards Board manages the issuance of the accounting standards in line with IFRS. In the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Statements of Financial Accounting Standards, which form the basis of US GAAP,<ref name "NP 2013" /> and in the United Kingdom the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) sets accounting standards.<ref name"ICAEW Standards">{{Citation | url http://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/accounting-standards/knowledge-guide-to-uk-accounting-standards | titleKnowledge guide to UK Accounting Standards | publisher ICAEW | year2014 | access-date 1 January 2014 | archive-date18 November 2018 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181118172337/https://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/accounting-standards/knowledge-guide-to-uk-accounting-standards | url-statuslive }}</ref> However, as of 2012 "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS.<ref nameglobalcon /> Education, training and qualifications Degrees At least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field is required for most accountant and auditor job positions, and some employers prefer applicants with a master's degree.<ref name "BLS 2012">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/Business-and-Financial/Accountants-and-auditors.htm#tab-4 |titleHow to Become an Accountant or Auditor |year2012 |websiteU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |publisherUnited States Department of Labor |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-date9 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220709084813/https://www.bls.gov/ooh/business-and-financial/accountants-and-auditors.htm#tab-4 |url-statuslive }}</ref> A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies. For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement,<ref name "AICPA 150">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aicpa.org/becomeacpa/licensure/requirements/pages/default.aspx |title150 Hour Requirement for Obtaining CPA Certification |year2013 |websiteAICPA |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-date29 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220729094716/https://www.aicpa.org/becomeacpa/licensure/requirements/pages/default.aspx |url-statuslive }}</ref> and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting.<ref name"ACPA Criteria">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.acpa.org.uk/criteria-for-entry.aspx |titleCriteria for entry |year2013 |websiteCPA UK |access-date31 December 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130819184954/http://acpa.org.uk/criteria-for-entry.aspx |archive-date=19 August 2013 }}</ref>
A doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example, to work as a university professor in accounting.<ref name "AICPA Academia">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aicpa.org/interestareas/youngcpanetwork/resources/career/pages/acareerineducation.aspx |titleWant a Career in Education? Here's What You Need to Know |year2013 |websiteAICPA |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140101002919/http://www.aicpa.org/interestareas/youngcpanetwork/resources/career/pages/acareerineducation.aspx |archive-date1 January 2014 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name "BYU Prep">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.byuaccounting.net/mediawiki/index.php?titleMain_Page |titlePhD Prep Track |year2013 |websiteBYU Accounting |access-date31 December 2013 |archive-date5 May 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190505181108/http://www.byuaccounting.net/mediawiki/index.php?titleMain_Page |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees. The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications.<ref name "AICPA Academia" /> Professional qualifications
{{Main|Chartered accountant|Certified Public Accountant}}
{{See also|Professional certification #Accountancy, auditing and finance}}
Professional accounting qualifications include the chartered accountant designations and other qualifications including certificates and diplomas.<ref name"ACCA Qualifications">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.accaglobal.com/gb/en/qualifications/glance.html |titleAccountancy Qualifications at a Glance |year2014 |websiteACCA |access-date4 January 2014 |archive-date6 January 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140106005500/http://www.accaglobal.com/gb/en/qualifications/glance.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
In Scotland, chartered accountants of ICAS undergo Continuous Professional Development and abide by the ICAS code of ethics.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.icas.com/ethics/icas-code-of-ethics|titleICAS code of ethics|lastKyle|firstMcHatton|websitewww.icas.com|languageen|access-date18 October 2018|archive-date18 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181018201603/https://www.icas.com/ethics/icas-code-of-ethics|url-statuslive}}</ref> In England and Wales, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures.<ref name"ICAEW Chartered">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.icaew.com/en/qualifications-and-programmes/better-qualified/ |titleACA – The qualification of ICAEW Chartered Accountants |year2014 |websiteICAEW |access-date4 January 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131011082948/http://www.icaew.com/en/qualifications-and-programmes/better-qualified/ |archive-date=11 October 2013 }}</ref>
In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws.
The ACCA is the largest global accountancy body with over 320,000 members, and the organisation provides an 'IFRS stream' and a 'UK stream'. Students must pass a total of 14 exams, which are arranged across three levels.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.careersinaudit.com/article/european-accounting-qualifications-explained/|titleEuropean Accounting Qualifications Explained {{!}} CareersinAudit.com|workCareersinAudit.com|access-date13 December 2017|languageen-GB|archive-date7 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181007223203/https://www.careersinaudit.com/article/european-accounting-qualifications-explained/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Research
{{Main article|Accounting research}}
Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society.<ref name"ACCA 2010">{{Citation|urlhttp://www.accaglobal.com/content/dam/acca/global/PDF-technical/human-capital/rr-120-002.pdf |titleThe Relevance and Utility of Leading Accounting Research |publisherThe Association of Chartered Certified Accountants |year2010 |access-date27 December 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131227111624/http://www.accaglobal.com/content/dam/acca/global/PDF-technical/human-capital/rr-120-002.pdf |archive-date27 December 2013 }}</ref><ref name"Burchell et al 1980">{{cite journal |last1Burchell |first1S. |last2Clubb |first2C. |last3Hopwood |first3A. |last4Hughes |first4J. |last5Nahapiet |first5J. |titleThe roles of accounting in organizations and society |journalAccounting, Organizations and Society |date1980 |volume5 |issue1 |pages5–27|doi10.1016/0361-3682(80)90017-3 }}</ref> It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.<ref name "OOS 2010">Oler, Derek K., Mitchell J. Oler, and Christopher J. Skousen. 2010. "Characterizing Accounting Research." Accounting Horizons 24 (4): 635–670.</ref>
Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants. Methodologies in academic accounting research include archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research.<ref name"CSWW 2010">Coyne, Joshua G., Scott L. Summers, Brady Williams, and David a. Wood. 2010. "Accounting Program Research Rankings by Topical Area and Methodology." Issues in Accounting Education 25 (4) (November): 631–654.</ref><ref name"Chua 1986">{{cite journal |last1Chua |first1Wai Fong |titleRadical developments in accounting thought |journalThe Accounting Review |date1986 |volume61 |issue4 |pages601–632}}</ref>
Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles than comparable journals in economics and other business disciplines,<ref name"JAE 2002">{{cite journal |last1Buchheit |first1S. |last2Collins |first2D. |last3Reitenga |first3A. |titleA cross-discipline comparison of top-tier academic journal publication rates: 1997–1999 |journalJournal of Accounting Education |year2002 |volume20 |issue2 |pages123–130|doi10.1016/S0748-5751(02)00003-9 }}</ref> and consequently, accounting scholars<ref>{{cite journal |last1Merigó |first1José M. |last2Yang |first2Jian-Bo |titleAccounting Research: A Bibliometric Analysis: Accounting Research: A Bibliometric Analysis |journalAustralian Accounting Review |dateMarch 2017 |volume27 |issue1 |pages71–100 |doi10.1111/auar.12109 |urlhttps://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/47006681/Nerigo_Yang_AAR_CTA.docx |access-date3 December 2022 |archive-date30 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221230103214/https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/47006681/Nerigo_Yang_AAR_CTA.docx |url-statuslive }}</ref> are relatively less successful in academic publishing than their business school peers.<ref name"CAR 2004">{{cite journal |last1Swanson |first1Edward |titlePublishing in the majors: A comparison of accounting, finance, management, and marketing |journalContemporary Accounting Research |year2004 |volume21 |pages223–255|doi10.1506/RCKM-13FM-GK0E-3W50 }}</ref> Due to different publication rates between accounting and other business disciplines, a recent study based on academic author rankings concludes that the competitive value of a single publication in a top-ranked journal is highest in accounting and lowest in marketing.<ref name"JBR 2018">{{cite journal |last1Korkeamäki |first1Timo |last2Sihvonen |first2Jukka |last3Vähämaa |first3Sami |titleEvaluating publications across business disciplines |journalJournal of Business Research |year2018 |volume84 |pages220–232 |doi10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.11.024 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>Scandals
{{Main article|Accounting scandals}}
{{See also|Accounting ethics}}
The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk.<ref name="mba.ufm.edu.gt">Astrid Ayala and Giancarlo Ibárgüen Snr.: "A Market Proposal for Auditing the Financial Statements of Public Companies" (Journal of Management of Value, Universidad Francisco Marroquín, March 2006) p. 41, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721084545/http://www.mba.ufm.edu.gt/journalofmanagement/content/ENG_MarketProposal.pdf UFM.edu.gt]</ref>
The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms.<ref name="mba.ufm.edu.gt"/>
In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure<ref>Bratton, William W. "Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder Value" (Tulane Law Review, New Orleans, May 2002) p. 61</ref> causing the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.<ref>{{cite news | title Enron files for bankruptcy | work BBC News | date 3 December 2001 | url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1688550.stm | access-date 15 March 2008 | archive-date 24 March 2022 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220324223251/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1688550.stm | url-status live }}</ref>
One consequence of these events was the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders.<ref>Aiyesha Dey, and Thomas Z. Lys: "Trends in Earnings Management and Informativeness of Earnings Announcements in the Pre- and Post-Sarbanes Oxley Periods (Kellogg School of Management, Evanston, Illinois, February, 2005) p. 5</ref>
Fraud and error
Accounting fraud is an intentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records by management or employees which involves the use of deception. It is a criminal act and a breach of civil tort. It may involve collusion with third parties.<ref name"IAASB-ISA240">{{Citation | title2018 Handbook of International Quality Control, Auditing, Review, Other Assurance, and Related Services Pronouncements | publisher The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board | dateDecember 2018 }}</ref>
An accounting error is an unintentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records, for example misinterpretation of facts, mistakes in processing data, or oversights leading to incorrect estimates.<ref name="IAASB-ISA240"/> Acts leading to accounting errors are not criminal but may breach civil law, for example, the tort of negligence.
The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud and errors rests with the entity's management.<ref name"IAASB-ISA240"/>See also
* Accounting information system
* Accounting records
* Outline of accounting
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
* {{Library resources about |onlinebooksno |labelaccounting }}
* [https://www.informs.org/About-INFORMS/History-and-Traditions/OR-Application-Areas/Accounting Operations Research in Accounting] on the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences website
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Ant
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{{short description|Family of insects}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{automatic taxobox
| name = Ants
| fossil_range {{fossilrange|100|0|earliest140|refs<ref namephyl2006 />}} Late Albian&nbsp;– Present
| image = Fire ants 01.jpg
| image_caption = Fire ants
| display_parents = 2
| parent_authority Latreille, 1809<ref nameBoudinot2020/>
| taxon = Formicidae
| authority = Latreille, 1809
| type_species = Formica rufa
| type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1761
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = * Agroecomyrmecinae
* Amblyoponinae (incl. "Apomyrminae")
* Aneuretinae
* {{extinct}}Brownimeciinae
* Dolichoderinae
* Dorylinae
* Ectatomminae
* {{extinct}}Formiciinae
* Formicinae
* {{extinct}}Haidomyrmecinae
* Heteroponerinae
* Leptanillinae
* Martialinae
* Myrmeciinae (incl. "Nothomyrmeciinae")
* Myrmicinae
* Paraponerinae
* Ponerinae
* Proceratiinae
* Pseudomyrmecinae
* {{extinct}}Sphecomyrminae
* †Zigrasimeciinae
}}
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their geniculate (elbowed) antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.
Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen individuals often living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories with sizeable nest that consist of millions of individuals or into the hundreds of millions in super colonies. Typical colonies consist of various castes of sterile, wingless females, most of which are workers (ergates), as well as soldiers (dinergates) and other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens" (gynes). The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony.
Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in moist tropical ecosystems and may exceed the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals. Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.
Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rites. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents. Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) of South America, are regarded as invasive species in other parts of the world, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally.
Etymology
The word ant and the archaic word emmet<ref>[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/emmet emmet]. Merriam-Webster Dictionary</ref> are derived from {{lang|enm|ante}}, {{lang|enm|emete}} of Middle English, which come from {{lang|ang|ǣmette}} of Old English; these are all related to Low Saxon {{lang|nds|e(e)mt}}, {{lang|nds|empe}} and varieties (Old Saxon {{lang|osx|emeta}}) and to German {{lang|de|Ameise}} (Old High German {{lang|goh|āmeiza}}). All of these words come from West Germanic *{{lang|gmw|ǣmaitjōn}}, and the original meaning of the word was "the biter" (from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|ai-}}, "off, away" + {{lang|gem-x-proto|mait-}} "cut").<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ant |titleant|publisherMerriam-Webster Dictionary |access-date6 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termant |titleAnt. Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date30 May 2009}}</ref>
The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin {{lang|la|formīca}} ("ant")<ref>{{cite book | author Simpson DP | title Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher Cassell | year 1979 | edition 5th | location London | isbn=978-0-304-52257-6}}</ref> from which the words in other Romance languages, such as the Portuguese {{lang|pt|formiga}}, Italian {{lang|it|formica}}, Spanish {{lang|es|hormiga}}, Romanian {{lang|ro|furnică}}, and French {{lang|fr|fourmi}} are derived.
The study of ants is called myrmecology, from Ancient Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx ("ant"). It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-European word *morwi- was the root for Sanskrit vamrah, Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx, Latin {{lang|la|formīca}}, Old Church Slavonic mraviji, Old Irish moirb, Old Norse maurr, Dutch mier, Swedish myra, Danish myre, Middle Dutch miere, and Crimean Gothic miera.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termformic |titleFormic |publisherEtymonline.com |access-date2012-01-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/pismire |titlePismire |publisherEtymonline.com |access-date2020-08-27}}</ref>Taxonomy and evolutionThe family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the stinging wasps, and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea.<ref namephylo /> However, since Apoidea is a superfamily, ants must be upgraded to the same rank.<ref nameFernández2021>{{cite journal|author1Fernando Fernández|author2Roberto J. Guerrero|author3Andrés F. Sánchez Restrepo|dateApril 2021|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/350917357|titleSystematics and diversity of Neotropical ants|journalRevista Colombiana de Entomología|volume47|issue1|pagee11082|doi10.25100/socolen.v47i1.11082|languageen|hdl11336/165214|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> A more detailed basic taxonomy was proposed in 2020. Three species of the extinct mid-Cretaceous genera Camelomecia and Camelosphecia were placed outside of the Formicidae, in a separate clade within the general superfamily Formicoidea, which, together with Apoidea, forms the higher-ranking group Formicapoidina.<ref nameBoudinot2020>{{cite journal|author1Brendon E. Boudinot|author2Vincent Perrichot|author3Júlio C. M. Chaul|dateDecember 2020|title†Camelosphecia gen. nov., lost ant-wasp intermediates from the mid-Cretaceous (Hymenoptera, Formicoidea)|journalZooKeys|volume|issue1005|pages21–55 |doi10.3897/zookeys.1005.57629|doi-accessfree|pmid33390754 |languageen|pmc7762752|bibcode2020ZooK.1005...21B }}</ref> Fernández et al. (2021) suggest that the common ancestors of ants and apoids within the Formicapoidina probably existed as early as in the end of the Jurassic period, before divergence in the Cretaceous.<ref nameFernández2021/>
{{clade gallery |width350px |height500px
|caption1=Relationship of ants with aculeate wasp families
|footer1Phylogenetic position of the Formicidae as seen in Johnson et al. (2013)<ref namephylo>{{cite journal | vauthors Johnson BR, Borowiec ML, Chiu JC, Lee EK, Atallah J, Ward PS | title Phylogenomics resolves evolutionary relationships among ants, bees, and wasps | journal Current Biology | volume 23 | issue 20 | pages 2058–2062 | date October 2013 | pmid 24094856 | doi 10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.050 | doi-access free | bibcode 2013CBio...23.2058J }}</ref><ref nameFernández2021/>
|cladogram1{{clade|stylefont-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=Aculeata
|1={{clade
|1=Chrysidoidea
|label2|2{{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|1=Vespidae
|2=Rhopalosomatidae
}}
|label2|2{{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|1={{clade
|1=Pompilidae
|2=Mutillidae
}}
|2={{clade
|1=Tiphiidae
|2=Chyphotidae
}}
}}
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Scolioidea
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Apoidea
|2=Formicidae
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|caption2Relationships of ant subfamilies |cladogram2
{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=Formicidae
|1={{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|label1=Formicoid
|1={{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|1=Myrmicinae
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Ectatomminae
|2=Heteroponerinae
}}
}}
|2=Formicinae
}}
|label2|2{{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|1=Dolichoderinae
|2=Aneuretinae
}}
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Pseudomyrmecinae
|2=Myrmeciinae
}}
}}
}}
|2=Dorylinae‡
}}
|label2=Poneroid
|2={{clade
|label1|1{{clade
|1=Ponerinae
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Agroecomyrmecinae
|2=Paraponerinae
}}
}}
|2=Proceratiinae
|label3|3{{clade
|1=Amblyoponinae
|2=Apomyrminae
}}
}}
}}
|label2|2{{clade
|1=Leptanillinae
|2=Martialinae
}}
}}
}}
|footer2A phylogeny of the extant ant subfamilies.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Borowiec |first1Marek L. |chapterAnts: Phylogeny and Classification |year2020 |titleEncyclopedia of Social Insects |pages1–18 |editor-lastStarr |editor-firstChristopher K. |chapter-urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-90306-4_155-1 |access-date2024-02-11 |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing|doi10.1007/978-3-319-90306-4_155-1 |isbn978-3-319-90306-4 |last2Moreau |first2Corrie S. |last3Rabeling |first3Christian|s2cid219873464 }}</ref><ref nameWard>{{cite journal | vauthors Ward PS |titlePhylogeny, classification, and species-level taxonomy of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) | journal Zootaxa | volume 1668 | year2007 |pages549–563| urlhttp://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p563.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p563.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | doi 10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.26 }}</ref><ref namemartialis>{{cite journal | vauthors Rabeling C, Brown JM, Verhaagh M | title Newly discovered sister lineage sheds light on early ant evolution | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 105 | issue 39 | pages 14913–14917 | date September 2008 | pmid 18794530 | pmc 2567467 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0806187105 | bibcode 2008PNAS..10514913R | doi-access = free }}</ref>
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Cerapachyinae is paraphyletic<br />
‡ The previous dorylomorph subfamilies – Ecitoninae, Aenictinae, Aenictogitoninae, Cerapachyinae, Leptanilloidinae – were synonymized under Dorylinae by Brady et al. in 2014<ref name"Brady_et_al_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors Brady SG, Fisher BL, Schultz TR, Ward PS | title The rise of army ants and their relatives: diversification of specialized predatory doryline ants | journal BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume 14 | issue 93 | date May 2014 | page 93 | pmid 24886136 | pmc 4021219 | doi 10.1186/1471-2148-14-93 | doi-access free | bibcode = 2014BMCEE..14...93B }}</ref>
}}
]]
In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma) that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to around 92&nbsp;million years ago, has features found in some wasps, but not found in modern ants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wilson EO, Carpenter FM, Brown WL | title The first mesozoic ants | journal Science | volume 157 | issue 3792 | pages 1038–1040 | date September 1967 | pmid 17770424 | doi 10.1126/science.157.3792.1038 | author-link E. O. Wilson | bibcode 1967Sci...157.1038W | s2cid 43155424 }}</ref> The oldest fossils of ants date to the mid-Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, which belong to extinct stem-groups such as the Haidomyrmecinae, Sphecomyrminae and Zigrasimeciinae, with modern ant subfamilies appearing towards the end of the Cretaceous around 80–70 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Boudinot |first1Brendon E |last2Richter |first2Adrian |last3Katzke |first3Julian |last4Chaul |first4Júlio C M |last5Keller |first5Roberto A |last6Economo |first6Evan P |last7Beutel |first7Rolf Georg |last8Yamamoto |first8Shûhei |date2022-07-29 |titleEvidence for the evolution of eusociality in stem ants and a systematic revision of † Gerontoformica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/195/4/1355/6523228 |journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume195 |issue4 |pages1355–1389 |doi10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab097 |issn0024-4082|doi-accessfree |hdl10451/55807 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Ants diversified extensively during the Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Jouault |first1Corentin |last2Condamine |first2Fabien L. |last3Legendre |first3Frédéric |last4Perrichot |first4Vincent |date11 March 2024 |titleThe Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution buffered ants against extinction |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume121 |issue13 |pagese2317795121 |doi10.1073/pnas.2317795121 |pmid38466878 |pmc10990090 |bibcode2024PNAS..12117795J |issn0027-8424 }}</ref> and assumed ecological dominance around 60&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name"grimaldi2001">{{cite journal | vauthors Grimaldi D, Agosti D | title A formicine in New Jersey cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: formicidae) and early evolution of the ants | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 97 | issue 25 | pages 13678–13683 | date December 2000 | pmid 11078527 | pmc 17635 | doi 10.1073/pnas.240452097 | bibcode 2000PNAS...9713678G | doi-access free }}</ref><ref namephyl2006>{{cite journal | vauthors Moreau CS, Bell CD, Vila R, Archibald SB, Pierce NE | title Phylogeny of the ants: diversification in the age of angiosperms | journal Science | volume 312 | issue 5770 | pages 101–104 | date April 2006 | pmid 16601190 | doi 10.1126/science.1124891 | bibcode 2006Sci...312..101M | s2cid 20729380 }}</ref><ref nameriseofants>{{cite journal | vauthors Wilson EO, Hölldobler B | title The rise of the ants: a phylogenetic and ecological explanation | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 102 | issue 21 | pages 7411–7414 | date May 2005 | pmid 15899976 | pmc 1140440 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0502264102 | bibcode 2005PNAS..102.7411W | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors LaPolla JS, Dlussky GM, Perrichot V | s2cid 40555356 | title Ants and the fossil record | journal Annual Review of Entomology | volume 58 | pages 609–730 | year 2013 | pmid 23317048 | doi 10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100600 }}</ref> Some groups, such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae, are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.<ref namemartialis/><ref name"Barden2012">{{cite journal |vauthorsBarden P, Grimaldi D |year2012 |titleRediscovery of the bizarre Cretaceous ant Haidomyrmex Dlussky (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with two new species |journalAmerican Museum Novitates |pages1–16 |doi10.1206/3755.2 |urlhttp://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/handle/2246/6368/N3755.pdf?sequence1 |issue3755 |hdl2246/6368 |s2cid83598305 |access-date2013-05-05 |archive-date2013-04-23 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130423110550/http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/handle/2246/6368/N3755.pdf?sequence1 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent (the Northern Hemisphere). Their representation in the fossil record is poor, in comparison to the populations of other insects, representing only about 1% of fossil evidence of insects in the era. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period. By the Oligocene and Miocene, ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, around one in 10 genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).<ref name"grimaldi2001"/><ref nameTheAntEvo>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 23–24</ref>
Termites live in colonies and are sometimes called "white ants", but termites are only distantly related to ants. They are the sub-order Isoptera, and together with cockroaches, they form the order Blattodea. Blattodeans are related to mantids, crickets, and other winged insects that do not undergo complete metamorphosis. Like ants, termites are eusocial, with sterile workers, but they differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction. The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Thorne BL |year1997 |titleEvolution of eusociality in termites |journalAnnu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. |volume28 |issue5 |pages27–53 |urlhttp://www.thornelab.umd.edu/Termite_PDFS/EvolutionEusocialityTermites.pdf |doi10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.27 |pmc349550 |bibcode1997AnRES..28...27T |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100530162505/http://www.thornelab.umd.edu/Termite_PDFS/EvolutionEusocialityTermites.pdf |archive-date2010-05-30 }}</ref> Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://bugguide.net/node/view/69 |titleOrder Isoptera – Termites |access-date12 June 2008 |publisherIowa State University Entomology
|date16 February 2004| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080615140449/http://bugguide.net/node/view/69| archive-date15 June 2008| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bugguide.net/node/view/159/
|titleFamily Mutillidae&nbsp;– Velvet ants |access-date12 June 2008 |publisher=Iowa State University Entomology
|date16 February 2004| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080630045231/http://bugguide.net/node/view/159/| archive-date30 June 2008| url-status live}}</ref>
Distribution and diversity
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"float:right; margin:10px;"
|-
! Region !! Number of<br />species&nbsp;<ref name = HolldoblerWilsonAnts>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 4</ref>
|-
| Neotropics ||align="right"| 2,162
|-
| Nearctic ||align="right"| 580
|-
| Europe ||align="right"| 180
|-
| Africa ||align="right"| 2,500
|-
| Asia ||align="right"| 2,080
|-
| Melanesia ||align="right"| 275
|-
| Australia ||align="right"| 985
|-
| Polynesia ||align="right"| 42
|}
Ants have a cosmopolitan distribution. They are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/08/ants/did-you-know-learn
| title=Fantastic ants – Did you know?
| work=National Geographic Magazine
| author=Jones, Alice S
| access-date5 July 2008| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080730071158/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/08/ants/did-you-know-learn| archive-date30 July 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| urlhttp://www.hear.org/ants/ |titlePest Ants in Hawaii
| year=2007
| author=Thomas, Philip
| publisher=Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)
| access-date6 July 2008}}</ref> Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most ant species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. There is considerable variation in ant abundance across habitats, peaking in the moist tropics to nearly six times that found in less suitable habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Fayle |first1Tom M. |last2Klimes |first2Petr |date2022-10-18 |titleImproving estimates of global ant biomass and abundance |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume119 |issue42 |pagese2214825119 |doi10.1073/pnas.2214825119 |doi-accessfree |pmid36197959 |pmc9586285 |bibcode2022PNAS..11914825F |issn0027-8424}}</ref> Their ecological dominance has been examined primarily using estimates of their biomass: myrmecologist E. O. Wilson had estimated in 2009 that at any one time the total number of ants was between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e., between 10<sup>15</sup> and 10<sup>16</sup>) and using this estimate he had suggested that the total biomass of all the ants in the world was approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/superorganismbea0000hlld |titleThe Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies |vauthorsHolldobler B, Wilson EO |publisherW.W. Norton |year2009 |isbn978-0-393-06704-0 |placeNew York |page[https://archive.org/details/superorganismbea0000hlld/page/5 5] |url-accessregistration}}</ref> More careful estimates made in 2022 which take into account regional variations puts the global ant contribution at 12 megatons of dry carbon, which is about 20% of the total human contribution, but greater than that of the wild birds and mammals combined. This study also puts a conservative estimate of the ants at about 20 × 10<sup>15</sup> (20 quadrillion).<ref name"schultz">{{cite journal | vauthors Schultz TR | title In search of ant ancestors | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 97 | issue 26 | pages 14028–14029 | date December 2000 | pmid 11106367 | pmc 34089 | doi 10.1073/pnas.011513798| bibcode 2000PNAS...9714028S | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleHow many ants are there for every one person on earth? |urlhttp://topics.info.com/How-many-ants-are-there-for-every-one-person-on-earth_452 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130813234547/http://topics.info.com/How-many-ants-are-there-for-every-one-person-on-earth_452 |archive-date13 August 2013 |access-date27 July 2013 |publisherinfo.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Schultheiss |first1Patrick |last2Nooten |first2Sabine S. |last3Wang |first3Runxi |last4Wong |first4Mark K. L. |last5Brassard |first5François |last6Guénard |first6Benoit |date2022-10-04 |titleThe abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume119 |issue40 |pagese2201550119 |doi10.1073/pnas.2201550119 |doi-accessfree |pmid36122199 |pmc9546634 |bibcode2022PNAS..11901550S |s2cid252381912 |issn=0027-8424}}</ref>
Ants range in size from {{convert|0.75|to(-)|52|mm|sigfig2}},<ref name AntsDorylusWilverthaiQueen >Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 589</ref><ref name OligomyrmexMinor>{{Cite book | author Shattuck SO | title Australian ants: their biology and identification | year 1999 | publisher CSIRO | location Collingwood, Vic | isbn 978-0-643-06659-5 | page 149 }}</ref> the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum, the queen of which was {{convert|6|cm|in|frac2|abbron}} long with a wingspan of {{convert|15|cm|in|frac2|abbron}}.<ref name"Messel">{{cite journal|journalEncyclopedia of Life Sciences|authorSchaal, Stephan|date27 January 2006|doi10.1038/npg.els.0004143|titleMessel|isbn978-0-470-01617-6}}</ref> Ants vary in colour; most ants are yellow to red or brown to black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre. More than 13,800 species are currently known<ref nameAntWeb>[https://www.antweb.org/statsPage.do AntWeb]</ref> (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000; see the article List of ant genera), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntWeb and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species.<ref nameAntWeb/> The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies.<ref>{{cite book | veditors Agosti D, Majer JD, Alonso JE, Schultz TR | year 2000 | title Ants: Standard methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity | publisher Smithsonian Institution Press | url http://antbase.org/databases/publications_files/publications_20330.htm | access-date 2015-12-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymenoptera/nomenclator.home_page | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160127143848/http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymenoptera/nomenclator.home_page | url-status dead | archive-date 27 January 2016 | title Hymenoptera name server | publisher Ohio State University | vauthors Johnson NF | year 2007 | access-date 6 July 2008 }}</ref>
Morphology
)]]
Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having geniculate (elbowed) antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole. The body is divided into three distinct sections (formally known as tagmata''): the head, mesosoma, and metasoma. The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments).<ref>Borror, Triplehorn & Delong (1989), p. 737</ref> Tergosternal fusion, when the tergite and sternite of a segment fuse together, can occur partly or fully on the second, third and fourth abdominal segment and is used in identification. Fourth abdominal tergosternal fusion was formerly used as character that defined the poneromorph subfamilies, Ponerinae and relatives within their clade, but this is no longer considered a synapomorphic character.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Ouellette |first1Gary D. |last2Fisher |first2Brian L. |last3Girman |first3Derek J. |date2006 |titleMolecular systematics of basal subfamilies of ants using 28S rRNA (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105579030600100X |journalMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume40 |issue2 |pages359–369 |doi10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.017 |pmid16630727 |bibcode2006MolPE..40..359O |hdl10211.1/1549 |issn1055-7903|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Like other arthropods, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.<ref name"insectmorph">Borror, Triplehorn & Delong (1989), pp. 24–71</ref>Head
showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent vision]]
An ant's head contains many sensory organs. Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together. Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection, but do not offer a high resolution image. They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fent K, Wehner R | title Oceili: a celestial compass in the desert ant cataglyphis | journal Science | volume 228 | issue 4696 | pages 192–194 | date April 1985 | pmid 17779641 | doi 10.1126/science.228.4696.192 | s2cid 33242108 | bibcode 1985Sci...228..192F }}</ref> Compared to vertebrates, ants tend to have blurrier eyesight, particularly in smaller species,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Palavalli-Nettimi R, Narendra A | title Miniaturisation decreases visual navigational competence in ants | journal The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume 221 | issue Pt 7 | page jeb177238 | date April 2018 | pmid 29487158 | doi 10.1242/jeb.177238 | doi-access free }}</ref> and a few subterranean taxa are completely blind.<ref nameWard /> However, some ants, such as Australia's bulldog ant, have excellent vision and are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a meter away.<ref>{{cite journal|journalJournal of Experimental Biology|volume119| pages115–131| year1985| titleAttack behaviour and distance perception in the Australian bulldog ant Myrmecia nigriceps| vauthors Eriksson ES |urlhttp://jeb.biologists.org/content/119/1/115.full.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://jeb.biologists.org/content/119/1/115.full.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | issue1|doi10.1242/jeb.119.1.115| doi-accessfree|bibcode1985JExpB.119..115E }}</ref> Based on experiments conducted to test their ability to differentiate between selected wavelengths of light, some ant species such as Camponotus blandus, Solenopsis invicta, and Formica cunicularia are thought to possess a degree of colour vision.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Yilmaz |first1Ayse |last2Spaethe |first2Johannes |date2022 |titleColour vision in ants (Formicidae, Hymenoptera) |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume377 |issue1862 |doi10.1098/rstb.2021.0291 |issn0962-8436 |pmc9441231 |pmid=36058251}}</ref>
Two antennae ("feelers") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch. The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence.<ref name"insectmorph"/> In some species, a small pocket (infrabuccal chamber) inside the mouth stores food, so it may be passed to other ants or their larvae.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsEisner T, Happ GM | titleThe infrabuccal pocket of a formicine ant: a social filtration device | journalPsyche: A Journal of Entomology | volume69 | pages107–116 | year1962 | doi10.1155/1962/25068 | issue3| doi-accessfree }}</ref>
Mesosoma
Both the legs and wings of the ant are attached to the mesosoma ("thorax"). The legs terminate in a hooked claw which allows them to hook on and climb surfaces.<ref>{{cite web|authorHolbrook, Tate|titleAsk a Biologist: Face to Face with Ants|date22 September 2009|publisherASU School of Life Sciences|urlhttps://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/ant-anatomy|access-date2018-01-23}}</ref> Only reproductive ants (queens and males) have wings. Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens. In a few species, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur.<ref name"insectmorph"/>MetasomaThe metasoma (the "abdomen") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae), and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests.<ref name"insectmorph"/>
Polymorphism
workers of various castes (left) and two queens (right)]]
In the colonies of a few ant species, there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes, called minor (micrergates), median, and major ergates (macrergates). Often, the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles. Although formally known as dinergates, such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting, although they still are workers and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers.<ref name":1" /> In a few species, the median workers are absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wilson EO | title The origin and evolution of polymorphism in ants | journal The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume 28 | issue 2 | pages 136–156 | date June 1953 | pmid 13074471 | doi 10.1086/399512 | s2cid 4560071 }}</ref> Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution.<ref>{{cite journal|authorWeber, NA|year1946|titleDimorphism in the African Oecophylla worker and an anomaly (Hym.: Formicidae)|journalAnnals of the Entomological Society of America|volume39|pages7–10| urlhttp://antbase.org/ants/publications/10434/10434.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://antbase.org/ants/publications/10434/10434.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|doi10.1093/aesa/39.1.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first1 Edward O. | last1 Wilson | first2 Robert W. | last2 Taylor | name-list-stylevanc|year1964|titleA Fossil Ant Colony: New Evidence of Social Antiquity |journalPsyche: A Journal of Entomology|volume71|pages93–103|urlhttp://psyche.entclub.org/pdf/71/71-093.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://psyche.entclub.org/pdf/71/71-093.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |doi10.1155/1964/17612 |issue2|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in Carebara diversa show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry weights.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsMoffett MW, Tobin JE |year1991 |titlePhysical castes in ant workers: a problem for Daceton armigerum and other ants |journalPsyche: A Journal of Entomology |volume98 |pages283–292 |urlhttp://psyche2.entclub.org/articles/98/98-283.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080227015919/http://psyche2.entclub.org/articles/98/98-283.pdf |archive-date2008-02-27 |doi10.1155/1991/30265 |issue4|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile, haploid males. The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels. These food storage workers are called repletes.<ref>{{cite journal|authorBørgesen LW |year2000 |titleNutritional function of replete workers in the pharaoh's ant, Monomorium pharaonis (L.)|journalInsectes Sociaux |volume47 |issue2 |pages141–146 |doi10.1007/PL00001692|s2cid31953751 }}</ref> For instance, these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant Myrmecocystus mexicanus. Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes; and, if repletes are removed from the colony, other workers become repletes, demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1Rissing | first1Steven W | name-list-stylevanc | year1984 | titleReplete caste production and allometry of workers in the Honey Ant, Myrmecocystus mexicanus Wesmael (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) | journalJournal of the Kansas Entomological Society | volume57 | issue2| pages347–350}}</ref> This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hughes WO, Sumner S, Van Borm S, Boomsma JJ | title Worker caste polymorphism has a genetic basis in Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 100 | issue 16 | pages 9394–9397 | date August 2003 | pmid 12878720 | pmc 170929 | doi 10.1073/pnas.1633701100 | bibcode 2003PNAS..100.9394H | doi-access free }}</ref> These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ross KG, Krieger MJ, Shoemaker DD | title Alternative genetic foundations for a key social polymorphism in fire ants | journal Genetics | volume 165 | issue 4 | pages 1853–1867 | date December 2003 | doi 10.1093/genetics/165.4.1853 | pmid 14704171 | pmc 1462884 }}</ref> The Australian jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) has only a single pair of chromosomes (with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Crosland MW, Crozier RH | title Myrmecia pilosula, an ant with only one Pair of chromosomes | journal Science | volume 231 | issue 4743 | pages 1278 | date March 1986 | pmid 17839565 | doi 10.1126/science.231.4743.1278 | bibcode 1986Sci...231.1278C | s2cid 25465053 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tsutsui ND, Suarez AV, Spagna JC, Johnston JS | title The evolution of genome size in ants | journal BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume 8 | issue 64 | pages 64 | date February 2008 | pmid 18302783 | pmc 2268675 | doi 10.1186/1471-2148-8-64 | doi-access free | bibcode 2008BMCEE...8...64T }}</ref>Genome sizeGenome size is a fundamental characteristic of an organism. Ants have been found to have tiny genomes, with the evolution of genome size suggested to occur through loss and accumulation of non-coding regions, mainly transposable elements, and occasionally by whole genome duplication.<ref name"moura">{{cite journal|author1Moura, Mariana Neves|author2Cardoso, Danon Clemes|author3Cristiano, Maykon Passos|titleThe tight genome size of ants: diversity and evolution under ancestral state reconstruction and base composition|year2021|journalZoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume193|issue1|pages124–144|doi10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa135|issn0024-4082|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/193/1/124/6036549}}</ref> This may be related to colonisation processes, but further studies are needed to verify this.<ref name"moura"/>Life cycle
nest during swarming]]
The life of an ant starts from an egg; if the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female diploid, if not, it will be male haploid. Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach". Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food, such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors Hölldobler B, Wilson EO |titleThe Ants|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld |url-accessregistration |year1990 |publisherHarvard University Press|isbn978-0-674-04075-5 |page[https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/n316 291]}}</ref>
The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa.<ref>{{cite book|authorGillott, Cedric |year1995|titleEntomology|publisherSpringer|isbn978-0-306-44967-3|page325}}</ref> The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research.<ref>{{cite journal|titleThe causes and consequences of genetic caste determination in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) |first1Kirk E. |last1Anderson |first2Timothy A. |last2Linksvayer |first3Chris R. |last3Smith | name-list-stylevanc |journalMyrmecol. News |volume11 |pages119–132 |year2008 |urlhttps://myrmecologicalnews.org/cms/index.php?optioncom_content&viewcategory&id250&Itemid73}}</ref> Winged male ants, called drones (termed "aner" in old literature<ref name":1">{{Cite journal| vauthors Gaul AT |date1951|titleA Glossary of Terms and Phrases Used in the Study of Social Insects|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/aesa/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/aesa/44.3.473|journalAnnals of the Entomological Society of America|volume44|issue3|pages473–484|doi10.1093/aesa/44.3.473|issn1938-2901}}</ref>), emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females. Some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony.<ref>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 351, 372</ref>
A new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. Such age-based task-specialization or polyethism has been suggested as having evolved due to the high casualties involved in foraging and defence, making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and likely to die sooner from natural causes.<ref>{{cite journal|journalAnnual Review of Entomology|year1989|volume34|pages191–210|titleForaging strategies of ants|authorTraniello JFA|doi10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001203}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsSorensen A, Busch TM, Vinson SB |titleBehavioral flexibility of temporal sub-castes in the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, in response to food|journalPsyche: A Journal of Entomology|volume91|pages319–332|year1984|doi10.1155/1984/39236|issue3–4|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In the Brazilian ant Forelius pusillus, the nest entrance is closed from the outside to protect the colony from predatory ant species at sunset each day. About one to eight workers seal the nest entrance from the outside and they have no chance of returning to the nest and are in effect sacrificed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Tofilski |first1Adam |last2Couvillon |first2Margaret J. |last3Evison |first3Sophie E. F. |last4Helanterä |first4Heikki |last5Robinson |first5Elva J. H. |last6Ratnieks |first6Francis L. W. |date2008 |titlePreemptive Defensive Self-Sacrifice by Ant Workers |journalThe American Naturalist|volume172 |issue5 |pagesE239–E243 |doi10.1086/591688 |pmid18928332 |bibcode2008ANat..172E.239T |s2cid7052340 |issn0003-0147}}</ref> Whether these seemingly suicidal workers are older workers has not been determined.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Shorter |first1J. R. |last2Rueppell |first2O. |date2012 |titleA review on self-destructive defense behaviors in social insects |urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00040-011-0210-x |journalInsectes Sociaux|volume59 |issue1 |pages1–10 |doi10.1007/s00040-011-0210-x |s2cid253634662 |issn=0020-1812}}</ref>
Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30&nbsp;years, and workers live from 1 to 3&nbsp;years. Males, however, are more transitory, being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks.<ref>{{cite journal |authorKeller L|year1998 |titleQueen lifespan and colony characteristics in ants and termites |journalInsectes Sociaux |volume45 |pages235–246 |doi10.1007/s000400050084 |issue3|s2cid24541087 }}</ref> Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size.<ref nameinsencyc>{{cite book|editor-link1Nigel R. Franks|veditorsFranks NR, Resh VH, Cardé RT|year2003|titleEncyclopedia of Insects|pages[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin00bada/page/29 29–32]|isbn978-0-12-586990-4|publisherAcademic Press|locationSan Diego|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin00bada/page/29}}</ref>
Ants are active all year long in the tropics; however, in cooler regions, they survive the winter in a state of dormancy known as hibernation. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.<ref>{{cite journal|authorKipyatkov VE|year2001|titleSeasonal life cycles and the forms of dormancy in ants (Hymenoptera, Formicoidea)|journalActa Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae|volume65|issue2|pages198–217}}</ref>Reproduction
) mating, the drone is much smaller than the queen]]
A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Heinze J, Tsuji K |year1995|titleAnt reproductive strategies|journalRes. Popul. Ecol.|volume37|issue2|pages135–149|urlhttp://meme.biology.tohoku.ac.jp/POPECOL/RP%20PDF/37(2)/pp.135.pdf|doi10.1007/BF02515814|bibcode1995PopEc..37..135H |s2cid21948488|access-date2009-04-16|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110527051529/http://meme.biology.tohoku.ac.jp/POPECOL/RP%20PDF/37(2)/pp.135.pdf|archive-date2011-05-27|url-statusdead}}</ref> Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating.<ref name"Mikheyev, a. S. 2003. pp.401">{{Cite journal | doi 10.1007/s00040-003-0697-x | title Evidence for mating plugs in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta | journal Insectes Sociaux | volume 50 | issue 4 | pages 401–402 | year 2003 | vauthors Mikheyev AS | s2cid 43492133 }}</ref> Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamergates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Peeters C, Hölldobler B | title Reproductive cooperation between queens and their mated workers: the complex life history of an ant with a valuable nest | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 92 | issue 24 | pages 10977–10979 | date November 1995 | pmid 11607589 | pmc 40553 | doi 10.1073/pnas.92.24.10977 | bibcode 1995PNAS...9210977P | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony, such as in army ants. When the drone is initially attacked by the workers, it releases a mating pheromone. If recognized as a mate, it will be carried to the queen to mate.<ref name"Franks N. 2008">{{Cite journal | vauthors Franks NR, Hölldobler B | doi 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb00298.x | title Sexual competition during colony reproduction in army ants | journal Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume 30 | issue 3 | pages 229–243 | year 1987 }}</ref> Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles, piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone. The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi 10.1007/BF01175395 | title Pheromonal manipulation of workers by a fighting male to kill his rival males in the ant Cardiocondyla wroughtonii | journal Naturwissenschaften | volume 79 | issue 6 | pages 274–276 | year 1992 | vauthors Yamauchi K, Kawase N | bibcode 1992NW.....79..274Y | s2cid = 31191187 }}</ref>
Most ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year.<ref name"bloodywasp">{{cite book| vauthors Taylor RW |year2007 |chapterBloody funny wasps! Speculations on the evolution of eusociality in ants|pages580–609|veditorsSnelling RR, Fisher BL, Ward PS|titleAdvances in ant systematics (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): homage to E. O. Wilson&nbsp;– 50 years of contributions. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 80|publisherAmerican Entomological Institute | chapter-url http://antbase.org/ants/publications/21292/21292.pdf |access-date2015-12-13}}</ref> During the species-specific breeding period, winged females and winged males, known to entomologists as alates, leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid. Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests.<ref name"nuptial flight 2">{{cite journal| vauthors Wilson EO |year1957|titleThe organization of a nuptial flight of the ant Pheidole sitarches Wheeler | journal Psyche: A Journal of Entomology | url http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/images/7/7f/Wilson_1958d.pdf |volume64|issue 2|pages46–50|doi10.1155/1957/68319|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Males typically take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Males will mount females in the air, but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground. Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the sperm in their spermathecae.<ref name"HolldoblerWilsonAnts2">Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179</ref> The genus Cardiocondyla have species with both winged and wingless males, where the latter will only mate with females living in the same nest. Some species in the genus have lost winged males completely, and only produce wingless males.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHeinze |firstJürgen |date2017 |titleLife-history evolution in ants: the case of Cardiocondyla |journalProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|languageen |volume284 |issue1850 |pages20161406 |doi10.1098/rspb.2016.1406 |issn0962-8452 |pmc5360909 |pmid28298341}}</ref> In C. elegans, workers may transport newly emerged queens to other conspecific nests where the wingless males from unrelated colonies can mate with them, a behavioural adaptation that may reduce the chances of inbreeding.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vidal M, Königseder F, Giehr J, Schrempf A, Lucas C, Heinze J | title Worker ants promote outbreeding by transporting young queens to alien nests | journal Communications Biology | volume 4 | issue 1 | pages 515 | date May 2021 | pmid 33941829 | pmc 8093424 | doi = 10.1038/s42003-021-02016-1 }}</ref>
Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings using their tibial spurs and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones. The first workers to hatch, known as nanitics,<ref name"SuddFranks2013">{{cite book | vauthors Sudd JH, Franks NR |titleThe Behavioural Ecology of Ants|year2013|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media|isbn978-9400931237|page41}}</ref> are weaker and smaller than later workers but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site,<ref name"HolldoblerWilsonAnts2"/> a process akin to swarming in honeybees.
Nests, colonies, and supercolonies
The typical ant species has a colony occupying a single nest, housing one or more queens, where the brood is raised. There are however more than 150 species of ants in 49 genera that are known to have colonies consisting of multiple spatially separated nests. These polydomous (as opposed to monodomous) colonies have food and workers moving between the nests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Cook |first1Zoe |last2Franks |first2Daniel W. |last3Robinson |first3Elva J.H. |date2013 |titleExploration versus exploitation in polydomous ant colonies |urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519313000477 |journalJournal of Theoretical Biology|volume323 |pages49–56 |doi10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.01.022|pmid23380232 |bibcode2013JThBi.323...49C }}</ref> Membership to a colony is identified by the response of worker ants which identify whether another individual belongs to their own colony or not. A signature cocktail of body surface chemicals (also known as cuticular hydrocarbons or CHCs) forms the so-called colony odor which other members can recognize.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Bos |first1Nick |last2d’Ettorre |first2Patrizia |date2012 |titleRecognition of Social Identity in Ants |journalFrontiers in Psychology |volume3 |page83 |doi10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00083 |issn1664-1078 |pmc3309994 |pmid22461777 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> Some ant species appear to be less discriminating and in the Argentine ant Linepithema humile, workers carried from a colony anywhere in the southern US and Mexico are acceptable within other colonies in the same region. Similarly workers from colonies that have established in Europe are accepted by any other colonies within Europe but not by the colonies in the Americas. The interpretation of these observations has been debated and some have been termed these large populations as supercolonies<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMoffett |firstMark W. |date2012 |titleSupercolonies of billions in an invasive ant: What is a society? |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/beheco/ars043 |journalBehavioral Ecology|volume23 |issue5 |pages925–933 |doi10.1093/beheco/ars043 |issn1465-7279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Van Wilgenburg |first1Ellen |last2Torres |first2Candice W. |last3Tsutsui |first3Neil D. |date2010 |titleThe global expansion of a single ant supercolony |journalEvolutionary Applications|volume3 |issue2 |pages136–143 |doi10.1111/j.1752-4571.2009.00114.x |issn1752-4571 |pmc3352483 |pmid25567914}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastHeikki Helanterä |date2022 |titleSupercolonies of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): ecological patterns, behavioural processes and their implications for social evolution |urlhttps://myrmecologicalnews.org/cms/index.php?optioncom_content&viewcategory&id1593&Itemid441 |journalMyrmecological News |volume32 |pages1–22 |doi10.25849/MYRMECOL.NEWS_032:001}}</ref> while others have termed the populations as unicolonial.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Helanterä |first1Heikki |last2Strassmann |first2Joan E. |last3Carrillo |first3Juli |last4Queller |first4David C. |date2009 |titleUnicolonial ants: where do they come from, what are they and where are they going? |urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534709000895 |journalTrends in Ecology & Evolution|volume24 |issue6 |pages341–349 |doi10.1016/j.tree.2009.01.013|pmid19328589 |bibcode2009TEcoE..24..341H }}</ref>
Behaviour and ecology
Communication
{{See also|Ant communication}}
workers communicating through touch and pheromones]]
larvae that parasitoid wasps larvae exited two days earlier.]]
Ants communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch.<ref name"Jackson2006">{{cite journal | vauthors Jackson DE, Ratnieks FL | title Communication in ants | journal Current Biology | volume 16 | issue 15 | pages R570–R574 | date August 2006 | pmid 16890508 | doi 10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.015 | s2cid 5835320 | doi-access free | bibcode 2006CBio...16.R570J }}</ref> Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path.<ref name"Jackson2006"/><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Goss S, Aron S, Deneubourg JL, Pasteels JM |year1989|titleSelf-organized shortcuts in the Argentine ant|journalNaturwissenschaften |volume76 |pages579–581 |doi10.1007/BF00462870 |issue12|urlhttp://www.ulb.ac.be/sciences/use/publications/JLD/56.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ulb.ac.be/sciences/use/publications/JLD/56.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|bibcode 1989NW.....76..579G |s2cid18506807}}</ref>
Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors D'Ettorre P, Heinze J | journal Acta Ethologica | year 2001 | volume 3 | pages 67–82 | title Sociobiology of slave-making ants | doi 10.1007/s102110100038 | issue 2 | s2cid 37840769 }}</ref> Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia.<ref name"insencyc"/> Pheromones also are exchanged, mixed with food, and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony.<ref>{{cite book|vauthorsDetrain C, Deneubourg JL, Pasteels JM |year1999|titleInformation processing in social insects|publisherBirkhäuser|isbn978-3-7643-5792-4|pages224–227}}</ref> This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Greene MJ, Gordon DM | title Structural complexity of chemical recognition cues affects the perception of group membership in the ants Linephithema humile and Aphaenogaster cockerelli | journal The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume 210 | issue Pt 5 | pages 897–905 | date March 2007 | pmid 17297148 | doi 10.1242/jeb.02706 | doi-access | bibcode 2007JExpB.210..897G | s2cid 14909476 }}</ref> In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony.<ref name=TheAntsPheroCastes>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 354</ref>
Some ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hickling R, Brown RL | title Analysis of acoustic communication by ants | journal The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America | volume 108 | issue 4 | pages 1920–1929 | date October 2000 | pmid 11051518 | doi 10.1121/1.1290515 | bibcode 2000ASAJ..108.1920H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Roces F, Hölldobler B |year1996 |titleUse of stridulation in foraging leaf-cutting ants: Mechanical support during cutting or short-range recruitment signal?|journalBehavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume39 |pages293–299 |doi10.1007/s002650050292 |issue5|bibcode1996BEcoS..39..293R |s2cid32884747 }}</ref>
Defence <!-- Note this spelling is correct in UK English, if you came here to change this to Defense, please note that articles on Wikipedia choose between US and UK spelling based on priority-->
{{see also|Defense in insects}}
sp. attacks another of its kind to protect its territory.]]
Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging often injecting or spraying chemicals. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt sting pain index.<ref>{{cite journal|doi10.1002/arch.940010205|pages155–160|titleHemolytic activities of stinging insect venoms|journalArchives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology |volume1|issue2|year1983 | vauthors Schmidt JO, Blum MS, Overal WL }}</ref>
The sting of jack jumper ants can be lethal for humans,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Clarke PS | title The natural history of sensitivity to jack jumper ants (Hymenoptera formicidae Myrmecia pilosula) in Tasmania | journal The Medical Journal of Australia | volume 145 | issue 11–12 | pages 564–566 | year 1986 | pmid 3796365 | doi10.5694/j.1326-5377.1986.tb139498.x}}</ref> and an antivenom has been developed for it.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Brown SG, Heddle RJ, Wiese MD, Blackman KE | title Efficacy of ant venom immunotherapy and whole body extracts | journal The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | volume 116 | issue 2 | pages 464–465; author reply 465–466 | date August 2005 | pmid 16083810 | doi 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.04.025 }}</ref> Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Obin MS, Vander Meer RK | title Gaster flagging by fire ants (Solenopsis spp.): Functional significance of venom dispersal behavior | journal Journal of Chemical Ecology | volume 11 | issue 12 | pages 1757–1768 | date December 1985 | pmid 24311339 | doi 10.1007/BF01012125 | bibcode 1985JCEco..11.1757O | s2cid 12182722 | url https://zenodo.org/record/1232476 }}</ref> Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Stafford CT | title Hypersensitivity to fire ant venom | journal Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology | volume 77 | issue 2 | pages 87–95; quiz 96–99 | date August 1996 | pmid 8760773 | doi 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63493-X }}</ref> Formicine ants secrete a poison from their glands, made mainly of formic acid.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsLopez LC, Morgan ED, Brand JM|year1993|titleHexadecanol and hexadecyl formate in the venom gland of formicine ants|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|volume341|issue1296|pages177–180|doi10.1098/rstb.1993.0101|s2cid85361145 }}</ref>
in fighting position, mandibles wide open]]
Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom.<ref name"TrapJawPatek">{{cite journal |vauthorsPatek SN, Baio JE, Fisher BL, Suarez AV |titleMultifunctionality and mechanical origins: ballistic jaw propulsion in trap-jaw ants |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume103 |issue34 |pages12787–12792 |dateAugust 2006 |pmid16924120 |pmc1568925 |doi10.1073/pnas.0604290103 |bibcode2006PNAS..10312787P|doi-accessfree }}</ref> One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between {{convert|126|and|230|km/h|mph|abbron}}, with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat.<ref name"TrapJawPatek" /> Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws also are seen in other ponerines such as Anochetus, as well as some genera in the tribe Attini, such as Daceton, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys,<ref name"TrapJawPatek" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsGronenberg W |titleThe trap-jaw mechanism in the dacetine ants Daceton armigerum and Strumigenys sp. |journalThe Journal of Experimental Biology |volume199 |issuePt 9 |pages2021–2033 |year1996 |doi10.1242/jeb.199.9.2021 |pmid9319931 |bibcode1996JExpB.199.2021G |urlhttp://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/199/9/2021.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/199/9/2021.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.
A Malaysian species of ant in the Camponotus cylindricus group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster. If combat takes a turn for the worse, a worker may perform a final act of suicidal altruism by rupturing the membrane of its gaster, causing the content of its mandibular glands to burst from the anterior region of its head, spraying a poisonous, corrosive secretion containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers. The worker subsequently dies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Jones TH, Clark DA, Edwards AA, Davidson DW, Spande TF, Snelling RR | title The chemistry of exploding ants, Camponotus spp. (cylindricus complex) | journal Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume30 |issue8 |pages1479–1492 |dateAugust 2004 |pmid15537154 |doi10.1023/B:JOEC.0000042063.01424.28 | bibcode 2004JCEco..30.1479J |s2cid=23756265}}</ref>
In addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Secretions from the metapleural gland, unique to the ants, produce a complex range of chemicals including several with antibiotic properties.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |last1Yek |first1Sze Huei |last2Mueller |first2Ulrich G. |date2011 |titleThe metapleural gland of ants |urlhttp://www.sbs.utexas.edu/Muelleru/pubs/Yek-Mueller2011%20EarlyOnline.pdf |journalBiological Reviews|volume86 |issue4 |pages774–791 |doi10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00170.x|pmid21504532 |s2cid7690884 }}</ref> Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophoresis, the disposal of dead nest-mates.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Julian GE, Cahan S | title Undertaking specialization in the desert leaf-cutter ant Acromyrmex versicolor | journal Animal Behaviour | volume 58 | issue 2 | pages 437–442 | date August 1999 | pmid 10458895 | doi 10.1006/anbe.1999.1184 | s2cid 23845331 }}</ref> Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in Atta mexicana<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsLópez-Riquelme GO, Malo EA, Cruz-López L, Fanjul-Moles ML |year2006|titleAntennal olfactory sensitivity in response to task-related odours of three castes of the ant Atta mexicana (hymenoptera: formicidae)|journalPhysiological Entomology|volume31|issue4|pages353–360| doi 10.1111/j.1365-3032.2006.00526.x|s2cid84890901}}</ref> while workers of Linepithema humile react to the absence of characteristic chemicals (dolichodial and iridomyrmecin) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Choe DH, Millar JG, Rust MK | title Chemical signals associated with life inhibit necrophoresis in Argentine ants | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 106 | issue 20 | pages 8251–8255 | date May 2009 | pmid 19416815 | pmc 2688878 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0901270106 | bibcode 2009PNAS..106.8251C | doi-access free }}</ref> In Megaponera analis, injured ants are treated by nestmastes with secretions from their metapleural glands which protect them from infection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Frank |first1Erik. T. |last2Kesner |first2Lucie |last3Liberti |first3Joanito |last4Helleu |first4Quentin |last5LeBoeuf |first5Adria C. |last6Dascalu |first6Andrei |last7Sponsler |first7Douglas B. |last8Azuma |first8Fumika |last9Economo |first9Evan P. |last10Waridel |first10Patrice |last11Engel |first11Philipp |last12Schmitt |first12Thomas |last13Keller |first13Laurent |date2023-12-29 |titleTargeted treatment of injured nestmates with antimicrobial compounds in an ant society |journalNature Communications |languageen |volume14 |issue1 |page8446 |doi10.1038/s41467-023-43885-w |issn2041-1723 |pmc10756881 |pmid38158416|bibcode2023NatCo..14.8446F }}</ref> Camponotus ants do not have a metapleural gland<ref name":0" /> and Camponotus maculatus as well as C. floridanus workers have been found to amputate the affected legs of nestmates when the femur is injured. A femur injury carries a greater risk of infection unlike a tibia injury.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Frank |first1Erik.T. |last2Buffat |first2Dany |last3Liberti |first3Joanito |last4Aibekova |first4Lazzat |last5Economo |first5Evan P. |last6Keller |first6Laurent |date2024 |titleWound-dependent leg amputations to combat infections in an ant society |journalCurrent Biology |volume34 |issue14 |pages3273–3278.e3 |languageen |doi10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.021|pmid38959879 |doi-accessfree |bibcode2024CBio...34.3273F }}</ref>
Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tschinkel WR | title The nest architecture of the Florida harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex badius | journal Journal of Insect Science | volume 4 | issue 21 | pages 21 | year 2004 | pmid 15861237 | pmc 528881 | doi 10.1093/jis/4.1.21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Peeters C, Hölldobler B, Moffett M, Musthak Ali TM|year1994|title"Wall-papering" and elaborate nest architecture in the ponerine ant Harpegnathos saltator|journalInsectes Sociaux|volume41|pages211–218|doi10.1007/BF01240479|issue2|s2cid41870857}}</ref> Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Maschwitz U, Moog J | title Communal peeing: a new mode of flood control in ants | journal Die Naturwissenschaften | volume 87 | issue 12 | pages 563–565 | date December 2000 | pmid 11198200 | doi 10.1007/s001140050780 | bibcode 2000NW.....87..563M | s2cid 7482935 }}</ref> Camponotus anderseni, which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Nielsen MG, Christian KA | title The mangrove ant, Camponotus anderseni, switches to anaerobic respiration in response to elevated CO2 levels | journal Journal of Insect Physiology | volume 53 | issue 5 | pages 505–508 | date May 2007 | pmid 17382956 | doi 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2007.02.002 }}</ref>Learning
]]
Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation, but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed. A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis can lead a naïve nest-mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running. The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor. The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Franks NR, Richardson T | title Teaching in tandem-running ants | journal Nature | volume 439 | issue 7073 | pages 153 | date January 2006 | pmid 16407943 | doi 10.1038/439153a | bibcode 2006Natur.439..153F | s2cid 4416276 | doi-access free }}</ref>
Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times. A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ravary F, Lecoutey E, Kaminski G, Châline N, Jaisson P | title Individual experience alone can generate lasting division of labor in ants | journal Current Biology | volume 17 | issue 15 | pages 1308–1312 | date August 2007 | pmid 17629482 | doi 10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.047 | s2cid 13273984 | doi-access free | bibcode 2007CBio...17.1308R }}</ref>
Nest construction
{{Main|Ant colony}}
, Pamalican, Philippines]]
Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,<ref name HolldoblerWilsonAnts2/> and ants carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Franks NR, Hooper J, Webb C, Dornhaus A | title Tomb evaders: house-hunting hygiene in ants | journal Biology Letters| volume 1 | issue 2 | pages 190–192 | date June 2005 | pmid 17148163 | pmc 1626204 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2005.0302 }}</ref>
The army ants of South America, such as the Eciton burchellii species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together.<ref>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 573</ref>
Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsRobson SK, Kohout RJ |year2005|titleEvolution of nest-weaving behaviour in arboreal nesting ants of the genus Polyrhachis Fr. Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)|journalAustralian Journal of Entomology|volume44|issue2|pages164–169|doi10.1111/j.1440-6055.2005.00462.x}}</ref>
Formica polyctena, among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae. The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Frouz J |titleThe Effect of Nest Moisture on Daily Temperature Regime in the Nests of Formica polyctena Wood Ants|journalInsectes Sociaux| volume47 |issue3|year2000|pages229–235|doi10.1007/PL00001708|s2cid955282}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Kadochová|first1Štěpánka|last2Frouz|first2Jan|date2013|titleThermoregulation strategies in ants in comparison to other social insects, with a focus on red wood ants ( Formica rufa group)|journalF1000Research|volume2|page280|doi10.12688/f1000research.2-280.v2|issn2046-1402|pmc3962001|pmid24715967 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Some ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures.<ref>{{Cite journal|journalBiological Conservation| volume 115 |issue2| year2004| pages279–289| title Impact of human dwellings on the distribution of the exotic Argentine ant: a case study in the Doñana National Park, Spain | vauthors Carpintero S, Reyes-López J, de Reynac LA |doi10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00147-2| bibcode2004BCons.115..279C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Friedrich R, Philpott SM | title Nest-site limitation and nesting resources of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in urban green spaces | journal Environmental Entomology | volume 38 | issue 3 | pages 600–607 | date June 2009 | pmid 19508768 | doi 10.1603/022.038.0311 | name-list-style vanc | s2cid 20555077 | doi-access free }}</ref>Cultivation of food
{{Main|Ant–fungus mutualism}}
, honeypot ants, store food to prevent colony famine.]]
Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores,<ref nameriseofants/> but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition. It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Anderson KE, Russell JA, Moreau CS, Kautz S, Sullam KE, Hu Y, Basinger U, Mott BM, Buck N, Wheeler DE | title Highly similar microbial communities are shared among related and trophically similar ant species | journal Molecular Ecology | volume 21 | issue 9 | pages 2282–2296 | date May 2012 | pmid 22276952 | doi 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05464.x | bibcode 2012MolEc..21.2282A | s2cid 32534515 }}</ref> to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Feldhaar H, Straka J, Krischke M, Berthold K, Stoll S, Mueller MJ, Gross R | title Nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont Blochmannia | journal BMC Biology | volume 5 | pages 48 | date October 2007 | pmid 17971224 | pmc 2206011 | doi 10.1186/1741-7007-5-48 | doi-access free }}</ref> and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rainforest canopies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Russell JA, Moreau CS, Goldman-Huertas B, Fujiwara M, Lohman DJ, Pierce NE | title Bacterial gut symbionts are tightly linked with the evolution of herbivory in ants | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 106 | issue 50 | pages 21236–21241 | date December 2009 | pmid 19948964 | pmc 2785723 | doi 10.1073/pnas.0907926106 | bibcode 2009PNAS..10621236R | doi-access free }}</ref> Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Ergates specialise in related tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi.<ref>{{cite journal|journalNature|year1999|volume398|titleAnts, plants and antibiotics|authorSchultz TR|pages747–748 | doi 10.1038/19619|issue6730 |urlhttp://www.insecta.ufv.br/Entomologia/ent/disciplina/ban%20160/AULAP/aula2/AntsandBacteria.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.insecta.ufv.br/Entomologia/ent/disciplina/ban%20160/AULAP/aula2/AntsandBacteria.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|bibcode 1999Natur.398..747S |s2cid5167611|doi-accessfree}}</ref>Navigation
]]
Foraging ants travel distances of up to {{convert|200|m|sigfig1}} from their nest<ref nameforaging>{{cite journal | title Ecology of foraging by ants | vauthors Carrol CR, Janzen DH | journal Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics | year 1973 | volume 4 | issue 1 | pages 231–257 | doi 10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.001311 | bibcode 1973AnRES...4..231C }}</ref> and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark. In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants of the genus Cataglyphis such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled. Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wittlinger M, Wehner R, Wolf H | title The ant odometer: stepping on stilts and stumps | journal Science | volume 312 | issue 5782 | pages 1965–1967 | date June 2006 | pmid 16809544 | doi 10.1126/science.1126912 | url http://sun.menloschool.org/~dspence/biology/pdfs/ant_odometer.pdf | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110728042723/http://sun.menloschool.org/~dspence/biology/pdfs/ant_odometer.pdf | url-status dead | bibcode 2006Sci...312.1965W | s2cid 15162376 | archive-date 2011-07-28 }}</ref> and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow).<ref>{{cite journal | title Desert ants Cataglyphis fortis use self-induced optic flow to measure distances travelled | vauthors Ronacher B, Werner R | journal Journal of Comparative Physiology A | year 1995 | url http://www.zool.uzh.ch/static/research/nb_wehner/literatur/pdf95/wehner19953.pdf | doi 10.1007/BF00243395 | volume 177 | s2cid 4625001 | access-date 2011-06-07 | archive-date 2011-07-27 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110727072227/http://www.zool.uzh.ch/static/research/nb_wehner/literatur/pdf95/wehner19953.pdf | url-status dead }}</ref> Directions are measured using the position of the sun.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wehner R | title Desert ant navigation: how miniature brains solve complex tasks | journal Journal of Comparative Physiology A | volume 189 | issue 8 | pages 579–588 | date August 2003 | pmid 12879352 | doi 10.1007/s00359-003-0431-1 | s2cid 4571290 | url http://www.zool.uzh.ch/static/research/nb_wehner/literatur/pdf03/wehner20038.pdf | access-date 2010-09-07 | archive-date 2011-07-07 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110707004545/http://www.zool.uzh.ch/static/research/nb_wehner/literatur/pdf03/wehner20038.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>
They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sommer S, Wehner R | title The ant's estimation of distance travelled: experiments with desert ants, Cataglyphis fortis | journal Journal of Comparative Physiology A | volume 190 | issue 1 | pages 1–6 | date January 2004 | pmid 14614570 | doi 10.1007/s00359-003-0465-4 | s2cid 23280914 | url = https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/669/1/ZORA_NL_669.pdf }}</ref>
Like all ants, they can also make use of visual landmarks when available<ref>{{cite journal | title Visual navigation in desert ants Cataglyphis fortis: are snapshots coupled to a celestial system of reference? | vauthors Åkesson S, Wehner R | journal Journal of Experimental Biology | year 2002 | volume 205 | pages 1971–1978 | url http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/205/14/1971.pdf | issue 14 | doi 10.1242/jeb.205.14.1971 | pmid 12089203 | bibcode 2002JExpB.205.1971A }}</ref> as well as olfactory and tactile cues to navigate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Steck K, Hansson BS, Knaden M | title Smells like home: Desert ants, Cataglyphis fortis, use olfactory landmarks to pinpoint the nest | journal Frontiers in Zoology | volume 6 | pages 5 | date February 2009 | pmid 19250516 | pmc 2651142 | doi 10.1186/1742-9994-6-5 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Seidl T, Wehner R | title Visual and tactile learning of ground structures in desert ants | journal The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume 209 | issue Pt 17 | pages 3336–3344 | date September 2006 | pmid 16916970 | doi 10.1242/jeb.02364 | s2cid 9642888 | doi-access free | bibcode = 2006JExpB.209.3336S }}</ref> Some species of ant are able to use the Earth's magnetic field for navigation.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Orientation by magnetic field in leaf-cutter ants, Atta colombica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
|vauthorsBanks AN, Srygley RB |journalEthology
|year=2003
|volume=109
|pages=835–846
|doi=10.1046/j.0179-1613.2003.00927.x
|issue=10
|bibcode2003Ethol.109..835B }}</ref> The compound eyes of ants have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fukushi T | title Homing in wood ants, Formica japonica: use of the skyline panorama | journal The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume 204 | issue Pt 12 | pages 2063–2072 | date June 2001 | doi 10.1242/jeb.204.12.2063 | pmid 11441048 | bibcode 2001JExpB.204.2063F | url http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/abstract/204/12/2063 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wehner R, Menzel R | title Homing in the ant Cataglyphis bicolor | journal Science | volume 164 | issue 3876 | pages 192–194 | date April 1969 | pmid 5774195 | doi 10.1126/science.164.3876.192 | bibcode 1969Sci...164..192W | s2cid = 41669795 }}</ref>
These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum.<ref>{{cite book | title The Insects: Structure and Function | url https://archive.org/details/insectsstructure0000chap | url-access registration | first Reginald Frederick | last Chapman | name-list-stylevanc | year 1998 | edition 4th | publisher Cambridge University Press | isbn 978-0-521-57890-5 | pages [https://archive.org/details/insectsstructure0000chap/page/600 600] }}</ref> In some army ant species, a group of foragers who become separated from the main column may sometimes turn back on themselves and form a circular ant mill. The workers may then run around continuously until they die of exhaustion.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Delsuc F | title Army ants trapped by their evolutionary history | journal PLOS Biology | volume 1 | issue 2 | pages E37 | date November 2003 | pmid 14624241 | pmc 261877 | doi 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000037 | doi-access free }}</ref>
Locomotion
The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsBaroni-Urbani C, Boyan GS, Blarer A, Billen J, Musthak Ali TM |year1994 |titleA novel mechanism for jumping in the Indian ant Harpegnathos saltator (Jerdon) (Formicidae, Ponerinae) |journalExperientia |volume50 |pages63–71 |doi10.1007/BF01992052|s2cid42304237 }}</ref> There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among arboreal ants with small colonies. Ants with this ability are able to control their horizontal movement so as to catch tree trunks when they fall from atop the forest canopy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Yanoviak SP, Dudley R, Kaspari M | title Directed aerial descent in canopy ants | journal Nature | volume 433 | issue 7026 | pages 624–626 | date February 2005 | pmid 15703745 | doi 10.1038/nature03254 | url http://www.canopyants.com/Nature05.pdf | url-status dead | bibcode 2005Natur.433..624Y | s2cid 4368995 | archive-url https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070616090223/http://www.canopyants.com/Nature05.pdf | archive-date = 2007-06-16 }}</ref>
Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods.<ref name"Mlot">{{cite journal | vauthors Mlot NJ, Tovey CA, Hu DL | title Fire ants self-assemble into waterproof rafts to survive floods | journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume 108 | issue 19 | pages 7669–7673 | date May 2011 | pmid 21518911 | pmc 3093451 | doi 10.1073/pnas.1016658108 | bibcode 2011PNAS..108.7669M | doi-access free }}</ref> These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands.<ref>{{cite journal|authorMorrison LW|year1998|titleA review of Bahamian ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) biogeography|journalJournal of Biogeography|volume25|issue3|pages561–571|doi10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.2530561.x|bibcode1998JBiog..25..561M |s2cid84923599 }}</ref> Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsClay RE, Andersen AN |year1996 |titleAnt fauna of a mangrove community in the Australian seasonal tropics, with particular reference to zonation |journalAustralian Journal of Zoology |volume44 |pages521–533 |doi10.1071/ZO9960521 |issue5}}</ref>Cooperation and competition
feeding on a cicada: social ants cooperate and collectively gather food]]
Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants. Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey.<ref nameCrosland1988>{{cite journal | doi 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1988.tb01179.x | title Aspects of the biology of the primitive ant genus Myrmecia F. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) | year 1988 | journal Australian Journal of Entomology | volume 27 | pages 305–309 | vauthors Crosland MW, Crozier RH, Jefferson E | issue 4 | doi-access free }}</ref>
Some species attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Diehl E, Junqueira LK, Berti-Filho E | title Ant and termite mound coinhabitants in the wetlands of Santo Antonio da Patrulha, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil | journal Brazilian Journal of Biology | volume 65 | issue 3 | pages 431–437 | date August 2005 | pmid 16341421 | doi 10.1590/S1519-69842005000300008 | doi-access free }}</ref> Captured workers of enslaved Temnothorax species have evolved a counter-strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making Temnothorax americanus, but sparing the males (who do not take part in slave-raiding as adults).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Achenbach A, Foitzik S | title First evidence for slave rebellion: enslaved ant workers systematically kill the brood of their social parasite protomognathus americanus | journal Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume 63 | issue 4 | pages 1068–1075 | date April 2009 | pmid 19243573 | doi 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00591.x | s2cid 9546342 | doi-access = free }} See also New Scientist, 9 April 2009</ref>
'' (a jumping ant) engaged in battle with a rival colony's queen (on top)]]
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Henderson G, Andersen JF, Phillips JK, Jeanne RL | title Internest aggression and identification of possible nestmate discrimination pheromones in polygynous antFormica montana | journal Journal of Chemical Ecology | volume 16 | issue 7 | pages 2217–2228 | date July 1990 | pmid 24264088 | doi 10.1007/BF01026932 | bibcode 1990JCEco..16.2217H | s2cid = 22878651 }}</ref>
Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species such as Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead, rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts.<ref>{{cite journal|authorWard PS|year1996|titleA new workerless social parasite in the ant genus Pseudomyrmex (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with a discussion of the origin of social parasitism in ants|journalSystematic Entomology|volume21|pages253–263|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ants_08424|doi10.1046/j.1365-3113.1996.d01-12.x|issue3|bibcode1996SysEn..21..253W |s2cid84198690}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|authorTaylor RW|year1968|titleThe Australian workerless inquiline ant, Strumigenys xenos Brown (Hymenoptera-Formicidae) recorded from New Zealand|journalNew Zealand Entomologist|volume4|issue1|pages47–49|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ants_10687|doi10.1080/00779962.1968.9722888|bibcode1968NZEnt...4...47T |s2cid83791596 }}</ref> This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest.<ref name=TheAntParasites>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 436–448</ref>
A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fournier D, Estoup A, Orivel J, Foucaud J, Jourdan H, Le Breton J, Keller L | title Clonal reproduction by males and females in the little fire ant | journal Nature | volume 435 | issue 7046 | pages 1230–1234 | date June 2005 | pmid 15988525 | doi 10.1038/nature03705 | bibcode 2005Natur.435.1230F | s2cid 1188960 | url https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_4B6DEB46C264.P001/REF.pdf }}</ref>
Relationships with other organisms
(female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.]]
Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators. These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines.<ref>{{cite journal|titleAnt-mimicry in Panamanian clubionid and salticid spiders (Araneae: Clubionidae, Salticidae)|authorReiskind J|journalBiotropica|volume9|issue1|year1977|pages1–8|doi10.2307/2387854|jstor2387854|bibcode1977Biotr...9....1R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleMyrmecomorphy and myrmecophily in spiders: A Review|authorCushing PE|journalThe Florida Entomologist|volume80|issue2|year1997|pages165–193|doi10.2307/3495552|urlhttp://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe80p165.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe80p165.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|jstor3495552|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
from an aphid]]
s collecting honeydew from Calico scales (Eulecanium cerasorum) then played at 30 times speed to show the pumping action of the scale.]]
Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Styrsky JD, Eubanks MD | title Ecological consequences of interactions between ants and honeydew-producing insects | journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| volume 274 | issue 1607 | pages 151–164 | date January 2007 | pmid 17148245 | pmc 1685857 | doi 10.1098/rspb.2006.3701 }}</ref> In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsJahn GC, Beardsley JW |year1996 |titleEffects of Pheidole megacephala (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on survival and dispersal of Dysmicoccus neobrevipes'' (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) |journalJournal of Economic Entomology |volume89 |issue5 |pages1124–1129|doi10.1093/jee/89.5.1124 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. The chemicals in the secretions of Narathura japonica alter the behavior of attendant Pristomyrmex punctatus workers, making them less aggressive and stationary. The relationship, formerly characterized as "mutualistic", is now considered as possibly a case of the ants being parasitically manipulated by the caterpillars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hojo|first1Masaru K.|last2Pierce|first2Naomi E.|last3Tsuji |first3Kazuki|year2015 |titleLycaenid Caterpillar secretions manipulate attendant ant behavior|url|journalCurrent Biology |languageen |volume25 |issue17 |pages2260–2264 |doi10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.016|pmid26234210 |bibcode2015CBio...25.2260H }}</ref> Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants.<ref>{{cite journal |authorDeVries PJ|year1992 |titleSinging caterpillars, ants and symbiosis |journalScientific American |volume267 |pages76–82 |doi10.1038/scientificamerican1092-76 |issue4|bibcode1992SciAm.267d..76D }}</ref> A similar adaptation can be seen in Grizzled skipper butterflies that emit vibrations by expanding their wings in order to communicate with ants, which are natural predators of these butterflies.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastElfferich|firstNico W. | name-list-stylevanc |date1998|titleIs the larval and imaginal signalling of Lycaenidae and other Lepidoptera related to communication with ants|urlhttp://natuurtijdschriften.nl/search?identifier538588|journalDeinsea|volume4|issue1}}</ref> Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pierce NE, Braby MF, Heath A, Lohman DJ, Mathew J, Rand DB, Travassos MA | title The ecology and evolution of ant association in the Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera) | journal Annual Review of Entomology | volume 47 | pages 733–771 | year 2002 | pmid 11729090 | doi 10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145257 }}</ref> A number of specialized bacteria have been found as endosymbionts in ant guts. Some of the dominant bacteria belong to the order Hyphomicrobiales whose members are known for being nitrogen-fixing symbionts in legumes but the species found in ant lack the ability to fix nitrogen.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Kautz S, Rubin BE, Russell JA, Moreau CS | title Surveying the microbiome of ants: comparing 454 pyrosequencing with traditional methods to uncover bacterial diversity | journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume 79 | issue 2 | pages 525–534 | date January 2013 | pmid 23124239 | pmc 3553759 | doi 10.1128/AEM.03107-12 | bibcode 2013ApEnM..79..525K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Neuvonen MM, Tamarit D, Näslund K, Liebig J, Feldhaar H, Moran NA, Guy L, Andersson SG|author8-linkSiv G. E. Andersson| title The genome of Rhizobiales bacteria in predatory ants reveals urease gene functions but no genes for nitrogen fixation | language En | journal Scientific Reports | volume 6 | issue 1 | pages 39197 | date December 2016 | pmid 27976703 | pmc 5156944 | doi 10.1038/srep39197| bibcode 2016NatSR...639197N }}</ref> Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the genera Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus of the family Agaricaceae. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dejean A, Solano PJ, Ayroles J, Corbara B, Orivel J | title Insect behaviour: arboreal ants build traps to capture prey | journal Nature | volume 434 | issue 7036 | pages 973 | date April 2005 | pmid 15846335 | doi 10.1038/434973a | bibcode 2005Natur.434..973D | s2cid 4428574 | doi-access free }}</ref>
, but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers.]]
s and collecting honeydew secreted. A wrinkled solder beetle flies in and eats an aphid before being chased away by the ants.]]Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees, (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Frederickson ME, Gordon DM | title The devil to pay: a cost of mutualism with Myrmelachista schumanni ants in 'devil's gardens' is increased herbivory on Duroia hirsuta trees | journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| volume 274 | issue 1613 | pages 1117–23 | date April 2007 | pmid 17301016 | pmc 2124481 | doi 10.1098/rspb.2006.0415 }}</ref> Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare, one example being of the pollination of the orchid Leporella fimbriata which induces male Myrmecia urens to pseudocopulate with the flowers, transferring pollen in the process.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Peakall R, Beattie AJ, James SH | title Pseudocopulation of an orchid by male ants: a test of two hypotheses accounting for the rarity of ant pollination | journal Oecologia | volume 73 | issue 4 | pages 522–524 | date October 1987 | pmid 28311968 | doi 10.1007/BF00379410 | s2cid 3195610 | bibcode 1987Oecol..73..522P }}</ref> One theory that has been proposed for the rarity of pollination is that the secretions of the metapleural gland inactivate and reduce the viability of pollen.<ref>{{cite journal|titleAnt Inhibition of Pollen Function: A Possible Reason Why Ant Pollination is Rare|first1Andrew J.|last1 Beattie| last2 Turnbull | first2 Christine | first3 Knox | last3 R. B. | first4 Williams | last4 E. G. | name-list-stylevanc |journalAmerican Journal of Botany|volume71| issue3| year1984| pages 421–426|doi10.2307/2443499|jstor2443499}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastNew|firstTim R.|chapterClassic Themes: Ants, Plants and Fungi|date2017|pages63–103|publisherSpringer International Publishing|doi10.1007/978-3-319-58292-4_4|isbn9783319582917|titleMutualisms and Insect Conservation}}</ref> Some plants, mostly angiosperms but also some ferns,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Suissa |first1Jacob S. |last2Li |first2Fay-Wei |last3Moreau |first3Corrie S. |date2024 |titleConvergent evolution of fern nectaries facilitated independent recruitment of ant-bodyguards from flowering plants |journalNature Communications |languageen |volume15 |issue1 |page4392 |doi10.1038/s41467-024-48646-x |issn2041-1723 |pmc11126701 |pmid38789437|bibcode2024NatCo..15.4392S }}</ref> have special nectar exuding structures, extrafloral nectaries, that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Katayama N, Suzuki N | title Role of extrafloral nectaries of Vicia faba in attraction of ants and herbivore exclusion by ants | year 2004 | journal Entomological Science | pages 119–124 | volume 7 | issue 2 | doi 10.1111/j.1479-8298.2004.00057.x | s2cid 85428729 | url https://barrel.repo.nii.ac.jp/?actionrepository_uri&item_id5267 | hdl 10252/00005880 | hdl-access free }}</ref> Species such as the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) who defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants.<ref>{{cite journal|titleDo ants feed plants? A <sup>15</sup>N labelling study of nitrogen fluxes from ants to plants in the mutualism of Pheidole and Piper|vauthorsFischer RC, Wanek W, Richter A, Mayer V |year2003|journalJournal of Ecology|volume91|issue1 |pages126–134|doi10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00747.x |doi-accessfree|bibcode2003JEcol..91..126F }}</ref> In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies. In Fiji Philidris nagasau (Dolichoderinae) are known to selectively grow species of epiphytic Squamellaria (Rubiaceae) which produce large domatia inside which the ant colonies nest. The ants plant the seeds and the domatia of young seedling are immediately occupied and the ant faeces in them contribute to rapid growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Chomicki G, Renner SS | title Obligate plant farming by a specialized ant | journal Nature Plants | volume 2 | issue 12 | pages 16181 | date November 2016 | pmid 27869787 | doi 10.1038/nplants.2016.181 | bibcode 2016NatPl...216181C | s2cid 23748032 }}</ref> Similar dispersal associations are found with other dolichoderines in the region as well.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Chomicki G, Janda M, Renner SS | title The assembly of ant-farmed gardens: mutualism specialization following host broadening | journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| volume 284 | issue 1850 | pages 20161759 | date March 2017 | pmid 28298344 | pmc 5360912 | doi 10.1098/rspb.2016.1759 }}</ref> Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fiala B, Maschwitz U, Pong TY, Helbig AJ | title Studies of a South East Asian ant-plant association: protection of Macaranga trees by Crematogaster borneensis | journal Oecologia | volume 79 | issue 4 | pages 463–470 | date June 1989 | pmid 28313479 | doi 10.1007/bf00378662 | s2cid 21112371 | bibcode 1989Oecol..79..463F | url https://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/files/3903/Fiala_Macaranga.pdf }}</ref>
Many plant species have seeds that are adapted for dispersal by ants.<ref name"Aaron D 2009">{{cite journal|titleConvergent evolution of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biogeography in flowering plants: A global survey|first1Szabolcs |last1Lengyel| first2 Aaron D. | last2 Gove | first3 Andrew M. | last3 Latimer | first4 Jonathan D. | last4 Majer | first5 Robert R. | last5 Dunn |name-list-stylevanc|year2010|journalPerspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics |volume12|issue1 | pages43–55|doi10.1016/j.ppees.2009.08.001|bibcode2010PPEES..12...43L }}</ref> Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread, and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations.<ref>{{cite journal|authorGiladi I|title Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory|journalOikos |volume112|issue3|year2006|pages481–492|doi10.1111/j.0030-1299.2006.14258.x|bibcode2006Oikos.112..481G|citeseerx10.1.1.530.1306}}</ref><ref name"Aaron D 2009"/> Often, seed-dispersing ants perform directed dispersal, depositing the seeds in locations that increase the likelihood of seed survival to reproduction.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsHanzawa FM, Beattie AJ, Culver DC |year1988 |titleDirected dispersal: demographic analysis of an ant-seed mutualism |journalAmerican Naturalist |volume131 |issue1 |pages1–13 |doi10.1086/284769|bibcode1988ANat..131....1H |s2cid85317649 }}</ref> Some plants in arid, fire-prone systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsAuld TD |date1996|titleEcology of the Fabaceae in the Sydney region: fire, ants and the soil seedbank |journalCunninghamia|volume4|issue22}}</ref> Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsFischer RC, Ölzant SM, Wanek W, Mayer V |titleThe fate of Corydalis cava elaiosomes within an ant colony of Myrmica rubra: elaiosomes are preferentially fed to larvae|journalInsectes Sociaux |year2005 |volume52 |issue1 |pages55–62 |doi10.1007/s00040-004-0773-x|s2cid21974767}}</ref> Ants can substantially alter rate of decomposition and nutrient cycling in their nest.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastFrouz|firstJan|date1997|titleThe effect of wood ants (Formica polyctena Foerst) on the transformation of phosphorus in a spruce plantation|urlhttps://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10027223277/|journalPedobiologia|volume41|issue5 |pages437–447|doi10.1016/S0031-4056(24)00314-7 |doi-accessfree|bibcode1997Pedob..41..437F }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1Frouz|first1J|last2Jílková|first2V|date2008|titleThe effect of ants on soil properties and processes (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)|urlhttps://myrmecologicalnews.org/cms/index.php?filenamevolume11/mn11_191-199_printable.pdf&formatraw&optioncom_download&viewdownload|journalMyrmecological News|volume1|pages191–199}}</ref>&nbsp;By myrmecochory and modification of soil conditions they substantially alter vegetation and nutrient cycling in surrounding ecosystem.<ref>{{cite book|last1Frouz|first1Jan|chapterContribution of wood ants to nutrient cycling and ecosystem function|date2016|chapter-urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/wood-ant-ecology-and-conservation/contribution-of-wood-ants-to-nutrient-cycling-and-ecosystem-function/83392472CE3BE1547CDD95120D4C9E12|titleWood Ant Ecology and Conservation|pages207–220|editor-lastRobinson|editor-firstElva J. H.|seriesEcology, Biodiversity and Conservation|placeCambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-1-107-04833-1|access-date2021-07-12|last2Jílková|first2Veronika|last3Sorvari|first3Jouni|editor2-lastStockan|editor2-firstJenni A.}}</ref>
A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsHughes L, Westoby M |date1992|titleCapitula on stick insect eggs and elaiosomes on seeds: convergent adaptations for burial by ants|journalFunctional Ecology|volume6|pages642–648|doi10.2307/2389958|issue6|jstor2389958|bibcode1992FuEco...6..642. }}</ref>
tending a common leafhopper nymph]]
) with a cutworm (tribe Noctuini) and then lost to ants (Family Formicidae)]]
s from different colonies steal the cranefly that a pair of Long-jawed orb weaver spiders were consuming.]]
Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants.<ref nameforaging/> Some termites, including Nasutitermes corniger, form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species.<ref>{{cite journal|journal Journal of Insect Behavior |titleBehavioural Interactions Between Crematogaster brevispinosa rochai Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Two Nasutitermes Species (Isoptera: Termitidae)|volume18|issue1|pages1–17|year2005|vauthorsQuinet Y, Tekule N, de Biseau JC |doi10.1007/s10905-005-9343-y|bibcode 2005JIBeh..18....1Q|s2cid33487814}}</ref> The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellent chemical.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Jeanne RL |year1972|titleSocial biology of the neotropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni|journalBull. Mus. Comp. Zool.|volume144|pages63–150|urlhttp://biostor.org/reference/692}}</ref> It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other wasps, such as A. multipicta, defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing.<ref>{{Cite journal|url https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233927144|title Foraging in Social Wasps: Agelaia lacks recruitment to food (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)|last Jeanne|first Robert | name-list-stylevanc |date July 1995|journal Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society}}</ref> Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defences against ants.<ref nameforaging/>
Flies in the Old World genus Bengalia (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants.<ref name"sivinski">{{cite journal |vauthorsSivinski J, Marshall S, Petersson E |year1999 |titleKleptoparasitism and phoresy in the Diptera |journalFlorida Entomologist |volume82 |issue2 |pages179–197 |urlhttp://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe82p179.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe82p179.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|doi10.2307/3496570 |jstor3496570|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants.<ref name"sivinski"/>
Fungi in the genera Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps infect ants. Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ants, grows on their remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores<ref>{{Cite journal |authorSchaechter E |year2000 |titleSome weird and wonderful fungi |journalMicrobiology Today |volume27 |issue3 |pages116–117}}</ref> in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Andersen SB, Gerritsma S, Yusah KM, Mayntz D, Hywel-Jones NL, Billen J, Boomsma JJ, Hughes DP | title The life of a dead ant: the expression of an adaptive extended phenotype | journal The American Naturalist | volume 174 | issue 3 | pages 424–433 | date September 2009 | pmid 19627240 | doi 10.1086/603640 | bibcode 2009ANat..174..424A | hdl 11370/e6374602-b2a0-496c-b78e-774b34fb152b | s2cid 31283817 | url https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/67295795/603640.pdf | hdl-access free }}</ref> Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates.<ref>{{cite journal|authorWojcik DP|year1989|titleBehavioral interactions between ants and their parasites|journalThe Florida Entomologist|volume72|issue1|pages43–451|doi10.2307/3494966|jstor3494966|urlhttps://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id23159&contentPDF|access-date2017-10-25|archive-date2021-03-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309052432/https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id23159&contentPDF|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as Hyeronima alchorneoides, and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Poinar G, Yanoviak SP | title Myrmeconema neotropicum n. g., n. sp., a new tetradonematid nematode parasitising South American populations of Cephalotes atratus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with the discovery of an apparent parasite-induced host morph | journal Systematic Parasitology | volume 69 | issue 2 | pages 145–153 | date 2008 | pmid 18038201 | doi 10.1007/s11230-007-9125-3| s2cid 8473071 }}</ref>
jumping spider) sometimes feed on ants|right]]
A study of Temnothorax nylanderi colonies in Germany found that workers parasitized by the tapeworm Anomotaenia brevis (ants are intermediate hosts, the definitive hosts are woodpeckers) lived much longer than unparasitized workers and had a reduced mortality rate, comparable to that of the queens of the same species, which live for as long as two decades.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Stoldt M, Klein L, Beros S, Butter F, Jongepier E, Feldmeyer B, Foitzik S | title Parasite Presence Induces Gene Expression Changes in an Ant Host Related to Immunity and Longevity | journal Royal Society Open Science| volume 12 | issue 1 | pages 202118 | date January 2021 | pmc 8131941 | doi 10.1098/rsos.202118 | pmid 34017599 }}</ref>
South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in the skin of some species come from the ants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1McGugan |first1Jenna R. |last2Byrd |first2Gary D. |last3Roland |first3Alexandre B. |last4Caty |first4Stephanie N. |last5Kabir |first5Nisha |last6Tapia |first6Elicio E. |last7Trauger |first7Sunia A. |last8Coloma |first8Luis A. |last9O’Connell |first9Lauren A. |date2016 |titleAnt and Mite Diversity Drives Toxin Variation in the Little Devil Poison Frog |urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10886-016-0715-x |journalJournal of Chemical Ecology |languageen |volume42 |issue6 |pages537–551 |doi10.1007/s10886-016-0715-x |pmid27318689 |bibcode2016JCEco..42..537M |issn0098-0331}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorCaldwell JP|year1996 |titleThe evolution of myrmecophagy and its correlates in poison frogs (Family Dendrobatidae) |journalJournal of Zoology |volume240 |issue1 |pages75–101 |doi10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05487.x }}</ref> Formicine ants in the genera Brachymyrmex and Paratrechina have been found to contain pumiliotoxin found in Dendrobates pumilio.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Saporito |first1Ralph A. |last2Garraffo |first2H. Martin |last3Donnelly |first3Maureen A. |last4Edwards |first4Adam L. |last5Longino |first5John T. |last6Daly |first6John W. |date2004 |titleFormicine ants: An arthropod source for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |languageen |volume101 |issue21 |pages8045–8050 |doi10.1073/pnas.0402365101 |doi-accessfree |pmid15128938 |pmc419554 |issn0027-8424}}</ref> The West African frog Phrynomantis microps is able to move within the nests of Paltothyreus tarsatus'' ants, producing peptides on its skin that prevent the ants from stinging them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Rödel |first1Mark-Oliver |last2Brede |first2Christian |last3Hirschfeld |first3Mareike |last4Schmitt |first4Thomas |last5Favreau |first5Philippe |last6Stöcklin |first6Reto |last7Wunder |first7Cora |last8Mebs |first8Dietrich |date2013 |editor-first |titleChemical Camouflage– A Frog's Strategy to Co-Exist with Aggressive Ants |journalPLOS ONE |languageen |volume8 |issue12 |pagese81950 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0081950 |doi-accessfree |pmid24349157 |pmc3859521 |bibcode2013PLoSO...881950R |issn1932-6203}}</ref>
Army ants which is the toxin found in forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape. In Central and South America, Eciton burchellii is the swarming ant most commonly attended by "ant-following" birds such as antbirds and woodcreepers.<ref name "Willis">{{cite journal|doi10.1146/annurev.es.09.110178.001331 | vauthors Willis E, Oniki Y |year1978|titleBirds and Army Ants|journalAnnual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume9| issue 1 |pages243–263| bibcode 1978AnRES...9..243W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|authorVellely AC|titleForaging at army ant swarms by fifty bird species in the highlands of Costa Rica|journalOrnitologia Neotropical|volume12|year2001|pages271–275|urlhttp://www.ibiologia.unam.mx/pdf/links/neo/rev12/vol_12_3/orni_12_3_%20271-276.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ibiologia.unam.mx/pdf/links/neo/rev12/vol_12_3/orni_12_3_%20271-276.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date8 June 2008}}</ref> This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies found the birds to be parasitic. Direct kleptoparasitism (birds stealing food from the ants' grasp) is rare and has been noted in Inca doves which pick seeds at nest entrances as they are being transported by species of Pogonomyrmex.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Inzunza|first1Ernesto Ruelas|last2Martínez-Leyva|first2J. Eduardo|last3Valenzuela-González|first3Jorge E. | name-list-stylevanc |titleDoves kleptoparasitize ants|journalThe Southwestern Naturalist|volume60|issue1|pages103–106|doi10.1894/msh-03.1|year2015|bibcode2015SWNat..60..103I |s2cid85633598}}</ref> Birds that follow ants eat many prey insects and thus decrease the foraging success of ants.<ref>{{cite journal|authorWrege PH|titleAntbirds parasitize foraging army ants|journalEcology|volume86|year2005| pages555–559|doi10.1890/04-1133|last2Wikelski|first2Martin|last3Mandel|first3James T.|last4Rassweiler|first4Thomas|last5Couzin|first5Iain D. | name-list-stylevanc |issue3|bibcode=2005Ecol...86..555W }}</ref> Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds.
Anteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants. About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsSwenson JE, Jansson A, Riig R, Sandegren R |year1999 |titleBears and ants: myrmecophagy by brown bears in central Scandinavia |journalCanadian Journal of Zoology |volume77 |issue4 |pages551–561 |doi10.1139/z99-004|bibcode1999CaJZ...77..551S }}</ref>Relationship with humans
s are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China.]]
Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control.<ref name = HolldoblerWilsonAnts3>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 619–629</ref> On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings or cause economic losses.
In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsGottrup F, Leaper D |year2004 |titleWound healing: Historical aspects |journalEWMA Journal |volume4 |issue2 |urlhttp://www.ewma.org/pdf/fall04/Historical_Aspects.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070616090223/http://www.ewma.org/pdf/fall04/Historical_Aspects.pdf |archive-date2007-06-16|pages5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|authorGudger EW|year1925|titleStitching wounds with the mandibles of ants and beetles|journalJournal of the American Medical Association|volume84|pages1861–1864|doi10.1001/jama.1925.02660500069048|issue24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstRobert M.|lastSapolsky | name-list-stylevanc |author-linkRobert Sapolsky|year2001|titleA Primate's Memoir: A Neuroscientist's Unconventional Life Among the Baboons|urlhttps://archive.org/details/primatesmemoir00robe|url-accessregistration|pages[https://archive.org/details/primatesmemoir00robe/page/156 156]|publisherSimon and Schuster|isbn978-0-7432-0241-1}}</ref> The large heads of the dinergates (soldiers) of the leafcutting ant Atta cephalotes are also used by native surgeons in closing wounds.<ref>{{cite book|last1Wheeler|first1William M. | name-list-stylevanc |author-linkWilliam Morton Wheeler|titleAnts: Their Structure, Development and Behavior|year1910|seriesColumbia University Biological Series|volume9|publisherColumbia University Press|isbn978-0-231-00121-2|pages10|doi10.5962/bhl.title.1937|lccn10008253|oclc560205|title-links:Index:Ants, Wheeler (1910).djvu }}</ref>
Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false tocandiras) of South America<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Haddad Junior V, Cardoso JL, Moraes RH | title Description of an injury in a human caused by a false tocandira (Dinoponera gigantea, Perty, 1833) with a revision on folkloric, pharmacological and clinical aspects of the giant ants of the genera Paraponera and Dinoponera (sub-family Ponerinae) | journal Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo | volume 47 | issue 4 | pages 235–238 | year 2005 | pmid 16138209 | doi 10.1590/S0036-46652005000400012 | doi-access free | hdl 11449/30504 | hdl-access free }}</ref> and the Myrmecia ants of Australia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors McGain F, Winkel KD | title Ant sting mortality in Australia | journal Toxicon | volume 40 | issue 8 | pages 1095–1100 | date August 2002 | pmid 12165310 | doi 10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00097-1 | bibcode 2002Txcn...40.1095M }}</ref>
In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest the seeds of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), a plant used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200&nbsp;g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ciel.org/Publications/InnovativeMechanisms.pdf|titleInnovative mechanisms for sharing benefits of biodiversity and related knowledge|vauthorsDownes D, Laird SA |year1999|publisherThe Center for International Environmental Law|access-date8 June 2008| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080423211123/http://www.ciel.org/Publications/InnovativeMechanisms.pdf| archive-date 23 April 2008 | url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journalEconomic Botany|titleRooibos tea, a South African contribution to world beverages|volume17|issue3|pages186–194|year1963|vauthorsCheney RH, Scholtz E |doi10.1007/BF02859435|bibcode1963EcBot..17..186C |s2cid=37728834}}</ref>
Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered. These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species. Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (Aneuretus simoni) and Adetomyrma venatrix of Madagascar.<ref>{{cite journal|titleThe influence of sociality on the conservation biology of social insects | vauthors Chapman RE, Bourke AF |journalEcology Letters|volume4|issue6|year2001|pages650–662|doi10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00253.x|doi-access| bibcode 2001EcolL...4..650C | s2cid 86796899 }}</ref>As food
{{See also|Entomophagy}}
, Thailand]]
Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$50 per kg going up to US$200 per kg (as of 2006) because they are seasonal and hard to find.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Cruz-Labana |first1J. D. |last2Tarango-Arámbula |first2L. A. |last3Alcántara-Carbajal |first3J. L. |last4Pimentel-López |first4J. |last5Ugalde-Lezama |first5S. |last6Ramírez-Valverde |first6G. |last7Méndez-Gallegos |first7S. J. |date2014 |titleHabitat use by the "Escamolera" ant (Liometopum apiculatum Mayr) in central Mexico |urlhttp://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?scriptsci_abstract&pidS1405-31952014000600001&lnges&nrmiso&tlngen |journalAgrociencia|volume48 |issue6 |pages569–582 |issn1405-3195}}</ref> In the Colombian department of Santander, hormigas culonas (roughly interpreted as "large-bottomed ants") Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors DeFoliart GR | title Insects as food: why the western attitude is important | journal Annual Review of Entomology | volume 44 | pages 21–50 | year 1999 | pmid 9990715 | doi 10.1146/annurev.ento.44.1.21 }}</ref> In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry.<ref>{{cite book|lastBingham|firstC.T.|year1903|titleFauna of British India. Hymenoptera. Volume 2|page311|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hymenoptera02bing/page/311/mode/1up| publisherTaylor and Francis|placeLondon}}</ref> Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, yam ({{langx|th|ยำ}}), in a dish called yam khai mot daeng ({{langx|th|ยำไข่มดแดง}}) or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates".<ref name"beq">{{cite journal |authorBequaert J|year1921 |titleInsects as food: How they have augmented the food supply of mankind in early and recent times|journalNatural History Journal|volume21|pages191–200|urlhttp://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1921_03-04_pick.html}}</ref> Ants or their pupae are used as starters for yogurt making in parts of Bulgaria and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMutlu Sirakova |firstSevgi |date2023 |titleForgotten Stories of Yogurt: Cultivating Multispecies Wisdom |urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02780771231194779 |journalJournal of Ethnobiology |languageen |volume43 |issue3 |pages250–261 |doi10.1177/02780771231194779 |issn=0278-0771}}</ref>
In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the repletes, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Myrmecocystus).<ref name"beq"/>As pests
{{See also|Ants of medical importance}}
is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper.]]
Some ant species are considered as pests, primarily those that occur in human habitations, where their presence is often problematic. For example, the presence of ants would be undesirable in sterile places such as hospitals or kitchens. Some species or genera commonly categorized as pests include the Argentine ant, immigrant pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, banded sugar ant, pharaoh ant, red wood ant, black carpenter ant, odorous house ant, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant. Some ants will raid stored food, some will seek water sources, others may damage indoor structures, some may damage agricultural crops directly or by aiding sucking pests. Some will sting or bite.<ref name"pests">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7411.html|titlePest Notes: Ants (Publication 7411)|publisherUniversity of California Agriculture and Natural Resources|year2007|access-date5 June 2008}}</ref> The adaptive nature of ant colonies make it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions. Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Management is based on the species and techniques may vary according to the location and circumstance.<ref name"pests" />In science and technology
{{See also|Myrmecology|Biomimetics|Ant colony optimization algorithms}}
workers travelling between two formicaria through connector tubing|thumb|right]]
Observed by humans since the dawn of history, the behaviour of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another. Those using scientific methods, myrmecologists, study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors Lubbock J | year1881|titleObservations on ants, bees, and wasps. IX. Color of flowers as an attraction to bees: Experiments and considerations thereon|journalJ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.)|volume16|pages110–112|doi10.1111/j.1096-3642.1882.tb02275.x|issue90|doi-access| urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/377086}}</ref> Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies.<ref>{{cite book|vauthorsStadler B, Dixon AF|year2008|titleMutualism: Ants and their insect partners|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-86035-2}}</ref> Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria'', specially constructed glass framed enclosures.<ref namemyrmtech>{{cite journal|titleMyrmecological technique. IV. Collecting ants by rearing pupae|authorKennedy CH|journalThe Ohio Journal of Science|volume51|issue1|year1951|pages17–20|hdl1811/3802}}</ref> Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with dots of colours.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsWojcik DP, Burges RJ, Blanton CM, Focks DA|year2000|titleAn improved and quantified technique for marking individual fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)|journalThe Florida Entomologist|volume83|issue1|pages74–78|doi10.2307/3496231|jstor3496231|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms.<ref name"SANdisk">{{cite journal |vauthorsDicke E, Byde A, Cliff D, Layzell P |year2004 |titleAn ant-inspired technique for storage area network design |journalProceedings of Biologically Inspired Approaches to Advanced Information Technology: First International Workshop, BioADIT 2004 LNCS 3141 |pages364–379 | veditors Ispeert AJ, Murata M, Wakamiya N }}</ref>As pets
{{main|Ant-keeping}}
From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States. Some later commercial versions use transparent gel instead of soil, allowing greater visibility at the cost of stressing the ants with unnatural light.<ref>{{cite patent |countryUS |number 5803014 |statusgranted |title Habitat media for ants and other invertebrates|pubdate|gdate 8 September 1998 |inventorGuri A |assign1 Plant Cell Technology Inc }}</ref>
In culture
's ants]]
Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables, children's stories, and religious texts to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, such as in the Aesop fable The Ant and the Grasshopper.<ref>{{cite book |titleQuran |chapter The Ant, The Ants | volume Surah 27 | pages 18–19 |chapter-urlhttp://www.wright-house.com/religions/islam/Quran/27-ant.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070101181115/http://www.wright-house.com/religions/islam/Quran/27-ant.html |archive-date2007-01-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first Sahih | last Bukhari | name-list-stylevanc | title Sunnah | volume 4 Book 54 | issue 536 | chapter Beginning of Creation | chapter-urlhttp://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/054.sbt.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20000818092520/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/054.sbt.html|url-statusdead|archive-date2000-08-18}}</ref> In the Quran, Sulayman is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army.{{CiteQuran Ayah|27|18|sy|byl}},<ref>Mentioned once in the{{Quran ref|aASA|597|i1|h1}}, Muhammad Asad translates the verse as following: till, when they came upon a valley [full] of ants, and an ant exclaimed: "O you ants! Get into your dwellings, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you without [even] being aware [of you]! (27:18)"</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstMawil Y. Izzi|lastDeen | name-list-stylevanc |chapterIslamic Environmental Ethics, Law, and Society|titleEthics of Environment and Development| veditors Engel JR, Engel JG |year1990|publisherBellhaven Press, London|chapter-urlhttp://www.mbcru.com/Texas%20Tech%20Mypage/Conservation%20Biology/Assignment%202/IzziDeenIslamicEcol.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110714055330/http://www.mbcru.com/Texas%20Tech%20Mypage/Conservation%20Biology/Assignment%202/IzziDeenIslamicEcol.pdf|url-statusdead|archive-date2011-07-14}}</ref> In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the first animals. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief.<ref>{{cite journal |authorBalee WL|titleAntiquity of traditional ethnobiological knowledge in Amazonia: The Tupi-Guarani family and time |journalEthnohistory |volume47 |issue2 |year2000 |pages399–422|doi10.1215/00141801-47-2-399|s2cid162813070 }}</ref> Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance.<ref>{{cite book |vauthorsCesard N, Deturche J, Erikson P |year2003 |chapterLes Insectes dans les pratiques médicinales et rituelles d'Amazonie indigène | veditors Motte-Florac E, Thomas JM |titleLes insectes dans la tradition orale|publisherPeeters-Selaf, Paris|pages395–406|languagefr}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Schmidt RJ | title The super-nettles. A dermatologist's guide to ants in the plants | journal International Journal of Dermatology | volume 24 | issue 4 | pages 204–210 | date May 1985 | pmid 3891647 | doi 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1985.tb05760.x | s2cid 73875767 | url http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermReviews/Myrmecophytes.html }}</ref> In Greek mythology, the goddess Athena turned the maiden Myrmex into an ant when the latter claimed to have invented the plough, when in fact it was Athena's own invention.<ref>Servius, ''Commentary on Virgil's Aeneid [https://topostext.org/work/548#4.402 4.402]; Smith 1873, s.v. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D32%3Aentry%3Dmyrmex-bio-1 Myrmex]</ref>
, a town in Finland]]
Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his 1880 book A Tramp Abroad.<ref>{{cite book|chapter22 The Black Forest and Its Treasures|titleA Tramp Abroad|lastTwain|firstMark|name-list-stylevanc|year1880|chapter-urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/119/|isbn978-0-19-510137-9|publisherOxford University Press|locationNew York|access-date2015-12-13|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/trampabroad0000twai_z6u7}}</ref> Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem "Departmental" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King''. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's Les Fourmis science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour are described using contemporary scientific knowledge. H. G. Wells wrote about intelligent ants destroying human settlements in Brazil and threatening human civilization in his 1905 science-fiction short story, The Empire of the Ants. A similar German story involving army ants, Leiningen Versus the Ants, was written in 1937 and recreated in movie form as The Naked Jungle in 1954.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastWinthrop-Young |firstGeoffrey |date2021 |titleA Green Hell Makes Better Germans: Carl Stephenson's "Leiningen" and the Almost Aryan Countertextual Army Ants |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00168890.2021.1977228 |journalThe Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory|volume96 |issue4 |pages339–356 |doi10.1080/00168890.2021.1977228 |s2cid245125375 |issn0016-8890}}</ref> In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3-D animated films featuring ants have been produced including Antz, ''A Bug's Life, The Ant Bully, The Ant and the Aardvark, Ferdy the Ant and Atom Ant. Renowned myrmecologist E. O. Wilson wrote a short story, "Trailhead" in 2010 for The New Yorker'' magazine, which describes the life and death of an ant-queen and the rise and fall of her colony, from an ants' point of view.<ref name"Trailhead">{{cite magazine|authorWilson, EO|urlhttp://www.newyorker.com/fiction/features/2010/01/25/100125fi_fiction_wilson?currentPageall |titleTrailhead|magazineThe New Yorker|date25 January 2010|pages=56–62}}</ref>
Ants also are quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction insectoids, such as the Formics of ''Ender's Game, the Bugs of Starship Troopers, the giant ants in the films Them! and Empire of the Ants,'' Marvel Comics' super hero Ant-Man, and ants mutated into super-intelligence in Phase IV. In computer strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies.<ref>{{cite journal|titleRobots, insects and swarm intelligence|journalArtificial Intelligence Review|volume26|issue4|year2006|authorSharkey AJC|doi10.1007/s10462-007-9057-y|pages255–268|s2cid321326}}</ref> In the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for "Best Simulation Program".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.siia.net/codies/2009/pw_1992.asp |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090611002722/http://www.siia.net/codies/2009/pw_1992.asp |archive-date2009-06-11 |title1992 Excellence in Software Awards Winners |access-date3 April 2008|publisherSoftware & Information Industry Association}}</ref> See also
{{Main|Outline of ants}}
* Glossary of ant terms
* International Union for the Study of Social Insects
* Myrmecological News (journal)
* Task allocation and partitioning in social insects
References
{{Reflist}}
Cited texts
* {{cite book|vauthorsBorror DJ, Triplehorn CA, Delong DM |titleIntroduction to the Study of Insects|edition6th|publisherSaunders College Publishing|year1989|isbn978-0-03-025397-3|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |vauthorsHölldobler B, Wilson EO |titleThe Ants |publisherHarvard University Press|year1990|isbn978-0-674-04075-5|title-linkThe Ants |refnone}} Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|authorBolton, Barry|publisherHarvard University Press|year1995|isbn978-0-674-61514-4|titleA New General Catalogue of the Ants of the World|refnone}}
* {{cite book|vauthorsHölldobler B, Wilson EO|year1998|titleJourney to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration|publisherBelknap Press|isbn978-0-674-48526-6|urlhttps://archive.org/details/journeytoants00holl|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|vauthorsHölldobler B, Wilson EO|year2009|titleThe Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance and Strangeness of Insect Societies|publisherNorton & Co.|isbn978-0-393-06704-0|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/superorganismbea0000hlld|refnone}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Formicidae}}
{{Wikispecies|Formicidae}}
* [http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Welcome_to_AntWiki AntWiki&nbsp;– Bringing Ants to the World]
* {{cite EB9 |wstitleAnt |volume II |lastWilson |first Andrew |author-linkAndrew Wilson (zoologist) |pages94-100 |short=1}}
* [http://www.antweb.org/ AntWeb from The California Academy of Sciences]
* [http://www.pestworld.org/pest-guide/ants/ Ant Species Fact Sheets] from the National Pest Management Association on Argentine, Carpenter, Pharaoh, Odorous, and other ant species
* [http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Category:Genus_Distribution_Map Ant Genera of the World&nbsp;– distribution maps]
* [http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermReviews/Myrmecophytes.html The super-nettles. A dermatologist's guide to ants-in-the-plants]
{{Hymenoptera|2}}
{{Ant taxonomy}}
{{Eusociality}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7386}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Symbiosis
Category:Extant Albian first appearances
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Insects in culture
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Arbitration in the United States
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{{Short description|Type of dispute resolution}}
Arbitration, in the context of the law of the United States, is a form of alternative dispute resolution. Specifically, arbitration is an alternative to litigation through which the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective evidence and legal arguments to a third party (i.e., the arbitrator) for resolution. In practice, arbitration is generally used as a substitute for litigation. In some contexts, an arbitrator has been described as an umpire.<ref>See, e.g., {{usc|9|5}}, Appointment of arbitrators or umpire</ref> Arbitration is broadly authorized by the Federal Arbitration Act. State regulation of arbitration is significantly limited by federal legislation and judicial decisions applying that law.
The practice of arbitration, especially forced arbitration clauses between workers or consumers and large companies or organizations, has been gaining a growing amount of scrutiny from both the general public and trial lawyers. Arbitration clauses face various challenges to enforcement, and clauses are unenforceable in the United States when a dispute which falls under the scope of an arbitration clause pertains to sexual harassment or assault.
History
Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law. This rule has been traced back to dictum by Lord Coke in Vynor’s Case, 8 Co. Rep. 81b, 77 Eng. Rep. 597 (1609), that agreements to arbitrate were revocable by either party.
During the Industrial Revolution, merchants became increasingly opposed to this rule. They argued that too many valuable business relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial litigation, in courts whose rules differed significantly from the informal norms and conventions of businesspeople. Arbitration was promoted as being faster, less adversarial, and cheaper.
The result was the New York Arbitration Act of 1920, followed by the United States Arbitration Act of 1925 (now known as the Federal Arbitration Act). Both made agreements to arbitrate valid and enforceable (unless one party could show fraud or unconscionability or some other ground for rescission which undermined the validity of the entire contract). Due to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of interstate commerce, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the 1980s and 1990s to cover almost the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state legislatures to protect their workers and consumers against powerful business interests. Starting in 1991 with the Gilmer decision arbitration expanded dramatically in the employment context, growing from 2.1 percent of employees subject to mandatory arbitration clauses in 1992<ref>{{cite web |last1Stone |first1Katherine V.W. |last2Colvin |first2Alexander J.S. |titleThe arbitration epidemic: Mandatory arbitration deprives workers and consumers of their rights |urlhttps://www.epi.org/publication/the-arbitration-epidemic/ |websiteEconomic Policy Institute |access-date28 March 2023}}</ref> to 53.9% in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |last1Colvin |first1Alexander J.S. |titleThe growing use of mandatory arbitration: Access to the courts is now barred for more than 60 million American workers |urlhttps://www.epi.org/publication/the-growing-use-of-mandatory-arbitration-access-to-the-courts-is-now-barred-for-more-than-60-million-american-workers |websiteEconomic Policy Institute |access-date28 March 2023}}</ref>
Types of Arbitration
Commercial and contract
Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract. All arbitral decisions are considered to be "final and binding". This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (for example, criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.
Furthermore, arbitration agreements can only bind parties who have agreed, expressly or implicitly, to arbitrate, and parties cannot be required to submit to an arbitration process if they have not previously agreed so to submit. It is only through the advance agreement of the parties that the arbitrator derives any authority to resolve disputes.<ref nameATTCWA>AT&T Techs, Inc. v Communication Workers of America (1986), 475 US 643</ref> Arbitration cannot bind non-signatories to an arbitration contract, even if those non-signatories later become involved with a signatory to a contract by accident (usually through the commission of a tort).<ref>County of Contra Costa v. Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, Inc., [http://online.ceb.com/CalCases/CA4/47CA4t237.htm 47 Cal. App. 4th 237] (1996). Kaiser Permanente argued in this case, unsuccessfully, that third parties who injure Kaiser members should be forced to arbitrate cross-claims against Kaiser.</ref> However, third-party non-signatories can be bound by arbitration agreements based on theories of estoppel, agency relationships with a party, assumption of the contract containing the arbitration agreement, third-party beneficiary status under the contract, or piercing the corporate veil.<ref>{{cite web |titleArbitration Procedures and Practice in the United States: Overview: Third Parties |urlhttps://us.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/0-502-1714?documentSectionco_anchor_a120653 |websitePractical Law |publisherThomson Reuters |access-date11 July 2021 }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2025 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
The question of whether two parties have actually agreed to arbitrate any disputes is one for judicial determination, because if the parties have not agreed to arbitrate then the arbitrator would have no authority.<ref nameATTCWA /> Where there is an arbitration agreement, doubts concerning "the scope of arbitrable issues should be resolved in favor of arbitration",<ref namecarson>Carson v. Giant Foods, 175 F.3d 325, 329 (4th Circuit, 1999)</ref> but issues regarding whether a claim falls within the scope of arbitrable issues is a judicial matter,<ref>Cara's Notions, Inc. v. Hallmark Cards, 140 F.3d 566, 569 (4th Cir. 1998)</ref> unless the parties have expressly agreed that the arbitrator may decide the scope of his or her own authority. Most courts hold that general arbitration clauses, such as an agreement to refer to arbitration any dispute "arising from" or "related to" a particular contract, do not authorize an arbitrator to determine whether a particular issue arises from or relates to the contract concerned.<ref namecarson /> A minority view embraced by some courts is that this broad language can evidence the parties' clear and unmistakable intention to delegate the resolution of all issues to the arbitrator, including issues regarding arbitrability.<ref namebenihana>Benihana, Inc. v. Benihana of Tokyo, LLC, 784 F.3d 887, 898 (2d Cir. 2015) (agreement that required arbitration of "any and all" disputes between the parties relating to their agreement constitutes clear and unmistakable evidence of parties' intent for arbitrator to decide arbitrability)</ref>
Labor
Arbitration may be used as a means of resolving labor disputes, an alternative to strikes and lockouts. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties:
#interest arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and
#grievance arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a collective bargaining agreement.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://naarb.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/The-Common-Law-of-the-Workplace.pdf |titleThe Common Law of the Workplace: The Views of Arbitrators |edition2nd |editorAntoine, Theodore |publisherBureau of National Affairs |year2005 |orig-date1998 |locationWashington D.C. |isbn=1-57018-540-9}} downloadable book.</ref>
Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the United States, such as the National Labor Union, called for arbitration as early as 1866 as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy.
Interest arbitration
Governments have relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the Coal Strike of 1902. This type of arbitration, wherein a neutral arbitrator decides the terms of the collective bargaining agreement, is commonly known as interest arbitration. The United Steelworkers of America adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. Major League Baseball uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency. Interest arbitration is now most frequently used by public employees who have no right to strike (for example, law enforcement and firefighters).
Grievances
Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee and union grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America made arbitration a central element of the Protocol of Peace it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during World War II, when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The War Labor Board, which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy in three cases which came to be known as the Steelworkers' Trilogy. The Court held that grievance arbitration was a preferred dispute resolution technique and that courts could not overturn arbitrators' awards unless the award does not draw its essence from the collective bargaining agreement. State and federal statutes may allow vacating an award on narrow grounds (e.g., fraud). These protections for arbitrator awards are premised on the union-management system, which provides both parties with due process. Due process in this context means that both parties have experienced representation throughout the process, and that the arbitrators practice only as neutrals. See National Academy of Arbitrators.
Securities
In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The arbitration process operates under its own rules, as defined by contract. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority.
The securities industry uses pre-dispute arbitration agreements, through which the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms, other than Securities class action claims,<ref name"complinet">{{cite web|urlhttp://finra.complinet.com/en/display/display.html?rbid2403&record_id1901&element_id1660|publisherfinra.complinet.com|titleFINRA Manual - Notices - 1992 - 92-65 SEC Approval of Amendments Concerning the Exclusion of Class-Action Matters From Arbitration Proceedings and Requiring That Predispute Arbitration Agreements Include a Notice That Class-Action Matters May Not Be Arbitrated|access-date2017-01-06|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304094321/http://finra.complinet.com/en/display/display.html?rbid2403&record_id1901&element_id1660|archive-date2016-03-04|url-statusdead}}</ref> are resolved in arbitration.
The SEC has come under fire from members of the Senate Judiciary Committee for not fulfilling statutory duty to protect individual investors, because all brokers require arbitration, and arbitration does not provide a court-supervised discovery process, require arbitrators to follow rules of evidence or result in written opinions establishing precedence, or case law, or provide the efficiency gains it once did. Arbitrator selection bias, hidden conflicts of interest, and a case where an arbitration panel refused to follow instructions handed down from a judge, were also raised as issues.<ref name"Morgenson2007">{{cite news|last1Morgenson|first1Gretchen|titleDear S.E.C., Reconsider Arbitration - The New York Times|workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/business/yourmoney/06gret.html|access-date22 March 2018|agencyNew York Times|date6 May 2005}}</ref>JudicialSome state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo. Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent tertiary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement. Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract. Class arbitration Similar to class action litigation, class arbitrations are types where a variety of plaintiffs with similar claims file to have disputes resolved under a single proceeding rather than numerous individual arbitrations. Since the Supreme Court ruled in Lamps Plus, Inc. v. Varela that class arbitrations could not be filed unless explicitly permitted, class arbitrations have been near non-existent.<ref>{{Cite web |lastBurke |firstKaitlyn |last2Friedman |first2Rob |last3 |date2019-04-25 |titleSupreme Court Confirms Class Arbitration May Not Proceed Unless Expressly Permitted by the Arbitration Agreement |urlhttps://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/supreme-court-confirms-class-arbitration-may-not-proceed-unless |access-date2025-03-20 |websiteLittler Mendelson P.C. |languageen}}</ref> However, a 2025 currently-pending arbitration case led by 100 casino companies that signed similar arbitration contracts against card-shuffling machine manufacturer Light & Wonder involved American Arbitration Association arbitrator John WIlkinson making the decision to consolidate all 100 disputes into a single class, the first since the Lamps Plus decision as well as America's first antitrust class arbitration.<ref>{{Cite web |lastFrankel |firstAllison |date2024-12-18 |titleCasinos get green light for landmark antitrust arbitration class |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/casinos-get-green-light-landmark-antitrust-arbitration-class-2024-12-18/ |access-date2025-03-20 |websiteReuters}}</ref>Arbitration clausesCongress has expressed a policy in support of arbitration clauses. This support is found in the Federal Arbitration Act, (FAA) which permits compulsory and binding arbitration, under which parties give up the right to appeal an arbitrator's decision to a court. In Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg. Co., the U.S. Supreme Court established the "separability principle", under which enforceability of a contract must be challenged in arbitration before any court action, unless the arbitration clause itself has been challenged. Today, mandatory (or "forced") arbitration clauses are widespread in the United States, with 15 of the largest 20 U.S. credit card issuers, 7 of the 8 largest cell phone companies, and 2 out of 3 major bike sharing companies in Seattle including such clauses in their consumer contracts.<ref>{{Cite web |dateJuly 11, 2018 |titleDid you read the fine print? We did. These are the rights you give up by renting a LimeBike or ofo |urlhttps://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/transportation/bike-share-user-agreements-the-rights-you-give-up-by-renting-a-limebike-or-ofo/ |websiteThe Seattle Times}}</ref> Arbitration clauses can be enforceable if "signed" electronically, though California courts have stated that a handwritten signature to an arbitration agreement is easier to enforce than one done electronically.<ref>{{Cite web |lastEaton |firstDan |date2023-02-13 |titleEmployee's handwritten signature makes arbitration agreement easier to enforce |urlhttps://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/story/2023-02-13/employees-handwritten-signature-makes-arbitration-agreement-easier-to-enforce |access-date2023-03-05 |websiteSan Diego Union-Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref>
In AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion (2011), the Supreme Court upheld an arbitration clause in a consumer standard form contract which waived the right to a lawsuit and class action.<ref nameHorton2012>Horton D. (2012). [https://ssrn.com/abstract2158882 Federal Arbitration Act Preemption, Purposivism, and State Public Policy]. Forthcoming in Georgetown Law Journal.</ref> However, this clause was relatively generous in that the business paid all fees unless the action was determined to be frivolous and a small-claims court action remained available; these types of protections are recommended for the contract to remain enforceable and not unconscionable.<ref>[http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/administrative/litigation/materials/sac_2012/04-_runaway_arbitration.authcheckdam.pdf Preventing the Runaway Arbitration: Practical Strategies and Solutions]{{dead link|dateOctober 2016 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ABA.</ref>
The Supreme Court has also ruled that questions on whether an arbitration clause should be enforced at all permits litigation involving the rest of the case to be stayed. In 2023's Coinbase v. Bielski, the court ruled that federal district courts must stay proceedings involving a case during an arbitration appeal on such case.<ref>{{Cite web |titleJustices Say Arbitration Appeals Automatically Stay Litigation - Law360 |urlhttps://www.law360.com/articles/1601020/justices-say-arbitration-appeals-automatically-stay-litigation |access-date2023-06-23 |websitewww.law360.com |language=en}}</ref>
Arbitration clauses can also be written in a manner which excludes certain disputes from being required to be sent to arbitration. Motions to compel arbitration involving excluded disputes then on would not be honored, as seen in a 2023 ruling made by the Ninth Circuit via one of its judicial panels. In such ruling, the casino firm Saipan included an arbitration agreement which exempted licensing claims from being subject to mandatory arbitration.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSaipan Casino Investors Can't Arbitrate Licensing Fight - Law360 UK |urlhttps://www.law360.com/internationalarbitration/articles/1694033/saipan-casino-investors-can-t-arbitrate-licensing-fight |access-date2023-06-29 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref> Opt out provisions Some arbitration clauses in the United States offer opportunities for parties to opt out of the arbitration agreement and not be subject to it. Many companies utilize opt out clauses within their arbitration agreements, most often giving 30 or 60 days for consumers in contracts between consumers and companies to either send a rejection notice by mail or by email.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHow to Opt-Out of a Forced Arbitration Clause |urlhttps://www.nclc.org/resources/how-to-opt-out-of-the-easypay-finance-tab-bank-forced-arbitration-clause/ |access-date2023-09-06 |websiteNCLC |languageen-US}}</ref>
Including an opt out provision has been found to improve the likelihood of that a court will find an arbitration clause to be enforceable. In Hopkins v. World Acceptance Corp, a case cited in Ferrara v. Luxottica, failure to opt out of an arbitration agreement dilutes the ability to combat a motion to compel arbitration.<ref>{{Cite web |titleORDER - CHRISTINA FERRARA v. LUXOTTICA RETAIL NORTH AMERICA INC. |urlhttps://ecf.flmd.uscourts.gov/cgi-bin/show_public_doc?2017-02914-19-8-cv |websiteecf.flmd.uscourts.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleORDER - CHRISTINA FERRARA v. LUXOTTICA RETAIL NORTH AMERICA INC. |urlhttps://cases.justia.com/federal/district-courts/florida/flmdce/8:2017cv02914/344335/19/0.pdf?ts1517042951 |website=cases.justia.com}}</ref>
Many credit card companies which have arbitration agreements allow card signers to opt out, although company procedures may make it difficult for consumers to exercise that option.<ref>{{cite web |last1Perez-Pedemonti |first1Martha |titleRegaining the Right to Reject: Forced Arbitration Clauses in Credit Card Contracts |urlhttps://www.citizen.org/article/regaining-the-right-to-reject-forced-arbitration-clauses-in-credit-card-contracts/ |websitePublic Citizen |access-date7 September 2023 |languageen |date15 May 2023}}</ref>
Enforceability
Validity and notice
Although properly drafted arbitration clauses are generally valid, they are subject to challenge in court for compliance with laws and public policy.<ref>{{cite web |titleGuide to Arbitration in New York |urlhttp://eguides.cmslegal.com/pdf/arbitration_volume_I/CMS%20GtA_Vol%20I_NEW%20YORK.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://eguides.cmslegal.com/pdf/arbitration_volume_I/CMS%20GtA_Vol%20I_NEW%20YORK.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |access-date2012-05-10 |publisherCMS Legal}}</ref> Arbitration clauses may potentially be challenged as unconscionable and, therefore, unenforceable.<ref name"huffingtonpost">{{cite news |titleUnconscionable Employment Arbitration Agreement Held Unenforceable &#124; The Huffington Post |workhuffingtonpost.com |urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/brad-reid/unconscionable-employment_b_4234686.html |access-date2017-01-06}}</ref> Typically, the validity of an arbitration clause is decided by a court rather than an arbitrator. However, if the validity of the entire arbitration agreement is in dispute, then the issue is decided by the arbitrators in the first instance. This is known as the principle of separability.<ref>{{cite web |titleArbitration Procedures and Practice in the United States: Overview: Separability |urlhttps://us.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/0-502-1714?documentSectionco_anchor_a849784 |websitePractical Law |publisherThomson Reuters }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2025 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> For example, in Rent-A-Center, West, Inc. v. Jackson, the Supreme Court of the United States held that "under the FAA, where an agreement to arbitrate includes an agreement that the arbitrator will determine the enforceability of the agreement, if a party challenges specifically the enforceability of that particular agreement, the district court considers the challenge, but if a party challenges the enforceability of the agreement as a whole, the challenge is for the arbitrator."<ref name"SCOTUSRenter-A-Center">[https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/09pdf/09-497.pdf Rent-A-Center, West, Inc. v. Jackson] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170203064627/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/09pdf/09-497.pdf |date=2017-02-03 }}. Supreme Court of the United States.</ref>
In other words, the law typically allows federal courts to decide these types of "gateway" or validity questions, but the Supreme Court ruled that since Jackson targeted the entire contract rather than a specific clause, the arbitrator decided the validity.<ref>[http://www.law360.com/articles/176273 High Court Favors Arbitrator In Rent-A-Center Case]. Law360.com.</ref> Public Citizen, an advocacy organization opposed to the enforcement of pre-dispute arbitration agreements, characterized the decision negatively: "the court said that companies can write their contracts so that the companies' own arbitrator decides whether it's fair to submit a case to that arbitrator."<ref>{{cite web |dateMay 17, 2011 |titleCongress Must Undo Damage of U.S. Supreme Court's Latest Anti-Consumer Decision |urlhttp://www.citizen.org/pressroom/pressroomredirect.cfm?ID3346 |access-date=2011-01-12}}</ref>
Arbitration clauses must also further provide a clear procedure, and confusion or ambiguity in an arbitration clause can also cause such clause to be struck down. One example of this phenomenon occurred in a lawsuit against SoLo Funds, where a Philadelphia federal judge ruled that because the app did not make clear its arbitration requirements, the clause was unconscionable and SoLo's bid to compel arbitration was not granted.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLending App SoLo Can't Arbitrate User's Interest Rate Claims - Law360 |urlhttps://www.law360.com/articles/1686409/lending-app-solo-can-t-arbitrate-user-s-interest-rate-claims |access-date2023-06-09 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref> Ambiguity-related nullifications of arbitration agreements further extend to proof of agreement between the parties, as in Romano v. BCBSM, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan failed to compel arbitration against a former employee in June 2023 after US district judge George Caram Steeh III ruled that the online application process failed to adequately provide the employee notice of the arbitration agreement he would otherwise be bound to.<ref>{{Cite web |lastLINSNER |firstCORY |date2023-06-07 |titleCourt denies employer's motion to compel arbitration {{!}} Michigan Lawyers Weekly |urlhttps://milawyersweekly.com/news/2023/06/07/court-denies-employers-motion-to-compel-arbitration/ |access-date2023-06-09 |languageen-US}}</ref> In 2024, a ruling in Marshall v. Georgetown Memorial Hospital heard by the Fourth Circuit found that since in the case there was not a conspicuous notice to scroll down to read the full terms of an online contract, that an arbitration clause which only could be found by scrolling down could not be held to a duty to read principle, and that reasonable notice of the clause would still have not been found.<ref>{{Cite web |lastNewswire |firstBridgeTower Media |date2024-09-27 |title4th Circuit refuses to enforce agreement in online application |urlhttps://thedailyrecord.com/2024/09/27/duty-to-read-is-not-a-duty-to-scroll-4th-circuit-refuses-to-enforce-online-agreement/ |access-date2024-09-29 |websiteMaryland Daily Record |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastWeekly |firstVirginia Lawyers |date2024-09-04 |titleArbitration: Arbitration denied in ADA suit {{!}} Virginia Lawyers Weekly |urlhttps://valawyersweekly.com/2024/09/04/arbitration-arbitration-denied-in-ada-suit/ |access-date2024-09-29 |languageen-US}}</ref> Modification A significant challenge to arbitrate agreements arose out of South Carolina through the case Hooters v. Phillips. In the 1999 case, a federal district court found that Hooters modified its dispute resolution rules in 1996 to be unfair enough that the court held that the agreement was unconscionable, partly due to Hooters requiring that all of the arbitrators in dispute resolution cases be selected from a list pre-approved by the company, which included Hooters managers. In April 2022, the Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit found that in Coady v. Nationwide Motor Sales, because Nationwide Motor Sales' contract enabled them to be the sole party permitted to modify the contract that Coady signed. Citing Hooters v. Phillips, the court expressed when an employer has the ability “in whole or in part” to modify the arbitration provision without notice to its employees. California's Court of Appeal reached a similar conclusion in Peleg v. Neiman Marcus, in which a unilateral modification to an arbitration agreement invalidated the clause.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-05-13 |titleFourth Circuit Affirms Limits on Forced Arbitration for Employment Disputes |urlhttps://www.correiaputh.com/news/fourth-circuit-affirms-limits-on-forced-arbitration-for-employment-disputes/ |access-date2022-06-24 |websiteCorreia & Puth |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleHooters of Am., Inc. v. Phillips, 173 F.3d 933 {{!}} Casetext Search + Citator |urlhttps://casetext.com/case/hooters-of-america-inc-v-phillips |access-date2022-06-24 |websitecasetext.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleCase Study: Peleg V. Neiman Marcus - Law360 |urlhttps://www.law360.com/articles/357154/case-study-peleg-v-neiman-marcus |access-date2022-10-10 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref>
Another instance of modified arbitration clauses causing it to be overturned was found in a privacy-related dispute between Amazon and its drivers who work under the company's Amazon Flex service. Amazon Flex drivers, who filed a class action lawsuit claiming that the company spied on private Facebook conversations, alleged that the updated 2019 terms related to Amazon Flex were not delivered properly to them, and that the 2016 terms, which did not include an arbitration clause, should apply. Ultimately, the Ninth Circuit decided that since Amazon was the party compelling arbitration, the burden of proof was on Amazon to prove that its flex drivers received notice of the 2019 updated terms, and that arbitration should not be compelled.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAmazon Drivers Avoid Arbitration Claiming Non-delivery of Updated TOS |urlhttps://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/amazon-drivers-avoid-arbitration-7600343/ |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteJD Supra |languageen}}</ref> Waiver Some courts have found that parties can waive their right to compel arbitration through various forms of actions. In California, as demonstrated by Davis v. Shiekh Shoes and Espinoza v. Superior Court, a party wishing to compel arbitration though failing to pay arbitration fees in a timely manner waives their right to compel arbitration, and must resolve the dispute in court.<ref>{{Cite web |lastOncidi |firstTony |date2022-11-23 |titleEmployer Waived Right To Arbitration By Failing To Timely Pay Arbitration Fees |urlhttps://calemploymentlawupdate.proskauer.com/2022/11/employer-waived-right-to-arbitration-by-failing-to-timely-pay-arbitration-fees/ |access-date2022-12-13 |websiteCalifornia Employment Law Update |languageen-US}}</ref> More importantly, the Supreme Court found in Morgan v. Sundance that a party which does not compel arbitration when a valid clause exists waives its right to compel arbitration. Justice Elena Kagan, writing for the court's unanimous ruling in favor of hourly Taco Bell employee Robyn Morgan, found that the Eighth Circuit created "special rules" in which Morgan was compelled to arbitrate based on Sundance's prejudice (delay) of compelling arbitration.<ref>{{Cite web |titleU.S. Supreme Court Unanimously Rules that Waiver of Arbitration Right Does Not Require a Showing of Prejudice {{!}} Foley & Lardner LLP |urlhttps://www.foley.com/en/insights/publications/2022/06/us-supreme-court-rules-waiver-of-arbitration-right |access-date2022-12-13 |websitewww.foley.com |date13 June 2022 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMorris |firstWilliam |titleFormer Iowa Taco Bell worker wins at U.S. Supreme Court in wage-theft lawsuit |urlhttps://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/crime-and-courts/2022/05/23/u-s-supreme-court-rules-osceola-iowa-taco-bell-worker-arbitration-case-sundance-class-action-lawsuit/9892524002/ |access-date2022-12-13 |websiteThe Des Moines Register |languageen-US}}</ref>
The opinion on a party waiving its right to compel arbitration if it had litigated extensively prior to the motion has been further confirmed in light of Davis and Espinoza when one of Bronx County's justices ruled in Worbes Corp v. Sebrow. Justice Fidel Gomez states that if a party who intended to compel arbitration brought a "substantive defense" before the court, served a trial notice, moved to depose a witness, or "interposed a counterclaim demanding money damages", that party would have waived its right to compel arbitration. Justice Gomez, however, clarified that such right would not be waived by a party if a defendant "had only defended its position and had not acted in a manner that waives the right to arbitrate".<ref>{{Cite web |titleCommercial Division Reaffirms that a Party May Waive Right to Arbitration Through Conduct |urlhttps://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/commercial-division-reaffirms-that-a-2168272/ |access-date2023-06-09 |websiteJD Supra |languageen}}</ref> Excessive fees Arbitration clauses can be void in instances where the costs of arbitration would be too high. In 1999's Shankle v. B-G Maintenance Management of Colorado, Inc, the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals refused to grant a motion to compel arbitration on the basis that the fees were too high for the plaintiff Matthew Shankle. The Texas Courts of Appeals found in 2022's ''Cont'l Homes of Texas v. Perez'' that an arbitration clause in the case was unenforceable due to unaffordable arbitration costs for the plaintiffs and the arbitration agreement not being an adequate remedy for litigation.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFindLaw's United States Tenth Circuit case and opinions. |urlhttps://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-10th-circuit/1311927.html |access-date2023-01-24 |websiteFindlaw |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleToo Costly to Be Fair: Texas Appellate Court Finds the Arbitration Clause in a Residential Construction Contract Unenforceable |urlhttps://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/too-costly-to-be-fair-texas-appellate-1656477/ |access-date2022-12-13 |websiteJD Supra |languageen}}</ref> Severability In January 2023, a federal court in Delaware recommended that motions to compel arbitration which conflicted with the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 not be honored in Burnett et al. v. Prudent Financial Services LLC, et al. (C.A. No. 22-270-RGA-JLH). Presiding magistrate judge Jennifer Hall interpreted that based on recent action by the Supreme Court and other federal courts, not every provision within the arbitration agreement should be validated. Additionally, Judge Hall prospected that entire arbitration agreements could become invalid if a single provision is found to be unenforceable by a court.<ref>{{Cite web |titleESOP's Arbitration Clause Conflicts With ERISA, Judge Says - Law360 |urlhttps://www.law360.com/articles/1569527/esop-s-arbitration-clause-conflicts-with-erisa-judge-says |access-date2023-01-26 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref>
The notion of a single unconscionable provision invalidating the arbitration agreement, even if such provision was outside of the arbitration-related clauses of a contract, was expanded the following June when a California court ruled in Alberto v. Cambrian Homecare that a confidentiality agreement which prohibited discussing compensation and salary information, and threatened litigation and the collection of attorneys fees, was unenforceable and also declared the arbitration agreement unenforceable.<ref>{{Cite web |laststaff |firstNew England Biz Law Update |titleArbitration agreement found void |urlhttps://newenglandbizlawupdate.com/2023/06/06/arbitration-agreement-found-void/ |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteNew England Biz Law Update |languageen-US}}</ref> Legislation and regulation Federal law Federal Arbitration Act Arbitration in the United States' most overarching clause is the Federal Arbitration Act (officially the United States Arbitration Act of 1925, commonly referred to as the FAA). The Act stipulates that arbitration in a majority of instances is legal when both parties, either after or prior to the arising of a dispute, agree to the arbitration. The Supreme Court has taken a pro-arbitration stance across most but not all cases, although the federal government, most recently in 2022, has passed certain exemptions to arbitration agreements.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2022/02/10/1079843645/congress-approves-bill-to-end-forced-arbitration-in-sexual-assault-cases|titleCongress approves bill to end forced arbitration in sexual assault cases|firstDeirdre|lastWalsh|dateFebruary 10, 2022|via=NPR}}</ref> States are also generally prohibited from passing their own laws which the Supreme Court and other federal courts believe limit or discriminate against arbitration.
The Federal Arbitration Act also explicitly provides that workers involved in transportation are exempt from arbitration agreements, which the Supreme Court unanimously reaffirmed in various cases, with one notable example being 2022's Southwest Airlines v. Saxon.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSouthwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon |urlhttps://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/southwest-airlines-co-v-saxon/ |access-date2022-08-29 |websiteSCOTUSblog |languageen-US}}</ref> This, however, does not apply to drivers working for Uber and other ridesharing services. In Bissonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC (2024), the Court ruled that the FAA's exemption for transportation workers applies based on the nature of the work performed, rather than the industry of employment, further refining the scope of the statute.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBissonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/23pdf/23-51_6647.pdf}}</ref>
The Supreme Court has also clarified the scope of the FAA in cases involving employment and arbitration agreements. In Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis (2018), the Court ruled that arbitration agreements requiring individual arbitration and prohibiting class or collective actions are enforceable under the FAA, despite the National Labor Relations Act's protections for concerted activities.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEpic Systems Corp. v. Lewis |urlhttps://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/17pdf/16-285_q8l1.pdf}}</ref> More recently, in Badgerow v. Walters (2022), the Court held that federal courts lack jurisdiction to confirm or vacate arbitration awards unless an independent basis for federal jurisdiction exists, limiting federal court involvement in arbitration disputes.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBadgerow v. Walters |urlhttps://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/21pdf/20-1143_m6hn.pdf}}</ref> In Smith v. Spizzirri (2024), the Court clarified that when a party requests a stay of proceedings pending arbitration, courts must grant the stay rather than dismissing the case outright, reinforcing the FAA's procedural requirements.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSmith v. Spizzirri |urlhttps://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/23pdf/22-1218_5357.pdf |archive-url}}</ref> These decisions continue to shape how arbitration agreements are enforced in the United States. Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| shorttitle = Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act of 2021
| longtitle = An Act to amend Title 9 of the United States Code with respect to arbitration
of disputes involving sexual assault and sexual harassment
| enacted by = 117th
| signedpresident = Joe Biden
| cite public law = {{uspl|117|90}}
| signeddate = March 3, 2022
| introducedby = Cheri Bustos {{uspolabbr|D|IL-17}}
| effective date = March 3, 2022
| introducedin = United States House of Representatives
| introduceddate = July 16, 2021
| acronyms = EFASASHA, EFAA
| actsamended = Federal Arbitration Act
| passeddate1 = February 7, 2022
| passedbody1 = House
| passedbody2 = Senate
| passeddate2 = February 10, 2022
}}
In 2022, Congress passed the Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act (EFASASHA or EFAA), which excludes these types of complaints from arbitration clauses. Congress also included a ban on class action waivers for claims covered under the act. Under the law, claims which are filed after March 3, 2022, and fall under the scope of EFAA shall have agreements to submit disputes to binding arbitration and class action waivers within contracts signed deemed unenforceable for the entire case, though the law allows for claimants to have a case decided by binding arbitration if the plaintiff wishes upon filing. The law was championed by Gretchen Carlson, a former Fox News host sexually harassed for many years by then CEO Roger Ailes; she also opposed the use of non-disclosure agreements to shield perpetrators.<ref>{{Cite web |lastWalsh |firstDeirdre |dateFebruary 10, 2022 |titleCongress approves bill to end forced arbitration in sexual assault cases |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2022/02/10/1079843645/congress-approves-bill-to-end-forced-arbitration-in-sexual-assault-cases |viaNPR}}</ref>
The law was introduced by Illinois House Democrat Cheri Bustos as HR 4445, and passed the House of Representatives by a 335–97 vote, with all no votes coming from Republicans. The EFAA passed the Senate with unanimous consent, and was signed into law by President Joe Biden on March 3, 2022. The law became effective immediately at signing.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDenham |firstRyan |date2022-11-18 |titleRivian wants to force arbitration in sexual harassment case, despite new law prohibiting it |urlhttps://www.wglt.org/local-news/2022-11-18/rivian-wants-to-force-arbitration-in-sexual-harassment-case-despite-new-law-prohibiting-it |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteWGLT |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/4445/actions|titleActions - H.R.4445 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act of 2021 &#124; Congress.gov &#124; Library of Congress|date3 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleNew Law Ends Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Disputes |urlhttps://www.perkinscoie.com/en/news-insights/new-law-ends-forced-arbitration-of-sexual-assault-and-sexual-harassment-disputes.html |access-date2023-06-08 |websitePerkins Coie |date8 March 2022 |languageen}}</ref> The state of Louisiana also passed a law in 2024, Act No. 541, which bans pre-dispute arbitration agreements in much of the same circumstances where EFAA bans pre-dispute arbitration agreements, though provides that agreements signed after the filing of a dispute is valid.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-08-01 |titleNew Louisiana Laws on Tort Actions, Meal Breaks, Arbitration Agreements, and Nondisclosure Agreements Take Effect in July and August 2024 |urlhttps://ogletree.com/insights-resources/blog-posts/new-louisiana-laws-on-tort-actions-meal-breaks-arbitration-agreements-and-nondisclosure-agreements-take-effect-in-july-and-august-2024/ |access-date2024-08-22 |websiteOgletree |language=en-US}}</ref>
Some legal agencies raised concerns that the law could allow for claims attached to a sexual harassment or sexual assault dispute to bypass arbitration as well.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSigned Into Law: Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act |urlhttps://www.mcguirewoods.com/client-resources/Alerts/2022/3/ending-forced-arbitration-of-sexual-assault-and-sexual-harassment-act |access-date2022-06-24 |websitewww.mcguirewoods.com |languageen}}</ref> These concerns were ultimately confirmed in February 2023, where New York federal judge Paul A. Engelmayer ruled in two lawsuits against the company Everyrealm that if at least one claim in a single case was an act of sexual assault or sexual harassment, the pre-dispute arbitration agreement was unenforceable and arbitration could not be compelled. Engelmayer's decision was rooted in the decision from Congress to directly amend the Federal Arbitration Act, and its actions to do so were indicative of its intention to prohibit the practice in entire cases which the EFAA covers; Engelmayer, however, clarified that the claim of sexual assault or harassment must be reasonable and that the EFAA does not enable implausible claims of sexual harassment to be used to "dodge" arbitration agreements.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNew York Federal Court Allows Workers to Dodge Arbitration for Claims Brought With Sexual Harassment Case |urlhttps://www.fisherphillips.com/news-insights/new-york-federal-court-allows-workers-dodge-arbitration.html |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteFisher Phillips |languageen}}</ref> One month later, a California court ruling on a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Tesla further confirmed the EFAA's ability to ban compelling arbitration in sexual harassment suits, and a second New York federal court earlier came to a similar conclusion in a case filed by an investment banker.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAppeals Panel Says Tesla Can't Arbitrate Sex Harassment Suit - Law360 Employment Authority |urlhttps://www.law360.com/employment-authority/articles/1595983/appeals-panel-says-tesla-can-t-arbitrate-sex-harassment-suit |access-date2023-06-08 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleNew Law Forces Banker's Sex Assault Suit Out Of Arbitration - Law360 Employment Authority |urlhttps://www.law360.com/employment-authority/articles/1592568/new-law-forces-banker-s-sex-assault-suit-out-of-arbitration |access-date2023-06-08 |websitewww.law360.com |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastMerchant |firstGary Friedman, Justin DiGennaro, Sahar |date2023-05-04 |titleCourts Scale Back on Arbitrability of Employment Claims |urlhttps://governance.weil.com/insights/courts-scale-back-on-arbitrability-of-employment-claims/ |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteGovernance & Securities Watch |languageen-US}}</ref> Other cases in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas have ruled in favor of the EFAA broadly allowing all reasonably related cases to bypass and invalidate arbitration clauses, with most courts primarily justifying the broad scope the EFAA allows on its usage of the term "claim" over "case" in the legislation, and whether all claims are easonably related to an EFAA-covered kind of claim.<ref>{{Cite news |lastAtkinson |firstKhorri |date2024-09-17 |titleCourts Expand Allowable Claims Under #MeToo Arbitration Law |urlhttps://www.bloomberglaw.com/bloomberglawnews/daily-labor-report/X8L8VR88000000?bna_news_filterdaily-labor-report#jcite |workBloomberg Law}}</ref> Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act
{{Main|Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act}}
The Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act is a bill filed in every meeting of Congress since the 116th Congress which, if passed, contains provisions which ban arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases between consumers and large companies, as well as employers and large companies. The bill is generally supported by the Democratic Party as well as Freedom Caucus member Matt Gaetz, though has usually been opposed by the Republican Party. In the 116th and 117th congresses, the bill passed the House but failed to pass the Senate; the bill has since been reintroduced in the 118th Congress by Democratic senators Sherrod Brown and Richard Blumenthal, and Democratic representative Hank Johnson.<ref>{{cite web |last1Bland |first1Paul |titleThe time to ban forced arbitration is now |urlhttps://thehill.com/opinion/judiciary/3986551-the-time-to-ban-forced-arbitration-is-now/ |websiteThe Hill |access-date15 November 2023 |date7 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleBrown, Colleagues Introduce Legislation to Protect Consumers by Banning Forced Arbitration {{!}} U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown of Ohio |urlhttps://www.brown.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/sherrod-brown-colleagues-introduce-legislation-protect-consumers-banning-forced-arbitration |access-date2023-06-08 |websitewww.brown.senate.gov |languageen}}</ref>
McCarran–Ferguson Act
In insurance law, arbitration is complicated by the fact that insurance is regulated at the state level under the McCarran–Ferguson Act. From a federal perspective, however, a circuit court ruling has determined that McCarran-Ferguson requires a state statute rather than administrative interpretations.<ref nameWenzelKA/> The Missouri Department of Insurance attempted to block a binding arbitration agreement under its state authority, but since this action was based only on a policy of the department and not on a state statute, the United States district court found that the Department of Insurance did not have the authority to invalidate the arbitration agreement.<ref nameWenzelKA>Wenzel KA. (2004). [http://www.forc.org/public/journals/9#57 THE VALIDITY OF ARBITRATION AGREEMENTS IN INSURANCE POLICIES] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110726062059/http://www.forc.org/public/journals/9#57 |date2011-07-26 }}. FORC Journal 15(4).</ref>
Protecting Older Americans Act
The Protecting Older Americans Act is pending legislation first filed in the 118th Congress by South Carolina Republicans Lindsey Graham in the Senate and Nancy Mace in the House. The law would ban and overturn arbitration agreements in cases involving discrimination based on age.<ref>{{Cite web |lastStaff |firstLive 5 Web |date2023-06-15 |titleSen. Graham, Rep. Mace introduce 'Protecting Older Americans Act' |urlhttps://www.wrdw.com/2023/06/15/sen-graham-rep-mace-introduce-protecting-older-americans-act/ |access-date2023-06-23 |websitewww.wrdw.com |languageen}}</ref>
Federal regulation
Federal Student Loans
In November 2022, the Department of Education and the office on Federal Student Aid passed new rules which included reinstating a ban on institutions participating in its Direct Loan Program from utilizing pre-dispute mandatory arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases relating to Borrower Defense to Repayment. The new rules also require institutions to disclose their uses of arbitration to the department and to provide certain records connected with any borrower defense claim against the school to the department.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFinal Regulations: Borrower Defense to Repayment, Pre-dispute Arbitration, Interest Capitalization, Total and Permanent Disability Discharges, Closed School Discharges, Public Service Loan Forgiveness, and False Certification Discharges {{!}} Knowledge Center |urlhttps://fsapartners.ed.gov/knowledge-center/library/federal-registers/2022-11-01/final-regulations-borrower-defense-repayment-pre-dispute-arbitration-interest-capitalization-total-and-permanent-disability-discharges-closed-school-discharges-public-service-loan-forgiveness-and |access-date2023-06-08 |websitefsapartners.ed.gov}}</ref> The Department of Education stated its reasoning for the ban is that class action waivers and arbitration agreements are too complex for much of the general public to comprehend and that arbitration "rarely" gives favorable decisions to consumers.The rules become effective on July 1, 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNASFAA {{!}} Summary of Proposed Changes to Borrower Defense, Pre-Dispute Arbitration, and Class Action Waiver Regulations |urlhttps://www.nasfaa.org/news-item/27766/Summary_of_Proposed_Changes_to_Borrower_Defense_Pre-Dispute_Arbitration_and_Class_Action_Waiver_Regulations |access-date2023-06-08 |websitewww.nasfaa.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastHigh |firstJessica S. |date2023-06-07 |titleStudent Arbitration Agreements |urlhttps://blogs.duanemorris.com/updateeducation/2023/06/07/student-arbitration-agreements/ |access-date2023-06-08 |websiteUpdateED |languageen-US}}</ref>
Department of Labor
The United States Department of Labor was noted in May 2023 by Bloomberg Law journalist Khorri Atkinson for its increased focus and hostility towards mandatory arbitration and its use by employers for violating Department of Labor rules. Solicitor of Labor Seema Nanda has stated that the department will pursue more cases where employers are utilizing mandatory arbitration to commit violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLabor Department Sets Arbitration Clauses as Enforcement Target |urlhttps://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/labor-department-sets-arbitration-clauses-as-enforcement-target |access-date2023-06-08 |websitenews.bloomberglaw.com |languageen}}</ref> State law The FAA has been interpreted to preempt and invalidate state laws which prevent or discriminate against the enforcement of arbitration agreements. In one such case in 2023, which overruled California Assembly Bill 51, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that California's bill placed restrictions on the "broad national policy" favoring arbitration agreements. Similar fates have been bestowed upon legislation in New Jersey, New York, and Washington state which attempted to reduce the scope of arbitration clauses.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNinth Circuit Blocks California's Ban on Mandatory Arbitration in Employment |urlhttps://ogletree.com/insights/ninth-circuit-blocks-californias-ban-on-mandatory-arbitration-in-employment/ |access-date2023-02-21 |websiteOgletree Deakins |date16 February 2023 |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleCalifornia Is in Good Company as State Arbitration Limits Fall |urlhttps://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/california-is-in-good-company-as-state-arbitration-limits-fall |access-date2023-02-21 |websitenews.bloomberglaw.com |languageen}}</ref>
In 2014's Atalese v. U.S. Legal Services Group, L.P, the Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled that arbitration clauses must have a valid jury trial waiver, which the court saw as a constitutional right which must be explicitly waived in a contract, in order to be effective, a position reaffirmed by Pennsylvania's Superior Court in 2022's Chiluti v. Uber.<ref>{{Cite web |lastShulman |firstRick |date2016-02-18 |titleContracts That Provide For Arbitration Also Require An Explicit "Waiver Of Right To Jury Trial" |urlhttps://www.pricemeese.com/blog/contracts-that-provide-for-arbitration-also-require-an-explicit-waiver-of-right-to-jury-trial/ |access-date2022-08-29 |websitePrice, Meese, Shulman & D’Arminio, PC |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleUber Arbitration Clauses Shot Down in Pennsylvania State Court |urlhttps://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/uber-arbitration-clauses-shot-down-in-pennsylvania-state-court |access-date2022-10-19 |websitenews.bloomberglaw.com |language=en}}</ref>
A Pennsylvania appeals court in Philadelphia ruled in March 2023 that parents cannot bind their children to arbitration agreements over injuries, in a lawsuit between parents and a local trampoline park.<ref>{{Cite web |dateMarch 22, 2023 |titleParents can't bind kids to arbitration in Pennsylvania |urlhttps://www.courthousenews.com/parents-cant-bind-kids-to-arbitration-in-pennsylvania/#:~:textPHILADELPHIA%20—%20An%20appeals%20court%20in,in%20court%20over%20their%20injuries. |access-dateApril 19, 2023 |websiteCourthouse News Service}}</ref>
Proceedings
Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration.
Enforcement
{{Main|Arbitration award}}
In some cases, a party may comply with an award voluntarily. However, in other cases a party will have to petition to receive a court judgment<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://corporate.findlaw.com/litigation-disputes/the-basics-of-confirming-vacating-modifying-and-correcting-an.html/|titleThe Basics of Confirming, Vacating, Modifying and Correcting an Arbitration Award Under the Federal Arbitration Act and the Texas Arbitration Act - FindLaw|websiteFindlaw|access-date2016-03-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastWare |firstStephen J. |date2001-03-21 |titlePaying the Price of Process: Judicial Regulation of Consumer Arbitration Agreements |journalJournal of Dispute Resolution |locationRochester, NY |publisherSocial Science Research Network |issue1 |ssrn264122 |hdl1808/7369}}</ref> for enforcement through various means such as a writ of execution, garnishment, or lien. If the property is in another state, then a sister-state judgment (relying on the Full Faith and Credit Clause) can be received by filing to enforce the judgment in the state where the property is located.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Reynolds |first1William L. |titleThe Iron Law of Full Faith and Credit |journalMaryland Law Review |date1994 |page746}}</ref>
Vacatur
Under the Federal Arbitration Act, courts can only vacate awards for limited reasons<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/260387685|titleState regulation of arbitration proceedings: judicial review of Arbitration Awards by State Courts|websiteResearchGate|access-date2016-03-21}}</ref> set out in statute<ref>9 U.S.C. § 10(a)(1)</ref> with similar language in the state model Uniform Arbitration Act.
The court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award was made in manifest disregard of law or conflicts with well-established public policy.
Arbitration Fairness Act
{{Main|Consumer arbitration#Arbitration Fairness Act|l1Consumer arbitration: Arbitration Fairness Act}}See also
* American Arbitration Association
* Arbitration award
* Consumer arbitration
* Conciliation
* Dispute resolution
* Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis
* Expert determination
* Investor-state arbitration
* JAMS (organization)
* London Court of International Arbitration
* Mediation
* Negotiation
* Special referee
* Subrogation
* Tort reform
* UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
* National Arbitration Forum
* National Academy of Arbitrators
For the relevant conflict of laws elements, see contract, forum selection clause, choice of law clause, proper law, and lex loci arbitri
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Jerold S. Auerbach, Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).
* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., Introduction to Securities Arbitration (SECLaw.com, 2000 - [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm Securities Arbitration Overview-2023 Update])
* David Sherwyn, Bruce Tracey & Zev Eigen. "In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process," 2 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 73 (1999); n.b., abbreviated source in this legal citation format is the University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law, Vol. 2, p.&nbsp;73.
* Ed Brunet, J.D., [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521839823/ Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment], Cambridge University Press, 2006.
* Gary Born, International Civil Litigation in United States Courts (Aspen 4th ed. 2006) (with Bo Rutledge) (3rd ed. 1996) (2nd ed. 1992) (1st ed. 1989)
External links
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*[http://www.gvsu.edu/arbitrations/ Arbitration awards at GVSU] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081012001512/http://www.gvsu.edu/arbitrations/ |date2008-10-12 }}
*[http://www.adr.org American Arbitration Association]
{{North America in topic|Arbitration in}}
United States
Category:Law of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_United_States
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.747330
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2598
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Adversarial system
|
The adversarial system (also adversary system, accusatorial system, or accusatory system) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense.
Basic features
Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features. The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury. The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party's case, usually by lawyers. The third is a highly
structured procedure.
The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his Practical Guide to Evidence recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, "Am I never to hear the truth?" "No, my lord, merely the evidence", replied counsel.
Parties
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question—rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. Lord Devlin in The Judge said: "It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle."
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See Gideon v. Wainwright, .
Criminal proceedings
In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence. Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant. The concept of "cross"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
Comparison with inquisitorial systems
The name "adversarial system" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries.
See also
Adversary evaluation
Judicial interpretation
Exclusionary rule
Parallel thinkingdescribed as a systemic alternative
References
Further reading
Category:Judiciaries
Category:Legal systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversarial_system
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2602
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Abano Terme
|
{{more footnotes|date=January 2013}}
{{Infobox Italian comune
| name = Abano Terme
| official_name = Comune di Abano Terme
| native_name | image_skyline AbanoCampanile.jpg
| imagesize | image_alt
| image_caption = Tower of Monteortone church
| image_shield = Abano Terme-Stemma.png
| shield_alt | image_map
| map_alt | map_caption
| pushpin_label_position | pushpin_map_alt
| coordinates {{coord|45|21|37|N|11|47|24|E|region:IT_type:city(19062)|displayinline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes | region Veneto
| province = Padua (PD)
| frazioni = Feriole, Giarre, Monterosso, Monteortone
| mayor_party | mayor Federico Barbierato
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2 21
| population_footnotes | population_total 19868
| population_as_of = 31 August 2021
| pop_density_footnotes | population_demonym Aponensi or Abanesi
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m 14
| twin1 | twin1_country
| saint = St. Lawrence
| day = August 10
| postal_code = 35031
| area_code = 049
| website = {{official website|http://www.abanoterme.net}}
| footnotes =
}}
Abano Terme (known as Abano Bagni until 1924) is a town and comune in the Province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Euganean Hills; it is {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (2001) (in 1901 it was 4,556).<ref name="EB1911"/>
The town's hot springs and mud baths are an important economic resource.<ref name"EB1911"/> The waters have a temperature of about {{convert|80|C|F}}.HistoryThe baths were known to the Romans as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. A description of them is given in a letter to Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths, from Cassiodorus. Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, ''Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438–1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbano Bagni|volume1|page7}}</ref>
The baths were destroyed by the Lombards in the 6th century, but they were rebuilt and enlarged when Abano became an autonomous comune in the 12th century and, again, in the late 14th century. The city was under the Republic of Venice from 1405 to 1797.
Main sights
*Abano Cathedral, or the cathedral (duomo) of St. Lawrence. The current edifice was erected in 1780 over a pre-existing church which was allegedly destroyed by Cangrande della Scala. The bell tower has parts from the 9th/10th and 14th centuries.
*The Montirone Gallery, housing works of Il Moretto, Palma il Giovane, Guido Reni, Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo and others.
*The Sanctuary of the Madonna della Salute or of Monteortone (built from 1428). It lies on the site where the Madonna appeared to Pietro Falco, healing his wounds. The church is on the Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles with three apses decorated by a frieze. It has with a Baroque portal (1667), a bell tower, presbytery frescoes portraying the Histories of St. Peter and Virgin'' by Jacopo da Montagnana (1495) and Palma il Giovane's altarpiece depicting Christ Crucifixed Between St. Augustine and St. Jerome.
Just outside the city is San Daniele Abbey (11th century). {{Convert|6|km|mi|abbron|spus}} from the city is also Praglia Abbey, founded in the 11th century by Benedictine monks and rebuilt in 1496–1550. The abbey church of the Assumption, with a marble portal from 1548, has a Renaissance style interior.
People
* Pietro d'Abano ({{circa|1257}}{{snd}}1316), Italian physician and philosopher
* Matteo Meneghello (born 1981), Italian racing driver
Twin towns
*{{flagicon|JAP}} Shibukawa, Japan
*{{flagicon|GER}} Bad Füssing, Germany
*{{flagicon|Croatia}} Lipik, Croatia
*{{flagicon|Greece}} Kamena Vourla, Greece
See also
* Ex Oratorio del Montirone
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
*''L'Italia da scoprire'', Giorgio Mondadori, 2006.
External links
{{Collier's poster|Abano Bagni}}
* [http://www.abano.it/en/Default.aspx Abano.it Touristic informations web site]
* [https://termefacile.it/ TermeFacile.it Spa facilities information website]
{{Province of Padua}}
{{authority control}}
Category:Spa towns in Italy
Category:Abano Terme
Category:Hot springs of Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abano_Terme
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.766093
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2604
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Abated
|
See also, Abatement.
Abated, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.
References
Category:Construction
Category:Masonry
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abated
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.771942
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2605
|
Abati
|
Abati is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.
Notable people with the surname include:
Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet
Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist
Joaquín Abati (1865–1936), Spanish writer
Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player
Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet
Niccolò dell'Abbate (1509 or 1512 – 1571), Italian painter
Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist
Other uses
The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H. Rider Haggard's adventure novel Queen Sheba's Ring
Abati, Iran, village
Abatipoçanga, 16th-century Tamoio chief
Marauna abati, species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae
References
Category:Italian-language surnames
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abati
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.778042
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2606
|
Abatis
|
thumb|right|Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.
An abatis, abattis, or abbattis is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.
History
thumb|Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during World War II
Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks. He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis. He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.
A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
Construction
thumb|upright|Giant abatis, made from entire trees, can make an effective anti-vehicle obstacle. This formation can be achieved by use of explosives—note the splintered stumps
thumb|Abatis can be defeated by dozer blades, as fitted here to a British Challenger 2 tank
An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.
An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.
Modern use
Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle.
Notes
References
External links
Video on modern anti-tank abatis by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Category:Fortifications by type
Category:Engineering barrages
Category:Medieval defences
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatis
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2025-04-05T18:26:06.780362
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2607
|
Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie
|
{{short description|Irish-born French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie
| image = Antoine d'Abbadie.gif
| caption = Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie
| birth_date {{birth date|1810|1|3|dfy}}
| birth_place = Dublin, Ireland
| death_date {{death date and age|1897|3|19|1810|1|3|dfy}}
| death_place = Paris, France
| residence | citizenship France
| nationality = Irish, French, Basque
| alma_mater | doctoral_advisor
| doctoral_students | known_for
| author_abbrev_bot | author_abbrev_zoo
| signature | footnotes
| ethnicity | field Geographer
| work_institutions | prizes
}}
'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast''' (3 January 1810 – 19 March 1897)<ref name"EB" /> was a French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer of Irish birth, renowned for his expeditions in Ethiopia<ref groupnb>Although referred to as Ethiopia here, the region that they traveled is more accurately defined as Abyssinia or in today's geography northern Ethiopia and Eritrea.</ref> during the early 19th century. He was the elder brother of Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie, who accompanied him on his travels.<ref name":0">{{harvnb|Thorne|1984|p1}}</ref>
Biography
Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie was born a British subject in Dublin, Ireland, to a family of partial Basque noble descent from the French province of Soule. His mother, Madame Thompson, was Irish, and his father, Michel d’Abbadie, was a native of Arrast-Larrebieu. He descended from an ancient lineage of lay abbots based in Arrast, a commune in the canton of Mauléon. These lay abbots were originally instituted by Charlemagne to protect the borderlands against Saracen incursions. Residing in the abbeys of the Basque region, they lived with weapons in hand, ever prepared to defend their territories. They were granted the right to collect tithes and participated in the appointment of priests, selecting candidates in collaboration with the bishop. The name "d’Abbadie" originally referred not to a surname but to their ecclesiastical function ("abbatia," "abbadia").
In 1818, the family relocated to France, where Antoine and his brother received a rigorous scientific education.<ref name"EB" />{{refn|groupnb|The date of the move to France by the family is given as 1820 by some.<ref name"ww" /> }} Antoine earned a bachelor's degree in Toulouse in 1827 and began studying law in Paris in 1829.<ref name"ww">{{harvnb|Debus|Calinger|Collins|Kennedy|1968|p=400}}</ref>
On 21 February 1859, he married Virginie Vincent de Saint-Bonnet.<ref name="ww" /> He later settled in Hendaye where he acquired 250ha of land to construct a castle. He also served as the mayor of Hendaye from 1871 to 1875.
D’Abbadie was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour on 27 September 1850<ref name"ww" /><ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014}}</ref> and later served as president of the French Academy of Sciences. Upon his death in 1897, he bequeathed the Abbadia estate and castle in Hendaye, generating an annual revenue of 40,000 francs, to the Academy of Sciences. This legacy came with the stipulation that the Academy compile a catalog of 500,000 stars within fifty years.{{sfn|Keltie|1911}}Education
Michel d’Abbadie returned to France with his family around 1820. Settling initially in Toulouse, he personally oversaw the education of his children, who were placed under the care of a governess. “I was raised,” Antoine later recounted, “in the English tradition alongside my sisters. We spent our days and nights in a dormitory, closely monitored by a servant. In the evenings, we had little opportunity to converse with our parents, save for an occasional story from Father before being sent to play quietly in a corner of the room. We always addressed our parents formally, as ‘Sir’ or ‘Madam.’”
Antoine remained at home for three or four years, “far removed from the strict discipline of a boarding school tutor.” At the age of 13, he entered middle school, where he demonstrated exceptional enthusiasm and academic fervor. Even as a child, he exhibited a deep curiosity about the unknown in his surroundings. He once asked his governess, “What lies at the end of the road?” She replied, “A river, my friend.” “And what lies beyond the river?” he inquired. “A mountain,” came the answer. “And beyond the mountain?” the boy persisted. “I cannot say, for I have never been there,” she admitted. “Then I shall journey forth and discover it myself,” declared the child. This insatiable thirst for knowledge became a defining characteristic of Antoine d’Abbadie’s life. Gifted with extraordinary linguistic abilities, he would go on to master numerous languages, including English, Italian, German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Berber, and several Ethiopian languages.
In August 1827, Antoine obtained his baccalaureate and returned to Toulouse to study law. Among his closest friends at the time were Pierre Étienne Simon Duchartre, Bernard-Adolphe Granier de Cassagnac and {{Interlanguage link|Léonce Guilhaud de Lavergne|fr}}.The young men often discussed their ambitions for the future. “Sometimes,” d’Abbadie later noted, “Granier asks about my plans; I respond with trivialities, and he likely interprets this as indecision. Yet in my heart, I hold the most extraordinary and beautiful project, one that fills me with joy in my idle moments and which I treasure as much as any other pursuit.”
This grand project, to which the young law student alluded, had been germinating in his mind for years. Since his middle school days, it had shaped his focus, his education, and even the smallest details of his life. From an early age, d’Abbadie harbored the passions and aspirations of an adventurer. While initially vague, his ideas gradually crystallized into a more concrete vision. “After completing college in 1829,” he later recounted, “I undertook six years of study specifically aimed at preparing myself for the exploration of Africa’s interior, which I intended to enter through Tunisia and Morocco. Reading the travels of Bruce transported my imagination to East Africa—a region marked by extensive migrations and the origins of enduring traditions, yet veiled in mystery. I became convinced that the most noble pursuit a man could dedicate himself to was the study of his fellow human beings.”
During these six formative years, d’Abbadie rigorously prepared himself for the challenges of exploration. Gifted with exceptional physical agility, even by Basque standards, he spent years honing his body and mind through physical training. He became skilled in fencing, practiced gymnastics, competed in endurance races under various weather conditions, and developed into an accomplished swimmer. During a vacation in Biarritz in 1827, he impressed the local population by swimming to the Boucalot rock, located nearly 500 meters offshore.<ref name="Notice Historique">
{{Cite book
|last=d'Arboux
|first=Gaston
|date=1908
|title=Notice Historique sur Antoine d'Abbadie
|urlhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32658/f33.item.rAbbadie
|publisher=Académie des Sciences
|languageFrench}}</ref> Science and explorations In 1835, the French Academy commissioned Antoine d’Abbadie to undertake a scientific mission to Brazil. The findings of this expedition were later published in 1873<ref name"EB" />{{refn|groupnb|The date of the trip to Brazil is stated as 1836 by some sources.<ref name"ww" /> }} under the title Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie. In November 1836, he embarked on the frigate L'Andromède, accompanied by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who was then in exile following the failed Strasbourg uprising.
Having successfully completed his assignment in Brazil, Antoine hastened to Cairo in 1837 to join his younger brother, Arnaud, who awaited him there. The two young explorers, aged 26 and 21, subsequently embarked on an expedition that would keep them in Ethiopia for nearly 12 years.
In February 1838, the d’Abbadie brothers landed at Massawa.<ref name"EB">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p8}}</ref> They traveled extensively throughout Ethiopia, reaching as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa. Often journeying together but occasionally venturing separately, their explorations encompassed scientific research and political engagement. Antoine, in particular, immersed himself in local political dynamics, advocating for French interests and supporting Catholic missionary efforts.<ref name="ce">{{harvnb|Shahan|1907}}</ref>
Arnaud d’Abbadie held several distinguished roles in Ethiopia, including those of general, judge, and diplomat. He actively participated in battles and was granted the title of Ras, one of the most esteemed honors in the country. Antoine, by contrast, followed an academic path and became a dedicated scholar. Reflecting on his time in Ethiopia, he remarked, "When residing in a foreign country without any known antecedents, it is advisable to adopt a vocation in line with local customs, as failure to do so may result in being branded as a political spy, a hazardous accusation in any nation. As I was unable to engage in combat, agriculture, or merchandising, I identified as a "mamhir", or teacher and scholar, during my time in Christian Ethiopia and received an education from their public and non-compulsory schools."
During their extended stay, the two brothers fully assimilated into local customs. They exchanged their European attire for the turban and toga of the Ethiopians and traversed the region barefoot, as, at the time, only lepers and Jews wore sandals. This cultural integration earned them warm receptions wherever they traveled.<ref name="Notice Historique" />
The d’Abbadie brothers undertook extensive journeys throughout Ethiopia, meticulously documenting a wide range of topics, including human and physical geography, religion, legislative texts, ethnography, philology, linguistics, numismatics, and history. Antoine, in particular, amassed a remarkable collection of 250 ancient manuscripts. With the assistance of the Ethiopian Debtera Tewelde Medhin of Welkait, he also compiled the first-ever Amharic-French dictionary, encompassing 15,000 words.
By late 1848, after fulfilling and exceeding their ambitious self-imposed goals, the d’Abbadie brothers departed Ethiopia, leaving behind a legacy of unparalleled scholarly and cultural contributions.
Antoine became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by Charles Tilstone Beke, who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kaffa. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his assertion — hotly contested by Beke — that the Blue Nile was the main stream. The topographical results of his explorations were published in Paris between 1860 and 1873<ref name"EB" /> in ''Géodésie d'Éthiopie, full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the Géographie de l'Éthiopie (Paris, 1890)<ref name"EB" /> only one volume was published. In Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens'' (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by Antoine.<ref name"EB" /><ref>His manuscripts and notebooks have been digitized by the National Library of France and are available on their web portal Gallica as "Ethiopien d' Abbadie" and "Antoine d' Abbadie – Carnets".</ref> He also compiled various vocabularies, including a Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of Reconnaissances magnétiques he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations<ref name"Delpech" /> made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of Douze ans de séjour dans la Haute Ethiopie. The book has been translated into English "Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia".
Antoine was responsible for streamlining techniques in geodesy, along with inventing a new theodolite for measuring angles.
Basque and bascophile
Basque through his father, Abbadie developed a particular interest in the Basque Language after meeting Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte in London. He started his academic work on Basque in 1852.{{Citation needed|dateMay 2020|reasonA side of his life not covered in sources cited}}
A speaker of both Souletin and Lapurdian, a resident of Lapurdi, Abbadie considered himself a Basque from Soule. The popularity of the motto Zazpiak Bat is attributed to Abbadie, coined in the framework of the Lore Jokoak Basque festivals that he fostered.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAntoine Thomson d'Abbadie {{!}} Shellers From the Past and Present |urlhttps://www.conchology.be/?t9001&id14096 |access-date16 January 2023 |websitewww.conchology.be |languageen}}</ref>Abbadia Castle
, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
Abbadie gave his castle home the name Abbadia, which is the name still used in Basque. However, in French it is usually referred to as ''Chateau d'Abbadie or Domaine d'Abbadia, and locally it is not unusual for it to be called le Chateau d'Antoine d'Abbadie''.
The château was built between 1864 and 1879 on a cliff by the Atlantic Ocean, and was designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in the Neo Gothic style. It is considered one of the most important examples of French Gothic Revival Architecture.<ref name"Delpech">{{harvnb|Delpech|2014|p1}}</ref> It is divided in three parts: the observatory and library, the chapel, and the living quarters.
Over the front entrance door of the château is engraved "Céd míle fáilte" Irish gaelic for one hundred thousand welcomes in honour of his Irish heritage.
The château still belongs to the Academy of Science to which it was bequeathed in 1895 on condition of its producing a catalogue of half-a-million stars within fifty years' time,<ref name"ce" /> with the work to be carried out by members of religious orders.<ref name"ce" />
The château was classified as a protected historical monument by France in 1984. Most of the château property now belongs to the Coastal Protection Agency, and is managed by the city of Hendaye.
Publications
{| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style"width: 50%"
! Year !! Area of Study !! Title !! Translation !! Notes
|-
| 1836 || Basque Language || Études grammaticales sur la langue euskarienne || Grammatical Studies of the Euskarian Language || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96578403 On Gallica]
|-
| 1854 || Basque Language || Le Dictionnaire de Chaho || Dictionary of Chaho ||
|-
| 1854 || Basque Language || ''Lettres sur l'orthographe basque || Letters on the Basque Spelling ||
|-
| 1859 || Basque Language || Travaux récents sur la langue basque || Recent Studies on the Basque language || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6528985n.r On Gallica]
|-
| 1859 || Ethiopia || Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens || Catalog of Ethiopian Manuscripts || Paris<ref name"ww" /><ref name"ce" /> [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1044499.r On Gallica]
|-
| 1859 || Ethiopia, Geography of || Résumé Géodésique des positions déterminées en Éthiopie || Summarized Geodetic Positions Determined in Ethiopia || Paris<ref name="ce" /> [https://www.babordnum.fr/items/show/1107 On Babordnum]
|-
| 1860–1873 || Ethiopia, Geography of || Géodésie d'Éthiopie ou triangulation d'une partie de la Haute Éthiopie || Surveying of Ethiopia and Triangulation of Parts of Upper Ethiopia || 4 Vols. Paris:Gauthier-Villars<ref name"ww" /><ref name"ce" />
[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5751392n/f6.item On Gallica]
|-
| 1862–1869 || Ethiopia, Geography of || Éthiopie || Ethiopia || Map in 10 sections<ref name="ww" />
|-
| 1864 || Basque Language || Zuberoatikaco gutun bat || || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k8868394.r On Gallica]
|-
| 1867 || Exploration || Instructions pour les voyages d'exploration || Guidelines for Exploratory Voyages || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5802083t Available] on Gallica
|-
| 1868 || Basque Language || Sur la carte de la langue basque || The Map of the Basque Language ||
|-
| 1868 || Ethiopia, History of || L'Abyssinie et le roi Théodoros || Abyssinia and King Theodore || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k106152m On Gallica]
|-
| 1868 || Ethiopia || Monnaie d'Éthiopie || Ethiopian Currency ||
|-
| 1872 || Language || Notice sur les langues de Kam || Brochure of Languages Kam ||[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4222985n On Gallica]
|-
| 1873 || Basque, History of || Le basque et le berbère || Both Basque and the Berber ||
|-
| 1873 || Geography || Observations relatives à la physique du globe, faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie || Observations on Earth Physics, Made in Brazil and Ethiopia || Paris:Gauthier-Villars<ref name="ce" />
|-
| 1880 || Exploration || Préparation des voyageurs aux observations astronomiques et géodésiques || Preparation of Travelers With Astronomical Observations and Geodetic Surveys ||<ref name="ww" />
|-
| 1880 || Ethiopia || Sur les Oromo grande nation africaine désignée souvent sous le nom de "Galla" || On the Oromo: great African nation often designated under the name "Galla" || JOS volume 14 Number 1
|-
| 1881 || Science || Recherches sur la verticale || Researching the Vertical ||
|-
| 1881 || Language || Dictionnaire de la langue Amarrinna || Dictionary of the Amharic Language ||<ref name"ww" /><ref name"ce" />
|-
| 1884 || Exploration || Credo d'un vieux voyageur || The Creed of an Old Traveler ||
|-
| 1890 || Geography || Reconnaissances magnétiques || Magnetic Reconnaissance || Paris
|-
| 1890 || Geography of Ethiopia || Géographie de l'Éthiopie, ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu || Geography of Ethiopia, What I Heard, Which Followed What I Saw ||<ref name="ww" /> [https://archive.org/details/geographiedelet00abba On Internet Archive]
|-
| 1895 || Basque Language || Lettre sur la préservation de la langue basque || Letter on Preserving the Basque Language ||
|-
| 1896 || Abolition of slavery || Sur l'abolition de l'esclavage en Afrique || On the abolition of slavery in Africa || [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k106162z.r On Gallica]
|-
| 1898 || Ethiopia, History of || Des conquêtes faites en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle par l'imam Muhammad Ahmad dit Grâgne; version française de la chronique arabe du Chahâb ad-Dîn Ahmad'' || Translation of a chronicle of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's conquests in 16th-century Ethiopia || Completed by Philipp Paulitschke and published posthumously. [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103787k On Gallica]
|}
Awards and memberships
Antoine received the French Legion of Honor on 27 September 1850 with the order of chevalier or knight.<ref name"ww" /> He was a member of the Bureau des Longitudes,<ref name"ww" /> founding president of the Société de Linguistique de Paris in 1864,<ref>{{cite web|titleSociété de linguistique de Paris |urlhttp://www.cths.fr/an/societe.php?id515 |websiteLe Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques (CTHS) }}{{In lang|fr}}</ref> and president of the French Academy of Sciences in 1892.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatt|1898|p180}}</ref> Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society<ref name"ww" /> in 1850.
Notes
{{reflist|groupnb}}Footnotes{{Reflist}}References* {{cite web|authorAnon |year2014 |urlhttp://www.culture.gouv.fr/LH/LH001/PG/FRDAFAN83_OL0001060v012.htm |websiteLe Site du Ministére de la Culture et de la Communication |locationFrance |languagefr |access-date7 September 2014 |archive-date7 September 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140907143024/http://www.culture.gouv.fr/LH/LH001/PG/FRDAFAN83_OL0001060v012.htm |titleDossier |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Debus | editor1-first Allen G. | editor2-last Calinger | editor2-first Ronald S. | editor3-last Collins | editor3-first Edward J. | editor4-last Kennedy | editor4-first Stephen J. | encyclopedia World Who's Who in Science: A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Scientists From Antiquity to the Present | publisher The A. N. Marquis Company | location Chicago, Illinois | year 1968 | isbn 0-8379-1001-3 | lccn 68056149 | title D'Abbadie, Antoine Thomas | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/worldwhoswhoinsc0000unse }}
* {{cite web |lastDelpech |firstViviane |titleThe Château d'Abbadia (Pays Basque, France): Antoine d'Abbadie's Romantic and Political Utopia |urlhttp://www.otranto.co.uk/fileuploads/publication/doc/Delpech_Abbadia_Otranto004.pdf |websiteThe New Strawberry Hill Press |access-date6 September 2014 |archive-date13 May 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140513135337/http://www.otranto.co.uk/fileuploads/publication/doc/Delpech_Abbadia_Otranto004.pdf |year2014 |pages1–25 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Citation | last Hatt | first Philippe-Eugène | title Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. d'Abbadie | journal Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Sciences | volume 126 | pages 173-181 | date 17 January 1898 | language fr | url https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3082d/f179.item | access-date January 24, 2025 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica | title Abbadie, Antoine-Thomson d'; and Abbadie, Arnaud-Michel d' | edition 15th | year 2010 | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume I: A-Ak – Bayes | location Chicago, Illinois | isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 | url-access registration | url https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }}
* {{EB1911|wstitleAbbadie, Antoine Thomson D' and Arnaud Michel D'|volume1|page9|firstJohn Scott|lastKeltie|authorlinkJohn Scott Keltie}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last Shahan | first Thomas Joseph | editor1-last Herbermann | editor1-first Charles George | editor2-last Pace | editor2-first Edward A. | editor3-last Pallen | editor3-first Condé Bénoist | editor4-last Shahan | editor4-first Thomas J. | editor5-last Wynne | editor5-first John J. | encyclopedia The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church | location New York, NY | title Antoine d'Abbadie | publisher The Encyclopedia Press, Inc. | lccn 30023167 | year 1907 }} – [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01006e.htm Antoine d'Abbadie]
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Thorne | editor-first John | encyclopedia Chambers Biographical Dictionary | title Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d' | isbn 0-550-18022-2 | year 1984 | publisher Chambers | edition Revised }}
* {{cite Appletons|wstitle = Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d'}}
*{{cite book
|last=Darboux
|first=Gaston
|title="Notice Historique sur Antoine d'Abbadie"
}}
External links
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbadie, Antoine Thomson D}}
Category:1810 births
Category:1897 deaths
Category:19th-century French explorers
Category:People from Soule
Category:19th-century French astronomers
Category:French-Basque people
Category:Basque-language writers
Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the Lincean Academy
Category:Irish people of Basque descent
Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour
Category:Irish emigrants to France
Category:Ethiopianists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Thomson_d'Abbadie
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Abba Mari
|
{{Short description|Provençal rabbi}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph <br/>{{Script/Hebrew|אַבָּא מָרִי בַּר מֹשֶׁה הַיַּרְחִי}}
<!-- |image = he:Abba Meri Hayarchi.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption = The title page of a printed copy of Abba Mari's work, Minḥat Ḳenaot. -->
|birth_date = {{circa}} 1250
|birth_place = Lunel, France
|death_date = {{circa}} 1306
|known_for = Provençal Rabbi and author of Minḥat Ḳenaot
|children =
}}
Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace (Hebrew Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel<ref nameEB1911>{{EB1911 |wstitleAbba Mari |volume1 |page9 |inline=1}}</ref> from the word "astruc" meaning lucky.
The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the Talmud.<ref name=EB1911/>
In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e., "Offering of Zealotry") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.<ref name=EB1911/>
Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.<ref nameEB1911/>Defender of Law and TraditionLeader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303–1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ Moon Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, "the searcher after God among the heathen," to be ranked with Moses.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia>{{JewishEncyclopedia|urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letterA&artid152|articleAbba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph Don Astruc of Lunel|inline1}}</ref>Opponent of RationalismAbba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of Minḥat Ḳenaot (Jealousy Offering), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>
Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the nasi of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV ("the Fair"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Majorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>Minchat Kenaot
Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called Minchat Kenaot, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford;<ref>Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS., Nos. 2182 and 2221</ref> Paris;<ref>Bibl. Nat. No. 976</ref> Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library;<ref>formerly Halberstam, No. 192</ref> and Turin). Some of these<ref>Oxford, No. 2221, and Paris, Bibl. Nat.</ref> are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called Sefer ha-Yarḥi, included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of The Guide and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.<ref>Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, vii. 173</ref>
As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the Ten Commandments; (2) the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatio ex nihilo and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of Minḥat Ḳenaot.<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In Sefer haYarchi, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz<ref>Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen Poesie, p.&nbsp;498</ref> mentions a ḳinah composed by Abba Mari.<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
Minchat Kenaot is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.
At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>References
{{Reflist}}
{{Rishonim}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mari, Abba}}
Category:13th-century births
Category:14th-century deaths
Category:People from Lunel
Category:14th-century French rabbis
Category:Provençal rabbis
Category:French Orthodox rabbis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Mari
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Abbas II of Egypt
|
{{short description|Khedive of Egypt and Sudan (1874–1944) (r. 1892–1914)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
|name =Abbas Hilmi II
|succession =Khedive of Egypt and Sudan
|image = His Highness Abbas Hilmy II.png
|caption = Abbas Hilmi II in 1909
|reign = 8 January 1892&nbsp;– 19(20)(21) December 1914
|predecessor =Tewfik I
|successor =Hussein Kamel (as Sultan of Egypt)
|spouse ={{plainlist|
*{{marriage|Ikbal Hanim|1895|1910|end=divorced}}
*{{marriage|Javidan Hanim|1910|1913|end=divorced}}}}
|issue =Princess Emine Hilmi<br/>Princess Atiye Hilmi<br/>Princess Fethiye Hilmi<br/>Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim<br/>Princess Lutfiya Shavkat<br/>Prince Muhammed Abdel Kader
|house =Alawiyya
|father =Tewfik I of Egypt
|mother =Emina of Ilhamy
|birth_date ={{birth date text|14 July 1874}}
|birth_place Alexandria, Khedivate of Egypt<ref>{{harvnb|Rockwood|2007|p2}}</ref>
|death_date {{Death date and age|1944|12|19|1874|7|14|dfy}}
|death_place =Geneva, Switzerland
|burial_place =Qubbat Afandina, Cairo, Egypt
|religion =Sunni Islam
|}}
Abbas Helmy II (also known as ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā, {{langx|ar|عباس حلمي باشا}}; 14 July 1874&nbsp;– 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8{{Spaces}}January 1892 to 19 December 1914.<ref>{{harvnb|Thorne|1984|p1}}</ref>{{refn|groupnb|namedeath|Sources give different dates for the deposition of Abbas. Some state that date as 20 or 21 December 1914.<ref nameEB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp8–9}}</ref>}} In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the de jure end of Egypt's four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.Early lifeAbbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874.<ref namerulers>{{harvnb|Schemmel|2014}}</ref> In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English.<ref nameeb1911>{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911|p10}}</ref> In a profile of Abbas II, the boys' annual, Chums, gave a lengthy account of his education.{{sfn|Pemberton|1897|locAbbas II}} His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland;<ref nameColliers>{{harvnb|Vucinich|1997|p7}}</ref> then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva,{{citation needed|dateJune 2012}}<!--Probably in Chums (Pemberton) but needs checking as EB1911 does not mention Abdin Palace and places his Swiss school in Lausanne--> in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.<ref nameeb1911/><ref nameColliers/>
Reign
Abbas II succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892. He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father. He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally eighteen in cases of succession to the throne.<ref nameeb1911/> For some time he did not willingly cooperate with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882.<ref nameEB/> As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later created the Earl of Cromer.<ref nameColliers/> Lord Cromer initially supported Abbas but the new Khedive's nationalist agenda and association with the anti-colonial nationalist movements in Egypt put him in direct conflict with British colonial officers, and Cromer later interceded on behalf of Lord Kitchener (British commander in the Sudan) in an ongoing dispute with Abbas about Egyptian sovereignty and influence in that territory.<ref>{{cite book |titleEncyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |page=41}}</ref>
At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist.<ref nameEB/> At Cromer's behest, Lord Rosebery, the British Foreign Secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Abbas II made an inspection tour of Sudanese and Egyptian frontier troops stationed near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of the Sudan. At Wadi Halfa the Khedive made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers.<ref nameEB/> The British Sirdar of the Egyptian Army, the then Sir Herbert H. Kitchener, immediately threatened to resign. Kitchener further insisted on the dismissal of a nationalist under-secretary of war appointed by Abbas II and that an apology be made for the Khedive's criticism of the army and its officers.<ref>{{cite book|firstJ.B.|lastTauris|pages62–63|titleKitchener Hero and Anti-Hero|isbn1-85532-516-0|date17 July 1995}}</ref>
By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels.<ref nameCol/> Also in 1899, British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a significant reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan.<ref nameColliers/> He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Moneim, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899. {{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}<!--For all the information in the paragraph-->
Although Abbas II no longer publicly opposed the British, he secretly created, supported and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha. He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu'ayyad.<ref nameEB/> As Kamil's thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a nationalist political party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists and was labeled as being against Islam by said nationalists.<ref>{{Cite news |dateMarch 13, 1902 |titleThe Pan-islamic Movement |workThe Times, London |urlhttps://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabIDNewspapers&resultListTypeRESULT_LIST&searchResultsTypeSingleTab&retrievalId971a887b-dd87-45ba-b540-2f92c3d2009f&hitCount2004&searchTypeBasicSearchForm&currentPosition431&docIdGALE%7CCS85912173&docTypeArticle&sortPub+Date+Forward+Chron&contentSegmentZTMA-MOD1&prodIdTTDA&pageNum22&contentSetGALE%7CCS85912173&searchIdR4&userGroupNametall85761&inPStrue |access-dateApril 28, 2023}}</ref> The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates.<ref nameEB/><ref namestear>{{harvnb|Stearns|2001|p545}}</ref> However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|1968|p=207}}</ref>
His relations with Cromer's successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party,<ref name=EB/> often complained about "that wicked little Khedive" and wanted to depose him.
On 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not promptly returning home. The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule,<ref nameColliers/> as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British. So when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II.<ref nameEB/><ref>{{harvnb|Magnusson|Goring|1990|p=1}}</ref>
pilgrimage, including his portrait on the left]]
During the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt.<ref name"EB" /><ref name"stear" /> Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights. Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated. He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement (1930).<ref name"Col">{{harvnb|Lagassé|2000|p2}}</ref> He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70,<ref name"Colliers" /> 30 years to the day after the end of his reign as Khedive.{{refn|group nb|namedeath}}Marriages and issue
His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanim (Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, 22 October 1876{{snd}}Istanbul, 10 February 1941). They divorced in 1910 and had six children, two sons and four daughters:
* Princess Emina (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 – 1954),<ref name"henry">{{Cite web |lastSoszynski |firstHenry |titleIkbal Hanim |urlhttp://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~royalty/islamic/i841.html#I841 |publisherAncestry.com, Inc. |access-date2010-02-27 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121112001214/http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~royalty/islamic/i841.html#I841 |archive-date2012-11-12 |url-statusdead }}</ref> unmarried and without issue,<ref name"Tanman 2011">{{cite book | lastTanman | firstM | titleNil kıyısından Boğaziçi'ne : Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Paşa Hanedanı'nın İstanbul'daki izleri From the shores of the Nile to the Bosphorus : traces of Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha Dynasty in İstanbul | publisherİstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsu | publication-placeİstanbul | year2011 | isbn978-975-9123-95-6 | oclc811064965 | languagetr | pages375–376}}</ref> received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, 31 May 1895;<ref name"Öztürk">{{cite book | lastÖztürk | firstD. | title"Remembering" Egypt's Ottoman Past: Ottoman Consciousness in Egypt, 1841-1914 | publisherOhio State University | year2020 | page=74}}</ref>
* Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 – 1971),<ref name"henry"/> married twice and had issue, three sons,<ref name"Tanman 2011"/> received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, 1 October 1904;<ref name="Öztürk"/>
* Princess Fathiya (27 November 1897 – 30 November 1923),<ref name"henry"/> married without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, 1 October 1904;<ref name"Öztürk"/>
* Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan, (20 February 1899 – 1 December 1979),<ref name"henry"/> married and had issue, a son and a daughter;<ref name"Tanman 2011"/>
* Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Cairo, 29 September 1900 – 1975),<ref name"henry"/> married and had issue, two daughters,<ref name"Tanman 2011"/> received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, 20 July 1907;<ref name="Öztürk"/>
* Prince Muhammad Abdul Kadir (4 February 1902 – Montreux, 21 April 1919);<ref name="henry"/>
His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 28 February 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Javidan Hanim (born May Torok de Szendro, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874{{snd}}5 August 1968). They divorced in 1913 without issue.<ref>{{cite web|last1Van Lierop|first1Kathleen|titleHistory- On this day- Abbas II of Egypt|urlhttps://allaboutroyalfamilies.blogspot.com/2017/07/history-on-this-day-14-july-1874-abbas.html|websiteAll About Royal Families|access-date17 July 2017}}</ref>
Honours
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Ribbon bar
!style="width:10em"| Country
!Honour
! Date
! Notes
|-
|
|Sweden
|Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
|1890
|<ref>{{citation|titleSveriges statskalender|year1915|chapterKungl. Svenska Riddareordnarna|chapter-urlhttps://runeberg.org/statskal/1915/0668.html|viaruneberg.org|access-date10 February 2021|page[https://runeberg.org/statskal/1915/0725.html 725]|languagesv}}</ref>
|-
|
|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph
|1891
|<ref>{{citation|chapterRitter-Orden: Kaiserlich-österreichischer Franz Joseph-orden|chapter-urlhttps://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1913&page517&size45|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie|date1913|access-date9 February 2021|page175}}</ref>
|-
|
|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George
|23 July 1891
|<ref>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n433/mode/2up p. 342]</ref>
|-
|
|France
|Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur
|1892
|
|-
|
|Denmark
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog
|6 April 1892
|<ref>{{cite book |year1895 |orig-year1st pub.:1801 |editor1-lastBille-Hansen |editor1-firstA. C. |editor2-lastHolck |editor2-firstHarald |titleStatshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1895 |trans-titleState Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1895 |urlhttps://slaegtsbibliotek.dk/908073.pdf#page40 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://slaegtsbibliotek.dk/908073.pdf#page40 |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |formatPDF |seriesKongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender |languageda |locationCopenhagen |publisherJ.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri |pages15–16 |access-date10 February 2021 |via:da:DIS Danmark}}</ref>
|-
|
|United Kingdom
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross (Civil) of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath
|10 June 1892
|<ref>Shaw, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n303/mode/2up p. 213]</ref>
|-
|
|Spain
|Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
|4 August 1892
|<ref>{{citation|chapter-urlhttp://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id0001067117&search&langes|chapterReal y distinguida orden de Carlos III|titleGuía Oficial de España|date1930|access-date10 February 2021|page225|languagees}}</ref>
|-
|
|Netherlands
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
|1892
|
|-
|
|Ottoman Empire
|1st Class of the Order of the Medjidie
|1895
|
|-
|
|Ottoman Empire
|1st Class of the Order of Osmanieh
|1895
|
|-
|
|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold
|1897
|<ref>{{citation|chapterRitter-Orden: Österreichisch-kaiserlicher Leopold-orden|chapter-urlhttps://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1913&page404&size45|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie|date1913|access-date9 February 2021|page62}}</ref>
|-
|
|Siam
|Knight Grand Cross (Special Class) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao
|1897
|
|-
|
|United Kingdom
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
|28 June 1900
|<ref>Shaw, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n515/mode/2up p. 424]</ref>
|-
|
|Russia
|Knight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky
|1902
|<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |titleCourt Circular |date20 June 1902 |page9 |issue36799}}</ref>
|-
|
|Hesse
|Grand Cross of the Order of Ludwig
|26 March 1903
|<ref>{{citation|titleGroßherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste|chapterLudeswig-orden|page14|languageGerman|locationDarmstadt|year1914|publisherStaatsverlag|viahathitrust.org}}</ref>
|-
|
|United Kingdom
|Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain
|15 June 1905
|<ref>{{London Gazette|issue27807|date16 June 1905|page=4251}}</ref>
|-
|
|Oldenburg
|Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis
|1905
|
|-
|
|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
|Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order
|1905
|<ref group=nb>These three duchies were small independent free states that became part of the German Empire before World War I.</ref>
|-
|
|Saxony
|Grand Cross of the Order of Albert
|1905
|
|-
|
|Greece
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
|1905
|
|-
|
|Montenegro
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
|1905
|
|-
|
|Romania
|Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I
|1905
|
|-
|
|Vatican
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX
|1905
|
|-
|
|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen
|1905
|<ref>{{citation|chapterRitter-Orden: Königlich-ungarischer St. Stephan-orden|chapter-urlhttps://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aidshb&datum1913&page392&size45|titleHof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie|date1913|access-date9 February 2021|page50}}</ref>
|-
|
|Russia
|Knight 1st Class of the Order of Saint Stanislaus
|1908
|
|-
|
|Siam
|Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Royal House of Chakri
|1908
|
|-
|
|Italy
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
|1911
|
|-
|
|Belgium
|Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
|1911
|
|-
|
|Ethiopia
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia
|1911
|
|-
|
|Morocco
|Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite
|1913
|
|-
|
|Albania
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Black Eagle
|1914
|
|-
|
|Prussia
|Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Red Eagle
|1914
|
|-
|
|Zanzibar
|Grand Cordon of the Order of the Exalted
|1914
|
|-
|}
Notes
{{reflist|groupnb}}Footnotes{{Reflist}}References* {{Cite EB1911|wstitleAbbas II |volume1|pages9–10}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica | title Abbas II (Egypt) | edition 15th | year 2010 | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume I: A-Ak - Bayes | location Chicago, IL | isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Lagassé | editor-first Paul | encyclopedia The Columbia Encyclopedia | edition 6th | year 2000 | isbn 0-7876-5015-3 | publisher Columbia University Press | location New York, NY | lccn 00-027927 | title Abbas II | url = https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last Magnusson | editor1-first Magnus | editor2-last Goring | editor2-first Rosemary | encyclopedia Cambridge Biographical Dictionary | title Abbas Hilmi | isbn 0-521-39518-6 | year 1990 | publisher Cambridge University Press | location Cambridge, UK }}
* {{cite book | last Morris | first James | year 1968 | title Pax Britannica: The Climax of an Empire | url https://archive.org/details/paxbritannicacli0000morr_g9y5 | url-access registration | publisher Harcourt Inc. | page[https://archive.org/details/paxbritannicacli0000morr_g9y5/page/207 207] | isbn 9780156714662 | lccn 68024395 }}
* {{cite news |titlenone| editor-last Pemberton | editor-first Max | date February 1897 | journal Chums | issue 232 | volume 17 | publisher Cassell and Company }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Rockwood | editor-first Camilla | year 2007 | edition 8th | isbn 978-0550-10200-3 | publisher Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. | location Edinburgh, UK | encyclopedia Chambers Biographical Dictionary | title = Abbas Hilmi Pasha }}
* {{cite web|editor-lastSchemmel |editor-firstB. |titleIndex Aa–Ag |urlhttp://rulers.org/indexa1.html |websiteRulers |year2014 |access-date10 September 2014 |archive-date26 September 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140926205535/http://www.rulers.org/indexa1.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Stearns | editor-first Peter N. | encyclopedia The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Chronologically Arranged | year 2001 | publisher Houghton Mifflin Company | location Boston, MA | isbn 0-395-65237-5 | edition 6th | lccn 2001024479 | title The Middle East and North Africa, 1792–1914: e. Egypt }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Thorne | editor-first John | encyclopedia Chambers Biographical Dictionary | isbn 0-550-18022-2 | year 1984 | publisher Chambers, Inc. | title = Abbas II }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last Vucinich | first Wayne S. | editor-last Johnston | editor-first Bernard | encyclopedia Collier's Encyclopedia | title Abbas II | edition 1st | year 1997 | publisher P. F. Collier | volume I: A to Ameland | location New York, NY | lccn 96084127 }}
Further reading
* {{cite book | last Cromer | firstEvelyn Baring | author-link Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer | year 1915 | title Abbas II | location London| publisher Macmillan and Co. | oclc
413286}}
* {{cite book | last Goldschmidt | first Arthur | year 2000 | title Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt | location Boulder, CO | publisher Lynne Rienner | pages [https://archive.org/details/00jrgo/page/2 2–3] | isbn 1-5558-7229-8 | lccn 99033550 | url https://archive.org/details/00jrgo/page/2 }}
* {{cite book | last Pollock | first John Charles | year 2001 | title Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace | location New York, NY | publisher Carroll & Graf Publishers | isbn 0-7867-0829-8 | lccn 2001035119 | url = https://archive.org/details/kitchenerarchite00poll }}
* {{cite book | last Sayyid-Marsot | first Afaf Lutfi | year 1968 | title Egypt and Cromer: A Study in Anglo-Egyptian Relations | location London | publisher John Murray | lccn 75382933 | isbn 0-7195-1810-5 | url-access registration | url https://archive.org/details/egyptcromerstudy0000sayy }}
* {{cite book | author Abbas II, Khedive of Egypt | editor-last Sonbol | editor-first Amira | year 1998 | title The Last Khedive of Egypt: Memoirs of Abbas Halmi II | location Reading, UK | publisher Ithaca Press | isbn 0-8637-2208-3 }}
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Nuttall poster|Abbas Pasha}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060416181042/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/480/chrncls.htm Al-Ahram on Abbas in exile]
* {{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbbas Pasha Hilmi |shortx}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/000010}}
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{{s-hou|Muhammad Ali Dynasty|14 July|1874|19 December|1944}}
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{{s-ttl|title=Khedive of Egypt and Sudan
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Abbas Mirza
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{{Infobox royalty
| name = Abbas Mirza<br />{{no bold| عباس میرزا}}
| image = A Portrait of The Crown Prince Abbas Mirza, Signed L. Herr, Dated (1)833.jpg
| caption = Portrait of Abbas Mirza, signed by L. Herr, dated 1833
| succession = Crown prince of Iran
| reign = 20 March 1799 – 25 October 1833
| reign-type = Tenure
| predecessor = Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
| successor = Mohammad Shah Qajar
| birth_date {{birth date|1789|8|26|dfyes}}
| birth_place = Nava, Mazandaran, Qajar Iran
| death_date {{death date and age|1833|10|25|1789|8|20|dfyes}}
| death_place = Mashhad, Khorasan, Qajar Iran
| spouse = Galin Khanum
| issue = Many, among them:<br />Mohammad Shah Qajar<br>Khanlar Mirza<br>Bahram Mirza<br>Bahman Mirza<br>Farhad Mirza<br>Firuz Mirza
| house = Qajar
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
| mother = Asiya Khanom Devellu
| place of burial = Imam Reza Shrine
| religion = Twelver Shia Islam
}}
Abbas Mirza ({{langx|fa|عباس میرزا}}; 26 August 1789 – 25 October 1833) was the Qajar crown prince of Iran during the reign of his father Fath-Ali Shah Qajar ({{reign|1797|1834}}). As governor of the vulnerable Azerbaijan province, he played a crucial part in the two wars against the Russian Empire (1804–1813 and 1826–1828), as well as the war of 1821–1823 against the Ottoman Empire. He is also recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.
The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up. On March 20, 1799, he was made the crown prince and given the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent). Around the same time, he was appointed the governor of Azerbaijan, with Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants. Following Russia's takeover of Ganja in 1804, Abbas Mirza was in command of the Iranian military counterattack during the first and second Russo-Iranian wars. Throughout the two wars, he fought against numerous Russian commanders in various engagements, scoring both victories and defeats. The Iranians ultimately lost both wars, agreeing to sign the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, in which they ceded all of their holdings in the Caucasus, corresponding to present-day Armenia, Republic of Azerbaijan, and Dagestan.
In 1821, during interlude between the first and second Russo-Iranian war, increased Iranian-Ottoman tensions led to a new war. Abbas Mirza and his elder brother and rival Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah made a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire, the latter penetrating into Ottoman Iraq as far as the walls of Baghdad. Peace was made in 1823, in which both parties signed the Treaty of Erzurum that recognized the previous borders established by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639.
In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh. Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad. Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar ({{reign|1834|1848}}).
Biography
Background and early life
, dated {{circa|1800}}]]
Abbas Mirza was born on 26 August 1789 in the village of Nava in Mazandaran, northern Iran.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} He was the fourth son of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar ({{reign|1797|1834}}), the second Qajar shah (king) of Iran and part of the Qovanlu branch of the Qajar tribe.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Amanat|1999|pp407–421}} His mother was Asiya Khanom Devellu, a daughter of Fath-Ali Khan Davalu and part of the Davalu branch of the Qajars.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} This union was arranged by Abbas Mirza's grand-uncle Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar ({{reign|1789|1797}}) in an effort to unite the Qovanlu and Davalu.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Lahouti|2015}}
Thus, the line of Abbas Mirza and his offspring served as the foundation for all of Agha Mohammad Khan's expectations for the continuation of his dynasty. During Fath-Ali Shah's rule in Iran, a European traveler heard a rumor that Agha Mohammad Khan would have chosen Abbas Mirza instead of Fath-Ali Shah as shah if he had lived longer. Fath-Ali Shah's eldest son, Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah, whose mother was a Georgian concubine, was excluded from the succession due to this obsession with settling tribal disputes amongst the Qajars.{{sfn|Hambly|1991|pp142–143}} A fierce hostility would grow between Abbas Mirza and Dowlatshah, something some people speculated that Fath-Ali Shah welcomed. Besides Dowlatshah, intense competition would emerge with other brothers; Mohammad Vali Mirza, a ferocious and uncontrollable person who would hold the governorship of Khorasan and then Yazd, and Hossein Ali Mirza, a persistent schemer would hold the governorship of Fars.{{sfn|Hambly|1991|pp150}} Like Fath-Ali Shah had been given the royal title of Jahanbani by Agha Mohammad Khan, he also gave his own sons and daughters a royal title. The title of dorr-e darya-e khosravy ("The Pearl of the Sea of Royalty") was given to Abbas Mirza.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p=51}}
The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} In 1797, at the age of eight, he was taken by Agha Mohammad Khan on a campaign against the Karabakh Khanate. He and the other princes stayed at Adina Bazar near Ardabil, and after Agha Mohammad Khan's murder that June, he was taken back to the capital of Tehran.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} The death of Agha Mohammad Khan gave rise to a number of pretenders to the throne.{{sfn|Bournoutian|1976|p164}} Appointment as crown prince and governor of Azerbaijan After making sure that his competitors did not constitute a threat, Fath-Ali Shah ascended to the kingdom on Nowruz (Iranian new year) on 21 March 1798.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} On March 20, 1799, he chose Abbas Mirza as the crown prince and gave him the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent).{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}{{sfn|Werner|2012}} Iranian sources report that the title was in line with Agha Mohammad Khan's wishes.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Abbas Mirza was given Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Mirza Bozorg, one of the most skilled statesmen of the early Qajar era,{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p188}} served as the tutor and minister of Abbas Mirza.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}{{sfn|Lahouti|2015}}
Around the same time, Abbas Mirza was appointed the governor of the vulnerable province Azerbaijan with Tabriz as his regional capital.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} As the most rich and populous city in the realm, it would rise to prominence as the hub of a thriving trade with Europe for the remainder of the 18th-century.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p189}} In order to balance out Azerbaijan's regional autonomy, there were numerous less important seats in Kerman, Isfahan, and Kurdistan as well as at least three more strong princely seats in the south, west, and east. Hossein Ali Mirza was given the governorship of Fars and the Persian Gulf provinces, where he preserved autonomy. In an identical fashion, Dowlatshah was given a sizable domain in western Iran. The princes were pushed to demonstrate their value by expanding their territories along Iran's borders in addition to restoring the economy and establishing peace in their lands.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp189–190}} Despite the fact that Abbas Mirza's brothers often settled down in the provincial capitals, he did not always reside in Tabriz.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}
After becoming governor, Abbas Mirza was sent to defeat the Kurdish chieftain Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli, who was making a claim to Azerbaijan's territory.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} But it was Soleyman Khan who was given actual leadership of the campaign.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} After winning a battle near Salmas, Abbas Mirza marched to Khoy before heading back to Tabriz.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}
First war with Russia
between 1795 and 1801]]
The reign of the Russian tsar (emperor) Alexander I ({{reign|1801|1825}}) saw an increased desire on the part of the Russians to increase their presence and influence in the Caucasus, where they had already shown interest since the 1760s. Prince Pavel Tsitsianov, who Alexander I appointed to oversee Caucasian affairs in 1803, had nothing against about using violence, but any infringement of Iran's control over the Caucasus was not something that the Qajar administration could just ignore. Since 1502, Iran had controlled the Caucasus and the Iranians saw it as a natural extension of their country.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}} In mid-January 1804, Tsitsianov invaded Ganja and conquered its fortress; its governor, Javad Khan, was killed, and between 1,500–3,000 residents were slaughtered.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}}{{sfn|Daniel|2001|pp=86–90}} Russian law replaced Islamic law, and the congregational mosque was transformed into a church. This marked the beginning of the first Russo-Iranian War. On May 23, 1804, Fath-Ali Shah ordered Russian forces to depart from Iranian territories in the Caucasus. Iran interpreted their unwillingness to comply with this as an act of war.{{sfn|Pourjavady|2023}}
Fath-Ali Shah designated Abbas Mirza as the leader of the Iranian army against the Russians, and gave the order to mobilize a sizable force of 20,000 soldiers towards Erivan. Since Abbas Mirza was only fifteen at the time, his leadership would have been more symbolic than actual, yet he nonetheless actively took part in the war and displayed bravery as a military commander. Fath-Ali Shah also assigned experienced tutors and commanders to assist Abbas Mirza, which included figures such as Mirza Bozorg, Soleyman Khan, Ali Qoli Khan Shahsevan, Ali Qoli Khan Sartip Qajar, Pir Qoli Khan Qajar, Sadeq Khan Qajar, and Mehdi Qoli Khan Qajar.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p=61}}
Abbas Mirza's aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another in the East,<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbbas Mirza|volume1|page10}}</ref> especially as Persia bordered a common rival, namely Imperial Russia. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's young General Kotlyarevsky, aged only twenty-nine but his new ally could give him very little assistance.<ref>Hopkirk, pp. 60-63</ref> The early stages of the war following Fath Ali Shah's orders to invade and regain Georgia and the northern parts of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic ended up in years of relatively territorial stale warfare. However, as Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze notes, Abbas Mirza led the army in an overall disastrous campaign against the Russians, suffering defeats at Gyumri, Kalagiri, the Zagam River (1805), Karakapet (1806), Karababa (1808), Ganja (1809), Meghri, the Aras River, and Akhalkalaki (1810).{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|page2}} The tide started to decisively turn as Russia was sending more and more advanced weaponry and increasing numbers of soldiers. Commanding the southernmost Russian divisions during the long war, Kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior Persian army in the Battle of Aslanduz (1812) and in early 1813 stormed and took Lankaran. The Russians were encamped on the opposite bank of River Aras when his two British advisers, Capt Christie and Lt Pottinger, told him to post sentry pickets in short order, but Mirza ignored the warnings. Christie and other British officers tried to rally an army retreating in panic; for days the Russians launched fierce assaults, but at last Christie fell, and Mirza ordered a full retreat. Complacency cost 10,000 Persian lives; Mirza believing wrongly in the weight of superior numbers. In spite of the absence of leadership, the Persians at Lenkoran held out for weeks until, breaking through, the Russians slaughtered the garrison of 4,000 officers and men.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}
In October 1813, with Abbas Mirza still commander-in-chief, Persia was compelled to make a severely disadvantageous peace known as the Treaty of Gulistan, irrevocably ceding swaths of its territory in the Caucasus, comprising present-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of what most recently became the Republic of Azerbaijan.<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?idKTq2BQAAQBAJ&dqrusso+persian+war+1804-1813&pgPA728 Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond] p 728 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> The only promise the Shah received in return was a lukewarm guarantee that Mirza would succeed to his throne, without let or hindrance. Persia's dire losses attracted the attention of the British Empire; following the reversal of initial successes, the Russians now posed a serious threat from the Caucasus.<ref>Hopkirk, pp. 65-68</ref> War with the Ottoman Empire
{{Main|Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)}}
. Persian manuscript, created in Qajar Iran, 19th century]]
The conflict between Iranian and Ottoman border authorities was a major factor in the decline of Iranian-Ottoman relations between 1818 and 1820. Political issues in the Kurdish principality Baban renewed the animosity between Dowlatshah and the Ottoman governors of Baghdad, Sulaymaniyah, and Shahrizur in the central and southern sections of the Iranian-Ottoman frontier. The relation between Abbas Mirza and the Ottoman serasker of Erzurum was also made worse due to a dispute over the control of the nomadic tribes that inhabited the northern frontier.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|pp562–563}} Abbas Mirza first opted for a diplomatic solution to the problems, and the British supported him in this decision. They made every effort to keep the Iranians and Ottomans from fighting each other, as it could weaken both sides and thus make it easier for the Russians to advance further south to India.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|p563}}{{sfn|Shahvar|2020b|p=125}}
The Iranians and Ottomans were unable to find a solution, and following the eruption of the Greek war of independence against the Ottomans in 1821, Abbas Mirza offered Russia that they make a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire. He may have believed that a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire would deter Russia from considering additional attacks against Iran or at the very least further weaken the Russian military. His offer was declined by Russia, who nevertheless encouraged Iran to attack the Ottomans, even offering them financial help. The Russians may have hoped that a conflict between Iran and the Ottoman Empire would weaken them both, thus making it easier for them to advance further south.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020a|p=563}}
In the same year, Dowlatshah invaded Ottoman Iraq, reaching as far as the walls of Baghdad.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Dowlatshah was forced to leave due to a cholera epidemic, which he later contracted himself in November. While a second Iranian force conquered Bitlis and pushed towards Diyarbakr, Abbas Mirza distinguished himself by capturing Bayazit and Toprak Qala and marching on to Erzerum. On May 1822 at Khoy, Abbas Mirza successfully defeated the Ottoman counterattack, but by this point, cholera had also spread throughout his force, leading him to sue for peace.{{sfn|Hambly|1991|p163}} In contrast to earlier conflicts, no anti-Shia fatwas were ever declared by the Ottoman clergy to support the war. During peace negotiations, the Ottoman Shaykh al-Islam sent a letter to Abbas Mirza, in which he praised their friendship and referred Iran and the Ottoman Empire as "two great countries that are as one body."{{sfn|Tucker|2006|pp561–564}} Second war with Russia
at the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, 1828]]
His second war with Russia, which began in 1826, started off on a good note as he won back most of the territory lost in the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813); however it ended in a string of costly defeats after which Persia was forced to cede the last of its Caucasian territories, comprising all of what is modern day Armenia, Nakhchivan, the rest of the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that was still in Iranian hands, and Iğdır Province, all conform the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay.<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?idKTq2BQAAQBAJ&dqrusso+persian+war+1804-1813&pgPA728 Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond] p 729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014; {{ISBN|1598849484}}</ref> The eventual loss was due less to his army's skill and more to do with lack of reinforcements and overwhelming superiority in numbers. The irrevocable losses, which in total amounted up for all of Qajar Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and the South Caucasus, affected Abbas Mirza severely and his health began to suffer. He also lost enthusiasm for any more military reform.<ref nameEB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}</ref>
In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad.{{sfn|Werner|2012}} Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar ({{reign|1834|1848}}).{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}
Military reforms
in 1815.{{sfn|Szántó|2021}}]]
A reform of the Iranian army became necessary due to the conflict with the Russians, whose armies utilized modern technology and were structured according to modern ideas. Iran was in a situation resembling that of the Ottoman Empire in the early 18th-century. Abbas Mirza wore a Mongolian mail coat from the royal treasures when he went to battle in 1804; this was likely done partially for symbolical purposes. Even then, he was aware that Russian strategies and equipment were superior to Iranian forces, therefore he started to instruct his soldiers in European practices.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} This marked the start of Abbas Mirza's Nezam-e Jadid ("The new [military] order"), a project to build an up-to-date army capable of fighting in a modern environment.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p199}}{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p43}} Its name and military reforms resembled that of the Ottoman Nizam-I Cedid reforms made by the Ottoman Sultan Selim III ({{reign|1789|1807}}).{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p43 (see note 2)}}
Abbas Mirza first employed Russian prisoners of war and deserters who provided practical instruction.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Samson Makintsev, a commander in Abbas Mirza's army who rose to the rank of general, was the most well-known of these Russian troops.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p43}} This approach of recruiting foreign instructors was strengthened when untrustworthy forces that had fought in France were sent to the Caucasian front during the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. In 1819, a regiment of 800 men was made up entirely of Russian deserters. French instructors began working at Tabriz in 1807, but after Iran severed ties with France, British officers made up the majority of the training staff.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} New ideas and administrative procedures were introduced with the Nezam reforms. Nezam troops started donning uniforms, initially in a color resembling Russian green and then French blue.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p43}} Since the new uniform resembled non-Muslim clothing and went against Islamic clothing, the traditionalist clergy at first opposed it. However, the state leaders were able to convince them that it was required for the defense of Muslim areas.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p199}} The title sarbaz ("one who is willing to sacrifice his head"), which is still used in the Iranian military today, was given to the soldiers.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p43}}
Abbas Mirza's jealous brothers, especially Dowlatshah, as well as conservative court members criticized Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozorg for their ideas of military reform being based on a European model. Accusations of professing Christianity was even made towards Mirza Bozorg, who was the main driving force behind the reforms.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p51}} The army of Azerbaijan, which was the main force defending against the Russians, was under Abbas Mirza's command. As a result, it was better organized and more skilled than the rest of the imperial army. Abbas Mirza provided his soldiers with clothing and weapons. When James Justinian Morier visited in 1808/09, he estimated that Abbas Mirza's had 40,000 soldiers under his command; 22,000 cavalry, 12,00 infantry with an artillery force, and 6,000 Nezam infantry.{{sfn|Behrooz|2023|p47}}
Cultural activities
Mirza Bozorg probably had a significant impact on Abbas Mirza's formal education, which appears to have been well carefully laid out. Abbas Mirza was familiar with Iranian historians' writings, the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi being his favorite book. Although Tabriz had its own court poets like Sabur of Kashan and Abol-Qasem Forugh, Abbas Mirza was not really interested in poetry. Numerous paintings, including portraits of Napoleon, the Russian emperor, and Sultan Selim III, were used to decorate the palaces in Tabriz and Ujan.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}
It is conceivable that Abbas Mirza read books written about Europe in Ottoman Turkish and/or Persian since he could not understand English or any other European language well enough to read in those languages. One of the most recent books about England—the one European nation that seems to have captured Abbas Mirza's attention the most—was the Safarnameh composed in 1820 by Mirza Saleh Shirazi. It was one of several Persian works on Europe and the West that were available at the time.{{sfn|Shahvar|2020b|pp127–128}} Despite not understanding English, Abbas Mirza still owned a small collection of English-language literature, including the Encyclopaedia Britannica.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}
Administrative, economic and building activities
Significant amounts of money were spent fighting the Russians. Abbas Mirza attempted to resolve his problems by creating a comprehensive budget register, as British subsidies were insufficient, and his request for funds from Tehran was turned down by Fath-Ali Shah, who considered the richness of Azerbaijan to be sufficient for Abbas Mirza. With a ruznama-nevis assigned to each town to relay information, the state's long-standing intelligence service was revived. It also became illegal for men to purchase their way into government employment. Due to a lack of authorities qualified to implement reforms, traditional methods remained in place in the financial sector and bureaucracy. However, with assistance from Europe, a few industrial measures (whose products were largely used to support the army) were able to get launched. Firearms, the search for copper reserves, a smelter close to Ahar, weaving mills, and other industrial facilities are a few examples.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}
The situation of the travelers was not greatly improved. On the Sayen pass, which connects Ardabil and Sarab, a caravanserai was built. Abbas Mirza's construction efforts were minimal. In Tabriz, a maidan (square) was built around the barracks, the latter which the Scottish army officer and diplomat John Macdonald Kinneir considered to be sole attractive structure in the city. In 1818–1819, qanats were constructed outside the city, and a modest palace was being built.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}} Personality and appearance According to the Scottish traveller Robert Ker Porter, Abbas Mirza was "rather above the ordinary stature;" his eyes were "dark and expressive...; his nose aquiline; his beard full, and like his finely-formed eye-brows, of a jet-black."{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp79–84}}
Legacy and assessment
Abbas Mirza is recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.{{sfn|Werner|2012}}
In popular culture
* Tabriz in Fog: an Iranian historical drama about Abbas Mirza's life.
Issue
As was customary for Qajars, Abbas Mirza had many children; 26 sons and 21 daughters.{{sfn|Busse|1982|pp=79–84}}
* Prince Mohammed Mirza, to become Mohammad Shah Qajar
* Prince Bahram Mirza ''Mo'ez ed-Dowleh
* Prince Jahangir Mirza
* Prince Bahman Mirza
* Prince Fereydoun Mirza Nayeb-ol-Eyaleh
* Prince Eskandar Mirza
* Prince Khosrow Mirza
* Prince Qahraman Mirza
* Prince Ardeshir Mirza Rokn ed-Dowleh
* Prince Ahmad Mirza Mo'in ed-Dowleh''
* Prince Ja'far Gholi Mirza
* Prince Mostafa Gholi Mirza
* Prince Hesam o-Saltaneh, Morad Mirza
* Prince Manouchehr Mirza
* Prince Farhad Mirza ''Mo'tamed ed-Dowleh
* Prince Firouz Mirza Nosrat ed-Dowleh
* Prince Khanlar Mirza Ehtesham ed-Dowleh
* Prince Bahador Mirza
* Prince Mohammad Rahim Mirza
* Prince Mehdi Gholi Mirza
* Prince Hamzeh Mirza Heshmat od-Dowleh
* Prince Ildirim Bayazid Mirza
* Prince Lotfollah Mirza Shoa'a ed-Dowleh''
* Prince Mohammad Karim Mirza
* Prince Ja'ffar Mirza
* Prince Abdollah Mirza
See also
*Set Khan Astvatsatourian
*Abbas Mirza Mosque, Yerevan
*Russo-Persian Wars
*Samson Makintsev
*Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia
*Military history of Iran
References
{{Commons category}}
{{reflist|2}}
Sources
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFLahouti2015|CITEREFTucker2006}}
* {{cite book|last1Atkin|first1Muriel|titleRussia and Iran, 1780–1828|date1980|publisherUniversity of Minnesota Press|isbn978-0816609246}}
* {{cite book |last1Aktin|first1Muriel|editor1-lastMatthee |editor1-firstRudi |editor2-lastAndreeva |editor2-firstElena |titleRussians in Iran: Diplomacy and Power in the Qajar Era and Beyond |date2018 |publisherI.B. Tauris |isbn978-1-78673-336-8 |pages11–23|chapterThe Early Stages of Russo–Iranian Relations}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume9 | fascicle4 | title Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār | last Amanat| first Abbas | url https://iranicaonline.org/articles/fath-ali-shah-qajar-2 | pages = 407–421 }}
* {{cite book |last1Amanat |first1Abbas |titleIran: A Modern History |date2017 |publisherYale University Press |isbn978-0-300-11254-2}}
* {{cite book |last1Behrooz |first1Maziar |authorlinkMaziar Behrooz |titleIran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia |date2023 |publisherI.B. Tauris |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTnevEAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-7556-3737-9}}
* {{cite journal |lastBournoutian|firstGeorge|author-linkGeorge Bournoutian|year1976|titleHusayn Qulī Khān Qazvīnī, Sardār of Erevan: A Portrait of a Qajar Administrator |journalIranian Studies|volume9|issue2/3 |publisherCambridge University Press|pages163–179 |doi10.1080/00210867608701513 |jstor4310229 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book|last1Bournoutian|first1George|titleThe Khanate of Erevan Under Qajar Rule: 1795–1828|date1992|publisherMazda Publishers|isbn978-0939214181|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idav9tAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1Bournoutian |first1George |titleFrom the Kur to the Aras: A Military History of Russia's Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo-Iranian War, 1801–1813 |date2021 |publisherBrill | isbn978-90-04-44515-4}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume1 | fascicle1 | title ʿAbbās Mīrzā Qajar | last Busse | first H. | url https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-mirza-qajar | pages = 79–84 }}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume11 | fascicle1 | title Golestān Treaty | last Daniel | first Elton L. | url https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/golestan-treaty | pages = 86–90 }}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume7|lastHambly|firstGavin R. G.|pages104–173}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last Hoiberg | editor-first Dale H. | encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica | title 'Abbās Mīrzā | edition 15th | year 2010 | publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume I: A-Ak - Bayes | location Chicago, IL | isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 | url-access registration | url https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume1 | fascicle3 | title Abu’l-Ḥasan Khan Īḷčī | last Javadi | first H. | url https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-hasan-khan-ilci-mirza-persian-diplomat-b | pages = 308–310 }}
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|lastLahouti|firstHassan|year2015|titleʿAbbās Mīrzā|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/abbas-mirza-SIM_0018}}
* {{cite book|last1Mikaberidze|first1Alexander|titleConflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia|date2011|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-59884-337-8|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjBBYD2J2oE4C&q=ganja+beylerbeyi}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1Pourjavady|first1Reza|year2023|titleRusso-Iranian wars 1804-13 and 1826-8|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/christian-muslim-relations-ii/russo-iranian-wars-1804-13-and-1826-8-COM_34286|encyclopedia Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 20. Iran, Afghanistan and the Caucasus (1800-1914) | publisher = Brill}}
* {{cite journal |last1Shahvar |first1Soli |titleDomestic and external considerations in the struggle over regency in early Qajar Iran: The princely rivalry between ʿAbbas Mirza and Muhammad-ʿAli Mirza |journalMiddle Eastern Studies |date2020a |volume56 |issue4 |pages549–569 |doi10.1080/00263206.2020.1751617|s2cid219927274 }}
* {{cite journal |last1Shahvar |first1Soli |titleAbbas Mirza's Invitation to Europeans to Settle in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Azerbaijan: Reasons, Causes and Motives |journalIran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies |date2020b |volume60 |pages121–134 |doi10.1080/05786967.2020.1749009 |s2cid216249898 |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/05786967.2020.1749009}}
* {{EI3|lastSzántó|firstIván|year2021|titleAllāhvirdī Afshār|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/allahvirdi-afshar-COM_36116}}
* {{cite book |lastTapper |firstRichard |authorlinkRichard Tapper |titleFrontier Nomads of Iran: A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan |year1997 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-58336-7}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | volume13 | fascicle6 | title Iraq v. Afsharids to the end of the Qajars | last Tucker | first Ernest | url https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iraq-v-afsharids-to-the-end-of-the-qajars | pages = 561–564 }}
* {{EI3|lastWerner|firstChristoph|year2012|titleʿAbbās Mīrzā|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/abbas-mirza-COM_23894}}
{{Qajar princes}}{{Authority control}}
{{Iran–Russia relations}}
Category:Children of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
Category:1789 births
Category:1833 deaths
Category:Iranian royalty
Category:Iranian generals
Category:19th-century Iranian military personnel
Category:People of the Russo-Persian Wars
Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded
Category:People from Mazandaran province
Category:History of Azerbaijan (Iran)
Category:Qajar governors
Category:Burials at Imam Reza Shrine
Category:Qajar governors of Azerbaijan
Category:Sons of kings
Category:Crown princes
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Mirza
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.843200
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2613
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George Abbot (bishop)
|
{{Short description|Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| honorific-prefix {{pre-nominal styles|size100%|MRevd|&RHPC}}
| name = George Abbot
| honorific-suffix | archbishop_of Archbishop of Canterbury
| image = George Abbot from NPG.jpg
| imagesize | alt
| caption = Portrait in the National Portrait Gallery, 1623
| province | diocese Canterbury
| see | church Church of England
| enthroned = 4 March 1611
| ended = 4 August 1633
| predecessor = Richard Bancroft
| successor = William Laud
| ordination | consecration 3 December 1609
| consecrated_by = Richard Bancroft
| other_post | birth_name
| birth_date = 29 October 1562
| birth_place = Guildford, Surrey, England
| death_date {{death date and age|1633|08|04|1562|10|29|dfy}}
| death_place = Croydon, Surrey, England
| buried | nationality <!-- use only when necessary per WP:INFONAT -->
| religion = Anglican
| residence | parents Maurice Abbot
| spouse | children
| occupation | profession
| alma_mater | signature
<!----------Sainthood---------->
| feast_day | venerated
| saint_title | beatified_date
| beatified_place | beatified_by
| canonized_date | canonized_place
| canonized_by | attributes
| patronage | shrine
}}
George Abbot (29 October 1562{{snd}}4 August 1633)<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/ecco/004840865.0001.000/1:4?rgndiv1;viewfulltext|titleThe life of Dr. George Abbot, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury|last1Oldys|first1William| author-linkWilliam Oldys |viaText Creation Partnership|year1777}}</ref>{{efn|1Other sources, such as the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica give his birth and death dates as 19 October 1562{{snd}}5 August 1633,<ref name"EB1911" /> but the majority of sources state he was born 29 October 1562,<ref name "ODNBAbbot">{{cite ODNB |id4 |titleAbbot, George |firstKenneth |lastFincham}}</ref><ref name "DNBGeorge">{{cite DNB |wstitleAbbot, George (1562-1633) |firstSidney |lastLee |author-link Sidney Lee |volume1 |page5}}</ref> and the date 4 August 1633 is inscribed on his tomb}} was an English bishop who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633.<ref name "ODNBAbbot"/><ref>Darwall-Smith, Robin, A History of University College, Oxford. Oxford University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-19-928429-0}}. George Abbot, pages 120–126</ref><ref>[http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1a&wordABBOT.GEORGE Abbot, George in the Christian Cyclopedia]</ref> He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.<ref>"Alumni Dublinenses: a register of the students, graduates, professors and provosts of Trinity College in the University of Dublin (1593–1860 George Dames Burtchaell/Thomas Ulick Sadleir p1: Dublin, Alex Thom and Co, 1935</ref>
Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "[a] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist".<ref name"CBD">{{cite book|editorMagnus Magnusson|editor-link Magnus Magnusson |titleChambers Biographical Dictionary|editionFifth|year1990|publisherW & R Chambers Ltd|locationEdinburgh|isbn055016040X|page2}}</ref> Among his five brothers,<ref name "ODNBAbbot"/> Robert became Bishop of Salisbury<ref name"CBD" /> and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London.<ref name"dnbMaurice">{{cite DNB |firstSidney |lastLee |author-link Sidney Lee|wstitleAbbot, Maurice |volume1 |pages21–24}}</ref> He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible.Life and careerEarly yearsBorn at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker,<ref name"CBD" /> he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford.<ref name "ODNBAbbot"/> According to an eighteenth-century biographical dictionary, when Abbot's mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence. Some time afterwards, she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey, and it "being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour".<ref>{{cite book|authorSociety of gentlemen|titleThe Biographical Dictionary, Or, Complete Historical Library: Containing the Lives of the Most Celebrated Personages of Great Britain and Ireland, Whether Admirals, Generals, Poets, Statesmen, Philosophers, Or Divines: a Work Replete with Instruction and Entertainment|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8jtQAQAAIAAJ|year1780|publisherF. Newbery|page5}}</ref> He later studied and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.<ref name=EB1911/>
in Guildford]]
Archbishop of Canterbury
On 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury by King James I. As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of Anglican bishops and the validity of the church's priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag's Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that:
{{blockquote|The register agrees in every particular with what we know of the history of the times, and there exists not the semblance of a reason for pronouncing it a forgery.<ref>{{Cite web | authorJohn Wordsworth | author-link John Wordsworth|titleA Letter on the Succession of Bishops in the Church of England | urlhttp://anglicanhistory.org/england/jwords/heykamp.html |websiteProject Canterbury |date13 May 1890 | access-date=5 October 2008}}</ref>}}
Despite his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king's court, although the king himself never forsook Abbot.<ref name=EB1911/>
In July 1621,<ref>BBC History, July 2011, p. 12</ref> while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting that had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after this sort". The commission was equally divided, and the king voted in Abbot's favour, though also signing a formal pardon or dispensation.<ref nameEB1911/> Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the "only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being".<ref>{{cite book|lastPaine|firstGustavus S|titleThe Men Behind the King James Version|year1977|publisherBaker|page=157}}</ref>{{efn|This ceased to be true, by some definitions, in 1980 with the appointment of former soldier and Military Cross recipient Robert Runcie. Abbot remains the only known Archbishop of Canterbury to kill while in office.}}
|left]]
After this, Abbot seldom appeared at the council, chiefly because of his infirmities. In 1625, he attended the king constantly; however, in his last illness, he performed the coronation ceremony of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. However, the need to summon parliament soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's powers. His presence was unwelcome at court, and he lived from that time on retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633 and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot's Hospital with lands valued at £300 a year.<ref nameEB1911/>LegacyAbbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote many works, the most interesting being his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World (1599) passed through numerous editions.<ref nameEB1911>{{cite EB1911|wstitleAbbot, George (Archbishop)|displayAbbot, George |volume1 |pages22–23}}</ref> The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot's Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Abbot had an extensive private library of over 8000 volumes, most of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library. Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGeorge Abbot 1562-1633 - Book Owners Online |urlhttps://www.bookowners.online/George_Abbot_1562-1633 |access-date8 August 2022 |websitewww.bookowners.online |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Guildford remembers Abbot with his hospital<ref>[http://www.abbotshospital.org/ Abbot's Hospital], retrieved 9 January 2016</ref> and a statue in the High Street. A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him. His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church.<ref name"DNBGeorge" />Notes{{notes}}References{{reflist}}External links
*{{prdl|3443}}
* {{NPG name}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-aca}}
{{s-bef|before=Anthony Gate}}
{{s-ttl|titleMaster of University College, Oxford|years 1597–1610}}
{{s-aft|after=John Bancroft}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=Thomas Thornton}}
{{s-ttl|titleVice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford|years 1600–1601}}
{{s-aft|after=George Ryves}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=John Howson}}
{{s-ttl|titleVice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford|years 1603–1604}}
{{s-aft|after=John Williams}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=John Williams}}
{{s-ttl|titleVice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford|years 1605–1606}}
{{s-aft|after=Henry Airay}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=The Earl of Salisbury}}
{{s-ttl|titleChancellor of the University of Dublin | years 1612–1633}}
{{s-aft|after=William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-bef|before=The Earl of Suffolk<br/>(Lord High Treasurer)}}
{{s-ttl|titleFirst Lord of the Treasury|years1618–1620}}
{{s-aft|after=The Earl of Manchester<br/>(Lord High Treasurer)}}
{{s-rel| en}}
{{s-bef| before=William Overton}}
{{s-ttl| titleBishop of Lichfield and Coventry | years1609–1610}}
{{s-aft| after=Richard Neile}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef| before=Thomas Ravis}}
{{s-ttl| titleBishop of London | years1610–1611}}
{{s-aft| after=John King}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef| before=Richard Bancroft}}
{{s-ttl| titleArchbishop of Canterbury | years1611–1633}}
{{s-aft| after=William Laud}}
{{s-end}}
{{House of Stuart Lord High Treasurers}}
{{Archbishops of Canterbury}}
{{Bishops of London}}
{{Bishops of Coventry and Lichfield}}
{{Deans of Winchester}}
<!-- not a bishop until after Tudor period-->
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbot, George (Archbishop)}}
Category:1562 births
Category:1633 deaths
Category:Clergy from Guildford
Category:17th-century Anglican archbishops
Category:People educated at Royal Grammar School, Guildford
Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Category:Archbishops of Canterbury
Category:Bishops of London
Category:Bishops of Lichfield
Category:Chancellors of the University of Dublin
Category:17th-century English translators
Category:Vice-chancellors of the University of Oxford
Category:Masters of University College, Oxford
Category:Translators of the King James Version
Category:17th-century English Anglican priests
Category:17th-century English diplomats
Category:Scottish Episcopal Church
Category:Deans of Winchester
Category:Burials in Surrey
Category:English male poets
Category:17th-century Anglican theologians
Category:16th-century Anglican theologians
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Abbot_(bishop)
|
2025-04-05T18:26:06.856164
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2616
|
Adware
|
{{Short description|Software with, often unwanted, adverts}}
{{For|the anti-malware program|Adaware}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{wtp|-ware#Etymology 2|-ware}}
Adware, often called advertising-supported software by its developers, is software that generates revenue by automatically displaying online advertisements in the user interface or on a screen presented during the installation process.
The software may generate two types of revenue: one is for the display of the advertisement and another on a "pay-per-click" basis, if the user clicks on the advertisement. Some advertisements also act as spyware,<ref name="FTC-REPORT-2005">FTC Report (2005). "[http://www.ftc.gov/os/2005/03/050307spywarerpt.pdf]"</ref> collecting and reporting data about the user, to be sold or used for targeted advertising or user profiling. The software may implement advertisements in a variety of ways, including a static box display, a banner display, a full screen, a video, a pop-up ad or in some other form. All forms of advertising carry health, ethical, privacy and security risks for users.
The 2003 Microsoft Encyclopedia of Security and some other sources use the term "adware" differently: "any software that installs itself on your system without your knowledge and displays advertisements when the user browses the Internet",<ref name="MS-Enc-Sec">{{cite book
|title = Microsoft Encyclopedia of Security
|publisher = Microsoft Press
|location = Redmond, Washington
|year = 2003
|first = Mitch
|last = Tulloch
|editor1-first = Jeff
|editor1-last = Koch
|editor2-first = Sandra
|editor2-last = Haynes
|page = 16
|isbn = 978-0-7356-1877-0
}}</ref> i.e., a form of malware. Some developers offer software free of charge and rely on advertising revenue to recoup their expenses and generate income. Some offer a version without advertising, for a fee.
Types
In legitimate software, the advertising functions are integrated into or bundled with the program. Adware is usually seen by the developer as a way to recover development costs and generate revenue. In some cases, the developer may provide the software to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The income derived from presenting advertisements to the user may allow or motivate the developer to continue to develop, maintain and upgrade the software product.<ref name"zdnetfeature">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.zdnet.com/article/feature-ad-supported-software/|titleFeature: Ad-supported software|firstDavid|lastBraue|date4 September 2008|workZDNet|access-date4 December 2012}}</ref> The use of advertising-supported software in business is becoming increasingly popular, with a third of IT and business executives in a 2007 survey by McKinsey & Company planning to be using ad-funded software within the following two years.<ref name"informationweek">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.informationweek.com/businesses-warm-to-no-cost-ad-supported-software-/d/d-id/1054803|titleBusinesses Warm To No-Cost, Ad-Supported Software|lastHayes Weier|firstMary|date5 May 2007|workInformation Week|access-date4 December 2012|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160808025452/http://www.informationweek.com/businesses-warm-to-no-cost-ad-supported-software-/d/d-id/1054803|archive-date8 August 2016}}</ref> Advertisement-funded software is also one of the business models for open-source software. Application software Some software is offered in both an advertising-supported mode and a paid, advertisement-free mode. The latter is usually available after buying a license or registration code that unlocks the mode or a separate version of the software.{{efn|For example, in 2007 Microsoft changed its productivity suite Microsoft Works to be advertising-supported.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-works-to-become-a-free-ad-funded-product/604|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100720142403/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-works-to-become-a-free-ad-funded-product/604|url-statusdead|archive-date20 July 2010|titleMicrosoft Works to become a free, ad-funded product|firstMary Jo|lastFoley|newspaperZdnet|date30 July 2007|access-date4 December 2012}}</ref> Works was subsequently replaced with the Microsoft Office 2010 software suite operating in a "starter" mode that included advertisements.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-adds-an-office-starter-edition-to-its-distribution-plans/4197|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100515054234/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-adds-an-office-starter-edition-to-its-distribution-plans/4197|url-statusdead|archive-date15 May 2010|titleMicrosoft adds an 'Office Starter' edition to its distribution plans|firstMary Jo|lastFoley|date9 October 2009|workZDNet|access-date4 December 2012}}</ref> {{As of|2012}}, this product is also being phased out and replaced with Office Online (formerly Office Web Apps).<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-begins-phasing-out-starter-edition-of-its-office-suite/13001|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120623203434/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/microsoft-begins-phasing-out-starter-edition-of-its-office-suite/13001|url-statusdead|archive-date23 June 2012|titleMicrosoft begins phasing out Starter edition of its Office suite|firstMary Jo|lastFoley|date21 June 2012|workZDNet|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>}}
Some software authors offer advertising-supported versions of their software as an alternative option to business organizations seeking to avoid paying large sums for software licenses, funding the development of the software with higher fees for advertisers.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Ad-supported-software-reaches-specialized-audience-3501806.php|titleAd-supported software reaches specialized audience|firstAri|lastLevy|date23 April 2012|newspaperSF Gate|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>
Examples of advertising-supported software include Adblock Plus ("Acceptable Ads"),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://adblockplus.org/acceptable-ads|titleAllowing acceptable ads in Adblock Plus|websiteadblockplus.org|access-date18 March 2018}}</ref> the Windows version of the Internet telephony application Skype,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.itnews.com.au/News/250426,skype-now-free-ad-supported-software.aspx|titleSkype now free ad-supported software|firstLiam|lastTung|date11 March 2011|publisheriT News for Australian Business|access-date4 December 2012}}</ref> and the Amazon Kindle 3 family of e-book readers, which has versions called "Kindle with Special Offers" that display advertisements on the home page and in sleep mode in exchange for substantially lower pricing.<ref>{{cite web|titleKindle, Wi-Fi, Graphite, 6" Display with New E Ink Pearl Technology&nbsp;— includes Special Offers & Sponsored Screensavers|urlhttps://www.amazon.com/Kindle-Special-Offers-Wireless-Reader/dp/B004HFS6Z0|workAmazon.com|access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref>
In 2012, Microsoft and its advertising division, Microsoft Advertising,{{efn|Formed in 2008 following Microsoft's acquisition of digital marketing company aQuantive.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.microsoft.com/presspass/newsroom/msn/factsheet/MSAdTimeline.mspx|titleMicrosoft Advertising Historical Timeline|dateSeptember 2008|publisherMicrosoft Advertising|access-date20 November 2012}}</ref>}} announced that Windows 8, the major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, would provide built-in methods for software authors to use advertising support as a business model.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://advertising.microsoft.com/ads-in-apps |titleWindows 8 Ads in Apps |publisherMicrosoft Advertising |access-date20 November 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121121192941/http://advertising.microsoft.com/ads-in-apps |archive-date21 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://community.advertising.microsoft.com/msa/en/global/b/blog/archive/2012/10/01/windows-8-ads-in-apps-concepts-agency-partners-advertising-week-2012.aspx|titleMicrosoft Advertising Unveils New Windows 8 Ads in Apps Concepts with Agency Partners at Advertising Week 2012|lastKim|firstStephen|date1 October 2012|publisherMicrosoft|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927224909/http://community.advertising.microsoft.com/msa/en/global/b/blog/archive/2012/10/01/windows-8-ads-in-apps-concepts-agency-partners-advertising-week-2012.aspx|archive-date27 September 2013|access-date20 November 2012}}</ref> The idea had been considered since as early as 2005.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://news.zdnet.com/2100-3513_22-5951569.html|titleMicrosoft eyes making desktop apps free|lastFried|firstIna|date14 November 2005|newspaperCNET|access-date20 November 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051124140201/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-3513_22-5951569.html|archive-date24 November 2005}}</ref> Most editions of Windows 10 include adware by default.<ref>{{cite web |last1Hoffman |first1Chris |titleHow to Disable All of Windows 10's Built-in Advertising |urlhttps://www.howtogeek.com/269331/how-to-disable-all-of-windows-10s-built-in-advertising/ |websitehowtogeek.com |access-date25 August 2020}}</ref> Software as a service Support by advertising is a popular business model of software as a service (SaaS) on the Web. Notable examples include the email service Gmail<ref name"zdnetfeature"/><ref>{{cite book|lastTeeter|firstRyan|titleGoogle Apps For Dummies|isbn978-1-118-05240-2|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5TUv9jCaJdwC&pgSA3-PA27|author2Karl Barksdale|pages3–27|date9 February 2011|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons }}</ref> and other Google Workspace products (previously called Google Apps and G Suite),<ref name"informationweek"/> and the social network Facebook.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mashable.com/archive/facebooks-ad-revenue-hit-1-86b-for-2010/|titleFacebook's Ad Revenue Hit $1.86B for 2010|authorby Jolie O'Dell 203|date17 January 2011|websiteMashable|publisherMashable.com|access-date21 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|lastWomack |firstBrian |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-09-20/facebook-revenue-will-reach-4-27-billion-emarketer-says-1-.html |titleFacebook Revenue Will Reach $4.27 Billion, EMarketer Says |publisherBloomberg |date20 September 2011 |access-date21 December 2011}}</ref> Microsoft has also adopted the advertising-supported model for many of its social software SaaS offerings.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/meet-microsoft-the-advertising-company/419|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130210062021/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/microsoft/meet-microsoft-the-advertising-company/419|url-statusdead|archive-date10 February 2013|titleMeet Microsoft, the advertising company|lastFoley|firstMary Jo|date3 May 2007|workZDNet|access-date20 November 2012}}</ref> The Microsoft Office Live service was also available in an advertising-supported mode.<ref name"informationweek"/> Definitions of spyware, consent and ethics In the view of Federal Trade Commission staff,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ftc.gov/os/2005/03/050307spywarerpt.pdf|titleFTC Staff Report. Monitoring Software on Your PC: Spyware, Adware, and Other Software|lastMajoras|firstDeborah Platt|dateMarch 2005|publisherFederal Trade Commission|access-date4 April 2005}}</ref> there appears to be general agreement that software should be considered "spyware" only if it is downloaded or installed on a computer without the user's knowledge and consent. Unresolved issues remain concerning how, what and when consumers need to be told about software installed on their computers. For instance, distributors often disclose in an end-user license agreement that there is additional software bundled with primary software, but some participants did not view such disclosure as sufficient to infer consent.
Much of the discussion on the topic involves the idea of informed consent, the assumption being that this standard eliminates any ethical issues with any given software's behavior. If a majority of important software, websites and devices were to adopt similar behavior and only the standard of informed consent is used, then logically a user's only recourse against that behavior would become not using a computer. The contract would become an ultimatum—agree or be ostracized from the modern world. This is a form of psychological coercion and presents an ethical problem with using implied or inferred consent as a standard. There are notable similarities between this situation and binding arbitration clauses which have become inevitable in contracts in the United States.
Furthermore, certain forms and strategies of advertising have been shown to lead to psychological harm, especially in children. One example is childhood eating disorders—several studies have reported a positive association between exposure to beauty and fashion magazines and an increased level of weight concerns or eating disorder symptoms in girls.<ref>{{Cite journal|titleThe impact of the media on eating disorders in children and adolescents|first1Anne M|last1Morris|first2Debra K|last2Katzman|date5 September 2003|journalPaediatrics & Child Health|volume8|issue5|pages287–289|doi10.1093/pch/8.5.287|pmid20020030|pmc2792687}}</ref> Malware The term adware is frequently used to describe a form of malware (malicious software)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.staysafeonline.org/stay-safe-online/keep-a-clean-machine/malware-and-botnets|titleMalware & Botnets|authorNational Cyber Security Alliance|author-linkNational Cyber Security Alliance|publisherStaySafeOnline.org|quoteThe terms 'spyware' and 'adware' apply to several different [malware] technologies...|access-date4 December 2012|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121213043120/http://staysafeonline.org/stay-safe-online/keep-a-clean-machine/malware-and-botnets|archive-date13 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.princeton.edu/itsecurity/basics/malicious-software/ |titleViruses and other forms of malicious software |date5 July 2012 |publisherPrinceton University Office of Information Technology |quotemalware also includes worms, spyware and adware. |access-date4 December 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121224024932/http://www.princeton.edu/itsecurity/basics/malicious-software/ |archive-date24 December 2012 }}</ref> which presents unwanted advertisements to the user of a computer.<ref name"AAA">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.spywareloop.com/news/adware|titleAdware in SpyWareLoop.com|authorVincentas|date11 July 2013|newspaperSpyware Loop|access-date27 July 2013|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140323203234/http://www.spywareloop.com/news/adware|archive-date23 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.lavasoft.com/mylavasoft/securitycenter/spyware-glossary#Adware|titleMalware from A to Z|publisherLavasoft|quote[Adware] delivers advertising content potentially in a manner or context that may be unexpected and unwanted by users.|access-date4 December 2012}}</ref> The advertisements produced by adware are sometimes in the form of a pop-up, sometimes in an "unclosable window" and sometimes injected into web pages.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.staysafeonline.org/data-privacy-day/glossary/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130320110430/http://staysafeonline.org/data-privacy-day/glossary/ |url-statusdead |archive-date20 March 2013 |titleData Privacy Day Glossary |authorNational Cyber Security Alliance |author-linkNational Cyber Security Alliance |publisherStaySafeOnline.org |quoteAdware: type of malware that allows popup ads on a computer system, ultimately taking over a user's Internet browsing. |access-date4 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleLatest in Malware: eFast Browser Attacks with False Google Chrome, Traps Users with Adware |urlhttps://baymcp.com/latest-in-malware-efast-browser-attacks-with-false-google-chrome-traps-users-with-adware/ |websiteBay Computing |access-date11 September 2021 |date30 March 2017}}</ref>
When the term is used in this way, the severity of its implication varies. While some sources rate adware only as an "irritant",<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://support.rm.com/TechnicalArticle.asp?crefTEC276510|titleSpyware, Adware and Malware&nbsp;— Advice for networks and network users|publisherRM Education|access-date4 December 2012|quote[Adware] tend[s] to be more of an irritant than do actual damage to your system, but [is] an unwanted presence nonetheless.}}</ref> others classify it as an "online threat"<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mcafee.com/us/about/news/2008/20080916_120000_y.aspx |titleMcAfee, Inc. Names Most Dangerous Celebrities in Cyberspace |publisherMcAfee |quoteonline threats, such as spyware, spam, phishing, adware, viruses and other malware... |access-date4 December 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130604000640/http://www.mcafee.com/us/about/news/2008/20080916_120000_y.aspx |archive-date4 June 2013 }} [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pidconewsstory&referconews&tkrMFE:US&sidaf3z.yT5vNW8 Copy] available at Bloomberg.</ref> or even rate it as seriously as computer viruses and trojans.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ftc.gov/os/comments/spyware/040318assocofsharewareproff.pdf|titleSpyware, Adware, Malware, Thief: Creating Business Income from Denial of Service and Fraud|lastStern|firstJerry|workASPects, Newsletter of the Association of Shareware Professionals|publisherAssociation of Software Professionals|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120917022453/http://www.ftc.gov/os/comments/spyware/040318assocofsharewareproff.pdf|archive-date17 September 2012|quoteAdware has become a bad word, linked to spyware and privacy violations by everyone except the publishers of the products... [it was] a good thing ten or fifteen years ago, and [is] bad now... [t]he lines for adware are even being blended into virus and trojan territory.}}</ref> The precise definition of the term in this context also varies.{{efn|A workshop held by the Federal Trade Commission in 2005 asked representatives of the computer, electronic advertising and anti-spyware product industries, as well as representatives of trade associations, government agencies, consumer and privacy advocacy groups to define adware and its relation to spyware; there was no clear consensus.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idookz_2ONmwgC|titleSpyware Workshop: Monitoring Software on Your Personal Computer: Spyware, Adware and Other Software|publisherFederal Trade Commission|dateMarch 2005|page2|isbn9781428952577}}</ref>}} Adware that observes the computer user's activities without their consent and reports it to the software's author is called spyware.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFo2a7YtU1GUC|titleInternet and the Law: Technology, Society, and Compromises|lastSchwabach|firstAaron|publisherABC-CLIO|year2005|isbn978-1-85109-731-9|page10}}</ref> Adware may collect the personal information of the user, causing privacy concerns.<ref>Urban, Tobias, Dennis Tatang, Thorsten Holz, Norbert Pohlmann. 2019. “Analyzing leakage of personal information by malware”. Journal of Computer Security 27(4): 459-481.</ref> Most adware operates legally and some adware manufacturers have even sued antivirus companies for blocking adware.<ref name=vonteera/>
Programs have been developed to detect, quarantine and remove advertisement-displaying malware, including Ad-Aware, Malwarebytes' Anti-Malware, Spyware Doctor and Spybot – Search & Destroy. In addition, almost all commercial antivirus software currently detect adware and spyware, or offer a separate detection module.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/using/security/expert/honeycutt_spyware.mspx|titleHow to protect your computer from Spyware and Adware|lastHoneycutt|firstJerry|date20 April 2004|workMicrosoft.com|publisherMicrosoft|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060207042601/http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/using/security/expert/honeycutt_spyware.mspx|archive-date7 February 2006}}</ref>
A new wrinkle is adware that disables anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available.<ref name"vonteera">{{cite web|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/amphtml/news/latest-adware-disables-antivirus-software-152920421.html|titleLatest adware disables antivirus software|last1Casey|first1Henry T.|author-link1Henry T. Casey|date25 November 2015|workTom's Guide|publisherYahoo.com|access-date25 November 2015}}</ref>
Adware has also been discovered in certain low-cost Android devices, particularly those made by small Chinese firms running on Allwinner systems-on-chip. There are even cases where adware code is embedded deep into files stored on the system and boot partitions, to which removal involves extensive (and complex) modifications to the firmware.<ref name"CMtrojan">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cmcm.com/blog/en/security/2015-11-09/838.html|titleDecompile: Technical analysis of the Trojan|date9 November 2015|publisherCheetah Mobile|access-date7 December 2015|archive-date27 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161227223633/https://www.cmcm.com/blog/en/security/2015-11-09/838.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In recent years, machine-learning based systems have been implemented to detect malicious adware on Android devices by examining features in the flow of network traffic.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastAlani |firstMohammed |date2022 |titleAdStop: Efficient flow-based mobile adware detection using machine learning |journalComputers & Security |volume117 |pages102718}}</ref> See also
* Malvertising
*Online advertising
* Typhoid adware
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{software distribution}}
{{Malware}}
{{Information security}}
Category:Online advertising
Category:Types of malware
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware
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Aeacus
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Aeacus (; also spelled Eacus; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a king of the island of Aegina in Greek mythology. He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon. According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in the underworld alongside Minos and Rhadamanthus. In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.
He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour.
Mythology
left|thumb|Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus, engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's Metamorphoses Book VII, 622–642.
Birth and early days
Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax (aka Ajax the Greater). In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.
Later adventures
A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).
Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.
In the afterlife
left|thumb|Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys by Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer
After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.
In The Frogs (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.
Family
Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia. In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Aeacus' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae (). Several times in the Iliad, Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.). The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage.
Family tree of Aeacidae
See also
Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology
Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859–1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Further reading
External links
Category:Greek underworld
Category:Mythological Aeginetans
Category:Children of Zeus
Category:Greek judges of the dead
Category:Kings in Greek mythology
Category:Kings of the Myrmidons
Category:Metamorphoses characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeacus
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Aeclanum
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{{short description|Archaeological site}}
{{redirect|Eclano|modern and nearby town|Mirabella Eclano}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Aeclanum
|native_name = Aeculanum
|alternate_name |image Aeclanum (Thermae-01).jpg
|alt |caption View of the thermae with the opus reticulatum brickwork
|map_type = Italy
|map_alt |coordinates {{coord|41|3|14|N|15|0|40|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = Mirabella Eclano (Province of Avellino, Italy)
|region = Campania
|type = Settlement
|part_of |length
|width |area
|height |builder
|material |built
|abandoned |epochs Roman Republic – Byzantine Empire
|cultures = Samnites – Ancient Rome
|dependency_of |occupants
|event |excavations
|archaeologists = Italo Sgobbo
|condition |ownership
|management = Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici di Salerno, Avellino, Benevento e Caserta
|public_access = Yes
|website = [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210550/http://www.cir.campania.beniculturali.it/luoghi-della-cultura/parco-archeologico-dellantica-aeclanum Aeclanum]
|notes =
}}
Aeclanum (also spelled Aeculanum, {{langx|it|Eclano}}, {{langx|grc|Ἀικούλανον}})<ref>{{in lang|it}} [http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/eclano_%28Enciclopedia_dell%27_Arte_Antica%29/ Aeclanun] on the Italian Encyclopedia Treccani</ref> was an ancient town of Samnium, Southern Italy, about 25&nbsp;km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia. It lies in Passo di Mirabella, near the modern Mirabella Eclano.
It is now an archaeological park.
Location
Aeclanum was on a promontory naturally defended, to some extent, by a steep slope on the south side down to the river Calore, while the north side lay open towards the crest of the ridge where the Via Appia ran. This led through Lacus Ampsanctus to Aquilonia and Venusia. Two other routes to Apulia, the {{ill|Via Aemilia in Hirpinis|it}} and {{ill|Via Aurelia Aeclanensis|it}}, diverged nearby, leading through Aequum Tuticum to Luceria and through Trivicum to Herdoniae respectively. The road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (modern Atripalda, near Avellino) may also follow an ancient line.
Today there are ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. Excavation has revealed a long history of pre-Roman settlement.<ref namePrinceton>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0006:idaeclanum "AECLANUM (Eclano) Italy" in The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites]</ref><ref nameEB1911>{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAeclanum|volume1|page244}}</ref><ref>[http://spazioinwind.libero.it/popoli_antichi/altro/Aeclanum.html Aeclanum]</ref>
History
Aeclanum was a town of the Hirpini, although it was never mentioned during the Samnite wars. Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and sacked it. It quickly recovered, new fortifications were erected, and it became a municipium. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a {{lang|la|colonia}} (colony).
With the Lombard invasion of Italy, in the 6th century AD, it was annexed to the Duchy of Benevento, but was captured and destroyed by Eastern Roman forces under Constans II in 663 and never recovered, being reduced to a small hamlet known as Quintodecimo, a name that referred to its distance of 15 Roman miles from Benevento.<ref namePrinceton/><ref nameEB1911/>
Bishopric
Aeclanum became a Christian episcopal see, whose best known bishop was Julian of Eclanum, who was consecrated by Pope Innocent I in about 417. He refused to sign the condemnation of Pelagianism issued by Pope Innocent's successor, Pope Zosimus, and carried on a war of writings against Augustine of Hippo. It has been thought that the diocese was united to that of Frequentium as early as the 5th century, but there is mention of Quintodecimo as a suffragan see of Benevento in 969 and 1058. From 1059 it was definitively united with Frequentium.<ref>Giuseppe Cappelletti, [https://books.google.com/books?idJdUCAAAAQAAJ&pgPA180 ''Le Chiese d'Italia dalla loro origine sino ai nostri giorni], Venezia 1864, vol. XIX, p.&nbsp;180</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.diocesi.avellino.it/index.asp?sezVescovi |titleStoria della diocesi di Avellino |access-date2014-10-01 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303212833/http://www.diocesi.avellino.it/index.asp?sezVescovi |archive-date2016-03-03 |url-statusdead }}</ref> No longer a residential bishopric, Aeclanum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 884</ref>
Gallery
<gallery class"center" widths"160" style="font-size:92%; line-height:130%">
File:Aeclanum (Ancient Roman Street).jpg|The central road
File:Aeclanum (Ruins-01).jpg|Remains of the houses (1)
File:Aeclanum (Ruins-02).jpg|Remains of the houses (2)
File:Aeclanum (Thermae-02).jpg|Side view of the thermae''
</gallery>
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons category}}
*{{in lang|it}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210550/http://www.cir.campania.beniculturali.it/luoghi-della-cultura/parco-archeologico-dellantica-aeclanum Aeclanum (Cultural Property of Campania website)]
*{{in lang|it}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20150121021334/http://www.comunemirabellaeclano.gov.it/parco-archeologico.html Aeclanum (Mirabella Eclano municipal website)]
{{Roman colonies in Europe}}
{{Archaeological sites in Campania}}
{{Landmarks of Campania}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Roman sites of Campania
Category:Samnite cities
Category:Former populated places in Italy
Category:Province of Avellino
Category:Human remains (archaeological)
Category:Archaeological sites in Campania
Category:Roman towns and cities in Italy
Category:Archaeological parks
Category:Buildings and structures in Campania
Category:Tourist attractions in Campania
Category:Tourism in Italy
Category:Osci
Category:Ruins in Italy
Category:Destroyed populated places
Category:Coloniae (Roman)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeclanum
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Aedesius
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Aedesius (, died shortly before 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic. He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled Lives of the Sophists. Aedesius's philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.
The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in a dream represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples compelled him to resume his instructions. Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra.
References
Bibliography
Hartmann, Udo (2018). Der spätantike Philosoph. Die Lebenswelten der paganen Gelehrten und ihre hagiographische Ausgestaltung in den Philosophenviten von Porphyrios bis Damaskios [The late antique philosopher. The lifeworlds of pagan scholars and their hagiographic treatment in the philosophical vitae from Porphyrius to Damascius]. 3 volumes. Bonn: Habelt, , pp. 537–558.
Category:355 deaths
Category:4th-century Romans
Category:4th-century Greek philosophers
Category:Neoplatonists
Category:Year of birth missing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedesius
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Aedicula
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{{Short description|Small shrine in ancient Roman religion}}
{{Italic title}}
, with sign of Baal Hammon, signs of Tanit and caduceus]]
In ancient Roman religion, an aedicula ({{plural form}}: aediculae){{Efn|Also: "ædicule" ({{plural form}}: ædiculæ)|name|group}} is a small shrine, and in classical architecture refers to a niche covered by a pediment or entablature supported by a pair of columns and typically framing a statue,<ref name":0">"aedicula, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2020, [https://Www.oed.com/view/Entry/3077 www.oed.com/view/Entry/3077]. Accessed 29 September 2020.</ref><ref name":1">"aedicule, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2020, [https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/3079 www.oed.com/view/Entry/3079]. Accessed 29 September 2020</ref> the early Christian ones sometimes contained funeral urns.{{sfn|Murray|Murray|1998}} Aediculae are also represented in art as a form of ornamentation.
The word aedicula is the diminutive of the Latin aedes, a temple building or dwelling place.<ref name":0" /> The Latin word has been anglicised as "aedicule" and as "edicule".<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /> Describing post-antique architecture, especially Renaissance architecture, aedicular forms may be described using the word tabernacle, as in tabernacle window. Classical aediculae Many aediculae were household shrines (lararia) that held small altars or statues of the Lares and Di Penates.<ref>{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAedicula|volume1|page=244}}</ref> The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really genii) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.
Other aediculae were small shrines within larger temples, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In ancient Roman architecture the aedicula has this representative function in the society. They are installed in public buildings like the triumphal arch, city gate, and thermae. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus ({{circa|2}} AD) is a good example.
From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or the framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle, which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture.<gallery>
File:Pantheon11111.jpg|Aediculae in the Pantheon, Rome
File:Wall painting - Athena in aedicula and snake at altar - Gragnano Carmiano (villa A) - Pompeii PAAnt 63688 - 01.jpg|Aedicula containing a painted Athena and Agathodaemon
File:Montemartini - tempio di Apollo Sosiano edicola 1030469.JPG|1st century BC interior aedicula from the Temple of Apollo Sosianus, Rome<ref>{{cite book|last1Fullerton|first1Mark D.|titleArt & Archaeology of The Roman World|date2020|publisherThames & Hudson|isbn978-0-500-051931|page124|languageen}}</ref>
File:Herculaneum-Palestra.jpg|Painted aediculae in a fresco from the palaestra of Herculaneum
File:DSC00097 - Edicola funebre greco-punica da Marsala - Foto G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Graeco-Punic funerary aedicula from Marsala, with signs of Tanit and caduceus
File:Painted stucco relief - architecture with aedicula and pictures - Pompeii (VI 9 2) - Napoli MAN 9596.jpg|Aediculae and figures painted on stucco from Pompeii
</gallery>
Gothic aediculae
of Exeter Cathedral, with rows of figures in aediculae or tabernacle frames above the door, and two above the crenellations]]
In Gothic architecture, too, an aedicula or tabernacle is a structural framing device that gives importance to its contents, whether an inscribed plaque, a cult object, a bust or the like, by assuming the tectonic vocabulary of a little building that sets it apart from the wall against which it is placed. A tabernacle frame on a wall serves similar hieratic functions as a free-standing, three-dimensional architectural baldaquin or a ciborium over an altar.
In Late Gothic settings, altarpieces and devotional images were customarily crowned with gables and canopies supported by clustered-column piers, echoing in small the architecture of Gothic churches. Painted aediculae frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of illuminated manuscripts.
Renaissance aediculae
Classicizing architectonic structure and décor ''all'antica, in the "ancient [Roman] mode", became a fashionable way to frame a painted or bas-relief portrait, or protect an expensive and precious mirror<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/fram/ho_1975.1.1638.htm Metropolitan Museum: tabernacle frame, Florence, ca 1510]</ref> during the High Renaissance; Italian precedents were imitated in France, then in Spain, England and Germany during the later 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/tabernacleinfo.shtm |titleNational Gallery of Art: Tabernacle frames from the Samuel H. Kress collection |access-date2009-07-24 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091006235453/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/tabernacleinfo.shtm |archive-date2009-10-06 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
, Lancaster, Lancashire]]
Post-Renaissance classicism
Aedicular door surrounds that are architecturally treated, with pilasters or columns flanking the doorway and an entablature even with a pediment over it came into use with the 16th century. In the neo-Palladian revival in Britain, architectonic aedicular or tabernacle frames, carved and gilded, are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through the 1740s, by such designers as William Kent.
Aediculae'' feature prominently in the arrangement of the Saint Peter's tomb with statues by Bernini; a small aedicula directly underneath it, dated ca. 160 AD,<ref>O'Callaghan, Roger T. "Vatican Excavations and the Tomb of Peter." The Biblical Archaeologist 16.4 (1953): 70-87.</ref> was discovered in 1940.{{sfn|Murray|Murray|1998}}
Other aediculae
Similar small shrines, called naiskoi, are found in Greek religion, but their use was strictly religious.
Aediculae exist today in Roman cemeteries as a part of funeral architecture.
Presently the most famous aediculae is situated inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in city of Jerusalem.
Contemporary American architect Charles Moore (1925–1993) used the concept of aediculae in his work to create spaces within spaces and to evoke the spiritual significance of the home.
See also
* Portico
* Similar, but free-standing structures:
** Ciborium
** Baldachin
** Monopteros
** Gazebo
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
* Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A. (1996). Dictionary of Roman Religion. Facts on File, inc. {{ISBN|0-8160-3005-7}}.
* {{cite book | first1 Peter |last1Murray | first2 Linda |last2Murray | date 1998 | title The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture | publisher Oxford University Press | chapteraedicule | pages 5 | isbn 978-0-19-860216-3 | oclc 1055176997 | url https://books.google.com/books?idQve7QgAACAAJ}}External links
{{Commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121209015026/http://www.trp.dundee.ac.uk/research/glossary/aedicule.html Conservation glossary]
Category:Ancient Roman temples
Category:Architectural elements
Category:Ancient Roman architectural elements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedicula
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Aedui
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The Aedui or Haedui (Gaulish: *Aiduoi, 'the Ardent'; ) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges. During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52. Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire.
Name
They are mentioned as Ardues (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), Haedui by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Haeduos by Livy (late 1st c. BC), Aedui by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), Aidúōn (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Aídouoi (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).
The ethnonym Aedui is a Latinized form of Gaulish *Aiduoi (sing. *Aiduos), which means 'the Ardent ones'. It derives from the Celtic stem *aidu- ('fire, ardour'; cf. Old Irish áed 'fire', Welsh aidd 'ardour'; also the Irish deity Aéd or Aodh), itself from ('firewood'; cf. Sanskrit édhas 'bonfire', Latin aedes 'building, temple'; cf. also Ancient Greek Aether 'god of the upper sky' and Aethra 'bright sky', from aíthō 'to ignite, to kindle').
Geography
thumb|274x274px|Aedui core territory (in red) and confederation (in brown), with allies (in pink) and enemies (in grey).
Territory
The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes. It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.
Settlements
Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.
During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum ('fortress of Augustus'; modern-day Autun).
Ancient sources
The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward).
History
Pre-Roman period
Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave).
By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.
Roman period
Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.thumb|Denarius of the Aedui, first century BC, 1.94 grams. Hotel de la Monnaie.|300x300px
According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar's time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.
After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (B. G. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).
In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus Ann. iii. 43–46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of jus honorum, thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.
Until Claudius (41–54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.
The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, "judgment-worker"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
See also
List of peoples of Gaul
Jublains archeological site
References
Primary sources
Bibliography
Further reading
Category:Historical Celtic peoples
Category:Gauls
Category:Tribes involved in the Gallic Wars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedui
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Aegadian Islands
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thumb|upright=1.2|A map showing the Aegadian Islands
The Aegadian Islands (; ; ; ; ) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of .
The island of Favignana (Aegusa), the largest, lies southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (Phorbantia) lies west; and Marettimo, the ancient Hiera Nesos, west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the comune of Favignana in the province of Trapani.
The overall population in 2017 was 4,292. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there.
History
There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.
The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.
The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.
Island views
File:Mare Favignana.JPG|Cala Rossa, Favignana
File:Favignana cala azzurra.jpg|Cala azzurra, Favignana
File:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg|A view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible.
See also
Isolotto Formica Lighthouse
References
External links
Category:Archipelagoes of Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegadian_Islands
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Aegean civilization
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Aegean civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The Cycladic civilization converges with the mainland during the Early Helladic ("Minyan") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period. From (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete, probably by military conquest. The earlier Aegean farming populations of Neolithic Greece brought agriculture westward into Europe before 5000 BC.
Early European Farmers ("EEFs")
Around 5,000 BC, peoples descending from migrant Greek Neolithic populations reached the northern European plain in modern-day France and Germany; they reached Britain some 1000 years later.
Once in the Balkans, the Aegean EEFs appear to have divided into two wings: one which expanded further north into Europe along the Danube (Linear Pottery culture), and another which headed west along the Mediterranean (Cardial Ware) into the Iberian Peninsula. Descendants of this latter group eventually migrated into Britain. Previously, these areas were populated by Western Hunter-Gatherer represented by the Cheddar Man.
Periodization
Mainland
Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100–2050/2001 BC
Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900–1550 BC
Late Helladic (LH): 1550–1050 BC
Crete
thumb|right|Reconstruction of the Palace of Knossos
Early Minoan (EM): 3200–2160 BC
Middle Minoan (MM): 2160–1600 BC
Late Minoan (LM): 1600–1100 BC
Cyclades
Early Cycladic (EC): 3300–2000 BC
Kastri (EH II–EH III): –2100 BC
Convergence with MM from ca. 2000 BC
Commerce
Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is shown by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area. Cretan vessels appeared to be exported to Melos, Egypt, and the Greek mainland. In particular, Melian vases, eventually, found their way to Crete. After 1600 BC, there was commerce with Egypt, and Aegean goods found their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have come to light, excluding certain axeheads. These axeheads were too small for practical use. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet been proven (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans, and vases. These vases feature ships of low free-board, with masts and oars. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration. The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the 'ship fresco' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.
Discoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture.
Evidence
For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.
Internal evidence
thumb|180px|The "saffron-gatherer" fresco, from the Minoan site of Akrotiri on Santorini
Structures: Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.
Structural decoration: Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.
Furniture: (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.
Art products: for example, plastic objects, carved in stone, or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work. Vases of many kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
Weapons, tools and implements: In stone, clay, and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.
Articles of personal use: for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.
Written documents: for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).
Excavated tombs: Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.
Public works: Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.
External evidence
Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations: for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.
Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations: Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.
Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.: In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.
Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks.
Discovery
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great "Treasury of Atreus" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann's time. However, they were regarded as a crude precursor of later Greek culture. It was not until Schliemann's excavations that Mycenaean culture attracted serious scholarly attention.
There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. For instance, scholars had noted that tributaries appearing in Egyptian art resembled modern Greeks, but were unable to definitely recognize them as such. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.
Ludwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works. When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.
Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth "Mycenaean"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut "bee-hive" grave near the Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann's initial excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise. However, the "Burnt City" now known as Troy II, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse curiosity both among scholars and the general public. With Schliemann's excavations at Mycenae, interest in prehistoric Greece exploded. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any previously known style. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. Many scholars were struck by potential resemblances between objects described by Homer and Mycenaean artifacts.
Schliemann resumed excavations at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his "Lydian" city now known as Late Bronze Age Troy. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after Schliemann's death. But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the palace at Mycenae. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.
From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.
In 1890 and 1893, Staes cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut "bee-hives" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating). The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.
Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.
A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.
In Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.
Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cádiz and from Saragossa.
One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages— Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn). But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897–1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.
Thus the "Aegean Area" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt. Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed.
End
thumb|Invasions, destruction and possible population movements during the Late Bronze Age collapse, beginning BC
The final collapse of the Mycenaean civilisation appears to have occurred about 1200 BC. Iron took the place of bronze, cremation took the place of burial of the dead, and writing was lost.
See also
Mycenaean Greece
Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
Poliochne
References
This includes illustrations and a history of the civilizations, as understood in the early 20th century.
External links
Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean": chronology, history, bibliography
Aegean and Balkan Prehistory: Articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_civilization
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Aegeus
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thumb|upright=1.3|Theseus Recognized by his Father by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832)
Aegeus (, ; ) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.
Family
Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.
Aegeus' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.
Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.
Mythology
Reign
Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.
The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:
... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea's garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron's shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.
Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus' son Theseus.
Heirless King
Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.
The cryptic words of the oracle were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.
When Theseus grew up, he found his father's belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children's inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.thumb|251x251px|Thésée reconnu par son père by Antoine-Placide Gibert (1832)
Conflict with Crete
While visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.
After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.
Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.
Sophocles' tragedy Aegeus has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' Medea.
Legacy
At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.
There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον).
See also
Catullus, LXIV.
Plutarch, Theseus.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. 1. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Scholia to Lycophron's Alexandra, marginal notes by Isaak and Ioannis Tzetzes and others from the Greek edition of Eduard Scheer (Weidmann 1881). Online version at the Topos Text Project.. Greek text available on Archive.org
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
External links
Category:Princes in Greek mythology
Category:Kings of Athens
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Ancient Megarians
Category:Mythological people from Attica
Category:Suicides in Greek mythology
Category:People who died at sea
Category:Medea
Category:Theseus
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Aegina
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{{short description|Greek island, south of Athens}}
{{about|the Greek island}}
{{distinguish|Aegna}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox Greek Dimos
|name=Aegina
|name_local=Αίγινα
|type = municipality
|city_flag=Flag of Aegina.svg
|city_seal|image_map2011 Dimos Eginas.png
|periph=Attica
|periphunit=Islands
|pop_municipality=12,911
|area_municipality=87.41
|pop_community=6976
|population_as_of=2021
|elevation|coordinates{{coord|37|43|48|N|23|29|24|E|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code=180 10
|area_code=2297
|licence=Υ
|website=https://www.aegina.gr
|image_skyline=Ägina Hafenblick.jpg
|caption_skyline=View of Aegina's seafront
|mayorIoannis Zormpas<ref namemayor>{{Cite web |urlhttps://ekloges.ypes.gr/current/d/home/en/municipalities/9208/ |titleMunicipality of Aegina, Municipal elections{{snd}}October 2023 |publisher=Ministry of Interior}}</ref>
|party|since 2019
}}
Aegina ({{IPAc-en||ɪ|'|dʒ|aɪ|n|ə}};<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/centurycyclopedi09smituoft/page/16/mode/2up |page16 |titleCentury Cyclopedia of Names |firstBenjamin E. |lastSmith |volumei |publisherCentury |locationNew York |year1895}}</ref> {{langx|el|Αίγινα}} {{IPA|el|ˈeɣina|pron}}; {{langx|grc|Αἴγῑνα}}){{efn|It is pronounced {{IPA|el|ˈeʝina|}} in Demotic, Katharevousa, and {{IPA|el|aí̯giːna|}} in Ancient Greek.}} is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, {{cvt|27|km|mi|abbroff}} from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king.<ref name"EB1911"/>AdministrationMunicipalityThe municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets. It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region. The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2021 in parentheses):<ref namecensus21/>
* Aegina (6,976)
* Kypseli (2,166)
* Mesagros (1,473)
* Perdika (847)
* Vathy (1,449)
The regional capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island.
The buildings of the island are examples of Neoclassical architecture with a strong folk element, built in the 19th century
Province
The province of Aegina ({{langx|el|Επαρχία Αίγινας}}) was one of the provinces of the Attica Prefecture and was created in 1833 as part of Attica and Boeotia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri until its abolishment in 2006.<ref namecensus91>{{cite web |urlhttp://dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_02_0101_00086.pdf |titleDetailed census results 1991 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303183824/http://dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_02_0101_00086.pdf |archive-date3 March 2016}}&nbsp;{{small|(39&nbsp;MB)}} {{in lang|el|fr}}</ref>
Geography
<mapframe latitude"37.7235" longitude"23.4819" zoom"10" width"200" height"131" align"left" />Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately {{cvt|15|km|mi}} from east to west and {{cvt|10|km|mi}} from north to south, with an area of {{cvt|87.41|km2|sqmi}}.<ref namestat01>{{cite web |urlhttp://dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_02_0101_00098%20.pdf |publisherNational Statistical Service of Greece |titlePopulation & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation) |languageel |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150921212047/http://dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_02_0101_00098%20.pdf |archive-date21 September 2015}}</ref>
An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs,<ref name="EB1911"/> but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of notable importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.
The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour, with ticket prices for adults within the 4–15 euro range. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. Portes is a fishing village on the east coast.
{{Wide image|Aegina_island_panorama.jpg|1000px|A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea.
|alt=A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea
}}
Climate
Aegina island has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh) with an average annual temperature of around 20.0&nbsp;°C and an average annual precipitation of less than 340&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.meteo.gr/Monthly_Bulletins.cfm | titleMeteo.gr - Προγνώσεις καιρού για όλη την Ελλάδα }}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location= Aegina
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
|Jan high C=14.1
|Feb high C=15.4
|Mar high C=17.2
|Apr high C=21.4
|May high C=25.9
|Jun high C=30.8
|Jul high C=33.8
|Aug high C=33.5
|Sep high C=29.1
|Oct high C=24.0
|Nov high C=19.9
|Dec high C=15.6
|Jan mean C=11.5
|Feb mean C=12.6
|Mar mean C=13.9
|Apr mean C=17.3
|May mean C=21.5
|Jun mean C=26.0
|Jul mean C=29.1
|Aug mean C=29.3
|Sep mean C=25.5
|Oct mean C=21.0
|Nov mean C=17.2
|Dec mean C=13.3
|Jan low C=9.0
|Feb low C=9.8
|Mar low C=10.6
|Apr low C=13.2
|May low C=17.1
|Jun low C=21.2
|Jul low C=24.5
|Aug low C=25.0
|Sep low C=21.8
|Oct low C=18.0
|Nov low C=14.6
|Dec low C=10.9
|Jan record high C = 25.6
|Feb record high C = 24.2
|Mar record high C = 24.6
|Apr record high C = 29.6
|May record high C = 34.8
|Jun record high C = 40.2
|Jul record high C = 42.5
|Aug record high C = 43.4
|Sep record high C = 37.1
|Oct record high C = 31.6
|Nov record high C = 29.9
|Dec record high C = 23.4
|Jan record low C = -0.4
|Feb record low C = 1.2
|Mar record low C = 1.2
|Apr record low C = 5.8
|May record low C = 12.4
|Jun record low C = 14.7
|Jul record low C = 18.6
|Aug record low C = 20.8
|Sep record low C = 14.8
|Oct record low C = 12.2
|Nov record low C = 6.8
|Dec record low C = 2.7
|rain colour = green
|Jan rain mm=50.8
|Feb rain mm=25.9
|Mar rain mm=25.2
|Apr rain mm=18.0
|May rain mm=8.0
|Jun rain mm=17.6
|Jul rain mm=4.7
|Aug rain mm=6.8
|Sep rain mm=45.8
|Oct rain mm=27.1
|Nov rain mm=55.9
|Dec rain mm=50.7
|source 1 National Observatory of Athens Monthly Bulletins (Dec 2013 - Feb 2024)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.meteo.gr/Monthly_Bulletins.cfm|titleMonthly Bulletins|websitewww.meteo.gr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | titleLatest Conditions in Aegina | websiteMeteo Stations | urlhttps://penteli.meteo.gr/stations/aegina/ | languagerw | access-date9 March 2024}}</ref> and World Meteorological Organization<ref name"WMO">{{cite web | urlhttps://oscar.wmo.int/surface/#/search/station/stationReportDetails/0-300-1-aegina | titleWorld Meteorological Organization | accessdate=14 July 2023}}</ref>
}}
History
Aegina, according to Herodotus,<ref>Herodotus v. 83, viii.46; Pausanias 2.29.9</ref> was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.<ref>Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976</ref>
Early Bronze
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWalter |firstHans |titleDie Leute im alten Ägina: 3000-1000 v.Chr |date1983 |publisherUrachhaus |isbn978-3-87838-381-9 |locationStuttgart}}</ref> The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.<ref>{{Citation |lastGauss |firstWalter |titleAegina Kolonna |date2012-09-18 |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28133/chapter/212356044 |workThe Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages737–751 |editor-lastCline |editor-firstEric H. |access-date2023-07-22 |edition1 |publisherOxford University Press |languageen |doi10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0055 |isbn978-0-19-987360-9}}</ref>
Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists.<ref>{{Cite book |lastReinholdt |firstClaus |titleDer frühbronzezeitliche Schmuckhortfund von Kap Kolonna: Ägina und die Ägäis im Goldzeitalter des 3. Jahrtausends v. Chr |date2008 |publisherVerl. der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |isbn978-3-7001-3948-5 |seriesÄgina - Kolonna |locationWien}}</ref> The excavations on the site, done by the Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg are still ongoing.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSiedlung, Heiligtum und Festung |urlhttp://www.aegina-kolonna.at/ |access-date2023-07-22 |websiteaegina-kolonnas Webseite! |languagede-DE}}</ref>Middle BronzeMinoan ceramics have been found in contexts of {{circa|2000 BC}}. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?searchTextMade%20on%20Crete,%20or%20by%20immigrant%20Cretan%20craftsmen%20on%20Aegina. |titleCollection search: You searched for Made on Crete, or by immigrant Cretan craftsmen on Aegina. |publisher=britishmuseum.org}}</ref>
Archaeological excavations at Cape Kolonna revealed a purple dye workshop dating back to the 16th century BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Berger |first1Lydia |last2Forstenpointner |first2Gerhard |last3Frühauf |first3Peter |last4Kanz |first4Fabian |date2024-06-12 |titleMore than just a color: Archaeological, analytical, and procedural aspects of Late Bronze Age purple-dye production at Cape Kolonna, Aegina |journalPLOS ONE |languageen |volume19 |issue6 |pagese0304340 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0304340 |doi-accessfree |issn1932-6203 |pmc11168678 |pmid38865333}}</ref>
Late Bronze
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.<ref>A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195 {{When|date=February 2011}}</ref>
At Mount Ellanio, a Mycenaean refuge has been found dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMilligan |firstMark |date2024-04-04 |titleExcavations of Mount Ellanio summit reveals Mycenaean refuge |urlhttps://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/04/excavations-of-mount-ellanio-summit-reveals-mycenaean-refuge/151328 |access-date2024-04-08 |websiteHeritageDaily - Archaeology News |languageen-US}}</ref>
Iron Age
It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.
One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.
Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian League during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.<ref name"EB1911"/>Coinage and sea power (7th–5th centuries BC)
{{multiple image
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|header=Coins of Aegina
|footer|image1Aegina Stater achaic.jpg
|alt1|caption1Silver stater of Aegina, 550–530&nbsp;BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down centre. Rev. incuse square punch with eight sections.
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|alt2|caption2Silver drachma of Aegina, 404–340&nbsp;BC. Obverse: Land tortoise. Reverse: inscription ΑΙΓ(INA) "Aegina" and dolphin.
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Its early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater. One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700&nbsp;BC.<ref>British Museum Catalogue 11 – [https://docs.google.com/file/d/0ByKcmdYWS2bZWVpFLWRtVXd0Ulk/edit?pli1 Attica Megaris Aegina], 700 – 550 BC, plate [http://www.snible.org/coins/bmc/attica/XXIII.jpg XXIII].</ref> Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40&nbsp;years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians ({{Circa|630 BC}}), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island.<ref name"EB1911"/> The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.2 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC. The Aeginetic stater was divided into two drachmae of 6.1 grams of silver.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.tulane.edu/~august/H310/handouts/Coinage.htm |titleHistory 310: Greek Coinage and Measures |access-date29 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150504125619/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H310/handouts/Coinage.htm |archive-date4 May 2015 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456&nbsp;BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://en.numista.com/catalogue/index.php?eaegina |titleNumista: Coins of Aegina |access-date20 December 2020}}</ref>
During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina's fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10881/cydonia.html |titleThe Modern Antiquarian: Cydonia |website=www.themodernantiquarian.com}}</ref> During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory.<ref>Herodotus ii. 178</ref> At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.<ref>Herodotus vii. 147</ref>
Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.<ref name"EB1911"/>Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC)
The known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the 6th century BC. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79–89; vi. 49–51, 73, 85–94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.
The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was frustrated miraculously (according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees) and only a single survivor returned to Athens. There he became victim to the fury of his comrades' widows who pierced him with their peplos brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this "old feud"; writers such as J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, {{circa|570 BC}}. It is possible that the whole episode is mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), such as of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian peplos to the Ionian style chiton.
, sacred to a mother goddess, particularly worshiped on Aegina.]]
(about 490 BC)]]
In the early years of the 5th century BC the Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507&nbsp;BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance.<ref>Herodotus</ref> The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.
In 491&nbsp;BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission ("earth and water") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.
All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491&nbsp;BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490&nbsp;BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).
There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:
* Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481&nbsp;BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507&nbsp;BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481&nbsp;BC
* It is only for two years (491 and 490&nbsp;BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,<ref>Herod. vii. 145</ref>
* It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499&nbsp;BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.
* There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens.<ref>Herod. v. 89</ref> As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458&nbsp;BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488&nbsp;BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes "for the war against Aegina" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of Athens as 483–482&nbsp;BC.<ref>Herod. vii. 144; Ath. Pol. r2. 7</ref>
It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina ({{circa|507 BC}}) and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.
Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina {{circa|507 BC}}, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of "sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481&nbsp;BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.
It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490–480&nbsp;BC.<ref name"EB1911"/><ref>Eusebius, Houston Chronicle. Can. p.&nbsp;337</ref>Decline{{Essay|dateAugust 2022}}
In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461&nbsp;BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally ({{circa|456 BC}}). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.
By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace (445&nbsp;BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431&nbsp;BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424&nbsp;BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island,<ref nameXenophon229>Xenophon. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0206%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D9 Hellenica, 2.2.9]: "Meantime Lysander, upon reaching Aegina, restored the state to the Aeginetans, gathering together as many of them as he could, and he did the same thing for the Melians also and for all the others who had been deprived of their native states."</ref><ref namePlutarch144>Plutarch. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0048%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D3 Life of Lysander, 14.3]: "But there were other measures of Lysander upon which all the Greeks looked with pleasure, when, for instance, the Aeginetans, after a long time, received back their own city, and when the Melians and Scionaeans were restored to their homes by him, after the Athenians had been driven out and had delivered back the cities."</ref> which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.
It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina's medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The loss of the state's power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle's estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.
Hellenistic period and Roman rule
Aegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322–229 BC), the Achaeans (229–211&nbsp;BC), Aetolians (211–210&nbsp;BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210–133&nbsp;BC) and the Romans (after 133&nbsp;BC).<ref name"EB1911"/> A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community was established in Aegina "at the end of the second and during the 3rd century AD" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece.<ref>{{Cite sign |titleMosaic floor of a Jewish synagogue |mediumSign |publisherArchaeological Museum of Aegina |locationAegina, Greece}}</ref> However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD.<ref>Belle Mazur, Studies on Jewry in Greece. Τόμος Ι. Athens 1935.</ref> Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century, having as its bishop Crispus, the ruler of the Corinthian synagogue, who became a Christian,<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts of the Apostles|18:8|ESV}}</ref> and was baptised by Paul the Apostle.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|1:14|ESV}}</ref> There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879. The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese.<ref>Michel Lequien, [https://books.google.com/books?id86weAemI-e4C Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus], Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 226–227</ref><ref>Pius Bonifacius Gams, [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id65154&dirids1 Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae], Leipzig 1931, pp.&nbsp;430–431</ref> No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 838</ref>
Byzantine period
Aegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th–8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the Chronicle of Monemvasia, the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions.<ref name"ODB40">Kazhdan (1991), p. 40</ref> The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies, such as those of Athanasia of Aegina or Theodora of Thessalonica, record a large-scale raid {{circa|830}}, that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island's hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.<ref name"ODB40"/><ref>Christides (1981), pp. 87–89</ref>
According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates.<ref name"ODB40"/> This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough's graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.Frankish rule after 1204
{{Further|Frankokratia}}
After the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice. In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens. The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians,<ref>Kazhdan (1991), pp. 40–41</ref> when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic's protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.
Venetians in Aegina (1451–1537)
In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello's uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (rettore) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà's death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.
In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.
Administration
Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.
In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie's authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.
Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.
Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30&nbsp;years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor's decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.
16th century
After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.
In 1502–03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.
In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.
With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150&nbsp;years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.
First Ottoman period (1540–1687)
Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537. In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians.<ref name"SuttonAdams2000">{{cite book|last1Sutton|first1Susan Buck|last2Adams|first2Keith W.|last3Project|first3Argolid Exploration|titleContingent countryside: settlement, economy, and land use in the southern Argolid since 1700|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idukDbeQbFOUAC&pgPA349|accessdate27 October 2010|year2000|publisherStanford University Press|isbn978-0-8047-3315-1|page347}}</ref> The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.<ref name = T>Jochalas, Titos P. (1971): Über die Einwanderung der Albaner in Griechenland: Eine zusammenfassene Betrachtung ["On the immigration of Albanians to Greece: A summary"]. München: Trofenik. pg. 89–106.</ref>
The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).
Second Venetian period (1687–1715)
.]]
In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.
In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.
Second Ottoman period (1715–1821)
During the early part of the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1714–1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Sasse |first1Hans-Jürgen |titleArvanitika: the long Hellenic centuries of an Albanian variety |journalInternational Journal of the Sociology of Language |date1974 |issue132–134 |pages52–53 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgtVoAAAAIAAJ |quoteThe chief propagandists of this more rigorous gait in language policy thus were the school teachers, who systematically forced parents to abandon Arvanitika as a home language and to prevent children from learning it. Parents seem to have readily conformed to this in some of the more sophisticated regions of the Arvanitika-speaking community. ... According to contemporary reports, collective bilingualism, particularly among the male population, was the rule on the islands (Aegina, Salamis, Hydra, Poros, and Spetses, as well as Andros) and in Southern Attica from the mid-nineteenth century on. The women lagged somewhat behind but soon joined in (cf. Hahn's observations cited above). Thus one can say that this part of the community was already well prepared for language shift at the turn of this century. ... This is also true of ... Aegina (which had only a small contingent of Arvanites at any rate). In these villages, Arvanitika was already near extinct in the early 1930s (...).}}</ref><ref>{{citation |lastΑμπατζή |firstΘεοδώρα |titleΗ "Γαρουφιάς" του Νικολάου Λίσβα: ένα παράδειγμα των σχέσεων ανατροφοδότησης μεταξύ λαϊκής και λόγιας λογοτεχνικής παραγωγής |date2022 |page81 |urlhttps://pergamos.lib.uoa.gr/uoa/dl/object/3217429/file.pdf |quoteΑρχικά, σε αυτό το σημείο έπαιξε βασικό ρόλο η αλβανοφωνία των Αγκιστριωτών, καθώς οι Αιγινήτες, οι οποίοι στο σύνολό τους δεν μιλούν αρβανίτικα εκτός από ελάχιστες εξαιρέσεις κάποιων οικισμών, |languageel}}</ref> The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as Old Athenian, which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.<ref>{{cite journal |lastTrudgill |firstPeter |titleModern Greek dialects: A preliminary classification |journalJournal of Greek Linguistics |date2003 |volume4 |pages54, 59 |doi10.1075/jgl.4.04tru |urlhttps://summerschool.ac.uoi.gr/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/trudgill-2003-modern-greek-dialects-a-preliminary-classification.pdf |quoteThey are: the four 'oasis' dialects on the edges of or surrounded by the Arvanitika-speaking area, as described above — Kimi, Aegina, Megara, and Old Athenian; ...}}</ref>
Greek Revolution
During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.
Landmarks
.]]
{{Main|Temple of Aphaea}}
* Temple of Aphaea, dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece.<ref>A. R. Burn, History of Greece, Pelican, {{ISBN|0140207929}} p 201</ref> It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
* Monastery of Agios Nectarios, dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.
* A statue in the principal square commemorates Ioannis Kapodistrias (1776–1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.
* The Orphanage of Kapodistrias is a large building, known locally as The Prison (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828–29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence. The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra. From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967–1974) - hence its local name. There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Kapodistrian Orphanage |urlhttp://www.discoveraegina.gr/en/past-aegina/kapodistriaka-aegina/1164/ |publisherMunicipality of Aegina (Δήμος Αίγινας) |access-date10 August 2020 |archive-date25 April 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160425095344/http://www.discoveraegina.gr/en/past-aegina/kapodistriaka-aegina/1164/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Tower of Markellos was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687–1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege. A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time. The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802. In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state. It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century. It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.<ref>{{cite web |titleTower of Markellos |urlhttps://www.atlasobscura.com/places/tower-of-markellos |publisher=Atlas Obscura}}</ref>
* Temple of Zeus Hellanios, near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.
* Colona, Located to the north of the town of Aegina.<ref>{{cite web |titleAegina island|urlhttps://www.in2greece.com/english/places/summer/islands/aegina.htm }}</ref> Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement. The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation. The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved. The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill. It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens. Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases.
Economy
Pistachios
In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island. By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time. As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris. The quality of "Fistiki Aeginis" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil's volcanic characteristics. Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world. Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina's Pistachio Producers. It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year. In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name "Fistiki Fest".<ref>source: Greek Wikipedia</ref>
Culture
Mythology
In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island's name was Aegina.
Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place. So he changed some ants ({{langx|grc|Μυρμύγια}}, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.
Famous Aeginetans
* Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated
* Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor
* Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant
* Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor
* Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor
* Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher
* Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician
* Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint
* Theodora of Thessaloniki (9th century), nun and saint
* Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople
* Nectarios of Aegina (1846–1920), bishop and saint
* Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918
*Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations/236/ |authorRoss, Matthew Samuel |titleAn Examination of the life and work of Gustav Hasford, Paper 236 |date2010 |journalUNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones|doi10.34917/1449240 }}</ref><ref>Lewis, Grover (June 4–10, 1993). "The Killing of Gus Hasford". LA Weekly. BronxBanter blog. Retrieved March 16, 2014
</ref>
Historical population
{|class=wikitable
|-
! Year<ref>{{Cite web |dateMarch 17, 2023 |titleΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΑ ΑΠΟΓΡΑΦΗ ΠΛΗΘΥΣΜΟΥ ΚΑΤΟΙΚΙΩΝ ΕΛΣΤΑΤ 2021 |urlhttps://elstat-outsourcers.statistics.gr/Census2022_GR.pdf |access-dateFebruary 2, 2024 |website=Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή}}</ref> !! Town population !! Municipal/Island population
|-
|1981 ||6,730 ||11,127
|-
|1991 ||6,373 ||11,639
|-
|2001 ||7,410 ||13,552
|-
|2011 ||7,253 ||13,056
|-
|2021 ||6,633 ||12,911
|}
See also
*Aeginetan Commemoration
*Flag of Aegina
Gallery
<gallery class="center">
File:Αίγινα 2197.jpg|Airview of the town of Aegina
File:Church Agios Nikolaos Aegina harbor, Greece.jpg|Church Agios Nikolas o Thalassinos, Aegina
File:Aegina - panoramic view 02.jpg|Agia Marina, Aegina
File:First Greek Printshop Aegina c1890.jpg|The first printshop of the independent Greek State, 1830
File:Entrance to the Old Port of Aegina - Wordsworth Christopher - 1882.jpg|Christopher Wordsworth, Aegina 1882
File:The Temple of Aphaea - panoramio (1).jpg|The Temple of Aphaea, Aegina
File:Aphaea1.jpg|Temple of Aphaea
File:The Byzantine Church of Taxiarches in Aigina on August 25, 2021.jpg|Reconstructed Byzantine church of the Taxiarchs built over the ruins of the "Temple of Zeus Hellanios" on Mount Hellanion
</gallery>
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|30em|refs<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1 |wstitleAegina |volume1 |pages251–254}} This cites:
* Herodotus loc cit.
* Thucydides i. 105, 108, ii. 27, iv. 56, 57.
* For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, Aristoteles und Athen, ii. 280–288, is indispensable.
* See also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., ii. 102–120.</ref>
}}
Sources
* Welter Gabriel, Aigina, Archäol. Inst. d. Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1938.
* {{citation |lastChristides |firstVassilios |titleThe Raids of the Moslems of Crete in the Aegean Sea: Piracy and Conquest |journalByzantion |volume51 |year1981 |pages=76–111}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium}}
* Miller William, Essays on the Latin orient, Rome 1921 (reprint: Amsterdam 1964).[https://archive.org/details/essaysonlatinori00milluoft Essays on the Latin Orient]
* Miller William, "Η Παληαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ηρημωμένη ελληνική πόλις", Νέος Ελληνομνήμων Κ΄ (1926), p.&nbsp;363–365.[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025748/http://www.lib.uoi.gr/collection/pdfs/Neos_Ellhnomnhmwn_1926_TeuxosD%27/Neos_Ellhnomnhmwn_1926_TeuxosD%27_3.pdf Wayback Machine]
* Rubio y Lluch A., "Συμβολαί εις την ιστορίαν των Καταλωνίων εν Ελλάδι", Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος Β΄(1883), p.&nbsp;458–466.[https://web.archive.org/web/20151209023340/http://pc-3.lib.uoi.gr:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/HASH01db1fac99f08bf969c89a4b/1/doc.pdf]
* Lambros Spyridon ed., Έγγραφα αναφερόμενα εις την μεσαιωνικήν ιστορίαν των Αθηνών, Athens 1906.
* D' Olwer Nic., ''Les seigneurs Catalans d' Egine, τόμος εις μνήμην του Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου, Athens 1935.
* Koulikourdi Georgia, Αίγινα, 2 vols., Athens 1990.
* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, Οι Συναγωγές της Θεσσαλονίκης και της Βέροιας, Aθήνα 1997. {{ISBN|960-336-010-4}}.
* Messinas, Elias, The Synagogues of Greece: A Study of Synagogues in Macedonia and Thrace: With Architectural Drawings of all Synagogues of Greece. Seattle 2022. {{ISBN| 979-8-8069-0288-8}}
* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, H Συναγωγή, Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Ινφογνώμων 2022. {{ISBN| 978-618-5590-21-5}}
* Moutsopoulos Nikolaos, Η Παλιαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ιστορική και μορφολογική εξέτασις των μνημείων, Athens 1962.
* Nikoloudis Nikolaos [https://web.archive.org/web/20151231195838/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid10466 .:BiblioNet : Νικολούδης, Νικόλαος Γ.], "Η Αίγινα κατά τον Μεσαίωνα και την Τουρκοκρατία", Βυζαντινός Δόμος 7(1993–94), pp:13–21.
* Pennas Charalambos [https://archive.today/20130217153002/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid60697 .:BiblioNet : Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος], The Byzantine Aegina[https://archive.today/20130217214232/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowbook&bookid119115 .:BiblioNet : Byzantine Aegina / Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος], Athens 2004.
* John N. Koumanoudes [https://archive.today/20130217160046/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid42398 .:BiblioNet : Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν.], Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ, Αγκίστρι, Αίγινα, Αστυπάλαια, Λήμνος, Σαλαμίνα, Σπέτσες, Σύμη, Χίος και Ψαρά[https://archive.today/20130217200349/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowbook&bookid154034 .:BiblioNet : Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ / Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν.], Τεχνικό Επιμελητήριο Ελλάδας, 2010.
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150212130914/http://studyingthepast.com/post/8-the-feud-between-athens-and-aegina The feud between Athens and Aegina]
* [http://www.aegina.gr The Municipality of Aegina – official website]
* [http://www.discoveraegina.gr/en Site for visitors and tourists run by the Municipality of Aegina] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809030215/http://www.discoveraegina.gr/en/ |date9 August 2020 }}
* [https://www.aegina-kolonna.at/ Excavations on the site Aegina Kolonna]
* [http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.100.a.php Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976:] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071212014440/http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.100.a.php |date12 December 2007 }} "Aigina, Greece"
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd_1911/shepherd-c-014-015.jpg Map of Ancient Greece (includes Aegina Island)]
* [http://www.aeginagreece.com AeginaGreece.com Tourist guide]
* [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/aeginamosaic The Mosaic of Aegina Program]
{{The Saronic}}
{{Kallikratis-Attica}}
{{Aegina div}}
{{Aegean Sea}}
{{Prefectures and provinces of Greece}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Aegina<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
Category:Aegean islands
Category:Islands of Attica
Category:Landforms of Islands (regional unit)
Category:Municipalities of Attica
Category:Provinces of Greece
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Category:Populated places in Islands (regional unit)
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Aegis
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{{short description|Shield, buckler, or breastplate of Athena and Zeus bearing the head of Medusa}}
{{About|the shield used by Zeus in Greek mythology}}
, a Roman statue type often identified as a copy of a work by the Classical Greek sculptor Pheidias (Dresden Skulpturensammlung)]]
The aegis ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|i:|dʒ|ɪ|s}} {{respell|EE|jis}};<ref>{{cite web |titleaegis |urlhttps://www.lexico.com/definition/aegis |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200323141618/https://www.lexico.com/definition/aegis |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 23, 2020 |workOxford Dictionary |publisher=Lexico
|access-date23 June 2014}}</ref> {{langx|grc|αἰγίς}} aigís), as stated in the Iliad, is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 13).<ref nameHammond/>
The modern concept of doing something "under someone's aegis{{-"}} means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word aegis is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well,{{Citation needed|reasonReliable source needed for Norse and Egyptian mythology|dateDecember 2016}} where the Greek word aegis is applied by extension.
Etymology
The Greek {{lang|grc|αἰγίς}} aigis has many meanings, including:<ref>{{LSJ|ai)gi/s|αἰγίς|ref}}.</ref>
# "violent windstorm", from the verb {{lang|grc|ἀίσσω}} aïssō<ref>"to quickly move, to shoot, dart, to put in motion": {{LSJ|a)i/ssw|ἀίσσω|ref|mLSJ}}.</ref> (word stem {{lang|grc|ἀιγ-}} aïg-) = "I rush or move violently". Akin to {{lang|grc|καταιγίς}} kataigis, "thunderstorm".
# The shield of a deity as described above.
# "goatskin coat", from treating the word as meaning "something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat": Greek {{lang|grc|αἴξ}} aix (stem {{lang|grc|αἰγ-}} aig-) = "goat" + suffix {{lang|grc|-ίς}} -is (stem {{lang|grc|-ίδ-}} -id-).
The original meaning may have been the first, and {{lang|grc|Ζεὺς Αἰγίοχος}} Zeus Aigiokhos "Zeus who holds the aegis" may have originally meant "Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm". The transition to the meaning "shield" or "goatskin" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.<ref>{{Cite web |titleA Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), AEGIS |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0063:entryaegis-cn |access-date2024-03-02 |websitewww.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>In Greek mythology)]]The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the Iliad. "It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (Iliad, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle ... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen."<ref nameHammond>{{cite book|translatorMartin Hammond |date1987 |orig-year1st pub. c. 735 B.C. |author Homer |titleThe Iliad|title-linkThe Iliad |volume2 |pages446–9|publisherPenguin Classics |isbn 978-0-14044-444-5}}</ref>
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus's forge, who "busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods—a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess's breast—a severed head rolling its eyes",<ref>Aeneid 8.435–8, (Day-Lewie's translation).</ref> furnished with golden tassels and bearing the Gorgoneion (Medusa's head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and "re-born" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear.<ref name"EB1911"/>{{tone inline|dateJanuary 2022}} "Aegis-bearing Zeus", as he is in the Iliad, sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the Iliad when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton's Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes,<ref>Part I, section I (Warner Books' United States Paperback Edition)</ref> the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was "awful to behold". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton's daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled. Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend.
In classical poetry and art
, Pompeii (Naples National Archaeological Museum)]]
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (Ion, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon,<ref>Noted by Graves 1960, 9.a; Károly Kerényi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951, p 50.</ref> yet the usual understanding<ref>As in Kerenyi 1951:50</ref> is that the Gorgoneion was added to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70),<ref name="EB1911"/> or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.
John Tzetzes says<ref>John Tzetzes, On Lycophron, 355.</ref> that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (Poetical Astronomy ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (aigis "goat-skin") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over Athena's shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the gorgoneion. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena's dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on coins, cameos and vases.<ref name"EB1911"/> A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.Interpretations
shown with an aegis thrown over his shoulder as a divine attribute in the Blacas Cameo; the hole for the head appears at the point of his shoulder.<ref>Williams, Dyfri. Masterpieces of Classical Art, p. 296, 2009, British Museum Press, {{ISBN|9780714122540}}</ref>]]
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. "Athene's garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents."<ref>(Histories iv.189)</ref>
Robert Graves in The Greek Myths (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock,<ref>Güterbock, Perspectives on Hittite Civilization: Selected Writings (Chicago 1997).</ref> was a source of the aegis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Watkins|first1Calvert|titleA Distant Anatolian Echo in Pindar: The Origin of the Aegis Again|journalHarvard Studies in Classical Philology|date2000|volume100|pages1–14|doi10.2307/3185205|jstor3185205}}</ref>References{{Reflist|30em|refs
<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAegis|volume1|page=254}}</ref>
}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.theoi.com Theoi Project: "Aigis"]
*[http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2003/3757/pdf/athena.pdf Die Aigis: Zu Typologie und Ikonographie eines Mythischen Gegenstandes]: a Doctoral dissertation on the Ægis (Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität, Münster 1991) by Sigrid Vierck.
Category:Comparative mythology
Category:Greek shields
Category:Interpersonal relationships
Category:Medusa
Category:Mythography
Category:Mythological clothing
Category:Mythological shields
Category:Objects in Greek mythology
Category:Symbols of Athena
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegis
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Aegisthus
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thumb|right|250px|Aegisthus being murdered by Orestes and Pylades – The Louvre
Aegisthus (; ; also transliterated as Aigisthos, ) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer's Odyssey, believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus's Oresteia, written in the 5th century BC. Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides's Electra ( 420 BC), although his character remains offstage.
Family
Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes's own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father's rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus's son Agamemnon. In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother's children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.
While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king's return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon's son Orestes.
Mythology
Early life
Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus's wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes's sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.
Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from , male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.
Death of Atreus
In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.
Power struggle over Mycenae
Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus's sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.
After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen's abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon's return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.
Following Agamemnon's death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen). In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus's daughter Erigone.
In culture
thumb|Pierre-Narcisse Guérin's Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, in which Aegisthus appears as a shadowy figure pushing Clytemnestra forward
Homer gives no information about Aegisthus's antecedents. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.
In Aeschylus's Oresteia, Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, Agamemnon, he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In The Libation Bearers he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a "weak lion", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he "takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act." Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in Agamemnon revealing him to be "cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical 'tyrant figure' in embryo."
Aeschylus's portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca's Agamemnon, enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss's and Hugo von Hofmannsthal's opera, Elektra his voice is "a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra." In the first production he was depicted as "an epicene...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively."
An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the "Tomb of Aegisthus". It dates from around 1510 BC.
References
External links
Category:Kings of Mycenae
Category:Clytemnestra
Category:Atreidai
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegisthus
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Aegospotami
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Aegospotami (, Aigos Potamoi) or Aegospotamos (i.e. Goat Streams) is the ancient Greek name for a small river or rivers issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish Çanakkale Boğazı), northeast of Sestos.
Aegospotami is plural, which suggests that the name may have referred to multiple rivers. As is often the case, interpretation of geography described by ancient sources has difficulties, not the least of which is evolution of the terrain, and the river or rivers have been identified with both the modern Karakova Dere and Büyük Dere ("Big Creek", now called Münipbey Deresi). Körpe and Yavuz concurred with both Bommelaer and Strauss that the latter stream is the more likely candidate and additionally identified the probable site of the associated settlement as a rise on the left bank of the Münipbey Deresi known as Kalanuro Tepesi, based on geographical features and archaeological remnants.
Aegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, near the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.
At its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War. The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.
References
Category:Greek colonies in the Thracian Chersonese
Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Category:Rivers of Turkey
Category:Former populated places in Turkey
Category:Landforms of Çanakkale Province
Category:History of Çanakkale Province
(+)
Category:Populated places in ancient Thrace
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegospotami
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Aelia Capitolina
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{{short description|Roman colony built on the ruins of Jerusalem}}
{{Infobox ancient site|nameAelia Capitolina|image|alt|caption|map_typeJerusalem|map_alt|map_size250|locationJerusalem|region|coordinates{{coord|31.775689|35.23104|displayinline}}|type|part_of|length|width|area|height|builder|material|built|cultures|dependency_of|occupants=}}
Aelia Capitolina (Latin: Colonia Aelia Capitolina [kɔˈloːni.a ˈae̯li.a kapɪtoːˈliːna]) was a Roman colony founded during the Roman emperor Hadrian's visit to Judaea in 129/130 CE.<ref name"Metcalf20122">{{cite book |authorWilliam E. Metcalf |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtrkUDAAAQBAJ&pgPA492 |titleThe Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |publisherOxford University Press |year2012 |isbn978-0-19-937218-8 |pages492–}}</ref><ref name"Weksler-Bdolah20192">{{cite book |authorShlomit Weksler-Bdolah |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDnnEDwAAQBAJ&pgPA54 |titleAelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period: In Light of Archaeological Research |dateDecember 16, 2019 |publisherBRILL |isbn978-90-04-41707-6 |pages54–58}}</ref> It was founded on the ruins of Jerusalem, which had been almost totally razed after the siege of 70 CE. This act marked a significant transformation of the city from a Jewish metropolis to a small pagan settlement dedicated to the cult of Capitoline Jupiter.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}
The population of Aelia Capitolina consisted primarily of Roman legionaries, veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p338–339}} Jews were forbidden entrance to the city.<ref name"Weksler-Bdolah20192" /><ref name"Jacobson2">{{cite journal |lastJacobson |firstDavid |titleThe Enigma of the Name Īliyā (Aelia) for Jerusalem in Early Islam |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/38981188 |journalRevision 4 |access-date2020-12-23}}</ref> The city's urban layout was redesigned with broad colonnaded streets, arched gateways, and forums that served as commercial and social hubs. The religious landscape also shifted, with the worship of Roman deities replacing the Jewish religious practices that had been centered around the Temple in Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p338–339}} Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the Roman Empire, with an estimated population of around 4,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the population during the late Second Temple period.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p338–339}}
The modest colony would change dramatically starting in the early 4th century, when Constantine the Great granted Christianity legal status within the Roman Empire. This led to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, laying the groundwork for its eventual transformation into a prominent Christian center during the Byzantine period.<ref name":22">{{Cite book |lastSivan |firstHagith |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/title/170203843 |titlePalestine in late antiquity |date2008 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-928417-7 |locationOxford; New York |pages1, 190, 194–195, 221 |oclc170203843}}</ref> The ban on Jews was maintained until the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 636. The Aelia part of the name was used in Arabic as Īlyāʾ during the Umayyad Caliphate.<ref name"Jacobson2" />
Name
Aelia came from Hadrian's Aelia gens, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus,<ref name":12">{{cite web |titleAelia Capitolina |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Aelia-Capitolina |access-date8 August 2024 |publisherBritannica}}</ref> whom the Romans believed had vanquished and replaced the God of the Jews.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p338–339}} A temple to Jupiter was built in the city.<ref name":12" /> The Latin name Aelia is the source of the much later term Īlyāʾ ({{lang|ar|إيليا}}), a 7th-century early Arab name for Jerusalem.<ref name"Jacobson2" />
Founding
In 129–130 CE, Hadrian visited Judaea. Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by Herod the Great, was still in ruins following the decisive siege of the city in 70 CE as part of the First Jewish–Roman War. The emperor resolved to reconstruct the city as a Roman colony dedicated to Jupiter.{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp294–295}} The decision to rebuild the city with a pagan character proved highly controversial among the Jewish population, who saw it as a direct affront to their identity. Mary E. Smallwood writes that the foundation of Aelia Capitolina was likely "an attempt to combat resurgent Jewish nationalism" by secularizing the Jewish capital.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p434}} Martin Goodman describes Hadrian's decision as a deliberate effort to enact a "final solution for Jewish rebelliousness," aiming to erase the city permanently and prevent future uprisings, both in Judaea and among diaspora communities, as had occurred under Trajan.{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p27–28}} According to Goodman, the foundation of a Roman colony—rather than a Hellenistic polis—was designed to transplant foreign populations and impose Roman religious practices. While Hadrian established many cities, this case was distinct, as it was "not to flatter but to suppress the natives."{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p27–28}}
{{stack|
{{multiple images
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| footer = The first coin issued at the mint of Aelia Capitolina about 130/132. Reverse: COL[ONIA] AEL[IA] CAPIT[OLINA] COND[ITA] ('The founding of Colonia Aelia Capitolina'), showing Hadrian while ploughing the first furrow.
| footer_align = center
| image1 = Hadrian founder Aelia Capitolina.jpg
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| image2 = Dictionary of Roman Coins.1889 P15S0 illus022.gif
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In the past, conflicting accounts in ancient sources led scholars to debate whether Aelia Capitolina’s foundation was a cause or a consequence of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE).{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p433}} According to Cassius Dio, Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple was a direct catalyst for the revolt. He writes that the construction "caused a long and serious war, since the Jews objected to having gentiles settled in their city and foreign cults established there."{{Efn|Cassius Dio, LXIX, 12, 1-2{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p432}}}} In contrast, Eusebius of Caesarea, writing from a Christian perspective, framed the establishment of Aelia Capitolina as a punitive measure following the Jewish defeat.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p433}} He wrote that when the city "had been emptied of the Jewish nation and had suffered the total destruction of its ancient inhabitants, it was colonized by a different race, and the Roman city which subsequently arose changed its name and was called Aelia".{{Efn|Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, IV, 6.3–6.4{{sfn|Magness|2024|p307}}}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|p307}} Supporters of this view regarded the construction of Aelia Capitolina as part of Hadrian's broader policies to suppress Jewish nationalism following the revolt, inclduing the prohibition of circumcision, the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem, and the renaming of Judaea as Syria Palaestina, removing its Jewish-associated name.<ref>Elizabeth Speller, {{Google books|id3c8kB3m0r8kC|page218|titleFollowing Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire}}, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218</ref>
The discovery of Aelia Capitolina coins struck before the revolt, found in a building abandoned prior to the uprising and in coin hoards from Bar Kokhba refuge caves, has provided strong archaeological evidence that the city's foundation preceded the revolt.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p307}}{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p107}} This evidence has led most modern historians to favor Cassius Dio’s account, placing Hadrian’s urban and religious policies as key factors that contributed to Jewish resistance. Meanwhile, Eusebius' interpretation, which presents the city's reconstruction as a post-revolt punishment, is now seen as likely influenced by a supersessionist theology.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p307}}{{Infobox Historical Era|nameAelia Capitolina (Jerusalem)|imageRoman Empire 125.png|captionJerusalem in the Roman empire under Hadrian showing the location of the Roman legions|startAD 130|endAD 324–325|beforeJerusalem during the Early Roman period|afterJerusalem during the Byzantine period}}
Construction and plan
{{Jerusalem large}}
Jerusalem was rebuilt in the style of its original Hippodamian plan, although adapted to Roman use. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death except for one day each year: during the fast day of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures<ref name"Schäfer20032">{{cite book |authorPeter Schäfer |url{{Google books |id1TA-Fg4wBnUC |page36 |plainurlyes }} |titleThe Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome |publisherMohr Siebeck |year2003 |isbn978-3-16-148076-8 |pages36– |access-date2011-12-04}}</ref><ref name"erp-places2">{{cite encyclopedia |titlePalestine: History |encyclopediaThe On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisherThe University of South Dakota |urlhttp://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |access-date2007-04-18 |lastLehmann |firstClayton Miles |date2007-02-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |archive-date2008-03-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastCohen |firstShaye J. D. |titleChristianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development |publisherBiblical Archaeology Society |year1996 |editorHershel Shanks |locationWashington DC |page196 |chapterJudaism to Mishnah: 135–220 AD}}</ref> (which also affected Jewish Christians)<ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books|idDn5ERgK0djMC|page7|titleChristianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref> essentially secularized the city.<ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books|idnw0VAAAAIAAJ|page460|titleThe Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian : a study in political relations}} BRILL, 1981, p. 460.</ref> Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire now inhabited the rebuilt city.<ref>{{cite book |last1Klein |first1Ezra |titleNew Studies on Jerusalem 16 |date2010 |editor1-lastBaruch |editor1-firstE |locationRamat-Gan |pages321–350 |chapterThe Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period |quoteFollowing the failure of the revolt, the process of the Roman administration's takeover of the city's lands and its surroundings was completed [...] The historical sources confirm that Hadrian gave the city the status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, a title that was awarded almost exclusively to cities where veterans and their families lived. [...] The totality of the data allows us to conclude that a significant component of the population of Ilia Capitolina is the veterans of the Roman army and settlers from the west of the empire. |editor2-lastLevy-Reifer |editor2-firstA |editor3-lastFaust |editor3-firstA}}</ref>
Archaeological evidence from this period indicates that Roman customs, including pork consumption and the presence of statues and figured decorations, became widespread. Jewish symbols and practices, such as the use of miqvaot (ritual baths) and traditional stone vessels, disappeared.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}
The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of Legio X Fretensis during the Late Roman period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which encamped all over the city's western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the 4th century.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}{{stack|}}Layout and street pattern
{{Main|The Cardo (Jerusalem)}}
The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise.<ref>[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ed22.htm The Cardo] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081217114200/http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ed22.htm|dateDecember 17, 2008}} Hebrew University</ref> The urban grid was based on the usual central north–south road (cardo maximus) and central east–west route (decumanus maximus). However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the Temple Mount blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, the strict pattern had to be adapted to the local topography; a secondary, eastern cardo, diverged from the western one and ran down the Tyropoeon Valley, while the decumanus had to zigzag around the Temple Mount, passing it on its northern side. The Hadrianic western cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine period, it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern, expanded margins of the city.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
The two cardines converged near the Damascus Gate, and a semicircular piazza covered the remaining space; in the piazza, a columnar monument was constructed, hence the Arabic name for the gate, Bab el-Amud ("Gate of the Column"). Tetrapylones were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
This street pattern has been preserved in the Old City of Jerusalem to the present. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about {{convert|73|ft|m|abbroff|spus}} wide, but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow. The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylones are preserved in the 19th century Franciscan chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}Western forumAs was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main forum at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan. Adjacent to the forum, Hadrian built a large temple to Venus, at a site later used for the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the church.<ref>Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981)</ref>Valley cardo and eastern forumThe Struthion Pool lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed vaulting over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary forum;<ref name"benoit2">Benoit, Pierre, The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Antonia Fortress, in Jerusalem Revealed (edited by Yigael Yadin), (1976)</ref> the pavement can still be seen under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion.<ref name="benoit2" />
{{multiple image
| total_width = 400
| image1 = Ecce Homo arch in 1864.jpg
| image2 = Ewilson-ecce-homo-arch.jpg
| image3 = PikiWiki Israel 13396 Ecce Homo arch.JPG
| caption1 = The remaining two arches of the gateway in 1864; the smaller arch (left) was incorporated in the Basilica of Ecce Homo.
| caption2 = The portion of the arch visible today (approx. 180° opposite the former image)
| caption3 = The basilica interior preserves the northern arch of the Aelia Capitolina's eastern forum gateway under its apse.
}}
Ecce homo arch
Near the Struthion Pool, Hadrian built a triple-arched gateway as an entrance to the eastern forum of Aelia Capitolina.<ref>Benoit, Pierre, The Antonia of Herod the Great, and the East Forum of Aelia Capitolina (1971)</ref> Traditionally, this was thought to be the gate of Herod's Antonia Fortress, which itself was alleged to be the location of Jesus' trial and Pontius Pilate's Ecce homo speech as described in John 19:13.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|19:13}}</ref><ref name"cruise2">{{cite book |last1Warren |first1E.K. |titleGlimpses of Bible Lands: The Cruise of the Eight Hundred to Jerusalem |last2Hartshorn |first2W.N. |last3McCrillis |first3A.B. |publisherThe Central Committee |year1905 |locationBoston, MA |page168}}</ref> This was due in part to the 1864 discovery of a game etched on a flagstone of the pool. According to the convent's nuns, the game was played by Roman soldiers<ref>Cf. Michael Sebbane (2019), "Board Games from the Eastern Cardo", in Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains (IAA Reports 63), p. 153 {{doi|10.2307/j.ctvpb3vzw.10}}</ref> and may have ended in the execution of a 'mock king'.<ref name"video2">{{cite web |year2012 |titleEcce Homo Arch Video |urlhttp://www.jerusalemexperience.com/tour/ecce-homo-arch-notre-dame-de-sion-convent-via-dolorosa/ |websiteJerusalem Experience}}</ref> Ermete Pierotti is the first to term the words Ecce Homo to the arch, in reference to Pilate's words to Jesus.<ref>Pierotti, Ermete (1864), Jerusalem explored (volume 2), [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/44241/pg44241-images.html#plate12 Plate XIII]</ref> It is possible that following its destruction, the Antonia Fortress's pavement tiles were brought to the cistern of Hadrian's plaza.<ref name"video2" />
When later constructions narrowed the Via Dolorosa, the two arches on either side of the central arch became incorporated into a succession of more modern buildings. The Basilica of Ecce Homo now preserves the northern arch.<ref name"cruise2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1Benoit |first1P. |date1971 |titleL'Antonia D'Hérode le Grand et le Forum Oriental D'Aelia Capitolina |journalThe Harvard Theological Review |languagefr |volume64 |issue2/3 |pages135–167 |doi10.1017/S0017816000032478 |issn0017-8160 |jstor1509294 |s2cid162902370}}</ref> The southern arch was incorporated into a zawiya (Sufi monastery) for Uzbek dervishes of the Naqshbandi order in the 16th century,<ref>{{Cite web |lastMadain Project |titleArch of Hadrian |urlhttps://madainproject.com/ecce_homo_arch |access-date2019-07-12}}</ref> but these were demolished in the 19th century in order to found a mosque.<ref>Lewin, Thomas. [https://books.google.com/books?id2SldAAAAcAAJ&dqVia+Dolorosa+south+arch+monastery&pgPA202 The Siege of Jerusalem by Titus: With the Journal of a Recent Visit to the Holy City, and a General Sketch of the Topography of Jerusalem from the Earliest Times Down to the Siege]. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1863: 202. Google books. 2019-07-12.</ref> Population Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the Roman Empire, with an estimated population of around 4,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the population during the late Second Temple period.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p338–339}} The demographic consisted primarily of Roman legionaries, veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}
Jews were permitted to enter Aelia Capitolina only once a year, on Tisha B'Av, to mourn the destruction of the Second Temple.{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p137}} A Christian pilgrim from Bordeaux, who visited the city in 333, recorded that Jews would gather annually to anoint a perforated stone, where they would "bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart."{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p138}} Similarly, Jerome described the annual Jewish pilgrimage to the city, writing: And in order for them to be allowed to weep over the ruin of their city, they pay a fine [...] on the day in which Jerusalem was captured and plundered by the Romans, the people came mourning, the feeble foolish women assemble, and the old men, covered with years and rags, show the wrath of the Lord in their bodies and in their physical appearance.<ref>Jerome, Commentary on Zephaniah 1:15–16 (translation by Thomas P. Scheck)</ref>{{sfn|Millar|2010|pp=65, 77}}
According to Eusebius, the Jerusalem church was dispersed twice, first in 70 CE and again in 135 CE. A key distinction between these periods is that from 70 to 130 CE, the bishops of Jerusalem bore Jewish names, whereas after 135 CE, the bishops of Aelia Capitolina appear to have been Greek.<ref>"Jerusalem in Early Christian Thought" p. 75 Explorations in a Christian theology of pilgrimage ed Craig G. Bartholomew, Fred Hughes</ref> Eusebius' evidence for the continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Itinerarium Burdigalense, a 4th-century Christian travelogue.<ref>Richard Bauckham "The Christian Community of Aelia Capitolina" in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting p. 310.</ref>
Later history
{{Main|Jerusalem during the Byzantine period}}
The reign of Constantine the Great and the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the early fourth century initiated the process of Christian establishment in Jerusalem, eventually transforming the small colony into a prominent Christian center.<ref name":22" /> The city was later ranked the fifth imperial patriarchate, alongside Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Antioch.<ref name":22" /> This transformation continued over the next three centuries during the Byzantine period until the Muslim conquest of the city in 636/7.<ref name=":22" />
{{stack| depiction of 6th-century Jerusalem has the Cardo Maximus, the town's main street, beginning at the northern gate (today's Damascus Gate), and traversing the city in a straight line south to "New Church".]]}}
The ban on Jewish entry remained in place after the Christianization of the Roman Empire,{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p138}} and continued until the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web |lastZank |firstMichael |titleByzantian Jerusalem |urlhttp://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period3-2.htm |access-date1 February 2007 |publisherBoston University}}</ref>{{sfn|Friedman|1996|pp138–139}} Christians had been allowed to visit the city since the 4th century, when Constantine ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.<ref>Gideon Avni, {{Google books|idZLucAgAAQBAJ|page144|title=The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach}}, Oxford University Press 2014 p.144.</ref>
In the fifth century, the emperor based in Constantinople maintained control of the city, but following Sasanian emperor Khosrow II's early seventh-century advance through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen against the Byzantines.<ref name"AntiochusStrategos2">{{Cite book |lastConybeare |firstFrederick C. |author-linkFrederick Cornwallis Conybeare |titleThe Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD |year1910 |seriesEnglish Historical Review 25 |pages502–517}}</ref> In 614, after 21 days of siege, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sasanian and Jewish forces slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The conquered city would remain in Sasanian hands for some fifteen years. It was reconquered by emperor Heraclius in 629.<ref>Rodney Aist,The Christian Topography of Early Islamic Jerusalem,Brepols Publishers, 2009 p.56:'Persian control of Jerusalem lasted from 614 to 629'.</ref>
Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the armies of Umar, the Rashid caliph, in 636,<ref>{{cite book |authorDan Bahat |titleThe Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem |year1996 |page71}}</ref> which resulted in the removal of the restrictions on Jews living in the city. In this era, it was referred to in Arabic as Madinat Bayt al-Maqdis "City of the Temple",<ref>Ben-Dov, M. Historical Atlas of Jerusalem. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171</ref> a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city was called Ilyā, reflecting the Roman name Aelia.<ref>Linquist, J.M., The Temple of Jerusalem, Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184</ref>{{efn|"Till the time of Constantine, and for at least two centuries later, Aelia remained the official name and usual geographical designation; was still longer continued in Christian writings; and even passed over into Arabic as 'Iliyā'."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/Etana/SMITH.JERUv1/SMITH.JERUv1.250.273.pdf|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20031212012636/http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/Etana/SMITH.JERUv1/SMITH.JERUv1.250.273.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-date 2003-12-12 |titleThe Name Jerusalem and its History }}</ref>}}See also
{{Portal|History|Roman Empire|Judaism
}}
* Alexander of Jerusalem (died 251), bishop of Jerusalem
* Caesarea Maritima, Roman provincial capital after 6 CE
* Gabbatha, biblical name of the place where Pilate tried Jesus
* Names of Jerusalem
References
Footnotes
<references group"lower-alpha" responsive"1"></references>
Citations
<references responsive"0"></references>Bibliography
Main sources
* {{Cite book |lastEshel |firstHanan |url|titleThe Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisherCambridge University Press |year2006 |isbn978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-lastKatz |editor-firstSteven T. |seriesThe Cambridge History of Judaism |volume4th |location |pages|chapterThe Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135}}
* {{Cite book |lastFriedman |firstMark |titleCity of the Great King: Jerusalem from David to the Present |publisherHarvard University Press |year1996 |isbn978-0-674-36708-1 |editor-lastRosovsky |editor-firstNitza |location|pages136–147 |chapter=Jewish Pilgrimage after the Destruction of the Second Temple}}
* {{Cite journal |lastGoodman |firstMartin |year2004 |titleTrajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3600803 |journalPast & Present |volume|issue182 |pages3–29 |doi 10.1093/past/182.1.3|jstor=3600803 }}
* {{Cite book |lastMagness |firstJodi |urlhttps://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |titleJerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades |publisherOxford University Press |year2024 |isbn978-0-19-093780-5 |series |volume|locationNew York, NY |pages|chapter}}
* {{cite journal |lastMillar |firstFergus |year2010 |titleJerome and Palestine |journalScripta Classica Israelica |volume29 |pages=59–79}}
* {{Cite book |lastSmallwood |firstE. Mary |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1163/9789004502048_023 |titleThe Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisherBrill |year1976 |isbn978-90-04-50204-8 |series |volume|location |pages|chapter |doi=10.1163/9789004502048_023}}
Further reading
* Leo Kadman, The Coins of Aelia Capitolina, Jerusalem, 1956
* Benjamin H. Isaac, Roman Colonies in Judaea: the Foundation of Aelia Capitolina, Talanta XII/XIII (1980/81), pp.&nbsp;31–54
* Ritti, T., Documenti adrianei da Hierapolis di Frigia: le epistole di Adriano alla città, L’Hellénisme d’époque romaine. Nouveaux documents, nouvelles approches (ier s. a.C.–iiie s. p.C.), Paris, 2014, pp.&nbsp;297–340
* Yaron Z. Eliav, [https://books.google.com/books?id1TA-Fg4wBnUC&dqEcce%20Homo%20blomme&pg=PA244 The Urban Layout of Aelia Capitolina: A New View from the Perspective of the Temple Mount], The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish Revolt, Peter Schäfer (ed.), 2003, pp.&nbsp;241–277
* Zissu, B., Klein, E., Kloner, A. Settlement Processes in the territorium of Roman Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina), J. M. Alvarez, T. Nogales, I. Roda (hg.), XVIII CIAC: Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Mérida, 2014, pp.&nbsp;219–223.
* S. Weksler-Bdolah, The Foundation of Aelia Capitolina in Light of New Excavations along the Eastern Cardo, IEJ 64, 2014, pp.&nbsp;38–62
* B. Isaac,Caesarea-on-the-Sea and Aelia Capitolina: Two Ambiguous Roman Colonies, L’héritage Grec des colonies Romaines d’Orient. Interactions culturelles dans les provinces hellénophones de l’empire romain, C. Brélaz (hg.), Paris, 2017, pp.&nbsp;331–343.
* Kloner, A., Klein, E., Zissu, B., The Rural Hinterland (territorium) of Aelia Capitolina, G. Avni, G. D. Stiebel (hg.), Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City, Portsmouth, RI, 2017, pp.&nbsp;131–141.
* Newman, H. I., The Temple Mount of Jerusalem and the Capitolium of Aelia Capitolina, Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni, G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, J. Patrich (hg.), Jerusalem, 2017, pp.&nbsp;35–42
* A. Bernini, Un riconoscimento di debito redatto a Colonia Aelia Capitolina, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 206, 2018, pp.&nbsp;183–193
* A. Bernini, New Evidence for Colonia Aelia Capitolina (P. Mich. VII 445 + inv. 3888c + inv. 3944k, Proceedings of the 28th International Congress of Papyrology, Barcelona, 2019, pp.&nbsp;557–562.
* Werner Eck, [http://www.ejournals.eu/pliki/art/15014/ Die Colonia Aelia Capitolina: Überlegungen zur Anfangsphase der zweiten römischen Kolonie in der Provinz Iudaea-Syria Palaestina], ELECTRUM, Vol. 26 (2019), pp.&nbsp;129–139
* Miriam Ben Zeev Hofman, ''Eusebius and Hadrian's Founding of Aelia Capitolina in Jerusalem'', ELECTRUM, Vol. 26 (2019), pp.&nbsp;119–128
* Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah, Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period - In Light of Archaeological Research, Mnemosyne, Supplements, History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, Volume: 432, Brill, 2020
External links
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/aelia.htm Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210711103045/http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/aelia.htm|date2021-07-11}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090907043901/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/jhs/TSsptemp.html Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the emperor Hadrian]
* [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/archaeologists-bringing-jerusalem-s-ancient-roman-city-back-to-life-1.413874 "Archaeologists bringing Jerusalem's ancient Roman city back to life" by Nir Hasson, Ha'aretz, February 21, 2012]
* [https://www.manar-al-athar.ox.ac.uk/pages/search.php?search=%21collection542 Photos of the Ecco Homo Arch] at the Manar al-Athar photo archive
{{coord|31.775689|N|35.231040|E|display=title}}{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}{{Bar Kokhba revolt}}
Category:Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire
Category:Classical sites in Jerusalem
Category:Former populated places in West Asia
Category:Ancient history of Jerusalem
Category:Judea (Roman province)
Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Category:Populated places established in the 2nd century
Category:131 establishments
Category:130s establishments in the Roman Empire
Category:320s disestablishments in the Roman Empire
Category:Roman towns and cities
Category:Coloniae (Roman)
Category:Palestine in the Roman era
Category:Old City (Jerusalem)
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Aelian
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Aelian or Aelianus may refer to:
Aelianus Tacticus, 2nd-century Greek military writer in Rome
Casperius Aelianus (13–98 AD), Praetorian Prefect, executed by Trajan
Claudius Aelianus, Roman writer of De Natura Animalium, teacher and historian of the 3rd century, who wrote in Greek
Lucius Aelianus or Laelian (died 269), one of the thirty tyrants under the Roman empire
Aelianus Meccius, 2nd-century Greek physician, tutor of Galen
Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, adopted nephew of Plautia Urgulanilla, first wife of Claudius; consul 45 and 74 AD
Aelian (rebel) (fl. 285), leader of the Bagaudae peasant rebels
Aelianus (comes), leader of the Roman defensive forces at the Siege of Amida in 359
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Aelianus Tacticus
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thumb|In hoc codice continentur Helianus De instruendis aciebus et Onosander De optimo imperatore, , by Aelianus Tacticus
Aelianus Tacticus (; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as Aelian (), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.
Work
Aelian's military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks (), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.
Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus's house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.
Critics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). The author of the Strategikon ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian's work as a conceptional model, especially its preface. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own Taktika. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350.
References
Sources
Category:Roman-era Greeks
Category:2nd-century writers
Category:Ancient Macedonian army
Category:Ancient Greek military writers
Category:2nd-century Greek people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelianus_Tacticus
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Agarose
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right|thumb|An agarose gel in a trayused for gel electrophoresis
Agarose is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red algae. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.
Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.
Structure
right|thumb|The structure of the repeating unit of an agarose polymer.
Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.
Each agarose chain contains ~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm). The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to >200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.
Properties
Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from Gelidium has a gelling temperature of and a melting temperature of , while those derived from Gracilaria, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of and melting temperature of . The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.
Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.
The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added. On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.
Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
LE agarose is said to be better for preparative electrophoresis, i.e. when DNA needs to be extracted from an agarose gel.
Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses
The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.
Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (~90 nm) than standard agaroses. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at .
Applications
thumb|An agarose gel with bands of DNA stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light on a UV Transilluminator.
Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes >200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments >100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.
Agarose gel electrophoresis
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50–20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.
The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.
Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), Praesto and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).
For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.
Solid culture media
Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, Caenorhabditis elegans, other organisms and various cell lines.
Motility assays
Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel's porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell's swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient.
See also
Agar
SDD-AGE
References
Category:Polysaccharides
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarose
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Atomic absorption spectroscopy
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{{short description|Type of spectroanalytical procedure}}{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|dateJuly 2024}}{{Copy edit|dateMarch 2025}}}}
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a spectro-analytical procedure for the quantitative measurement of chemical elements. AAS is based on the absorption of light by free metallic ions that have been atomized from a sample. An alternative technique is atomic emission spectroscopy (AES).
In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution, or directly in solid samples via electrothermal vaporization,<ref>{{Cite web |titleTAS-990 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer-纳米材料工程研究中心 |urlhttps://ercn.henu.edu.cn/info/1452/2665.htm |access-date2022-10-12 |websiteercn.henu.edu.cn}}</ref> and is used in pharmacology, biophysics,
archaeology and toxicology research.
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AAS) was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany.<ref name"CHF">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/robert-bunsen-and-gustav-kirchhoff |titleRobert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff |workScience History Institute |access-date=20 March 2018 }}</ref>
The modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, Australia.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.eoas.info/biogs/P000860b.htm |titleWalsh, Alan - Biographical entry |authorMcCarthy, G.J. |publisherEncyclopedia of Australian Science |access-date22 May 2012}}</ref><ref name"Koirtyohann1991">{{cite journal|last1Koirtyohann|first1S. R.|titleA History of Atomic Absorption Spectrometry|journalAnalytical Chemistry|volume63|issue21|year1991|pages1024A–1031A|issn0003-2700|doi10.1021/ac00021a716}}</ref>
Instrumentation
In order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured by a detector.
Atomizers
The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are spectroscopic flames and electrothermal atomizers. Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization, might be used for special purposes.
Flame atomizers
The oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300&nbsp;°C and the nitrous oxide<ref name="Koirtyohann1991" /> system (N<sub>2</sub>O)-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700&nbsp;°C. The latter flame, in addition, offers a more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with high affinity to oxygen.
Liquid or dissolved samples are typically used with flame atomizers. The sample solution is aspirated by a pneumatic analytical nebulizer, transformed into an aerosol, which is introduced into a spray chamber, where it is mixed with the flame gases and conditioned in a way that only the finest aerosol droplets (< 10&nbsp;μm) enter the flame. This conditioning process reduces interference, but only about 5% of the aerosolized solution reaches the flame because of it.
On top of the spray chamber is a burner head that produces a flame that is laterally long (usually 5–10&nbsp;cm) and only a few mm deep. The radiation beam passes through this flame at its longest axis, and the flame gas flow-rates may be adjusted to produce the highest concentration of free atoms. The burner height may also be adjusted, so that the radiation beam passes through the zone of highest atom cloud density in the flame, resulting in the highest sensitivity.
The processes in a flame include the stages of desolvation (drying) in which the solvent is evaporated and the dry sample nano-particles remain, vaporization (transfer to the gaseous phase) in which the solid particles are converted into gaseous molecule, atomization in which the molecules are dissociated into free atoms, and ionization where (depending on the ionization potential of the analyte atoms and the energy available in a particular flame) atoms may be in part converted to gaseous ions.
Each of these stages includes the risk of interference in case the degree of phase transfer is different for the analyte in the calibration standard and in the sample. Ionization is generally undesirable, as it reduces the number of atoms that are available for measurement, i.e., the sensitivity.
In flame AAS a steady-state signal is generated during the time period when the sample is aspirated. This technique is typically used for determinations in the mg L<sup>−1</sup> range, and may be extended down to a few μg L<sup>−1</sup> for some elements.
Electrothermal atomizers
Electrothermal AAS (ET AAS) using graphite tube atomizers was pioneered by Boris V. L’vov at the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute, Russia,<ref>{{cite journal |last1L'vov |first1Boris |titleRecent advances in absolute analysis by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry |date1990 |journalSpectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy |doi10.1016/0584-8547(90)80046-L |volume45 |issue7 |pages633–655 |urlhttps://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1988/JA/JA9880300009|bibcode1990AcSpB..45..633L |url-accesssubscription }}</ref> since the late 1950s, and investigated in parallel by Hans Massmann at the Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy (ISAS) in Dortmund, Germany.<ref>{{cite web|titleAnalytical Methods for Graphite Tube Atomizers|urlhttp://hpst.cz/sites/default/files/attachments/gta-analytical-methods-0848.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hpst.cz/sites/default/files/attachments/gta-analytical-methods-0848.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|websiteagilent.com|publisher=Agilent Technologies}}</ref>
Although a wide variety of graphite tube designs have been used over the years, the dimensions nowadays are typically 20–25&nbsp;mm in length and 5–6&nbsp;mm inner diameter. With this technique liquid/dissolved, solid and gaseous samples may be analyzed directly. A measured volume (typically 10–50&nbsp;μL) or a weighed mass (typically around 1&nbsp;mg) of a solid sample are introduced into the graphite tube and subject to a temperature program. This typically consists of stages, such as drying – the solvent is evaporated; pyrolysis – the majority of the matrix constituents are removed; atomization – the analyte element is released to the gaseous phase; and cleaning – eventual residues in the graphite tube are removed at high temperature.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAtomic Spectroscopy - GF-AAS|urlhttps://sites.chem.utoronto.ca/chemistry/coursenotes/analsci/atomic/gfaas.html#:~:textGraphite%20furnace%20atomization%20(also%20known,inside%20a%20hollow%20graphite%20tube.|access-date2021-03-08|website=sites.chem.utoronto.ca}}</ref>
The graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely, and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample components. Tubes may be heated transversely or longitudinally, where the former ones have the advantage of a more homogeneous temperature distribution over their length. The so-called stabilized temperature platform furnace (STPF) concept, proposed by Walter Slavin, based on research of Boris L’vov, makes ET AAS essentially free from interference.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}} The major components of this concept are atomization of the sample from a graphite platform inserted into the graphite tube (L’vov platform) instead of from the tube wall in order to delay atomization until the gas phase in the atomizer has reached a stable temperature; use of a chemical modifier in order to stabilize the analyte to a pyrolysis temperature that is sufficient to remove the majority of the matrix components; and integration of the absorbance over the time of the transient absorption signal instead of using peak height absorbance for quantification.
In ET AAS a transient signal is generated, the area of which is directly proportional to the mass of analyte (not its concentration) introduced into the graphite tube. This technique has the advantage that any kind of sample, solid, liquid or gaseous, can be analyzed directly. Its sensitivity is 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than that of flame AAS, so that determinations in the low μg L<sup>−1</sup> range (for a typical sample volume of 20&nbsp;μL) and ng g<sup>−1</sup> range (for a typical sample mass of 1&nbsp;mg) can be carried out. It shows a very high degree of freedom from interferences, so that ET AAS might be considered the most robust technique available nowadays for the determination of trace elements in complex matrices.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2014}}Specialized atomization techniquesWhile flame and electrothermal vaporizers are the most common atomization techniques, several other atomization methods are utilized for specialized use.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Analytical_Chemistry_2.0_(Harvey)/10_Spectroscopic_Methods/10.4%3A_Atomic_Absorption_Spectroscopy|titleAtomic Absorption Spectroscopy|lastHarvey|firstDavid|date2016-05-25|websitechem.libretexts.org|access-date2017-10-06|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006113153/https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Analytical_Chemistry_2.0_(Harvey)/10_Spectroscopic_Methods/10.4%3A_Atomic_Absorption_Spectroscopy|archive-date2017-10-06|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://blogs.maryville.edu/aas/atomization-source/|titleSample Atomization – Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Learning Module|websiteblogs.maryville.edu|languageen-US|access-date2017-11-02}}</ref>
Glow-discharge atomization
A glow-discharge device (GD) serves as a versatile source, as it can simultaneously introduce and atomize the sample. The glow discharge occurs in a low-pressure argon gas atmosphere between 1 and 10 torr. In this atmosphere lies a pair of electrodes applying a DC voltage of 250 to 1000 V to break down the argon gas into positively charged ions and electrons. These ions, under the influence of the electric field, are accelerated into the cathode surface containing the sample, bombarding the sample and causing neutral sample atom ejection through the process known as sputtering. The atomic vapor produced by this discharge is composed of ions, ground state atoms, and fraction of excited atoms. When the excited atoms relax back into their ground state, a low-intensity glow is emitted, giving the technique its name.
The requirement for samples of glow discharge atomizers is that they are electrical conductors. Consequently, atomizers are most commonly used in the analysis of metals and other conducting samples. However, with proper modifications, it can be utilized to analyze liquid samples as well as nonconducting materials by mixing them with a conductor (e.g. graphite).
Hydride atomization
Hydride generation techniques are specialized in solutions of specific elements. The technique provides a means of introducing samples containing arsenic, antimony, selenium, bismuth, and lead into an atomizer in the gas phase. With these elements, hydride atomization enhances detection limits by a factor of 10 to 100 compared to alternative methods. Hydride generation occurs by adding an acidified aqueous solution of the sample to a 1% aqueous solution of sodium borohydride, all of which is contained in a glass vessel. The volatile hydride generated by the reaction that occurs is swept into the atomization chamber by an inert gas, where it undergoes decomposition. This process forms an atomized form of the analyte, which can then be measured by absorption or emission spectrometry.
Cold-vapor atomization
The cold-vapor technique is an atomization method limited only for the determination of mercury, due to it being the only metallic element to have a large vapor pressure at ambient temperature.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} Because of this, it has an important use in determining organic mercury compounds in samples and their distribution in the environment. The method initiates by converting mercury into Hg<sup>2+</sup> by oxidation from nitric and sulfuric acids, followed by a reduction of Hg<sup>2+</sup> with tin(II) chloride. The mercury, is then swept into a long-pass absorption tube by bubbling a stream of inert gas through the reaction mixture. The concentration is determined by measuring the absorbance of this gas at 253.7&nbsp;nm. Detection limits for this technique are in the parts-per-billion range making it an excellent mercury detection atomization method. Radiation sources We have to distinguish between line source AAS (LS AAS) and continuum source AAS (CS AAS). In classical LS AAS, as it has been proposed by Alan Walsh,<ref>{{cite book|last1Walsh|first1Alan|last2Becker-Ross|first2Helmut|last3Florek|first3Stefan|last4Heitmann|first4Uwe|titleHigh-Resolution Continuum Source AAS|date19 January 2006|publisherWiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|locationWeinheim|isbn9783527307364|page2}}</ref> the high spectral resolution required for AAS measurements is provided by the radiation source itself that emits the spectrum of the analyte in the form of lines that are narrower than the absorption lines. Continuum sources, such as deuterium lamps, are only used for background correction purposes. The advantage of this technique is that only a medium-resolution monochromator is necessary for measuring AAS; however, it has the disadvantage that usually a separate lamp is required for each element that has to be determined. In CS AAS, in contrast, a single lamp, emitting a continuum spectrum over the entire spectral range of interest is used for all elements. Obviously, a high-resolution monochromator is required for this technique, as will be discussed later. Hollow cathode lamps Hollow cathode lamps (HCL) are the most common radiation source in LS AAS.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} Inside the sealed lamp, filled with argon or neon gas at low pressure, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the element of interest and an anode. A high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, resulting in an ionization of the fill gas. The gas ions are accelerated towards the cathode and, upon impact on the cathode, sputter cathode material that is excited in the glow discharge to emit the radiation of the sputtered material, i.e., the element of interest. In the majority of cases single element lamps are used, where the cathode is pressed out of predominantly compounds of the target element. Multi-element lamps are available with combinations of compounds of the target elements pressed in the cathode. Multi element lamps produce slightly less sensitivity than single element lamps and the combinations of elements have to be selected carefully to avoid spectral interferences. Most multi-element lamps combine a handful of elements, e.g.: 2 - 8. Atomic Absorption Spectrometers can feature as few as 1-2 hollow cathode lamp positions or in automated multi-element spectrometers, a 8-12 lamp positions may be typically available.
Electrodeless discharge lamps
Electrodeless discharge lamps (EDL) contain a small quantity of the analyte as a metal or a salt in a quartz bulb together with an inert gas, typically argon gas, at low pressure. The bulb is inserted into a coil that is generating an electromagnetic radio frequency field, resulting in a low-pressure inductively coupled discharge in the lamp. The emission from an EDL is higher than that from an HCL, and the line width is generally narrower, but EDLs need a separate power supply and might need a longer time to stabilize.
Deuterium lamps
Deuterium HCL or even hydrogen HCL and deuterium discharge lamps are used in LS AAS for background correction purposes.<ref>{{cite web|last1Rakshit|first1Amitava|titleBasics of Laboratory Safety: Common laboratory rules and regulations|urlhttp://www.intecol.net/pages/002_personal.php?tableblog&tb_kindResearch&idAmitava&vvtaa&bidx134710|websiteThe International Association for Ecology|publisherIntecol|access-date26 September 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160927115008/http://www.intecol.net/pages/002_personal.php?tableblog&tb_kindResearch&idAmitava&vvtaa&bidx134710|archive-date27 September 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> The radiation intensity emitted by these lamps decreases significantly with increasing wavelength, so that they can be only used in the wavelength range between 190 and about 320&nbsp;nm.
Continuum sources
When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS, it is necessary to use a high-resolution monochromator, as will be discussed later. In addition, it is necessary that the lamp emits radiation of intensity at least an order of magnitude above that of a typical HCL over the entire wavelength range from 190&nbsp;nm to 900&nbsp;nm. A special high-pressure xenon short arc lamp, operating in a hot-spot mode has been developed to fulfill these requirements.
Spectrometer
As already pointed out above, there is a difference between medium-resolution spectrometers that are used for LS AAS and high-resolution spectrometers that are designed for CS AAS. The spectrometer includes the spectral sorting device (monochromator) and the detector.
Spectrometers for LS AAS
In LS AAS the high resolution that is required for the measurement of atomic absorption is provided by the narrow line emission of the radiation source, and the monochromator simply has to resolve the analytical line from other radiation emitted by the lamp.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} This can usually be accomplished with a band pass between 0.2 and 2&nbsp;nm, i.e., a medium-resolution monochromator. Another feature to make LS AAS element-specific is modulation of the primary radiation and the use of a selective amplifier that is tuned to the same modulation frequency, as already postulated by Alan Walsh. This way any (unmodulated) radiation emitted for example by the atomizer can be excluded, which is imperative for LS AAS. Simple monochromators of the Littrow or (better) the Czerny-Turner design are typically used for LS AAS. Photomultiplier tubes are the most frequently used detectors in LS AAS, although solid state detectors might be preferred because of their better signal-to-noise ratio. Spectrometers for CS AAS When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS measurement it is indispensable to work with a high-resolution monochromator. The resolution has to be equal to or better than the half-width of an atomic absorption line (about 2 pm) in order to avoid losses of sensitivity and linearity of the calibration graph. The research with high-resolution (HR) CS AAS was pioneered by the groups of O’Haver and Harnly in the US, who also developed the (up until now) only simultaneous multi-element spectrometer for this technique. The breakthrough, however, came when the group of Becker-Ross in Berlin, Germany, built a spectrometer entirely designed for HR-CS AAS. The first commercial equipment for HR-CS AAS was introduced by Analytik Jena (Jena, Germany) at the beginning of the 21st century, based on the design proposed by Becker-Ross and Florek. These spectrometers use a compact double monochromator with a prism pre-monochromator and an echelle grating monochromator for high resolution. A linear charge-coupled device (CCD) array with 200 pixels is used as the detector. The second monochromator does not have an exit slit; hence the spectral environment at both sides of the analytical line becomes visible at high resolution. As typically only 3–5 pixels are used to measure the atomic absorption, the other pixels are available for correction purposes. One of these corrections is that for lamp flicker noise, which is independent of wavelength, resulting in measurements with very low noise level; other corrections are those for background absorption, as will be discussed later. Background absorption and background correction The relatively small number of atomic absorption lines (compared to atomic emission lines) and their narrow width (a few pm) make spectral overlap rare; there are only few examples known that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} Molecular absorption, in contrast, is much broader, so that it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line. This kind of absorption might be caused by un-dissociated molecules of concomitant elements of the sample or by flame gases. We have to distinguish between the spectra of di-atomic molecules, which exhibit a pronounced fine structure, and those of larger (usually tri-atomic) molecules that don't show such fine structure. Another source of background absorption, particularly in ET AAS, is scattering of the primary radiation at particles that are generated in the atomization stage, when the matrix could not be removed sufficiently in the pyrolysis stage.
All these phenomena, molecular absorption and radiation scattering, can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high (erroneous) calculation for the concentration or mass of the analyte in the sample. There are several techniques available to correct for background absorption, and they are significantly different for LS AAS and HR-CS AAS.
Background correction techniques in LS AAS
In LS AAS background absorption can only be corrected using instrumental techniques, and all of them are based on two sequential measurements:<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjmsoDwAAQBAJ&pgPA81|titleFluorine: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects|lastPreedy|firstVictor R.|date2015-04-17|publisherRoyal Society of Chemistry|isbn9781782624929|languageen}}</ref> firstly, total absorption (atomic plus background), secondly, background absorption only. The difference of the two measurements gives the net atomic absorption. Because of this, and because of the use of additional devices in the spectrometer, the signal-to-noise ratio of background-corrected signals is always significantly inferior compared to uncorrected signals. It should also be pointed out that in LS AAS there is no way to correct for (the rare case of) a direct overlap of two atomic lines. In essence there are three techniques used for background correction in LS AAS:
Deuterium background correction
This is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS. In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer. The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least accurate one, as it cannot correct for any structured background. It also cannot be used at wavelengths above about 320&nbsp;nm, as the emission intensity of the deuterium lamp becomes very weak. The use of deuterium HCL is preferable compared to an arc lamp due to the better fit of the image of the former lamp with that of the analyte HCL.
Smith-Hieftje background correction
This technique (named after their inventors) is based on the line-broadening and self-reversal of emission lines from HCL when high current is applied. Total absorption is measured with normal lamp current, i.e., with a narrow emission line, and background absorption after application of a high-current pulse with the profile of the self-reversed line, which has little emission at the original wavelength, but strong emission on both sides of the analytical line. The advantage of this technique is that only one radiation source is used; among the disadvantages are that the high-current pulses reduce lamp lifetime, and that the technique can only be used for relatively volatile elements, as only those exhibit sufficient self-reversal to avoid dramatic loss of sensitivity. Another problem is that background is not measured at the same wavelength as total absorption, making the technique unsuitable for correcting structured background.
Zeeman-effect background correction
{{main|Zeeman effect}}
An alternating magnetic field is applied at the atomizer (graphite furnace) to split the absorption line into three components, the π component, which remains at the same position as the original absorption line, and two σ components, which are moved to higher and lower wavelengths, respectively.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} Total absorption is measured without magnetic field and background absorption with the magnetic field on. The π component has to be removed in this case, e.g. using a polarizer, and the σ components do not overlap with the emission profile of the lamp, so that only the background absorption is measured. The advantages of this technique are that total and background absorption are measured with the same emission profile of the same lamp, so that any kind of background, including background with fine structure can be corrected accurately, unless the molecule responsible for the background is also affected by the magnetic field and using a chopper as a polariser reduces the signal to noise ratio. While the disadvantages are the increased complexity of the spectrometer and power supply needed for running the powerful magnet needed to split the absorption line. Background correction techniques in HR-CS AAS In HR-CS AAS background correction is carried out mathematically in the software using information from detector pixels that are not used for measuring atomic absorption; hence, in contrast to LS AAS, no additional components are required for background correction. Background correction using correction pixels It has already been mentioned that in HR-CS AAS lamp flicker noise is eliminated using correction pixels. In fact, any increase or decrease in radiation intensity that is observed to the same extent at all pixels chosen for correction is eliminated by the correction algorithm.{{citation needed|dateMarch 2016}} This obviously also includes a reduction of the measured intensity due to radiation scattering or molecular absorption, which is corrected in the same way. As measurement of total and background absorption, and correction for the latter, are strictly simultaneous (in contrast to LS AAS), even the fastest changes of background absorption, as they may be observed in ET AAS, do not cause any problem. In addition, as the same algorithm is used for background correction and elimination of lamp noise, the background corrected signals show a much better signal-to-noise ratio compared to the uncorrected signals, which is also in contrast to LS AAS.
Background correction using a least-squares algorithm
The above technique can obviously not correct for a background with fine structure, as in this case the absorbance will be different at each of the correction pixels. In this case HR-CS AAS is offering the possibility to measure correction spectra of the molecule(s) that is (are) responsible for the background and store them in the computer. These spectra are then multiplied with a factor to match the intensity of the sample spectrum and subtracted pixel by pixel and spectrum by spectrum from the sample spectrum using a least-squares algorithm. This might sound complex, but first of all the number of di-atomic molecules that can exist at the temperatures of the atomizers used in AAS is relatively small, and second, the correction is performed by the computer within a few seconds. The same algorithm can actually also be used to correct for direct line overlap of two atomic absorption lines, making HR-CS AAS the only AAS technique that can correct for this kind of spectral interference.
See also
*Absorption spectroscopy
*Beer–Lambert law
*Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
*Laser absorption spectrometry
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
*B. Welz, M. Sperling (1999), Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, {{ISBN|3-527-28571-7}}.
*A. Walsh (1955), The application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis, Spectrochim. Acta 7: 108–117.
*J.A.C. Broekaert (1998), Analytical Atomic Spectrometry with Flames and Plasmas, 3rd Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
*B.V. L’vov (1984), Twenty-five years of furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 39: 149–157.
*B.V. L’vov (2005), Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry; J. Anal. Chem., 60: 382–392.
*H. Massmann (1968), Vergleich von Atomabsorption und Atomfluoreszenz in der Graphitküvette, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 23: 215–226.
*W. Slavin, D.C. Manning, G.R. Carnrick (1981), The stabilized temperature platform furnace, At. Spectrosc. 2: 137–145.
*B. Welz, H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann (2005), High-resolution Continuum Source AAS, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, {{ISBN|3-527-30736-2}}.
*H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann, R. Weisse (1996), Influence of the spectral bandwidth of the spectrometer on the sensitivity using continuum source AAS, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 355: 300–303.
*J.M. Harnly (1986), Multi element atomic absorption with a continuum source, Anal. Chem. 58: 933A-943A.
*Skoog, Douglas (2007). Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Canada: Thomson Brooks/Cole. {{ISBN|0-495-01201-7}}.
External links
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Analytical chemistry}}
{{BranchesofSpectroscopy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy}}
Category:Absorption spectroscopy
Category:Australian inventions
Category:Scientific techniques
Category:Analytical chemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy
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Arthur St. Clair
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{{short description|Scottish-born American military officer and politician (1737–1818)}}
{{For|the murdered community leader from Brooksville, Florida|Arthur St. Clair (minister)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Arthur St. Clair
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1737|3|23}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1818|8|31|1737|3|23}}
| image = ArthurStClairOfficialPortrait-restored.jpg
| caption = Portrait by Charles Willson Peale, {{circa}} 1783
| order = 1st
| office = Governor of the Northwest Territory
| term_start = July 15, 1788
| term_end = November 22, 1802
| preceded = Position established
| succeeded = Charles Willing Byrd
| office1 = 4th Senior Officer of the United States Army
| term_start1 = March 4, 1791
| term_end1 = March 5, 1792
| president1 = George Washington
| preceded1 = Josiah Harmar
| succeeded1 = Anthony Wayne
| office2 = 9th President of the Confederation Congress
| term_start2 = February 2, 1787
| term_end2 = November 4, 1787
| preceded2 = Nathaniel Gorham
| succeeded2 = Cyrus Griffin
| signature = Arthur st clair signature.svg
| alma_mater = University of Edinburgh
| birth_place = Thurso, Caithness, Scotland
| death_place = Greensburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| restingplace = St. Clair Park, Greensburg
| party = Federalist
| nickname | allegiance {{ubl|Kingdom of Great Britain|United States}}
| branch = {{ubl|British Army (1757–1762)|Continental Army (1775–1783)|United States Army (1791–1792)}}
| serviceyears | rank {{ubl|Lieutenant (Britain)|Major General (U.S.)}}
| unit | commands
| battles = {{tree list}}
* French and Indian War
** Siege of Louisbourg
** Battle of the Plains of Abraham
* Lord Dunmore's War
* American Revolutionary War
** Invasion of Quebec
*** Battle of Trois-Rivières
** Battle of Trenton
** Battle of Princeton
** Siege of Fort Ticonderoga
** Siege of Yorktown
* Northwest Indian War
** Battle of the Wabash
{{tree list/end}}
| awards | relations
}}
Major-General Arthur St. Clair ({{OldStyleDateDY|March 23,|1737<ref name="ANB" />|1736<!--OS New Year began March 25-->}} – August 31, 1818) was a Scottish-born American military officer and politician. Born in Thurso, Caithness, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in the Province of Pennsylvania. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.
After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance. He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, which was further enlarged by the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, he commanded an American army in St. Clair's Defeat, which became the greatest victory achieved by Native Americans against the United States. Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802 and died in obscurity.
Early life and career
St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness. Little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734,<ref>Smith, St. Clair Papers, 1:2.</ref> but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737.<!-- I don't know if the March 23 part is Julian or Gregorian. --> His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour.<ref name"ANB">Gregory Evans Dowd. "St. Clair, Arthur", American National Biography Online, February 2000.</ref> He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.<ref name"ANB" />
In 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army's Royal American Regiment and came to North America with Admiral Edward Boscawen's fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffery Amherst during the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia, on July 26, 1758. On April 17, 1759, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City.
Settler in America
On April 16, 1762, he resigned his commission, and by 1764 had settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and went into business as an operator of flour and grist mills. The fortune he amassed soon made him the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.
In 1770, St. Clair entered politics when he was elected as a justice of both the Court of Quarter Sessions and of Common Pleas. He subsequently served as a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.
In 1774, during Lord Dunmore's War, the colony of Virginia illegally took claim of the area around present-day Pittsburgh. A militia was quickly raised to drive off the Virginians and St. Clair, in his capacity as a magistrate, issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. The boundary dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania wasn't settled until 1780, when both sides agreed to extend the Mason–Dixon line westward from Maryland to 80° 31′ west, the current western border of Pennsylvania. (see: District of West Augusta)
Revolutionary War
By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. He first saw service in the final days of the failed Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776 and was tasked by George Washington to help train and equip newly arrived recruits from New Jersey. He took part in George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington's capture of Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777.<ref>{{cite book|lastFischer|firstDavid Hackett|author-linkDavid Hackett Fischer|titleWashington's Crossing|publisherOxford University Press|year2006|isbn0-19-518159-X|pages[https://archive.org/details/washingtonscross00fisc/page/313 313–14]}}</ref> St. Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.
In April 1777, St. Clair was given command of Fort Ticonderoga. His outnumbered garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne's larger force in the Saratoga campaign; thus, St. Clair was forced to retreat at the resulting siege on July 5, 1777. He successfully evacuated his men, but choosing not to stand and fight permanently damaged his sterling reputation. In 1778, he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. <ref nameNationalMuseum>{{cite web |urlhttps://armyhistory.org/major-general-arthur-st-clair/ |titleMajor General Arthur St. Clair |dateJanuary 27, 2015 |publisherNational Museum of the United States Army}}</ref> The court exonerated him and approved his return to duty, <ref nameNationalMuseum/> but he would never hold a command again during the Revolution. He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to Washington, who retained a high opinion of him. St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army. During his military service, St. Clair was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1780.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAPS Member History|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorarthur+st.+clair&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced|access-date2020-12-06|websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>
President of the United States in Congress Assembled
Following his discharge from the Army, St. Clair was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783 and served as a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787. Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays's Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle their disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government. On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress. Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during his tenure. Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however; during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress. St. Clair is the only foreign-born "president" of the United States.<ref>{{cite book |lastLocke |firstSteven P |title"War Along the Wabash: The Ohio Indian Confederacy's Destruction of the US Army, 1792" |page65 |publisherCasemate Publishers |editionKindle}}</ref>
Northwest Territory
{{main|Northwest Territory}}
]]
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, to honor his membership in the Society of the Cincinnati,<ref>{{Cite web|lastSuess|firstJeff|titleOur history: Who was Cincinnatus, inspiration for city's name?|urlhttps://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2017/10/11/our-history-who-cincinnatus-inspiration-citys-name/752548001/|access-date2021-03-05|websiteThe Enquirer|language=en-US}}</ref> and it was there that he decided to relocate his home.
As governor, he formulated "Maxwell's Code" (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also worked with Josiah Harmar, Senior Officer of the United States, to resolve the issue of Native American tribes refusing to leave their lands, which the federal government had seized as punishment for their support of the British during the Revolution. In 1789, the two men succeeded in getting several Native American tribal leaders to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but the treaty was never fully implemented and the tribes rejected it outright as illegitimate.
Supported with intelligence, supplies, and weapons funneled to them by British agents, the tribes decided to wage full-scale war against the Americans in what came to be called the "Northwest Indian War" (or "Little Turtle's War"). Harmar was ordered by President Washington's administration to crush the Indians with a force comprised mainly of ill-disciplined and inexperienced state militiamen; he suffered a humiliating defeat in October 1790.
Army commander
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded the disgraced Harmar as Senior Officer of the new United States Army and was restored to his previous rank of major general. He personally led a punitive expedition, this time with two full Army regiments and a large contingent of militia. Unlike Harmar, St. Clair had a far better organized and supplied force; unfortunately, like Harmar, St. Clair was also devoid of any practical experience in frontier warfare and generally dismissive of the Indians as fighters. In October 1791, he ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson to serve as the advance post for his campaign. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named Fort Deposit.
St. Clair's defeat
{{Main|St. Clair's Defeat}}In November 1791, near modern-day Fort Recovery, St. Clair advanced on the main Indian settlements at the head of the Wabash River. On November 4, they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket with the support of British agents Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. More than 600 American soldiers and scores of camp followers were killed in the battle, which came to be known as "St. Clair's Defeat"; other names include the "Battle of the Wabash", the "Columbia Massacre," or the "Battle of a Thousand Slain". It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. army by Native Americans in history, with a total of 623 fallen Americans compared to just 50 fallen Native Americans. The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt. Robert Benham. <ref>Leroy V. Eid, "American Indian Military Leadership: St. Clair's 1791 Defeat." Journal of Military History 57.1 (1993): 71–88.</ref><ref>William O. Odo, "Destined for Defeat: an Analysis of the St. Clair Expedition of 1791." Northwest Ohio Quarterly (1993) 65#2 pp. 68–93.</ref><ref>John F. Winkler, ''Wabash 1791: St Clair's Defeat (Osprey Publishing, 2011)</ref>
Continued as Governor 1788-1802
Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair surrendered his commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington before resuming his previous office as territorial governor.
A Federalist, St. Clair refocused his energies on carving up the Northwest Territory into two states that would strength Federalist control of Congress. However, he was opposed by Ohio Democrat-Republicans for what they perceived as his shameless partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, he declared that his constituents "are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France." This, coupled with the gradual collapse of Federalist influence in Washington D.C., led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him as governor. <ref>Dumas Malone,Jefferson The President: First Term, 1801–1805'', Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970, pp. 243–44.</ref> He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.
The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, largely as a reaction to St. Clair's method of governance.
Family life
St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard's mother's maiden name was Bowdoin, and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, a colonial governor of Massachusetts.
His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.
Like many of his Revolutionary-era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout due to poor diet, as noted in his correspondence with John Adams.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-1995|publisherFounders Online|titleFrom John Adams to Arthur St. Clair, 30 May 1797|dateMay 30, 1797|access-dateMarch 10, 2022}}</ref>Death
In retirement, St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.
Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.post-gazette.com/local/westmoreland/2009/11/22/Buried-in-Greensburg-Arthur-St-Clair-a-forgotten-Revolutionary/stories/200911220269|titleBuried in Greensburg, Arthur St. Clair a forgotten Revolutionary|website=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova Caesarea
Lodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791.<ref>{{cite web |first1Grover W. |last1Brunton |urlhttp://www.mastermason.com/Millennium382/Papers/st%20clair.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.mastermason.com/Millennium382/Papers/st%20clair.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleGeneral Arthur St. Clair, Soldier, Surveyor, Territorial Governor, and Freemason |dateNovember 15, 2007|access-date=November 5, 2019}} This article was extracted from an article found on the internet
www.heritagepursuit.com/Hamilton/HamiltonChap.I.htm entitled History of Cincinnati and
Hamilton County, Ohio</ref> This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://ncharmony.com/about/|titleAbout Our Lodge – Nova Caesarea Harmony #2}}</ref> His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.
Legacy
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD Michigan place names as all are named after Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River which are named for Saint Clare of Assisi NOT Arthur St. Clair. Thank you. -->
A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair's home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.
An American Civil War steamer was named USS St. Clair.
Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, {{ws|General St. Clair}} in her first poetry collection of 1815.
The site of Clair's inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the National Start Westward Memorial of The United States, commemorating the settlement of the territory.<ref name"OOS">{{cite web |titleMemorial to the Start Westward |urlhttps://www.sculpturecenter.org/oosi/items/show/991 |websiteOhio Outdoor Sculpture |access-date=12 November 2022}}</ref>
Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:
In Pennsylvania:
* Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania
* St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
* East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
* West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
* The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Hospital, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
In Ohio:
*St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio
* St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,
* St. Clairsville, Ohio
* St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio
* Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio
Other States:
* St. Clair County, Illinois
* St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana
* St. Clair County, Missouri
* St. Clair County, Alabama
* St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street's north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.
In Scotland:
* The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him.
References
Notes
{{reflist}}
Books
* Kopper, Kevin Patrick. "Arthur St. Clair and the Struggle For Power in the Old Northwest, 1763–1803" (Dissertation. Kent State University, 2005) [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accessionkent1113952769&dispositioninline online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004151804/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accessionkent1113952769&dispositioninline |date2018-10-04 }}
* {{cite book|titleThe Life and Public Services of Arthur St. Clair |editor-firstWilliam Henry |editor-lastSmith |editor-linkWilliam Henry Smith (American politician)|volume1 |publisherRobert Clarke & Company |year1882 |isbn978-0-598-28691-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsIUvN0eyjsIC}}
* {{cite book|titleThe Life and Public Services of Arthur St. Clair |editor-firstWilliam Henry |editor-lastSmith |editor-linkWilliam Henry Smith (American politician)|volume2 |publisherRobert Clarke & Company |year1882 |isbn9780598286918 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBrUTAAAAYAAJ}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.ohiomemory.org Ohio Memory]
* [http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=354 Ohio History Central]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807164157/http://fortligonier.org/hermitage.php The Hermitage – home of Arthur St. Clair]
{{s-start}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new|first}}
{{s-ttl|titleFederalist nominee for Governor of Pennsylvania|years1790}}
{{s-aft|after=Frederick Muhlenberg}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before=Nathaniel Gorham}}
{{s-ttl |titlePresident of the Continental Congress | yearsFebruary 2, 1787 – November 4, 1787}}
{{s-aft | after=Cyrus Griffin}}
{{s-new | office}}
{{s-ttl |titleGovernor of the Northwest Territory | years July 15, 1788 – November 22, 1802}}
{{s-aft | after=Charles Willing Byrd}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef|before=Joseph Reed}}
{{s-ttl|titleAdjutant Generals of the U. S. Army|yearsJanuary 22, 1777 – February 20, 1777 (acting)}}
{{s-aft|after=George Weedon (acting)}}
{{s-bef | before=Josiah Harmar}}
{{s-ttl |titleSenior Officer of the United States Army | years1791–1792}}
{{s-aft | after=Anthony Wayne}}
{{s-end}}
{{Presidents of the Continental Congress}}
{{US Army Chiefs of Staff}}
{{American Revolutionary War|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|British Empire|United States}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:St. Clair, Arthur}}
Category:1737 births
Category:1818 deaths
Category:Adjutants general of the United States Army
Category:Continental Army generals
Category:Continental Army officers from Pennsylvania
Category:Continental Army personnel who were court-martialed
Category:Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
Category:19th-century American politicians
Category:Governors of Northwest Territory
Category:Politicians from Cincinnati
Category:People from Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Category:American people of the Northwest Indian War
Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Category:British military personnel of the French and Indian War
Category:People from Thurso
Category:Royal American Regiment officers
Category:British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Category:Commanding Generals of the United States Army
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
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Ajaccio
|
{{short description|Prefecture and commune in Corsica}}
{{About|the Corsican city|the wine|Ajaccio AOC|the association football clubs|AC Ajaccio|and|Gazélec Ajaccio}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox French commune
|name = Ajaccio
|native name = {{native name|co|Aiacciu / Aghjacciu}}
|commune status = Prefecture and commune
|image flag = Flag of Ajaccio.svg
|image coat of arms = Blason ville fr Ajaccio.svg
|image = {{multiple image
|perrow = 1/2/2
|border = infobox
|total_width = 300
|image1 = Port Tino Rossi - Ajaccio (15148706455).jpg
|caption1 = Port Tino Rossi
|image2 = 2019 03 11 Aida Ajaccio (19).jpg
|caption2 = view of the city
|image3 = Korsika – Ajaccio – Musée Fesch - panoramio.jpg
|caption3 = Musée Fesch
|image4 = Ajaccio Cathedral.jpg
|caption4 = Ajaccio Cathedral
|image5 = Ajaccio phare citadelle.jpg
|caption5 = Ajaccio Citadel
}}
|caption |arrondissement Ajaccio
|canton = Ajaccio-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
|INSEE = 2A004
|postal code = 20000
|demonym = Ajacciens (in French), Aiaccini or Ajaccini (in Italian), Aiaccini or Aghjaccini (in Corsican)
|mayor Stéphane Sbraggia<ref>{{cite web|titleRépertoire national des élus: les maires|urlhttps://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/r/2876a346-d50c-4911-934e-19ee07b0e503|publisherdata.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises|date13 September 2022|languagefr}}</ref>
|term = 2022&ndash;2026
|intercommunality = CA Pays Ajaccien
|coordinates {{coord|41.9267|8.7369|formatdms|display=inline,title}}
|elevation m = 38
|elevation min m = 0
|elevation max m = 787
|area km2 = 82.03
|population = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_total}}
|population date = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_as_of}}
|population footnotes = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_footnotes}}
|website = http://www.ajaccio.fr/
}}
Ajaccio ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|ə|tʃ|oʊ}},<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|UKalso|ə|ˈ|dʒ|æ|(|k|)|s|i|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ɑː|ˈ|j|ɑː|tʃ|(|i|)|oʊ}}; French: {{IPA|fr|aʒaksjo||LL-Q150 (fra)-Benoît Prieur-Ajaccio.wav}}; {{langx|it|Aiaccio}} or {{lang|it|Ajaccio}} {{IPA|it|aˈjattʃo|}}; {{langx|co|Aiacciu}} {{IPA|co|aˈjattʃu|}}, <small>locally:</small> {{lang|co|Aghjacciu}} {{IPA|co|aˈɟattʃu|}}; {{langx|la|Adiacium}}) is the capital and largest city of Corsica, France. It forms a French commune, prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud, and head office of the Collectivité territoriale de Corse (capital city of Corsica). It is also the largest settlement on the island. Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, {{convert|210|nmi|km|-1}} southeast of Marseille.
The original city went into decline in the Middle Ages, but began to prosper again after the Genoese built a citadel in 1492, to the south of the earlier settlement. After the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755, the Genoese continued to hold several citadels, including Ajaccio, until the French took control of the island.
The inhabitants of the commune are known as Ajacciens (men) or Ajacciennes (women).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.habitants.fr/corse-du-sud-2A|titleLe nom des habitants du 2A - Corse-du-Sud - Habitants|websitewww.habitants.fr}}</ref> The most famous of these is Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Ajaccio in 1769, and whose ancestral home, the Maison Bonaparte, is now a museum. Other dedications to him in the city include Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport.<ref>{{cite web|titleWhat's in an eponym? Celebrity airports - could there be a commercial benefit in naming?|urlhttps://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/whats-in-an-eponym-could-there-be-a-financial-or-other-benefit-in-celebrity-airport-naming-215965|publisherCentre for Aviation}}</ref>
Toponymy
Several hypotheses have been advanced as to the etymology of the name Ajaccio (Aiacciu in Corsican, Addiazzo on old documents). Among these, the most prestigious suggests that the city was founded by the Greek legendary hero Ajax and named after him. Other more realistic explanations are, for example, that the name could be related to the Tuscan agghiacciu meaning "sheep pens". Another explanation, supported by Byzantine sources from around the year 600 AD called the city Agiation which suggests a possible Greek origin for the word,<ref>Manuscript variants are Agration and Agiagium but the use of a Greek ending does not necessarily indicate anything at all about ethnicity. At this late date geographers used either Greek or Latin forms at will. The word is no more decipherable in Greek than it is in Latin; attempts to connect two or three letters with Indo-European roots amount to speculation.</ref> agathè could mean "good luck" or "good mooring" (this was also the root of the name of the city of Agde).
Geography
Location
Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, {{convert|210|nmi|km|-1}} southeast of Marseille. The commune occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio<ref name"EB1911"/> between Gravona and the pointe de la Parata and includes the îles Sanguinaires (Bloody Islands). The harbour lies to the east of the original citadel below a hill overlooking a peninsula which protects the harbour in the south where the Quai de la Citadelle and the Jettée de la Citadelle are. The modern city not only encloses the entire harbour but takes up the better part of the Gulf of Ajaccio and in suburban form extends for some miles up the valley of the river Gravona. The flow from that river is nearly entirely consumed as the city's water supply. Many beaches and coves border its territory and the terrain is particularly rugged in the west where the highest point is {{convert|790|m|0|abbron}}.
<gallery modepacked heights75px>
File:Porto Ajacio.JPG|Ajaccio Marina
File:Baie_Ajaccio_voilier.jpg|The Bay
File:Ajaccio_phare_citadelle.jpg|The lighthouse of the citadel of Ajaccio overlooking the bay
File:Ajaccio Sanguinaires 1.jpg|Îles Sanguinaires
Port Ajaccio.JPG|The market
Ajaccio bay.jpg|A satellite image of the city and surrounding water.
</gallery>
Urbanism
Although the commune of Ajaccio has a large area (82.03&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), only a small portion of this is urbanized. Therefore, the urban area of Ajaccio is located in the east of the commune on a narrow coastal strip forming a densely populated arc. The rest of the territory is natural with habitation of little importance and spread thinly. Suburbanization occurs north and east of the main urban area.
The original urban core, close to the old marshy plain of Cannes was abandoned in favour of the current city which was built near the Punta della Lechia. It has undergone various improvements, particularly under Napoleon, who originated the two current major structural arteries (the Cours Napoleon oriented north–south and the Cours Grandval oriented east–west).
Ajaccio experienced a demographic boom in the 1960s, which explains why 85% of dwellings are post-1949.<ref>The Cities of France, by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> This is reflected in the layout of the city which is marked by very large areas of low-rise buildings and concrete towers, especially on the heights (''Les Jardins de l'Empereur) and in the north of the city - e.g. the waterfront, Les Cannes, and Les Salines. A dichotomy appears in the landscape between the old city and the imposing modern buildings. Ajaccio gives the image of a city built on two different levels.
Climate
The city has a Mediterranean climate which is Csa in the Köppen climate classification. The average annual sunshine is 2,726 hours.
There are important local climatic variations, especially with wind exposure and total precipitation, between the city centre, the airport, and the îles Sanguinaires. The annual average rainfall is {{convert|645.6|mm|1|abbron}} at the Campo dell'Oro weather station (as per the chart) and {{convert|523.9|mm|1|abbron}} at the Parata'': the third-driest place in metropolitan France.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.meteofrance.com|titlePREVISIONS METEO FRANCE - Site Officiel de Météo-France - Prévisions gratuites à 15 jours sur la France et à 10 jours sur le monde|firstMeteo|lastFrance|websitewww.meteofrance.com|access-date31 May 2017}}</ref> The heat and dryness of summer are somewhat tempered by the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea except when the sirocco is blowing. In autumn and spring, heavy rain-storm episodes may occur. Winters are mild and snow is rare. Ajaccio is the French city which holds the record for the number of thunderstorms in the reference period 1971–2000 with an average of 39 thunderstorm days per year.<ref>[http://france.meteofrance.com/france/actu/actu?portlet_id67195&document_id22824 MétéoFrance].</ref>
On 14 September 2009, the city was hit by a tornado with an intensity of F1 on the Fujita scale. There was little damage except torn billboards, flying tiles, overturned cars, and broken windows but no casualties.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.corsematin.com/article/quand-les-tornades-%C2%ABrafalent%C2%BB-lile|titleQuand les tornades "rafalent" l'île|websitewww.corsematin.com|languagefr|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref>
{{Meteo France
|Town=Ajaccio
|Sunshine=2,735
|Rain=616
|Snow=2
|Storm=39
|Fog3<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.lameteo.org/index.php/climatologie/1560-normales-climatiques-1981-2010-ajaccio|titleNormales climatiques 1981-2010 : Ajaccio|websitewww.lameteo.org|access-date=31 May 2017}}</ref>
}}
Weather Data for Ajaccio
{{Weather box
|location Ajaccio (AJA), elevation: {{convert|5|m|ft|0|abbron}}, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1949–present
|collapsed |metric first Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 22.4
|Feb record high C = 25.3
|Mar record high C = 29.6
|Apr record high C = 32.2
|May record high C = 34.6
|Jun record high C = 41.6
|Jul record high C = 40.3
|Aug record high C = 39.5
|Sep record high C = 40.0
|Oct record high C = 35.0
|Nov record high C = 29.4
|Dec record high C = 22.7
|Jan high C = 14.0
|Feb high C = 14.2
|Mar high C = 16.0
|Apr high C = 18.5
|May high C = 22.1
|Jun high C = 25.9
|Jul high C = 28.6
|Aug high C = 29.2
|Sep high C = 26.1
|Oct high C = 22.8
|Nov high C = 18.3
|Dec high C = 15.1
|year high C = 20.9
|Jan mean C = 9.4
|Feb mean C = 9.2
|Mar mean C = 11.0
|Apr mean C = 13.4
|May mean C = 17.0
|Jun mean C = 20.7
|Jul mean C = 23.2
|Aug mean C = 23.7
|Sep mean C = 20.8
|Oct mean C = 17.7
|Nov mean C = 13.6
|Dec mean C = 10.5
|year mean C = 15.8
|Jan low C = 4.7
|Feb low C = 4.3
|Mar low C = 5.9
|Apr low C = 8.4
|May low C = 11.8
|Jun low C = 15.4
|Jul low C = 17.7
|Aug low C = 18.1
|Sep low C = 15.4
|Oct low C = 12.6
|Nov low C = 9.0
|Dec low C = 5.8
|year low C = 10.8
|Jan record low C = -7.0
|Feb record low C = -8.1
|Mar record low C = -5.6
|Apr record low C = -1.7
|May record low C = 3.0
|Jun record low C = 6.8
|Jul record low C = 9.2
|Aug record low C = 9.1
|Sep record low C = 7.6
|Oct record low C = 1.6
|Nov record low C = -3.2
|Dec record low C = -4.9
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 54.1
|Feb precipitation mm = 48.1
|Mar precipitation mm = 50.4
|Apr precipitation mm = 53.1
|May precipitation mm = 49.8
|Jun precipitation mm = 25.9
|Jul precipitation mm = 8.6
|Aug precipitation mm = 15.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 57.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 85.7
|Nov precipitation mm = 111.8
|Dec precipitation mm = 73.9
|year precipitation mm = 635.0
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 7.0
|Feb precipitation days = 6.7
|Mar precipitation days = 6.3
|Apr precipitation days = 7.2
|May precipitation days = 5.0
|Jun precipitation days = 2.8
|Jul precipitation days = 1.2
|Aug precipitation days = 1.4
|Sep precipitation days = 5.1
|Oct precipitation days = 7.4
|Nov precipitation days = 9.3
|Dec precipitation days = 8.6
|year precipitation days = 68.0
|Jan snow days = 0.8
|Feb snow days = 0.6
|Mar snow days = 0.3
|Apr snow days = 0.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.0
|Nov snow days = 0.1
|Dec snow days = 0.3
|year snow days = 2.1
|Jan humidity = 81
|Feb humidity = 80
|Mar humidity = 80
|Apr humidity = 80
|May humidity = 80
|Jun humidity = 78
|Jul humidity = 76
|Aug humidity = 76
|Sep humidity = 78
|Oct humidity = 80
|Nov humidity = 81
|Dec humidity = 82
|Jan sun = 135.8
|Feb sun = 155.6
|Mar sun = 210.8
|Apr sun = 230.4
|May sun = 288.3
|Jun sun = 332.3
|Jul sun = 373.6
|Aug sun = 343.3
|Sep sun = 260.6
|Oct sun = 206.9
|Nov sun = 140.2
|Dec sun = 124.0
|year sun = 2801.7
|source 1 Meteo France<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/ajaccio/20004002/normales|titleClimatological Information for Strasbourg, France|publisherMeteo France|date7 August 2019|access-date31 December 2021|archive-date25 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725010321/http://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/ajaccio/20004002/normales|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url = https://donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr/FichesClim/FICHECLIM_20004002.pdf
| title = AJACCIO (20)
| work = Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1991–2020 et records
| publisher = Meteo France
| language = fr
| access-date = 7 September 2022}}</ref>
| source 2 Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990)<ref nameInfoclimat>{{cite web
| url = http://www.infoclimat.fr/climatologie-07761-ajaccio-campo-dell-oro.html
| title = Normes et records 1961–1990: Ajaccio - Campo dell'Oro (20) – altitude 4m
| language = fr
| publisher = Infoclimat
| access-date = 7 August 2019
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160315040604/http://www.infoclimat.fr/climatologie-07190-strasbourg-entzheim.html
| archive-date = 15 March 2016}}</ref>
}}
{| class"wikitable collapsible plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Climatological normals for Ajaccio (period 1961–1990)<ref>{{cite web |titleAjaccio normals for 1961-1990 |urlhttps://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-VI/FR/07761.TXT |websitencei.noaa.gov |publisherNOAA |access-date=11 April 2024}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
! Parameter
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
|-
! Average number of days with thunder
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.7
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.9
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.6
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.7
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.8
| style="background-color: #C0FFA0; color: black;"|4.3
| style="background-color: #C0FFA0; color: black;"|4.3
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.0
|-
! Mean number of days with hail
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.7
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.9
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.9
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.6
|-
! Number Days with air frost
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|3.8
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|3
| style="background-color: #E5FFFF; color: black;"|1.4
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"|0.4
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|2.6
|-
! Number Days with no Sunshine
| style="background-color: #E5E5E5; color: black;"|3.7
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.5
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.4
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1.3
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.3
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5E5; color: black;"|4.3
|-
! No. of days with mean temperature > {{Convert|18.0|C|F|abbr=on}}
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.6
| style="background-color: #FFCC99; color: black;"|4.8
| style="background-color: #FF8000; color: black;"|20.5
| style="background-color: #994C00; color: white;"|30.0
| style="background-color: #994C00; color: white;"|30.6
| style="background-color: #CC6600; color: black;"|25.1
| style="background-color: #FFB266; color: black;"|9.8
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.7
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
|-
! No. of days with max temperature > {{Convert|30.0|C|F|abbr=on}}
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FAEBD7; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFCCCC; color: black;"|1.1
| style="background-color: #FF9999; color: black;"|4.7
| style="background-color: #FF9999; color: black;"|4.5
| style="background-color: #FFCCCC; color: black;"|1.1
| style="background-color: #FAEBD7; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
|}
Heraldry
{{Blazon-arms
|img1=Blason ville fr Ajaccio.svg
|legend1=Arms of Ajaccio
|text=In 1575, the Senate of Genoa granted to the city of Ajaccio Arms of blue with a silver column sumounted by the Arms of Genoa between two white greyhounds. This is not the current Arms.
Blazon:<br/>
Supported by two golden lions, a silver column stands on a green base beneath an azure sky.
}}
History
Antiquity
The city was not mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria in the 2nd century AD despite the presence of a place called Ourkinion in the Cinarca area. It is likely that the city of Ajaccio had its first development at this time. The 2nd century was a period of prosperity in the Mediterranean basin (the Pax Romana) and there was a need for a proper port at the head of the several valleys that lead to the Gulf able to accommodate large ships. Some important underwater archaeological discoveries recently made of Roman ships tend to confirm this.
Further excavations conducted recently led to the discovery of important early Christian remains suggest that an upwards reevaluation might be necessary of the size of Ajaccio city in Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The city was in any case already significant enough to be the seat of a diocese, mentioned by Pope Gregory the Great in 591. The city was then further north than the location chosen later by the Genoese - in the location of the existing quarters of Castel Vecchio and Sainte-Lucie.
The earliest certain written record of a settlement at Ajaccio with a name ancestral to its name was the exhortation in Epistle 77 written in 601AD by Gregory the great to the Defensor Boniface, one of two known rectors of the early Corsican church,<ref>{{cite book|pages318|titleThe Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752|firstJeffrey|lastRichards|year1979|isbn0-7100-0098-7|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul|locationLondon}}</ref> to tell him not to leave Aléria and Adjacium without bishops. There is no earlier use of the term and Adjacium is not an attested Latin word, which probably means that it is a Latinization of a word in some other language. The Ravenna Cosmography of about 700 AD cites Agiation,<ref>{{cite book|titleRavennatis Anonymi Cosmographia et Guidonis Geographica|pages413|authorAnonymous of Ravenna|author2Guido|author3Gustav Parthey|author4 Moritz Pinder|year1860|locationBerolini|publisherin aedibvs Friderici Nicolai}} {{in lang|la}}. Downloadable Google Books.</ref> which sometimes is taken as evidence of a prior Greek city, as -ion appears to be a Greek ending. There is, however, no evidence at all of a Greek presence on the west coast and the Ionians at Aléria on the east coast had been expelled by the Etruscans long before Roman domination.{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2015}}
Ptolemy, who must come the closest to representing indigenous names, lists the Lochra River just south of a feature he calls the "sandy shore" on the southwest coast. If the shore is the Campo dell'Oro (Place of Gold) the Lochra would seem to be the combined mouth of the Gravona and Prunelli Rivers, neither one of which sounds like Lochra.
North of there was a Roman city, Ourchinion. The western coastline was so distorted, however, that it is impossible to say where Adjacium was; certainly, he would have known its name and location if he had had any first-hand knowledge of the island and if in fact it was there. Ptolemy's Ourchinion is further north than Ajaccio and does not have the same name. It could be Sagone.<ref>{{cite web|firstPierre |lastMassimi |author2Jose Tomazi |titleA corsica in la carta geografica di Ptolomey |workInterRomania |publisherCentru Culturale, Universita di Corsica |year2002|access-date18 May 2008 |urlhttp://www.interromania.com/media/pdf/benigni/ptolomeu.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080529095833/http://www.interromania.com/media/pdf/benigni/ptolomeu.pdf |archive-date29 May 2008 }} {{in lang|co}}.</ref> The lack of correspondence between Ptolemaic and historical names known to be ancient has no defense except in the case of the two Roman colonies, Aleria and Mariana. In any case the population of the region must belong to Ptolemy's Tarabeni or Titiani people, neither of which are ever heard about again. {{citation needed|dateFebruary 2015}}Archaeological evidenceThe population of the city throughout the centuries maintained an oral tradition that it had originally been Roman.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory of Europe - Romans, Empire, Legacy {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Romans |access-date2024-06-28 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref> Travellers of the 19th century could point to the Hill of San Giovanni on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio, which still had a cathedral said to have been the 6th-century seat of the Bishop of Ajaccio. The Castello Vecchio ("old castle"), a ruined citadel, was believed to be Roman but turned out to have Gothic features. The hill was planted with vines. The farmers kept turning up artifacts and terracotta funerary urns that seemed to be Roman.
In the 20th century, the hill was covered over with buildings and became a part of downtown Ajaccio. In 2005 construction plans for a lot on the hill offered the opportunity to the Institut national de recherches archéologiques preventatives (Inrap) to excavate. They found the baptistry of a 6th-century cathedral and large amounts of pottery dated to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; in other words, an early Christian town. A cemetery had been placed over the old church. In it was a single Roman grave covered over with roof tiles bearing short indecipherable inscriptions. The finds of the previous century had included Roman coins. This is the only evidence so far of a Roman city continuous with the early Christian one.<ref>{{cite web|titleDiscovery of an Early Christian Baptistery in Ajaccio |urlhttp://www.inrap.fr/preventive-archaeology/In_the_News/Press_release/p-1346-Discovery_of_an_Early_Christian_Baptistery_in_Ajac.htm |publisherInrap |date9 June 2005 |access-date9 June 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721001014/http://www.inrap.fr/preventive-archaeology/In_the_News/Press_release/p-1346-Discovery_of_an_Early_Christian_Baptistery_in_Ajac.htm |archive-date21 July 2011 }}</ref>
Medieval Genoese period
It has been established that after the 8th century the city, like most other Corsican coastal communities, strongly declined and disappeared almost completely. Nevertheless, a castle and a cathedral were still in place in 1492 which last was not demolished until 1748. {{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
Towards the end of the 15th century, the Genoese were eager to assert their dominance in the south of the island and decided to rebuild the city of Ajaccio. Several sites were considered: the Pointe de la Parata (not chosen because it was too exposed to the wind), the ancient city (finally considered unsafe because of the proximity of the salt ponds), and finally the Punta della Lechia which was finally selected.
Work began on the town on 21 April 1492 south of the Christian village by the Bank of Saint George at Genoa, who sent Cristoforo of Gandini, an architect, to build it. He began with a castle on Capo di Bolo, around which he constructed residences for several hundred people.<ref>{{cite web|titleHistory of the city of Ajaccio|urlhttps://translate.google.com/translate?hlen&slfr&uhttp://www.ajaccio.fr/Histoire-de-la-ville-d-Ajaccio_a12.html&saX&oitranslate&resnum4&ctresult&prev/search%3Fq%3Dadjacium%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26as_qdr%3Dall%26pwst%3D1|access-date=16 May 2008}}</ref>
The new city was essentially a colony of Genoa. The Corsicans were restricted from the city for some years.
Nevertheless, the town grew rapidly and became the administrative capital of the province of Au Delà Des Monts (more or less the current Corse-du-Sud). Bastia remained the capital of the entire island.
Although at first populated exclusively by the Genoese, the city slowly opened to the Corsicans while the Ajaccians, almost to the French conquest, were legally citizens of the Republic of Genoa and were happy to distinguish themselves from the insular paesani who lived mainly in Borgu, a suburb outside the city walls (the current rue Fesch was the main street).
Attachment to France
Ajaccio was occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, but it again fell to the Genoese after the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAjaccio|volume1|page=451}}</ref>
Subsequently, the Republic of Genoa was strong enough to keep Corsica until 1755, the year Pasquale Paoli proclaimed the Corsican Republic. Paoli took most of the island for the republic, but he was unable to force Genoese troops out of the citadels of Saint-Florent, Calvi, Ajaccio, Bastia and Algajola. Leaving them there, he went on to build the nation, while the Republic of Genoa was left to ponder prospects and solutions. Their ultimate solution was to sell Corsica to France in 1768 and French troops of the Ancien Régime replaced Genoese ones in the citadels, including Ajaccio's.
Corsica was formally annexed to France in 1780.
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte (born as Napoleone di Buonaparte) was born at Ajaccio in the same year as the Battle of Ponte Novu, 1769. The Buonaparte family at the time had a huge four-story home in town (now a museum known as Maison Bonaparte) and a rarely used country home in the hills north of the city (now site of the Arboretum des Milelli). The father of the family, attorney Carlo di Buonaparte, was secretary to Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican Republic.
After the defeat of Paoli, the Comte de Marbeuf began to meet with some leading Corsicans to outline the shape of the future and enlist their assistance. The Comte was among a delegation from Ajaccio in 1769, offered his loyalty and was appointed assessor.
Marbeuf also offered Carlo di Buonaparte an appointment for one of his sons to the Military College of Brienne, but Napoleone did not speak French which was a requirement and he had to be at least ten years of age. There is a dispute concerning Napoleon's age because of this requirement; the emperor is known to have altered the civic records at Ajaccio concerning himself and it is possible that he was born in Corte in 1768 when his father was there on business. In any case Napoleon was sent to a school in Autun to learn basic French, then after a year went to Brienne from 1779 to 1784.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/napoleon/napoleon-and-josephine/who-was-napoleon.html|titleNapoleon > Who was Napoleon?|websitewww.ngv.vic.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pagesChapter 1|titleThe Life of Napoleon Bonaparte|firstSabine|lastBaring-Gould|year2006|publisherAdamant Media Corporation|isbn0-543-95815-9|no-pp=true}}</ref>
At Brienne Napoleon concentrated on studies. He wrote a boyish history of Corsica. He did not share his father's views but held Pasquale Paoli in high esteem and was at heart a Corsican nationalist. The top students were encouraged to go into the artillery. After graduation and a brief sojourn at the Military School of Paris Napoleon applied for a second-lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of La Fère at Valence and after a time was given the position. Meanwhile, his father died and his mother was cast into poverty in Corsica, still having four children to support. Her only income was Napoleon's meager salary.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSloane |firstWilliam Milligan |titleLife of Napoleon Bonaparte |date1894 |pages=27–30}}</ref>
The regiment was in Auxonne when the revolution broke out in the summer of 1789. Napoleon returned on leave to Ajaccio in October, became a Jacobin and began to work for the revolution. The National Assembly in Paris united Corsica to France and pardoned its exiles. Paoli returned in 1790 after 21 years and kissed the soil on which he stood. He and Napoleon met and toured the battlefield of Paoli's defeat. A national assembly at Orezza created the department of Corsica and Paoli was subsequently elected president. He commanded the national guard raised by Napoleon. After a brief return to his regiment Napoleon was promoted to first lieutenant and came home again on leave in 1791.
All officers were recalled from leave in 1792, intervention threatened and war with Austria (Marie-Antoinette's homeland) began. Napoleon returned to Paris for review, was exonerated, then promoted to captain and given leave to escort his sister, a schoolgirl, back to Corsica at state expense. His family was prospering; his estate increased.
Napoleon became a lieutenant-colonel in the Corsican National Guard. Paoli sent him off on an expedition to Sardinia, ordered by France, under Paolis's nephew but the nephew had secret orders from Paoli to make sure the expedition failed.<ref>{{cite web|titleLa Maddalena, 22/25&nbsp;February 1793|firstMaurizio|lastCinti|workMilitary Subjects: Battles & Campaigns|publisherThe Napoleon Series|date20 April 1995|urlhttp://www.napoleon-series.org/military/battles/c_maddalena.html|access-date25 May 2008}}</ref> Paoli was now a conservative, opposing the execution of the king and supporting an alliance with Great Britain. Returning from Sardinia Napoleon with his family and all his supporters were instrumental in getting Paoli denounced at the National Convention in Paris in 1793. Napoleon earned the hatred of the Paolists by pretending to support Paoli and then turning against him (payment, one supposes, for Sardinia).
Paoli was convicted in absentia, a warrant was issued for his arrest (which could not be served) and Napoleon was dispatched to Corsica as Inspector General of Artillery to take the citadel of Ajaccio from the royalists who had held it since 1789. The Paolists combining with the royalists defeated the French in two pitched battles and Napoleon and his family went on the run, hiding by day, while the Paolists burned their estate. Napoleon and his mother, Laetitia, were taken out by ship in June 1793, by friends while two of the girls found refuge with other friends. They landed in Toulon with only Napoleon's pay for their support.
of Napoleon]]
The Bonapartes moved to Marseille but in August Toulon offered itself to the British and received the protection of a fleet under Admiral Hood. The Siege of Toulon began in September under revolutionary officers mainly untrained in the art of war. Napoleon happened to present socially one evening and during a casual conversation over a misplaced 24-pounder explained the value of artillery. Taken seriously he was allowed to bring up over 100 guns from coastal emplacements but his plan for the taking of Toulon was set aside as one incompetent officer superseded another. By December they decided to try his plan and made him a Colonel. Placing the guns at close range he used them to keep the British fleet away while he battered down the walls of Toulon. As soon as the Committee of Public Safety heard of the victory Napoleon became a brigadier general, the start of his meteoric rise to power.
The Bonapartes were back in Ajaccio in 1797 under the protection of General Napoleon. Soon after Napoleon became First Consul and then emperor, using his office to spread revolution throughout Europe. In 1811 he made Ajaccio the capital of the new Department of Corsica. Despite his subsequent defeat by the Prussians, Russians, and British, his exile and his death, no victorious power reversed that decision or tried to remove Corsica from France. Among the natives, though Corsican nationalism is strong, and feeling often runs high in favour of a union with Italy; loyalty to France, however, as evidenced by elections, remains stronger.
19th and 20th centuries
In the 19th century Ajaccio became a winter resort of the high society of the time, especially for the English, in the same way as Monaco, Cannes, and Nice. An Anglican Church was even built.
The first prison in France for children was built in Ajaccio in 1855: the Horticultural colony of Saint Anthony. It was a correctional colony for juvenile delinquents (from 8 to 20 years old), established under Article 10 of the Act of 5 August 1850. Nearly 1,200 children from all over France stayed there until 1866, when it was closed. Sixty percent of them perished, the victims of poor sanitation and malaria which infested the unhealthy areas that they were responsible to clean.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://site.voila.fr/bagne-enfant-ajaccio|titleCréer un site web gratuit - pages perso Orange|websitesite.voila.fr|access-date31 May 2017|archive-date30 March 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090330133704/http://site.voila.fr/bagne-enfant-ajaccio|url-statusdead}}</ref>Contemporary history
{{Main|Italian occupation of Corsica}}
On 9 September 1943, the people of Ajaccio rose up against the Nazi occupiers<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.corse.pref.gouv.fr/scripts/display.asp?PCOhist_liberation|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624175934/http://www.corse.pref.gouv.fr/scripts/display.asp?PCOhist_liberation|url-statusdead|titlePréfecture of Corsica: The Liberation of Corsica|archive-date=24 June 2008}}</ref> and became the first French town to be liberated from the domination of the Germans. General Charles de Gaulle went to Ajaccio on 8 October 1943 and said: "We owe it to the field of battle the lesson of the page of history that was written in French Corsica. Corsica to her fortune and honour is the first morsel of France to be liberated; which was done intentionally and willingly, in the light of its liberation, this demonstrates that these are the intentions and the will of the whole nation."<ref>Rotterdam – 91 Day Far East Cruise: Volume 2. (2022). (n.p.): Kalman Dubov.</ref>
Throughout this period, no Jew was executed or deported from Corsica through the protection afforded by its people and its government. This event now allows Corsica to aspire to the title "Righteous Among the Nations", as no French region except for the commune Le Chambon-sur-Lignon in Haute-Loire carries this title. Their case is being investigated {{as of|2010|lcy}}.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2010/04/27/01016-20100427ARTFIG00704-corse-juste-parmi-les-nations-.php|titleDes Corses veulent que l'île soit "Juste parmi les nations"|firstDenis|lastNicolaï|date27 April 2010|website=Le Figaro.fr}}</ref>
Since the middle of the 20th century, Ajaccio has seen significant development. The city has seen population growth and considerable urban sprawl. Today Ajaccio is the capital of Corsica and the main town of the island and seeks to establish itself as a true regional centre.<ref name="ReferenceA">"French Cities" by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000. {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
Ajaccio was a hotspot for violence during the violent unrest in March 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCars Set Alight as Protests Continue on Corsica |urlhttps://uk.style.yahoo.com/cars-set-alight-protests-continue-110546957.html |access-date2022-03-13 |websiteuk.style.yahoo.com |date11 March 2022 |languageen-GB}}</ref>
Economy
The city is, with Bastia, the economic, commercial and administrative centre of Corsica. Its urban area of nearly 90,000 inhabitants is spread over a large part of the Corse-du-Sud, on either side of the Gulf of Ajaccio and up the valley of the Gravona. Its business is primarily oriented towards the services sector.
The services sector is by far the main source of employment in the city. Ajaccio is an administrative centre comprising communal, intercommunal, departmental, regional, and prefectural services.
It is also a shopping centre with the commercial streets of the city centre and the areas of peripheral activities such as that of Mezzavia (hypermarket Géant Casino) and along the ring road (hypermarket Carrefour and E. Leclerc).
Tourism is one of the most vital aspects of the economy, split between the seaside tourism of summer, cultural tourism, and fishing. A number of hotels, varying from one star to five star, are present across the commune.
Ajaccio is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Ajaccio and Corsica South. It manages the ports of Ajaccio, Bonifacio, Porto-Vecchio, Propriano and the Tino Rossi marina. It also manages Ajaccio airport<ref>[http://www.ajaccio.aeroport.fr/aeroports/ajaccio2.php CCI of Ajaccio: Airport] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100126065821/http://www.ajaccio.aeroport.fr/aeroports/ajaccio2.php |date26 January 2010 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> and Figari airport as well as the convention centre and the Centre of Ricanto.
Secondary industry is underdeveloped, apart from the aeronautical company Corsica Aerospace Composites CCA, the largest company on the island with 135 employees at two sites.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://corse-composites-aeronautiques.com/|titleCorse Composites Aéronautiques cca.fr|websitecorse-composites-aeronautiques.com}}</ref> The storage sites of GDF Suez (formerly Gaz de France) and Antargaz in the district of Vazzio are classified as high risk.EnergyThe Centrale EDF du Vazzio, a heavy oil power station, provides the south of the island with electricity. The Gravona Canal delivers water for consumption by the city.TransportRoad access
By road, the city is accessible from National Route NR194 from Bastia and NR193 via NR196 from Bonifacio.
These two main axes, as well as the roads leading to suburban villages, connect Ajaccio from the north - the site of Ajaccio forming a dead end blocked by the sea to the south. Only the Cours Napoleon and the Boulevard du Roi Jerome cross the city.
Along with the high urban density, this explains the major traffic and parking problems especially during peak hours and during the summer tourist season. A bypass through several neighbourhoods is nearing completion.
Communal bus services
The Muvistrada provide services on 21 urban routes, one "city" route for local links and 20 suburban lines. The frequency varies according to demand with intervals of 30 minutes for the most important routes:<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://mobilite.muvitarra.fr/|titleAccueil - Muvistrada}}</ref>
A park and ride with 300 spaces was built at Mezzana in the neighbouring commune of Sarrola-Carcopino in order to promote intermodality between cars and public transport.<ref>[http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr Communauté d'Agglomération of Pays Ajaccien] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071020154127/http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr/ |date20 October 2007 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> It was inaugurated on 12 July 2010.<ref>[http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/DP-parc-relais-mezzana.pdf www.ca-ajaccien.fr] and {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131018011332/http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/DP-parc-relais-mezzana.pdf |date18 October 2013 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
Airport
The city is served by an Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport which is the headquarters of Air Corsica, a Corsican airline. It connects Ajaccio to a number of cities in mainland France (including Paris, Marseille, Nice, and Brive) and to places in Europe to serve the tourist industry.
The airline CCM Airlines also has its head office on the grounds of the Airport.<ref>"[http://www.aircorsica.com/infos-relations-clientele-vols-sejours-corse-ccm.html#contact Relations Clientèle] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090818180107/http://www.aircorsica.com/infos-relations-clientele-vols-sejours-corse-ccm.html#contact |date18 August 2009 }}." CCM Airlines. Retrieved 12 February 2010.</ref>
Port
The port of Ajaccio is connected to the French mainland on an almost daily basis (Marseille, Toulon, Nice). There are also occasional links to the Italian mainland (Livorno) and to Sardinia, as well as a seasonal service serving Calvi and Propriano.<ref name"corse-du-sud.cci.fr">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.corse-du-sud.cci.fr/|titleChambre de Commerce et d'Industrie d'Ajaccio et de la Corse-du-Sud|websitewww.corse-du-sud.cci.fr}}</ref> The two major shipping companies providing these links are Corsica Linea and Corsica Ferries.
Ajaccio has also become a stopover for cruises with a total of 418,086 passengers in 2007{{mdash}}by far the largest in Corsica and the second-largest in France (after Marseille, but ahead of Nice/Villefranche-sur-Mer and Cannes). The goal is for Ajaccio to eventually become the premier French port for cruises as well as being a main departure point.<ref name="corse-du-sud.cci.fr"/>
The Port function of the city is also served by the commercial, pleasure craft, and artisanal fisheries (3 ports).<ref name"corse-du-sud.cci.fr"/>Railways
The railway station in Ajaccio belongs to Chemins de fer de la Corse and is located near the port at the Square Pierre Griffi. It connects Ajaccio to Corte, Bastia (3 h 25 min) and Calvi.
There are two optional stops:
*Salines Halt north of the city in the district of the same name
*''Campo dell'Oro Halt near the airport
In addition, the municipality has introduced an additional commuter service between Mezzana station in the suburbs and Ajaccio station located in the centre.<ref>{{Cite web|titleSchedules {{!}} Le train Corse - Chemin de fer de la Corse|urlhttps://www.train-corse.com/en/schedules|access-date2020-08-21|websitewww.train-corse.com}}</ref>
Administration
Ajaccio was successively:
*Capital of the district of the department of Corsica in 1790 to 1793
*Capital of the department of Liamone from 1793 to 1811
*Capital of the department of Corsica from 1811 to 1975
*Capital of the region and the collectivité territoriale de Corse'' since 1970 and the department of Corse-du-Sud since 1976
Ajaccio remained (with some interruptions) an electoral stronghold of the Bonapartist (CCB) party until the municipal elections of 2001. The outgoing municipality was then beaten by a left-wing coalition led by Simon Renucci which gathered Social Democrats, Communists, and Charles Napoleon - the pretender to the imperial throne.
List of Successive Mayors of Ajaccio<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.francegenweb.org/mairesgenweb/resultcommune.php?id43|titlefrancegenweb.org - votre service benevole d'assistance genealogique|firstRobert|lastWeinland|websitewww.francegenweb.org|access-date=31 May 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=5 | Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935
|-
! From !! To !! Name !! Party !! Position
|-
| 1790 || 1790 || Jean Jèrome Levie || ||
|-
| 1791 || 1796 || Vincenté Guitera || ||
|-
| 1796 || 1796 || Lodovico Ornano || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || François Marie Levie || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || Thomas Tavera || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || Antoine Tagliafico || ||
|-
| 1799 || 1800 || J. B. Pozzo di Borgo || ||
|-
| 1800 || 1801 || Jean Jèrome Levie || ||
|-
| 1801 || 1805 || Pierre Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1805 || 1815 || François Levie || ||
|-
| 1815 || 1815 || Jean Noël Martinenghi || ||
|-
| 1815 || 1816 || François Levie || ||
|-
| 1816 || 1817 || Georges Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1817 || 1819 || Adorno de Baciocchi || ||
|-
| 1819 || 1822 || J. B. Colonna de Bozzi || ||
|-
| 1822 || 1826 || J. B. Spotorno || ||
|-
| 1826 || 1832 || Constantin Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1832 || 1837 || Cunéo d'Ornano || ||
|-
| 1837 || 1848 || Paul François Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1848 || 1848 || Bernardin Poli || ||
|-
| 1848 || 1855 || Laurent Zevaco || ||
|-
| 1855 || 1860 || Antoine Decosmi || ||
|-
| 1860 || 1867 || François Xavier Braccini || ||
|-
| 1867 || 1870 || Louis Nyer || ||
|-
| 1870 || 1870 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1870 || 1871 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1871 || 1871 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1871 || 1873 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1873 || 1876 || F. X. Forcioli Conti || ||
|-
| 1876 || 1877 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1877 || 1877 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1877 || 1884 || Nicolas Peraldi || Republicain ||
|-
| 1884 || 1893 || Joseph Pugliesi || CCB<ref>Comité central bonapartiste</ref> ||
|-
| 1893 || 1896 || Pierre Petreto || CCB ||
|-
| 1896 || 1900 || Joseph Pugliesi || CCB ||
|-
| 1900 || 1904 || Pierre Bodoy || CCB ||
|-
| 1904 || 1919 || Dominique Pugliesi Conti || CCB ||
|-
| 1919 || 1925 || Jérôme Peri || Radical ||
|-
| 1925 || 1931 || Dominique Paoli || CCB ||
|-
| 1931 || 1931 || Joseph Marie François Spoturno || ||
|-
| 1931 || 1934 || François Coty || CCB ||
|-
| 1934 || 1935 || Hyacinthe Campiglia || CCB ||
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible"
! colspan=5 | Mayors from 1935
|-
! From !! To !! Name !! Party !! Position
|-
| 1935 || 1943 || Dominique Paoli || CCB ||
|-
| 1943 || 1945 || Eugène Macchini || CCB ||
|-
| 1945 || 1947 || Arthur Giovoni || PCF ||
|-
| 1947 || 1949 || Nicéphore Stephanopoli de Commene || CCB ||
|-
| 1949 || 1953 || Antoine Serafini || CCB ||
|-
| 1953 || 1959 || François Maglioli || CCB ||
|-
| 1959 || 1964 || Antoine Serafini || CCB ||
|-
| 1964 || 1975 || Pascal Rossini || CCB ||
|-
| 1975 || 1994 || Charles Napoléon Ornano || CCB ||
|-
| 1994 || 2001 || Marc Marcangeli || CCB || Doctor
|-
| 2001 || 2014 || Simon Renucci || CSD<ref>Corse social-democrate</ref> || Doctor
|-
| 2014 || 2014 || Laurent Marcangeli || ||
|-
| 2014 || 2015 || vacant || ||
|-
| 2015 || 2022 || Laurent Marcangeli || ||
|-
| 2022 || 2026 || Stéphane Sbraggia || ||
|}
Quarters
10 Quarters are recognized by the municipality.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ajaccio.fr/|titleSite officiel de la Ville d'Ajaccio - Bienvenue à Ajaccio|website=Site officiel de la Ville d'Ajaccio - Bienvenue à Ajaccio}}</ref>
*Cannes-Binda: an area north of the city, consisting of Housing estates, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Salines, subject to a policy of urban renewal
*Centre Ville: The tourist heart of the city consisting of shopping streets and major thoroughfares
*Casone: a bourgeois neighbourhood with an affluent population located in the former winter resort on the heights of the southern city.
*''Les Jardins de l'Empereur: a neighbourhood classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) on the heights of the city, consisting of housing estates overlooking the city
*Mezzavia: northern quarter of the town with several subdivisions and areas of business and economic activities
*Octroi-Sainte Lucie: constitutes the northern part of the city centre near the port and the railway station
*Pietralba: quarter northeast of the city, classified ZUS
*Résidence des Îles: quarter to the south of the city near the tourist route of Sanguinaires in a quality environment
*Saint-Jean: collection of buildings for a population with low incomes, close to the historic urban core of the city, classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS)
*Saline: quarter north of the city, consisting of large apartment blocks, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Cannes, subject to a policy of urban renewal
*Vazzio: quarter northeast of the city, near the airport, the EDF Central, and the Francois Coty stadium.
Intercommunality
Since December 2001, Ajaccio has been part of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien'' with nine other communes: Afa, Alata, Appietto, Cuttoli-Corticchiato, Peri, Sarrola-Carcopino, Tavaco, Valle-di-Mezzana, and Villanova.
Origins
The geopolitical arrangements of the commune are slightly different from those typical of Corsica and France. Usually an arrondissement includes cantons and a canton includes one to several communes including the chef-lieu, "chief place", from which the canton takes its name. The city of Ajaccio is one commune, but it contains four cantons, Cantons 1–4, and a fraction of Canton 5. The latter contains three other communes: Bastelicaccia, Alata and Villanova, making a total of four communes for the five cantons of Ajaccio.<ref namedecret>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexteJORFTEXT000028658302|titleDécret n° 2014-229 du 24 février 2014 portant délimitation des cantons dans le département de la Corse-du-Sud|access-date=31 May 2017}}</ref>
Each canton contains a certain number of quartiers, "quarters". Cantons 1, 2, 3, 4 are located along the Gulf of Ajaccio from west to east, while 5 is a little further up the valleys of the Gravona and the Prunelli Rivers. These political divisions subdivide the population of Ajaccio into units that can be more democratically served but they do not give a true picture of the size of Ajaccio. In general language, "greater Ajaccio" includes about 100,000 people with all the medical, educational, utility and transportational facilities of a big city. Up until World War II it was still possible to regard the city as being a settlement of narrow streets localized to a part of the harbour or the Gulf of Ajaccio: such bucolic descriptions do not fit the city of today, and travelogues intended for mountain or coastal recreational areas do not generally apply to Corsica's few big cities.
The arrondissement contains other cantons that extend generally up the two rivers into central Corsica.
Twin towns – sister cities
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in France}}
Ajaccio is twinned with:<ref>{{cite web |titleJumelage Ajaccio – La Maddalena: 29 ans déjà|urlhttps://www.ajaccio.fr/Jumelage-Ajaccio-La-Maddalena-29-ans-deja_a8963.html|websiteajaccio.fr|publisherAjaccio|languagefr|date2020|access-date=2021-04-20}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|ITA}} La Maddalena, Italy (1991)
Population
The population of Ajaccio increased sharply after 1960 due to migration from rural areas and the coming of "Pied-Noirs" (French Algerians), immigrants from the Maghreb and French from mainland France.
{{Historical populations
| align = none
| cols = 2
| percentages = pagr
| source EHESS<ref nameehess>{{Cassini-Ehess|339|Ajaccio}}</ref> and INSEE (1968-2017)<ref namepophist>[https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geoCOM-2A004#ancre-POP_T1 Population en historique depuis 1968], INSEE</ref>
| graph-pos = bottom
|1800 |6570
|1806 |7203
|1821 |7401
|1831 |8920
|1836 |9003
|1841 |9834
|1846 |11541
|1851 |11944
|1856 |11049
|1861 |14089
|1866 |14558
|1872 |16545
|1876 |17050
|1881 |18005
|1886 |17576
|1891 |20197
|1896 |20561
|1901 |21779
|1906 |22264
|1911 |19227
|1921 |22614
|1926 |23392
|1931 |23917
|1936 |37146
|1946 |31434
|1954 |32997
|1962 |33642
|1968 |43438
|1975 |49065
|1982 |54089
|1990 |58315
|1999 |52880
|2007 |64432
|2012 |66245
|2017 |70659
}}
Health
Ajaccio has three hospital sites:
*the Misericordia Hospital, built in 1950, is located on the heights of the city centre. This is the main medical facility in the region.
*The Annex Eugenie.
*the Psychiatric Hospital of Castelluccio is {{convert|5|km|0|abbroff}} west of the city centre and is also home of cancer services and long-stay patients.<ref>[http://www.castelluccio.fr Castelluccio - Public Establishment of Health] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721025852/http://www.castelluccio.fr/ |date21 July 2011 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>Education
Ajaccio is the headquarters of the Academy of Corsica.
The city of Ajaccio has:<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ac-corse.fr/|titleAcadémie de Corse|website=Académie de Corse}}</ref>
*18 nursery schools (16 public and 2 private)
*17 primary schools (15 public and 2 private)
*6 colleges
**5 Public Schools:
*** Collège Arthur-Giovoni
*** Collège des Padule
*** Collège Laetitia Bonaparte
*** Collège Fesch
*** EREA
** 1 Private School: Institution Saint Paul
* 3 sixth-form colleges/senior high schools
** 2 public schools:
*** Lycée Laetitia Bonaparte
*** Lycée Fesch
** 1 private: Institution Saint Paul
* 2 LEP (vocational high schools)
** Lycée Finosello
** Lycée Jules Antonini
Higher education is undeveloped except for a few BTS and IFSI, the University of Corsica Pascal Paoli is located in Corte. A research facility of INRA is also located on Ajaccio.<ref>French Cities" by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
Culture and heritage
Ajaccio has a varied tourism potential, with both a cultural framework in the centre of the city and a natural heritage around the coves and beaches of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Natura 2000 reserve of the îles Sanguinaires.
Civil heritage
]]
The commune has many buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:
*The Monument to General Abbatucci in the Place Abbatucci (1854){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001904|IA2A001904 Monument to General Abbatucci}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The Monument to Napoleon I in the Place d'Austerlitz (20th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001900|IA2A001900 Monument to Napoleon I}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The Baciocchi Family Mansion at 9 Rue Bonaparte (18th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099141|PA00099141 Baciocchi Family Mansion}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Fesch Palace at 48 bis Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1827){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099071|PA00099071 Fesch Palace}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Monument to the First Consul in the Place Foch (1850){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001905|IA2A001905 Monument to the First Consul}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The Peraldi House at 18 Rue Forcioli-Conti (1820){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099067|PA00099067 Peraldi House}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Grand Hotel at Cours Grandval (1869){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099134|PA00099134 Grand Hotel}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The old Château Conti at Cours Grandval (19th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099063|PA00099063 Château Conti}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Monument to Napoleon and his brothers in the Place du General de Gaulle (1864){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001903|IA2A001903 Monument to Napoleon and his brothers}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The Monument to Cardinal Fesch at the Cour du Musée Fesch (1856){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001902|IA2A001902 Monument to Cardinal Fesch}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The old Alban Factory at 89 Cours Napoleon (1913){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099142|PA00099142 Alban Factory}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Milelli House in the Saint-Antoine Quarter (17th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099065|PA00099065 Milelli House}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Hotel Palace-Cyrnos (1880),{{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099135|PA00099135 Hotel Palace-Cyrnos}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> an old Luxury Hotel from the 19th century and a famous palace of the old days in the quarter "for foreigners" now converted into housing.
*The Lantivy Palace (1837),{{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099128|PA00099128 Lantivy Palace}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref> an Italian palace now headquarters of the prefecture of Corsica.
*The Hotel de Ville (1836){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099127|PA00099127 Hotel de Ville}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*'''Napoleon Bonaparte's House''' (17th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099066|PA00099066 Napoleon Bonaparte's House}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> now a national museum: the Maison Bonaparte
*The old Lazaretto of Aspretto (1843){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099064|PA00099064 Lazaretto of Aspretto}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Citadel (1554){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099062|PA00099062 Citadel}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Sawmill at Les Salines (1944){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001311|IA2A001311 Sawmill}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Lighthouse on the Sanguinaires Islands (1844){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|IA2A001274|IA2A001274 Lighthouse}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
;Other sites of interest
*The Monument in the Place du Casone
*The old town and the Borgu are typically Mediterranean with their narrow streets and picturesque buildings
*The Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town<ref name="EB1911"/>
*The Musée Fesch houses a large collection of Italian Renaissance paintings
*The Bandera Museum, a History Museum of Mediterranean Corsica
*The Municipal library, in the north wing of Musée Fesch, has early printed books from as early as the 14th century<ref>{{cite web|titleHistoire de la Bibliothèque Fesch|urlhttp://www.bibliotheque.ajaccio.fr/default/patrimoine.aspx|access-date=2021-01-02}}</ref>
*The area known as the Foreigners' Quarter has a number of old palaces, villas, and buildings once built for the wintering British in the Belle Époque such as the Anglican Church and the Grand Hotel Continental.<ref>{{cite web|titleAjaccio, the quarter for foreigners|urlhttps://www.ajaccio-tourisme.com/ajaccio-le-quartier-des-etrangers|websitePays d'Ajaccio|access-date2021-01-02|archive-date17 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210117162622/https://www.ajaccio-tourisme.com/ajaccio-le-quartier-des-etrangers|url-statusdead}}</ref> Some of the buildings are in bad condition and very degraded, others were destroyed for the construction of modern buildings.<ref>{{cite web|titleAjaccio : quelle mutation pour le quartier des Etrangers?|websiteCorse-Matin|date27 February 2016 |urlhttps://www.corsematin.com/articles/ajaccio-quelle-mutation-pour-le-quartier-des-etrangers-59548|access-date2021-01-02}}</ref>
*The Genoese towers: Torra di Capu di Fenu, Torra di a Parata, and Torra di Castelluchju in the Îles Sanguinaires archipelago
*The Square Pierre Griffi (in front of the railway station), named after a hero of the Corsican Resistance and one of the members of the {{ill|Pearl Harbour secret mission|fr|Mission secrète Pearl Harbour}}, the first operation launched in occupied Corsica to coordinate resistance
*The '''Statue of Commandant Jean L'Herminier (in front of the ferry terminal), commander of the French submarine Casabianca (1935) which actively participated in the struggle for the liberation of Corsica in September 1943
Religious heritage
]]
The town is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The commune has several religious buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:
*The former Episcopal Palace at 24 Rue Bonaparte (1622){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099070|PA00099070 Episcopal Palace}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Oratory of Saint Roch at Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1599){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099069|PA00099069 Oratory of Saint Roch}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Chapel of Saint Erasme or Sant'Erasmu''' at 22 Rue Forcioli-Conti (17th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099061|PA00099061 Chapel of Saint Erasme or Sant'Erasmu}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Oratory of Saint John the Baptist at Rue du Roi-de-Dome (1565){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099068|PA00099068 Oratory of Saint John the Baptist}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta at Rue Saint-Charles (1582){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099058|PA00099058 Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref> from the Renaissance which depended on the diocese of Ajaccio and where Napoleon was baptized with its organ from Cavaillé-Coll.<ref>[http://orgue.free.fr/ Ajaccio Cathedral, Organ of the Cathedral of Cavaillé-Coll] (1849) - Cicchero (1997) {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Chapel of the Greeks on the Route des Sanguiunaires (1619){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099059|PA00099059 Chapel of the Greeks}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref>
*The Early Christian Baptistery of Saint John (6th century){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA2A000004|PA2A000004 Baptistery of Saint John}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
*The Imperial Chapel (1857){{Mérimée Icon}}<ref>Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée|PA00099060|PA00099060 Imperial Chapel}} {{in lang|fr}}{{Camera}}</ref> houses the graves of Napoleon's parents and his brothers and sisters.
;Other religious sites of interest
*The Church of Saint Roch, Neoclassical architecture by Ajaccien project architect Barthélémy Maglioli (1885)
Environmental heritage
*Sanguinaires Archipelago:
**The Route des Sanguinaires runs along the southern coast of the city after the Saint François Beach. It is lined with villas and coves and beaches. Along the road is the Ajaccio cemetery with the grave of Corsican singer Tino Rossi.
**At the mouth of the Route des Sanguinaires is the Pointe de la Parata near the archipelago and the lighthouse.
<gallery>
File:Ajaccio Plage.jpg|The Saint François Beach
File:Ajaccio Golfe1JPG.jpg|Gulf of Ajaccio
File:PSajaccio8440tonemapped.jpg|The iles sanguinaires and views of la Parata from the sentier des crêtes
File:PSajaccio8432tonemapped.jpg|Along the sentier des crêtes: Skull Rock
</gallery>
*The Sentier des Crêtes (Crest Trail) starts from the city centre and is an easy hike offering splendid views of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The shores of the Gulf are dotted with a multitude of small coves and beaches ideal for swimming and scuba diving.
*Many small paths traversing the maquis (high ground covered in thick vegetation) in the commune from which the Maquis resistance network was named.
Interests
*The city has two marinas and a casino.
*The main activities are concentrated in the city centre on the Route des Sanguinaires (cinemas, bars, clubs etc.).
In popular culture
Films made in Ajaccio include:
*Napoléon, one of the last successful French silent films by Abel Gance in 1927.
*Les Radonneurs, a French film directed by Philippe Harel in 1997.
*Les Sanguinaires, a film by Laurent Cantet in 1998.
*The Amazing Race, an American TV series by Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster in 2001 (season 6 episode 9).
*'''L'Enquête Corse, directed by Alain Berberian in 2004.
*Trois petites filles, a French film directed by Jean-Loup Hubert in 2004.
*Joueuse' (Queen to Play), a French film directed by Caroline Bottaro in 2009.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.metropolefilms.com/data/ftp/Joueuse/Dossier%20de%20Presse%20-%20Metropole%20Films.pdf | titleDossier de presse - Joueuse | lastMingotaud | firstMélanie | date2009 | access-date27 December 2017 | languagefr | trans-titlePress Release - Joueuse | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171229052143/http://www.metropolefilms.com/data/ftp/Joueuse/Dossier%20de%20Presse%20-%20Metropole%20Films.pdf | archive-date29 December 2017 | url-statusdead}}</ref>Sports
There are various sports facilities developed throughout the city.
*AC Ajaccio is a French Ligue 2 football club which plays at the Stade François Coty (13,500 seats) in the north-east of the city
*Gazélec Football Club Ajaccio, in Championnat National, football club which plays at the Stade Ange Casanova located at Mezzavia'', 2,900 seats.
*GFCO Ajaccio handball
*GFCO Ajaccio Volleyball
*GFCO Ajaccio Basketball
*Vignetta Racecourse
Notable people
were born in Ajaccio, including Napoleon]]
*Carlo Buonaparte (1746–1785), politician, father of Napoleon Bonaparte
*Felice Pasquale Baciocchi (1762–1841), general of the armies of the Revolution and the Empire, brother in law of the Emperor Napoleon 1st, Grand Duke of Tuscany
*Joseph Fesch (1763–1839), cardinal
*Joseph Bonaparte (1768–1844), French statesman, King of Naples, King of Spain
*Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of France
*Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840), Prince of Canino and Musignano, Interior Minister of France
*Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand Duchess of Tuscany
*Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland
*Pauline Bonaparte (1780–1825), Duchess of Guastalla, Princess Consort of Sulmona and Rossano
*Caroline Bonaparte (1782–1839), Queen Consort of Naples and Sicily
*Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia
*Danielle Casanova (1909–1943), Resistance member
*Emma Choury (1916–2001), trade unionist
*François Coty (1874–1934), perfumer, businessman, newspaper publisher and politician
*Irène Bordoni (1895–1953), singer and actress
*Tino Rossi (1907–1983), singer and actor
*Michel Giacometti (1929–1990), ethnomusicologist
*François Duprat (1941–1978), writer
*Michel Ferracci-Porri (born 1949), writer
*Jean-Michel Cavalli (born 1959), football player and manager
*Alizée (born 1984), singer
Military
Units that were stationed in Ajaccio:
*163rd Infantry Regiment, 1906
*173rd Infantry Regiment
*The Aspretto naval airbase for seaplanes 1938–1993
Gallery
{{expand section|date=January 2024}}
<gallery>
File:Ajaccio.jpg|1914 city map
File:Ajaccio MN1JPG.jpg|Napoleon's birth house
</gallery>
See also
*Diocese of Ajaccio
*Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category|Ajaccio}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
*[https://www.ajaccio.fr Official website] {{in lang|fr}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020154127/http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr/ The Communauté d'Agglomération du Pays Ajaccien (CAPA) website] {{in lang|fr}}
*[https://www.ajaccio-tourisme.com Tourism Office of Ajaccio website] {{in lang|fr}}
*[https://visitajaccio.com Tourist Info Visit Ajaccio] {{in lang|en}}
{{Geographic location
|title Neighbouring communes and towns<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.google.com/maps/place/Ajaccio,+France/@41.9227265,8.705841,13563m/data!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m2!3m1!1s0x12da69b3d29d2383:0x40819a5fd955f00?hlen|titleGoogle Maps|websiteGoogle Maps|access-date=31 May 2017}}</ref>
|Centre = Ajaccio
|North = Alata
|Northeast = Afa
|East = Bastelicaccia
|Southeast |South Mediterranean Sea
|Southwest = Mediterranean Sea
|West = Mediterranean Sea
|Northwest = Villanova
}}
{{Prefectures of departments of France}}
{{Prefectures of regions of France}}
{{Corse-du-Sud communes}}
{{List of European capitals by region}}
{{Authority control}}
<!--DO NOT REMOVE. THEY ARE STANDARD CATEGORIES FOR ALL FRENCH COMMUNES AND PREFECTURES-->
Category:Communes of Corse-du-Sud
Category:Prefectures in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajaccio
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Ajaigarh
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ajaygarh
| settlement_type = Town
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates {{coord|24.54|N|80.16|E|displayinline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = Division
| subdivision_name2 = Sagar
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Panna
}}
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh.
History
{{Main|Ajaigarh State}}
Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of {{convert|771|sqmi}}, and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of sawai maharaja. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than {{convert|800|ft}} above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868–69 and 1896–97.
The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
{{ wide image|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace.jpg|700px|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace}}
Rulers of Ajaygarh
Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal : 1649–1731
(founder ruler of many kingdoms)
___________________________|______________________________
Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra
(Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso)
____________________________|______________________________
Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh (1758–1765)
____________________________|______________________________
Khuman Singh Guman Singh (1765–1792) Durg Singh
(Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) |
|__________________Son of______|
Bhakhat Singh :b. 1792-d. 1837
(Founder ruler of Ajaigarh)
_____________________________|_______________________________
Madho Singh (r. 1837–1849) Mahipat Singh (r. 1849–1853)
(No male issue) |
|
Ranjore Singh (K.C.I.E)__________Vijay Singh (R. 1853–1855)
(born 1844; died 1919) (died early, fell from horse)
_____________________________|________________________________
Jaipal Singh Bhopal Singh (K.C.I.E.) Pakshpal Singh
(born 1866; died 1942) |
| Col. Deshpal Singh : (1914 - )
Punyapratap Singh: | |
(born 1884; died 1958) Ajaiveer Singh Ashit Varn Singh (1953–2017)
| (No Male Issue) |
Devendra Vijay Singh |
(born 1913; died 1984) Hraday Shah ---------------|
(Privy Purses, titles abolished)
_____________________________|_________________________________
Mahipendra Singh Kaushalendra Singh Surendra Singh
| (born 1934; died 1982) |
| | |
Shailendra Singh Ajayraj Singh Tarunendra Singh
Ajaigarh Fort
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}} It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River. This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
The fort is visited by both history and art lovers.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}} This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
Gallery
Demographics
As of the 2001 India census,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stadA&state5999|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stadA&state5999 |archive-date2004-06-16|title Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date2008-11-01|publisher Census Commission of India}}</ref> Ajaigarh had a population of 13,979. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
*[http://www.bundelkhand.in/portal/photo-gallery/Ajaigarh Ajaigarh photo callery]
*[http://www.traveltargets.com/panna/#Ajaigarh_Fort_and_Valley Ajaigarh Fort & Valley] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506042712/https://www.traveltargets.com/panna/#Ajaigarh_Fort_and_Valley |date6 May 2021 }}
{{Sagar Division}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Populated places established in 1765
Category:Bundelkhand
Category:Cities and towns in Panna district
Category:Tourist attractions in Panna district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajaigarh
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Ajanta Caves
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{{Short description|Buddhist cave monuments in Maharashtra, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English | date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
| WHS = Ajanta Caves
| Image | caption The Ajanta Caves
| Coordinates {{coord|20|33|12|N|75|42|01|E|region:IN_type:landmark|displaytitle,inline}}
| Location = Ajanta, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India
| Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iii, vi
| ID = 242
| Year = 1983
| Area = 8,242 ha
| Buffer_zone = 78,676 ha
| locmapin = India#Maharashtra#
|Religion=}}
hall.]]
{{BuddhasHolySites}}
The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India.<ref>{{Cite web |workChatrapati Sambhajinagar District Administration, Government Of Maharashtra |titlePadmapani Painting Ajanta Cave |urlhttps://aurangabad.gov.in/en/tourist-place/padmapani-painting-ajanta-cave/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230402113118/https://aurangabad.gov.in/en/tourist-place/padmapani-painting-ajanta-cave/ |archive-dateApril 2, 2023 |access-date2023-04-02 |languageen}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastCentre |firstUNESCO World Heritage |titleAjanta Caves |urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/ |access-date2023-03-30 |websiteUNESCO World Heritage Centre |languageen}}</ref><ref name"Madan">{{cite book |lastGopal |firstMadan |urlhttps://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada |titleIndia through the ages |publisherPublication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |year1990 |editorK.S. Gautam |page[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/173 173]}}</ref> Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref name":0" /> Universally regarded as masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, the caves include paintings and rock-cut sculptures described as among the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian art, particularly expressive paintings that present emotions through gesture, pose and form.<ref>{{cite book|first1Trudy |last1Ring|first2Noelle |last2Watson|first3Paul |last3Schellinger|titleAsia and Oceania |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvoerPYsAB5wC&pgPA17 |year2012|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-136-63979-1|pages17, 14–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1Hugh |last1Honour|first2John |last2Fleming|titleA World History of Art|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqGb4pyoseH4C |year2005|publisherLaurence King|isbn978-1-85669-451-3|pages228–230}}</ref>{{Sfn|Michell|2009|p= 336}}
The caves were built in two phases, the first starting around the second century BCE and the second occurring from 400 to 650 CE, according to older accounts, or in a brief period of 460–480 CE according to later scholarship.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/242.pdf Ajanta Caves: Advisory Body Evaluation, UNESCO International Council on Monuments and Sites. 1982. Retrieved 27 October 2006.] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091222054333/https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/242.pdf |date22 December 2009 }}, p. 2.</ref>
The Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries (Viharas) and worship-halls (Chaityas) of different Buddhist traditions carved into a {{convert|75|m|adjon}} wall of rock.<ref name"Johnston2013p18" /><ref>{{cite book|firstAravinda Prabhakar |lastJamkhedkar|titleAjanta|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHGzqAAAAMAAJ|year2009|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-569785-8|pages61–62, 71–73}}</ref> The caves also present paintings depicting the past lives <ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 |titleAjanta Caves, India: Brief Description, UNESCO World Heritage Site. Retrieved 27 October 2006. |access-date26 December 2019 |archive-date18 December 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081218043116/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and rebirths of the Buddha, pictorial tales from ''Aryasura's Jatakamala, and rock-cut sculptures of Buddhist deities.<ref name"Johnston2013p18" /><ref>{{cite journal |lastCohen |firstRichard S. |titleNāga, Yakṣiṇī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta|journalHistory of Religions |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |volume37 |issue4 |dateMay 1998 |pages360–400|jstor3176402 |doi10.1086/463514 |s2cid162226757 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1Benoy K. |last1Behl|first2Sangitika |last2Nigam|titleThe Ajanta caves: artistic wonder of ancient Buddhist India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsfLVAAAAMAAJ |year1998 |publisherHarry N. Abrams|isbn978-0-8109-1983-9|pages164, 226}}</ref> Textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India.<ref name"Johnston2013p18" /> While vivid colours and mural wall paintings were abundant in Indian history as evidenced by historical records, Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17 of Ajanta form the largest corpus of surviving ancient Indian wall-paintings.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp= 355–361; 460}}
The Ajanta Caves are mentioned in the memoirs of several medieval-era Chinese Buddhist travelers.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp32, 82}} They were covered by jungle until accidentally "discovered" and brought to Western attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer Captain John Smith on a tiger-hunting party.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp3, 139}} The caves are in the rocky northern wall of the U-shaped gorge of the River Waghur,<ref>variously spelled Waghora or Wagura</ref> in the Deccan plateau.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/multiple1&unique_number269 Map of Ajanta Caves] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211106080808/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/multiple%3D1%26unique_number%3D269 |date6 November 2021 }}, UNESCO</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstNarayan |lastSanyal |titleImmortal Ajanta|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoD7rAAAAMAAJ|year1984|publisherBharati|page7}}</ref> Within the gorge are a number of waterfalls, audible from outside the caves when the river is high.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p2}} Transport With the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is one of the major tourist attractions of Maharashtra. It is about {{convert|59|km|mi|abbroff}} from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, {{convert|104|km|mi|abbroff}} from the city of Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (formerly Auragabad) and {{convert|350|km|mi|abbroff}} east-northeast of Mumbai.<ref name"Johnston2013p18">{{cite book|firstRichard |lastCohen|editor-firstWilliam M. |editor-lastJohnston|titleEncyclopedia of Monasticism|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiepJAgAAQBAJ|year2013|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-136-78716-4|pages18–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|publisherIndian Railways|titleBhusawal Division: Tourism (Ajanta and Ellora)|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvTJUAAAAMAAJ|year1996|pages40–43}}</ref> Ajanta is {{convert|100|km|mi|abbroff}} from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain and Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta style is also found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves and the cave temples of Karnataka.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp118–122}} Nearest airports are Jalgaon and Sambhaji Nagar followed by Mumbai and nearest railway stations are Jalgaon & Bhusawal.
History
The Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have been made in two distinct phases; first during the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE, and second several centuries later.<ref>{{cite book|firstAravinda Prabhakar |lastJamkhedkar|titleAjanta|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHGzqAAAAMAAJ|year2009|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-569785-8|pages3–5}}</ref>{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp1–2}}<ref>{{cite book|firstLouise |lastNicholson|titleNational Geographic India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id71jZCwAAQBAJ|year2014|publisherNational Geographic Society|isbn978-1-4262-1183-6|pages=175–176}}</ref>
The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations,<ref name"Johnston2013p18" /> some of them discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 through 29. The later-identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, such as 15A, identified between originally numbered caves 15 and 16.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp4, 9}} The cave numbering is a convention of convenience and does not reflect the chronological order of their construction.<ref nameringsalkin14 /> Caves of the first period (Satavahana)
worship hall with stupa but no idols]]
The earliest group consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15 A. The murals in these caves depict stories from the Jatakas.<ref nameringsalkin14 /> Later caves reflect the artistic influence of the Gupta period,<ref nameringsalkin14 /> but there are differing opinions on which century in which the early caves were built.{{Sfn|Michell|2009|pp335–336}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp4, 9, 163–170}} According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Hindu Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE – 220 CE) who ruled the region.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp4–6}}<ref>{{cite book|first1Benoy K. |last1Behl|first2Sangitika |last2Nigam|titleThe Ajanta caves: artistic wonder of ancient Buddhist India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsfLVAAAAMAAJ |year1998|publisherHarry N. Abrams|isbn978-0-8109-1983-9|pages20, 26}}, Quote: "The caves of the earlier phase at Ajanta date from around the second century BC, during the rule of the Satavahana dynasty. Although the Satavahanas were Hindu rulers, they (...)"</ref> Other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire (300 BCE to 100 BCE).<ref>Nagaraju 1981, pp.&nbsp;98–103</ref> Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of chaitya-griha form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are vihāras'' (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types).{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=4, 9}} The first Satavahana period caves lacked figurative sculpture, emphasizing the stupa instead.
According to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p2}} However, the early caves were in use during this dormant period, and Buddhist pilgrims visited the site, according to the records left by Chinese pilgrim Faxian around 400 CE.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp4, 9}}
Caves of the later or Vakataka period
The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over an extended period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE,<ref>The [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 UNESCO World Heritage List website] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081218043116/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 |date18 December 2008 }} for example says "The 29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in AD 650 in favour of Ellora"</ref> but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE,{{sfn|Spink|2009|p2}} during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty.<ref namecohen83>{{harvnb|Cohen|2006a|pp83–84|ps&nbsp;(quote): "Hans Bakker's political history of the Vakataka dynasty observed that Ajanta caves belong to the Buddhist, not the Hindu tradition. That this should be so is already remarkable in itself. By all we know of Harisena he was a Hindu; (...)."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstGeri Hockfield |lastMalandra|titleUnfolding A Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora|urlhttps://archive.org/details/unfoldingmandala0000mala |url-accessregistration |year1993|publisherState University of New York Press|isbn978-0-7914-1355-5|pages[https://archive.org/details/unfoldingmandala0000mala/page/5 5]–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstFred S. |lastKleiner|titleGardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise Global History|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUX9TCwAAQBAJ |year2016|publisherCengage|isbn978-1-305-57780-0|page468}}</ref> This view has been criticised by some scholars,<ref>For example, Karl Khandalavala, A. P. Jamkhedkar, and Brahmanand Deshpande. Spink, vol. 2, pp.&nbsp;117–134</ref> but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example, Huntington and Harle.
{{ Annotated image
| image=Map of the Vakatakas.png
| width=290 <!-- DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (290) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS -->
| image-width = 290 <!-- DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (290) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS -->
| image-left0 | image-top0| float = right
| annotations {{Annotation|text-aligncenter|70|110|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">MAITRAKAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|230|5|South-Asia<br>480 CE|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|175|84|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">LICCHAVIS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|215|113|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">GAUDA</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|225|100|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">VARMANS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|115|225|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">KALABHRAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|115|205|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">WESTERN<br>GANGAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size6|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|95|190|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">KADAMBAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size6|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|130|197|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">PALLAVAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size6|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|85|65|<span style"color:#006400FF">ALCHON<br>HUNS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size9|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|45|75|<span style"color:#006400FF">SASANIAN<br>HIND</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size6|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|165|150|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">KALINGA</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|200|125|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">SAMATATAS</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size7|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|135|90|<span style"color:#4F311CFF">GUPTA<br>EMPIRE</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size9|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|5|15|<span style"color:#006400FF">HEPHTHALITES</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size9|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|117|139|}}
{{Annotation|text-aligncenter|1|55|<span style"color:#006400FF">SASANIAN<br>EMPIRE</span>|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size9|color#000000}}
{{Annotation|262|250|<span style"color:#4F311CFF"> ◁ </span> <span style"color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>|text-aligncenter|font-weightbold|font-stylenormal|font-size12|color=#000000}}
|caption{{center|Approximate extent of Vakataka territory and location of neighbouring polities circa 480 CE, during the reign of king Harishena, when most of the caves of Ajanta () were built.<ref>{{cite book |last1Schwartzberg |first1Joseph E. |titleA Historical atlas of South Asia |date1978 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |locationChicago |page145, map XIV.1 (i)|isbn0226742210 |urlhttps://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182}}</ref>}}
}}
The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna,<ref nameringsalkin14 /> or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book|firstSara L. |lastSchastok|titleThe Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|year1985|publisherBrill Academic|isbn978-90-04-06941-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjh1fF8HvJmMC&pgPA40|page40}}</ref>{{sfn|Spink|2006|p127}} Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, the rest viharas. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some refurbishing and repainting of the early caves.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp2–3}}<ref nameringsalkin14>{{cite book|first1Trudy |last1Ring|first2Robert M. |last2Salkin|first3Sharon |last3La Boda|titleAsia and Oceania|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJqHPpNaZfNwC |year1994|publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-884964-04-6|pages14–19}}</ref>{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp81–82}}
Spink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below.<ref>{{harvnb|Spink|2007|pp4–6}}, for the briefest summary of his chronology. Developed at great length in his Ajanta: History and Development 2005.{{full citation needed|dateMarch 2021}}</ref> Although debate continues, Spink's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions. The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: "The second phase of paintings started around 5th–6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries".
According to Spink, the construction activity at the incomplete Ajanta Caves was abandoned by wealthy patrons in about 480 CE, a few years after the death of Harishena. However, states Spink, the caves appear to have been in use for a period of time as evidenced by the wear of the pivot holes in caves constructed close to 480 CE.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp5–6; 160–161}} The second phase of constructions and decorations at Ajanta corresponds to the very apogee of Classical India, or India's golden age.{{sfn|Spink|2005a|p7}} However, at that time, the Gupta Empire was already weakening from internal political issues and from the assaults of the Hūṇas, so that the Vakatakas were actually one of the most powerful empires in India.<ref>{{cite book |last1Auctores Varii |titleAjanta Dipinta - Painted Ajanta Vol. 1 e 2: Studio sulla tecnica e sulla conservazione del sito rupestre indiano - Studies on the techniques and the conservation of the indian rock art site |date2016 |publisherGangemi Editore |isbn978-8849274905 |pages58–59 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfS34CwAAQBAJ&pgPA59}}</ref> Some of the Hūṇas, the Alchon Huns of Toramana, were precisely ruling the neighbouring area of Malwa, at the doorstep of the Western Deccan, at the time the Ajanta caves were made.<ref>{{cite book |last1Brancaccio |first1Pia |titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date2010 |publisherBrill|isbn978-9004185258 |pages105–106 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pgPA106}}</ref> Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area of Gandhara and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta or Pitalkhora caves were being decorated with some designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.<ref>{{cite book |last1Brancaccio |first1Pia |titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date2010 |publisherBrill|isbn978-9004185258 |pages106–107 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107}}</ref>
According to Richard Cohen, a description of the caves by 7th-century Chinese Traveller Xuanzang and scattered medieval graffiti suggest that the Ajanta Caves were known and probably in use subsequently, but without a stable or steady Buddhist community presence.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp32, 82}} The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text Ain-i-Akbari by Abu al-Fazl, as twenty four rock-cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp32, 82}}
Colonial era/Rediscovery
On 28 April 1819 a British officer named John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tigers was shown the entrance to Cave No. 10 when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door. The caves were well known by locals already.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp77–78}} Captain Smith went to a nearby village and asked the villagers to come to the site with axes, spears, torches, and drums, to cut down the tangled jungle growth that made entering the cave difficult.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp77–78}} He first saw ceilings with beautiful and artistically drawn faces on them, then he noticed monastic halls which helped him identify their Buddhist origin. He then deliberately damaged an image on the wall by scratching his name and the date over the painting of a bodhisattva. Since he stood on a five-foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye-level gaze of an adult today.<ref>{{harvnb|Spink|2007|pp139 and 3|ps&nbsp;(quote): "Going down into the ravine where the caves were cut, he scratched his inscription (John Smith, 28th Cavalry, 28th April, 1819) across the innocent chest of a painted Buddha image on the thirteenth pillar on the right in Cave 10..."}}</ref> A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|p=3}}
Within a few decades, the caves became famous for their exotic setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional and unique paintings. A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society established the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission" to clear, tidy and record the most important rock-cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson as president. In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India.{{sfn|Gordon|2011|pp=231–234}}
During the colonial era, the Ajanta site was in the territory of the princely state of the Hyderabad and not British India.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp51–58}} In the early 1920s, Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, appointed people to restore the artwork, converted the site into a museum and built a road to bring tourists to the site for a fee. These efforts resulted in early mismanagement, states Richard Cohen, and hastened the deterioration of the site. Post-independence, the state government of Maharashtra built arrival, transport, facilities, and better site management. The modern Visitor Center has good parking facilities and public conveniences and ASI operated buses run at regular intervals from Visitor Center to the caves.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp51–58}}
The Nizam's Director of Archaeology obtained the services of two experts from Italy, Professor Lorenzo Cecconi, assisted by Count Orsini, to restore the paintings in the caves.<ref name"Nizam">{{cite news |titleAjanta cave paintings of Nizam era lie in a state of neglect |date3 July 2018 <!-- It was updated on 8 July, but originally published on 3 July --> |first1Aihik |last1Sur |newspaperNew Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2018/jul/03/ajanta-cave-paintings-of-nizam-era-lie-in-a-state-of-neglect-1837405.html}}</ref> The Director of Archaeology for the last Nizam of Hyderabad said of the work of Cecconi and Orsini:
{{Blockquote|The repairs to the caves and the cleaning and conservation of the frescoes have been carried out on such sound principles and in such a scientific manner that these matchless monuments have found a fresh lease of life for at least a couple of centuries.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|p=51}}}}
Despite these efforts, later neglect led to the paintings degrading in quality once again.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|p=51}}
Since 1983, Ajanta caves have been listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of India.
The Ajanta Caves, along with the Ellora Caves, have become the most popular tourist destination in Maharashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings.<ref>{{harvp|Cohen|2006a|locchapter 2}} discusses the history and future of visitors to Ajanta.</ref> In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly-lit and hard to read in the caves.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120809232804/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-05/pune/33048793_1_caves-ellora-centre "Tourist centre to house replicas of Ajanta caves"], The Times of India, 5 August 2012, accessed 24 October 2012; see {{harvp|Cohen|2006a|p51}} for an earlier version of the proposal, recreating caves 16, 17 and 21.</ref>
Sites and monasteries
Sites
The caves are carved out of flood basalt and granite rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period. The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality.<ref>"horizontally bedded alternate flows of massive and amygdular lava" is a technical description quoted by {{harvp|Cohen|2006a|p37}}</ref> This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places. The inhomogeneity in the rock has also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially-built vihara caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp13–14}}
The sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof, and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were integrated parallel tasks.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p28}} A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective Naga (snake) deity.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p10}}{{sfn|Michell|2009|p340}} Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism. These include the Ellora Caves, Ghototkacha Caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp21–24, 38, 74–76, 115, 151–153, 280}} and Shivleni Caves.
The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain merit, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave. The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist afterlife beliefs as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp5, 15, 32–33, 80, 249}} After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small "shrinelets" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these "intrusive" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp5, 15, 32–33, 80, 126–130, 249–259}}
Monasteries
, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells]]
The majority of the caves are vihara halls with symmetrical square plans. To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp73–85, 100–104, 182}} A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp18, 37, 45–46}} This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.
The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more-or-less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=148}} The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue.
The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp118–122}}{{sfn|Michell|2009|pp335–343}} Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=142}}
The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.{{sfn|Michell|2009|p=338}}
<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:Ajanta Cave 12 plan to scale.jpg|Cave 12 plan: an early type of vihara (1st century BCE) without internal shrine
File:GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg|Cave 1 plan, a monastery known for its paintings<ref>{{cite book|firstFred S. |lastKleiner|titleGardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise Global History|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUX9TCwAAQBAJ|year2016|publisherCengage|isbn978-1-305-57780-0|pages=467–468}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Cave 6 plan.jpg|Cave 6: a two-storey monastery with "Miracle of Sravasti" and "Temptation of Mara" painted{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=7–8, 10}}
File:Ajanta Cave 16 plan.jpg|Cave 16: a monastery featuring two side aisles{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=7–8, 10}}
</gallery>
Worship halls
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| footer = Top: Interior of Ajanta chaitya hall, Cave 26, photo by Robert Gill (c. 1868); Bottom: James Fergusson painting of Cave 19 worship hall.
| image1 = Interior of Buddhist chaitya hall, Cave XXVI, Ajanta, c.1868.jpg
| image2 = Ajanta by Fergusson, cave 19.jpg
}}
The other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type chaitya-griha – literally, "the house of stupa". This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a stupa in the apse.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Jain|first1Rajesh K.|last2Garg|first2Rajeev|titleRock-Cut Congregational Spaces in Ancient India|journalArchitectural Science Review| volume47|issue2| year2004|pages199–203 |doi10.1080/00038628.2004.9697044|s2cid110386714}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |firstSuresh |lastVasant |date2000 |titleTulja Leni and Kondivte Caitya-gṛhas: A Structural Analysis |journalArs Orientalis |volume30 |pages23–32|jstor4629566 }}</ref> The stupa is surrounded by pillars and concentric walking space for circumambulation. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in the late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the architecture of a Christian church, but without the crossing or chapel chevette.<ref>{{cite book|firstDavid |lastEfurd|editor1-firstVimalin |editor1-lastRujivacharakul |editor2-firstH. Hazel |editor2-lastHahn |display-editorset al |titleArchitecturalized Asia: Mapping a Continent through History|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFCoWAgAAQBAJ |year2013|publisherHong Kong University Press|isbn978-988-8208-05-0|pages140–145}}</ref> The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral-style architecture found in still older rock-cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave of the Ajivikas near Gaya in Bihar dated to the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Born|first1Wolfgang| titleThe Origin and the Distribution of the Bulbous Dome |journalThe Journal of the American Society of Architectural Historians| volume3| issue4|year1943|pages32–48 |doi10.2307/901122|jstor901122}}</ref> These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp12, 94, 161–162, 228}}<ref>{{cite book|firstKeith |lastBellows|titleSacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjNqDFSxR8-MC&pgPA125|year2008|publisherNational Geographic Society|isbn978-1-4262-0336-7|page=125}}</ref>
The four completed chaitya halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central "nave" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (pradakshina). The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms,<ref>UNESCO, Brief description</ref> and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished.{{sfn|Michell|2009|p339}} The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp118–122}}{{sfn|Michell|2009|pp335–343}} Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete chaitya hall.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp12–13}}
The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both chaitya halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.<ref>{{harvnb|Spink|2007|p18}}, and in the accounts of individual caves; {{harvnb|Michell|2009|p336}}.</ref><ref>Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1909), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41338504 "The Buddhist and Hindu Architecture of India"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215174933/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41338504 |date15 December 2018 }}, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 57, No. 2937 (5 March 1909), pp. 316–329</ref>
<gallery widths"125" heights"125">
File:Ajanta Chaitya 10 plan.jpg|Cave 10: a worship hall with Jataka tales-related art (1st century BCE){{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=9–11, 14–15}}
File:Ajanta Chaitya 9 plan.jpg|Cave 9: a worship hall with early paintings and animal friezes (1st century CE){{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=9–11, 14–15}}
File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19: known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera and other arts (5th century CE){{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=9–11, 14–15}}
File:Ajanta Cave 19 longitudinal section.jpg|Cave 19: another view (5th century CE)
</gallery>
Paintings
Most of the Ajanta caves, and almost all the murals paintings date from nearly 600 years later, during a second phase of construction.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Ajanta cave murals: 'nothing less than the birth of Indian art' {{!}} Painting {{!}} The Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/aug/15/mural-ajanta-caves-india-birth-indian-art |access-date2023-07-06 |websiteamp.theguardian.com|date15 August 2014 }}</ref> The paintings in the Ajanta caves predominantly narrate the Jataka tales. These are Buddhist legends describing the previous births of the Buddha. These fables embed ancient morals and cultural lores that are also found in the fables and legends of Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales are exemplified through the life example and sacrifices that the Buddha made in hundreds of his past incarnations, where he is depicted as having been reborn as an animal or human.<ref name"RingWatson2012p17">{{cite book|first1Trudy |last1Ring|first2Noelle |last2Watson|first3Paul |last3Schellinger|titleAsia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvoerPYsAB5wC&pgPA17 |year 2012|publisherRoutledge|isbn 978-1-136-63979-1|pages 17–19}}</ref>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp147–148}}{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}}
Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and "show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars".{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p355}} Some connections with the art of Gandhara can also be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.<ref>{{cite book|last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date2010|publisherBrill|isbn978-9004185258|page107|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107}}</ref>
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, "have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist",{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p355}} and represent "the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art".{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p356}} They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp355–361}} The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p359}}
The paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p361}} All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p359}} The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp355–361}} The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal. The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.<ref name"Spink 2008">{{cite web |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |dateMay 2008 |orig-yearrevised September 2008 |titleAjanta Lecture, Korea |urlhttp://www.walterspink.com/ajanta/ajanta-lecture |websiteWalterSpink |access-date6 March 2015 |archive-date18 June 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210618031156/http://www.walterspink.com/ajanta/ajanta-lecture |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp28–29}} According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.<ref name"Spink 2008" />
<gallery widths"180" heights"180">
File:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (55).JPG|Cave 2, showing the extensive paint loss of many areas. It was never finished by its artists, and shows Vidhura Jataka.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p=148, Figure 46}}
File:Ajanta cave 17, frescoes above a lintel.JPG|Cave 17 verandah doorway; eight Buddhas above eight couples{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp201–202}}<ref>{{cite book|first1George|last1Michell|first2Philip H. |last2Davies|titleThe Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu |year1989 |publisherPenguin|isbn978-0670806966|page340|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideqtNAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>
File:Coming Of Sinhala (Mural At Ajanta In Cave No 17).jpg|Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of Sinhala'. The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.
File:Hamsa jâtaka, Ajanta, India.jpg|Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17: the Buddha as the golden goose in his previous life{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=91}}
File:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (13).JPG|Cave 13
</gallery>
Spink's chronology and cave history
Walter Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp1–16}} He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period "between 100 BCE – 100 CE", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so "for over three centuries". This changed during the Hindu emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty,<ref namecohen83 /> who reigned from 460 to his death in 477, who sponsored numerous new caves during his reign. Harisena's rule extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the Gupta Empire ruled northern India at the same period, and the Pallava dynasty much of the south.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p=2}}
According to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation. This activity began in many caves simultaneously about 462. This activity was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings. Thereafter work continued on only Caves 1, Harisena's own commission, and 17–20, commissioned by Upendragupta. In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls "the Hiatus", which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=4–5}}
Work was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves. The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. In the years 478–480 CE major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of "intrusions" – statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers. They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp5–6}} According to Spink, "After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site".{{sfn|Spink|2007|p6}} However, there exists a Rashtrakuta inscription outside of cave 26 dateable to end of seventh or early 8th century, suggesting the caves were not abandoned until then.
Spink does not use "circa" in his dates, but says that "one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases".<ref>{{harvnb|Spink|2009|pxx}} (quoted); {{harvnb|Spink|2007|pp15–16}}</ref>
Hindu and Buddhist sponsorship
The Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture. According to Spink and other scholars, the royal Vakataka sponsors of the Ajanta Caves probably worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist gods.<ref namecohen83 />{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p180}} This is evidenced by inscriptions in which these rulers, who are otherwise known as Hindu devotees, made Buddhist dedications to the caves.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=180}} According to Spink,
{{Blockquote|
That one could worship both the Buddha and the Hindu gods may well account for Varahadeva's participation here, just as it can explain why the emperor Harisena himself could sponsor the remarkable Cave 1, even though most scholars agree that he was certainly a Hindu, like earlier Vakataka kings.
|Walter Spink|Ajanta: History and Development, Cave by Cave,{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p=180}}}}
A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini, also known as Durga, was also found in a burnt-brick vihara monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river Waghora that has been recently excavated.<ref name"AjantaASI"/><ref name"ASI Ajanta"/><ref name"The Early Development of the Cave 2">"Recent excavations have unearthed valuable material including a brick monastery that had a stūpa, a gold coin of the Byzantine King Theodosius, an image of Mahiṣāsuramardinī, implements, vessels, and other objects. For a full report, see 'Excavation at Ajanta: District Aurangabad', in Indian Archaeology 2000 2001 A Review (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2006), pp. 92-97" in {{cite journal |last1Singh |first1Rajesh Kumar |titleThe Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta |journalSouth Asian Studies |date2012 |volume28 |issue1 |pages37–68 |doi10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 |s2cid161425050}}</ref> This suggest that the deity was possibly under worship by the artisans.<ref name"AjantaASI"/><ref name"ASI Ajanta"/> According to Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink, the excavated artifacts of the 5th century near the site suggest that the Ajanta caves deployed a huge number of builders.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p14 with footnote 3}}<ref>{{cite book|firstYuko |lastYokochi|editor-firstHans |editor-lastBakker|titleThe Vākāṭaka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7CFuAAAAMAAJ |year2004|publisherEgbert Forsten|isbn978-90-6980-148-3|pages172, context: 167–178}}</ref> Cave 1
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Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horseshoe-shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This cave, when first made, would have been in a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Spink states that the Vākāṭaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp= 17, 31}}
The cliff has a steeper slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen "half-intact in the 1880s" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river and lost.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p17}}<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00462000.html 1869 photo by Robert Gill] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140323194744/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00462000.html |date=23 March 2014 }} at the British Library, showing the porch already rather less than "half-intact"</ref>
This cave (35.7 m × 27.6 m)<ref nameasicave1to29/> has one of the most elaborate carved facades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two-pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a forecourt with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells at both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggests that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become customary. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp 17–21}}
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly {{convert|40|ft|m}} long and {{convert|20|ft|m}} high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside, supporting the ceiling and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the dharmachakrapravartana mudra. There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp= 20–23}}
The paintings of Cave 1 cover the walls and the ceilings. They are in a fair state of preservation, although the full scheme was never completed. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha's former lives as a bodhisattva, the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration. The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-lifesize figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above).{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp29–31}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp359–361}} Other significant frescoes in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga, and Champeyya Jataka tales. The cave-paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, the miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha simultaneously manifests in many forms, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp78, 132–135}}
<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:Meister des Mahâjanaka Jâtaka 001.jpg|One of four frescoes for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale: the king announces his abdication to become an ascetic.<ref>{{cite web|titleMahajanaka Jataka: Ajanta Cave 1|urlhttp://dcl.elevator.umn.edu/asset/viewAsset/56d1729c7d58aed50a8c4a98#56d1729d7d58aed50a8c4a9c|website=University of Minnesota}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Cave 1 Mahajanaka Jataka mural detail.jpg|Sibi Jataka: the king undergoes the traditional rituals for renunciants. He receives a ceremonial bath.<ref namebehlpaint>Benoy Behl (2004), [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2120/stories/20041008000106400.htm Ajanta, the fountainhead] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221123135903/https://frontline.thehindu.com/ |date23 November 2022 }}, Frontline, Volume 21, Issue 20</ref>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp32–33, Plate XI}}
File:Bodhisattva Padmapani, cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with lotus<ref namebehlpaint/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp8–9, Plate IV}}
File:023 Cave 1, Vajrapani (33896242100).jpg|The Vajrapani<ref namebehlpaint/>{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp138–140}}
File:Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of Bodhisattva Padmapani painting in Cave 1.<ref>{{cite web |authorSubramanian Swaminathan |title Paintings |websitesaigan.com|url https://www.saigan.com/heritage/painting/ajanta/ajanta15.html|quote= Kinnara playing Kachchapa Vina, Padmapani Panel, Cave 1 }}</ref>
File:Ajanta_foreigner_2.jpg|Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners on the ceiling
</gallery>
Cave 2
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Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp74–75}}<ref namepicron245>Claudine Bautze-Picron (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757545 Nidhis and Other Images of Richness and Fertility in Ajaṇṭā] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180923163102/https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757545 |date23 September 2018 }}, East and West, Vol. 52, No. 1/4 (December 2002), pp. 245–251</ref> One of the 5th-century frescos in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=150–152}}
Cave 2 (35.7 m × 21.6 m)<ref nameasicave1to29/> was started in the 460s, but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE, probably sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to emperor Harisena.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp7–8, 40–43}} It has a porch quite different from Cave 1. Even the façade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp=40–54}}
The hall has four colonnades which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine motifs.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp40–54}} Major carvings include that of goddess Hariti. She is a Buddhist deity who originally was the demoness of smallpox and a child eater, who the Buddha converted into a guardian goddess of fertility, easy child birth and one who protects babies.<ref namepicron245 />{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=150–152}}
The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2 have been widely published. They depict the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka tales and the Purna Avadhana. Other frescos show the miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara and the dream of Maya.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp147–148}}{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}} Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasise kingship, those in cave 2 show many noble and powerful women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=13–14}} The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior.
<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:044 Cave 2, Paintings and Pillar (34149165821).jpg|Cave 2 fresco above the right door shows Buddha in Tushita heaven{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=48–49, Plates XVII–XX}}
File:Ajanta Cave 2 Birth of the Buddha.jpg|A scene from Vidurapandita Jataka: the birth of the Buddha{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=48–49, Plates XVII–XX}}
File:Ajanta cave 2, girls detail.jpg|The artworks of Cave 2 are known for their feminine focus, such as these two females{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=74–75}}
File:045 Cave 2, Many Buddhas (34122766502).jpg|The Miracle of Sravasti{{sfn|Spink|2005b|pp= 3–4, 91 footnote 59, 259}}
</gallery>
Cave 3
Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=8}}
This is an incomplete monastery and only the preliminary excavations of pillared veranda exist. The cave was one of the last projects to start at the site. Its date could be ascribed to circa 477 CE<ref>(Spink 2005–2013)</ref>{{full citation needed|dateAugust 2018}}, just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. The work stopped after the scooping out of a rough entrance of the hall.{{citation needed|dateAugust 2018}}
Cave 4
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Cave 4, a Vihara, was sponsored by Mathura, likely not a noble or courtly official, rather a wealthy devotee.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp58–61}} This is the largest vihara in the inaugural group, which suggests he had immense wealth and influence without being a state official. It is placed at a significantly higher level, possibly because the artists realized that the rock quality at the lower and same level of other caves was poor and they had a better chance of a major vihara at an upper location. Another likely possibility is that the planners wanted to carve into the rock another large cistern to the left courtside for more residents, mirroring the right, a plan implied by the height of the forward cells on the left side.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp58–61}}
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The Archaeological Survey of India dates it to the 6th century CE.<ref nameasicave1to29/> Spink, in contrast, dates this cave's inauguration a century earlier, to about 463 CE, based on construction style and other inscriptions.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp58–61}} Cave 4 shows evidence of a dramatic collapse of its ceiling in the central hall, likely in the 6th century, something caused by the vastness of the cave and geological flaws in the rock. Later, the artists attempted to overcome this geological flaw by raising the height of the ceiling through deeper excavation of the embedded basalt lava.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=53–55}}
s]]
The cave has a squarish plan, houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above. It consists, of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells. This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves and it measures nearly {{convert|970|m2}} (35&nbsp;m × 28&nbsp;m).<ref nameasicave1to29/> The door frame is exquisitely sculpted flanking to the right is carved Bodhisattva as reliever of Eight Great Perils. The rear wall of the veranda contains the panel of litany of Avalokiteśvara. The cave's ceiling collapse likely affected its overall plan, caused it being left incomplete. Only the Buddha's statue and the major sculptures were completed, and except for what the sponsor considered most important elements all other elements inside the cave were never painted.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp53–55}}
Cave 5
Cave 5, an unfinished excavation, was planned as a monastery (10.32 × 16.8 m). Cave 5 is devoid of sculpture and architectural elements except the door frame. The ornate carvings on the frame has female figures with mythical makara creatures found in ancient and medieval-era Indian arts.<ref nameasicave1to29/> The cave's construction was likely initiated about 465 CE but abandoned because the rock has geological flaws. The construction was resumed in 475 CE after Asmakas restarted work at the Ajanta caves, but abandoned again as the artists and sponsor redesigned and focussed on an expanded Cave 6 that abuts Cave 5.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp81–82}}
Cave 6
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Cave 6 is two-storey monastery (16.85 × 18.07 m). It consists of a sanctum, a hall on both levels. The lower level is pillared and has attached cells. The upper hall also has subsidiary cells. The sanctums on both level feature a Buddha in the teaching posture. Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different mudras. The lower level walls depict the Miracle of Sravasti and the Temptation of Mara legends.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp10–11}} Only the lower floor of cave 6 was finished. The unfinished upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=8}}
The lower level of Cave 6 likely was the earliest excavation in the second stage of construction.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp7–8, 10}} This stage marked the Mahayana theme and Vakataka renaissance period of Ajanta reconstruction that started about four centuries after the earlier Hinayana theme construction.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp7–8, 10}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp83–89, 98–103}} The upper storey was not envisioned in the beginning, it was added as an afterthought, likely around the time when the architects and artists abandoned further work on the geologically flawed rock of Cave 5 immediately next to it. Both lower and upper Cave 6 show crude experimentation and construction errors.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp83–91}} The cave work was most likely in progress between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first that shows attendant Bodhisattvas.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp90–93}} The upper cave construction probably began in 465, progressed swiftly, and much deeper into the rock than the lower level.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp98–99}}
The walls and sanctum's door frame of the both levels are intricately carved. These show themes such as makaras and other mythical creatures, apsaras, elephants in different stages of activity, females in waving or welcoming gesture. The upper level of Cave 6 is significant in that it shows a devotee in a kneeling posture at the Buddha's feet, an indication of devotional worship practices by the 5th century.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp10–11}}{{sfn|Spink|2005b|pages93, 193–194}} The colossal Buddha of the shrine has an elaborate throne back, but was hastily finished in 477/478 CE, when king Harisena died.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp87, 169–170}} The shrine antechamber of the cave features an unfinished sculptural group of the Six Buddhas of the Past, of which only five statues were carved.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp87, 169–170}} This idea may have been influenced from those in Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=66–67}}
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<gallery widths"125" heights"125">
File:075 Cave 6, Painting Fragments (34239868756).jpg|The most intact painting in Cave 6: Buddha seated in dharma-chakra-mudra{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=74–75}}
File:Gosh.jpg|Painting showing the Mahayana devotional worship to the Buddha{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp10–11}}{{sfn|Spink|2005b|pages93, 193–194}}
File:Upper Floor, Cave No. 6, Ajanta Caves - 1.jpg|Buddha in the upper level, deer below and apsaras above (artificial lighting){{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp76–77}}{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp97, 99 figures 32–33}}
File:AJANTA CAVE NO. 6.jpg|Bhagwan Buddha
</gallery>
Cave 7
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Cave 7 is also a monastery (15.55 × 31.25 m) but a single storey. It consists of a sanctum, a hall with octagonal pillars, and eight small rooms for monks. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture. There are many art panels narrating Buddhist themes, including those of the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and Miracle of Sravasti.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos. The veranda has eight pillars of two types. One has an octagonal base with amalaka and lotus capital. The other lacks a distinctly shaped base, features an octagonal shaft instead with a plain capital.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p77}} The veranda opens into an antechamber. On the left side in this antechamber are seated or standing sculptures such as those of 25 carved seated Buddhas in various postures and facial expressions, while on the right side are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in different postures, all placed on lotus.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p77}} These Buddhas and others on the inner walls of the antechamber are a sculptural depiction of the Miracle of Sravasti in Buddhist theology.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|ppxii, 87–89}} The bottom row shows two Nagas (serpents with hoods) holding the blooming lotus stalk.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p77}} The antechamber leads to the sanctum through a door frame. On this frame are carved two females standing on makaras (mythical sea creatures). Inside the sanctum is the Buddha sitting on a lion throne in cross legged posture, surrounded by other Bodhisattva figures, two attendants with chauris{{which lang|dateMay 2020}} and flying apsaras above.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p77}}
Perhaps because of faults in the rock, Cave 7 was never taken very deep into the cliff. It consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall. Some cells were fitted in.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp8–9}} The cave artwork likely underwent revisions and refurbishments over time. The first version was complete by about 469 CE, the myriad Buddhas added and painted a few years later between 476 and 478 CE.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp 87–89}}
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<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:Plan of Ajanta Cave 7, 1850 sketch.jpg|Cave 7 plan (Robert Gill sketch, 1850)<ref>[https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-8/nQHlGRr2Q_zX_w ajanta-cave-no-8] Google Arts & Culture</ref>
File:1880 sketch antechamber reliefs Cave 7 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|Cave 7: Buddhas on the antechamber left wall (James Burgess sketch, 1880){{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= xii, 87–89}}
File:Ajanta si01-0403.jpg|Buddhas on the antechamber's right wall{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= xii, 87–89}}
File:Ajanta Caves 47.jpg|The shallow corridor before the shrine
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Cave 8
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Cave 8 is another unfinished monastery (15.24 × 24.64 m). For many decades in the 20th century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp8–9, 127–130}} It is at the river level with easy access, relatively lower than other caves, and according to Archaeological Survey of India it is possibly one of the earliest monasteries. Much of its front is damaged, likely from a landslide.<ref nameasicave1to29/> The cave excavation proved difficult and probably abandoned after a geological fault consisting of a mineral layer proved disruptive to stable carvings.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp8–9, 127–130}}{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp 10, 88}}
Spink, in contrast, states that Cave 8 is perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an "afterthought". It may well be the oldest Mahayana monastery excavated in India, according to Spink.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp8–9}} The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp8–9}}
Cave 9
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| footer = Entrance to the Cave 9 worship hall. Right: An 1878 sketch.
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Caves 9 and 10 are the two chaitya or worship halls from the 2nd to 1st century BCE – the first period of construction, though both were reworked upon the end of the second period of construction in the 5th century CE.
Cave 9 (18.24 m × 8.04 m)<ref nameasicave1to29/> is smaller than Cave 10 (30.5 m × 12.2 m),<ref nameasicave1to29/> but more complex.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp131–132}} This has led Spink to the view that Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE, and cave 9 about a hundred years later. The small "shrinelets" called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period. These were commissioned by individuals.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp9, 140–141}} Cave 9 arch has remnant profile that suggests that it likely had wooden fittings.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=131–132}}
The cave has a distinct apsidal shape, nave, aisle and an apse with an icon, architecture, and plan that reminds one of the cathedrals built in Europe many centuries later. The aisle has a row of 23 pillars. The ceiling is vaulted. The stupa is at the center of the apse, with a circumambulation path around it. The stupa sits on a high cylindrical base. On the left wall of the cave are votaries approaching the stupa, which suggests a devotional tradition.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp12–13}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp131–135}}
According to Spink, the paintings in this cave, including the intrusive standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century.{{sfn|Spink|2009|ppxii, 1–3}} Above the pillars and also behind the stupa are colorful paintings of the Buddha with Padmapani and Vajrapani next to him, they wear jewels and necklaces, while yogis, citizens and Buddhist bhikshu are shown approaching the Buddha with garlands and offerings, with men wearing dhoti and turbans wrapped around their heads.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp77–78}} On the walls are friezes of Jataka tales, but likely from the Hinayana phase of early construction. Some of the panels and reliefs inside as well as outside Cave 10 do not make narrative sense, but are related to Buddhist legends. This lack of narrative flow may be because these were added by different monks and official donors in the 5th century wherever empty space was available.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp131–135}} This devotionalism and the worship hall character of this cave is the likely reason why four additional shrinelets 9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D were added between Cave 9 and 10.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp131–135}}
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File:098 Cave 9, Buddha with Ananda (34239733306).jpg|Buddha statue on the porch of Cave 9
File:Ajanta caves aurangabad 12.JPG|The apsidal hall with plain hemispherical stupa at apse's center{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=77–78}}
File:Ajanta Caves 57.jpg|Pillar paintings
File:Cave 9, Paintings on and over pillars right side of the cave.jpg|Cave 9: fresco with Buddhas in orange robes and protected by chatra umbrellas
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Cave 10
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| footer Exterior view and interior hall of Cave 10<ref>[https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-10/MQFuFVppaC4MXQ ajanta-cave-no-10]{{dead link|dateJune 2024|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}} Google Arts & Culture</ref>
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Cave 10, a vast prayer hall or Chaitya, is dated to about the 1st century BCE, together with the nearby vihara cave No 12.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp1}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp135–137}} These two caves are thus among the earliest of the Ajanta complex.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp1}} It has a large central apsidal hall with a row of 39 octagonal pillars, a nave separating its aisle and stupa at the end for worship. The stupa has a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path).<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}}
This cave is significant because its scale confirms the influence of Buddhism in South Asia by the 1st century BCE and its continued though declining influence in India through the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp135–137}} Further, the cave includes a number of inscriptions where parts of the cave are "gifts of prasada" by different individuals, which in turn suggests that the cave was sponsored as a community effort rather than a single king or one elite official.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp135–137}} Cave 10 is also historically important because in April 1819, a British Army officer John Smith saw its arch and introduced his discovery to the attention of the Western audience.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
;Chronology
Several others caves were also built in Western India around the same period under royal sponsorship.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp1}} It is thought that the chronology of these early Chaitya Caves is as follows: first Cave 9 at Kondivite Caves and then Cave 12 at the Bhaja Caves, which both predate Cave 10 of Ajanta.<ref name"Le 108">{{cite book|last1Le|first1Huu Phuoc|titleBuddhist Architecture |date2010|publisherGrafikol |isbn978-0984404308|page108|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9jb364g4BvoC&pgPA108}}</ref> Then, after Cave 10 of Ajanta, in chronological order: Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later,{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp1}} Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves, to finally culminate with the "final perfection" of the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves.<ref name"Le 108"/>
;Inscription
Cave 10 features a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script that is archaeologically important.<ref nameasicave1to29/> The inscription is the oldest of the Ajanta site, the Brahmi letters being paleographically dated to circa the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1Sivaramamurti |first1C. |titleVijaynagra Paintings |publisherPublications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting |isbn9788123030005 |page31 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbuqSDwAAQBAJ&pgPP31}}</ref> It reads:{{refn|group=note|The inscription has been connected to the Satavahana ruler Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (c. 170 CE), who is also known for inscription at the Nasik Caves, although there are disagreements since he is very posterior to the 1st century BCE.}}
{{Blockquote|𑀯𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 𑀓𑀝𑀳𑀸𑀤𑀺𑀦𑁄 𑀖𑀭𑀫𑀼𑀔 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁<br>Vasithiputasa Kaṭahādino gharamukha dānaṁ<br>"The gift of a cave-façade by Vasisthiputra Katahadi."|Inscription of Cave No.10.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp1}}<ref>{{cite book |first1James |last1Burgess|first2Bhagvānlal |last2Indrājī|titleInscriptions from the Cave-temples of Western India: With Descriptive Notes &c.|date1881|publisherGovernment Central Press|pages67–68 |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog#page/n143/mode/2up}}</ref>}}
;Paintings
The paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479–480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the "official" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible. The paintings are numerous and from two periods, many narrating the Jataka tales in a clockwise sequence.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp101–103, 137–139, 184}} Both Hinayana and Mahayana stage paintings are discernable, though the former are more faded and begrimed with early centuries of Hinayana worship.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp2–3, 135–137}} Of interest here is the Saddanta Jataka tale – the fable about six tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka – the story about the man who dedicates his life serving his blind parents.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp135–137}}<ref>{{cite book|firstDieter |lastSchlingloff|titleStudies in the Ajanta paintings: identifications and interpretations|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRsbqAAAAMAAJ |year1987 |publisherSouth Asia Books|isbn978-8120201736|pages24–27}}</ref>{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994|pp293–295}} According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest layer of the Cave 10 paintings date from about 100 BCE, and the principles behind their composition are analogous to those from the same era at Sanchi and Amaravati.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994|pp293–295}}
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*Plate 3* Ajunta-- Interior of Chaitya Cave, No. 10.jpg|Cave 10, condition in 1839<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000590u00005000.html Ajunta. Interior of Chaitya Cave No 10] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221123135903/https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000590u00005000.html |date=23 November 2022 }}, Dibdin, Thomas Colman (1810–1893) (1839), British Library Archives</ref>
File:089 Cave 10, Buddha Drawing on Column (33896473480).jpg|The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara<ref>{{cite journal |journalThe Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume4 |date1981 |numberI |urlhttps://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 |titleAn Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Caves 71.jpg|Later painting with devotional figures, on pillars and ceiling
File:106 Cave 10, Paintings in Arches (33438399444).jpg|Paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on the arches
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Cave 11
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| footer Outside view of Cave 11: Buddha with a kneeling devotee{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp81–82}}
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Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 m) built during c. 462 to 478.{{sfn|Singh|2021|p302}}<ref nameasicave1to29/> The cave veranda has pillars with octagonal shafts and square bases. The ceiling of the veranda shows evidence of floral designs and eroded reliefs. Only the center panel is discernible wherein the Buddha is seen with votaries lining up to pray before him.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp81–82}} Inside, the cave consists of a hall with a long rock bench opening into six rooms. Similar stone benches are found in Nasik Caves.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp81–82}} Another pillared verandah ends in a sanctum with seated Buddha against an incomplete stupa, and has four cells.
The cave has a few paintings showing Bodhisattvas and the Buddha.<ref nameasicave1to29/> Of these, the Padmapani, a couple gathered to pray, a pair of peafowl, and a female figure painting have survived in the best condition. The sanctum of this cave may be among the last structures built at Ajanta because it features a circumambulation path around the seated Buddha.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp81–82}}
Cave 12
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| footer Cave 12 hall, with monk cells. Each cell has two stone beds.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp81–82}}
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According to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early stage Hinayana (Theravada) monastery (14.9 × 17.82 m) from the 2nd to 1st century BCE. Spink however only dates it to the 1st century BCE.{{sfn|Spink|2006|p=1}}
The cave is damaged with its front wall completely collapsed. Its three sides inside have twelve cells, each with two stone beds.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp82–83}}
Cave 13
Cave 13 is another small monastery from the early period, consisting of a hall with seven cells, each also with two stone beds, all carved out of the rock. Each cell has rock-cut beds for the monks. In contrast to ASI's estimate, Gupte and Mahajan date both these caves about two to three centuries later, between 1st and 2nd-century CE.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp82–83}}Cave 14Cave 14 is another unfinished monastery (13.43 × 19.28 m) but carved above Cave 13. The entrance door frame shows sala bhanjikas.<ref nameasicave1to29/>
Cave 15
Cave 15 is a more complete monastery (19.62 × 15.98 m) with evidence that it had paintings. The cave consists of an eight-celled hall ending in a sanctum, an antechamber and a verandah with pillars. The reliefs show the Buddha, while the sanctum Buddha is shown seated in the Simhasana posture.<ref nameasicave1to29/> Cave 15 door frame has carvings of pigeons eating grain.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp82–83}}
Cave 15A
Cave 15A is the smallest cave with a hall and one cell on each side. Its entrance is just to the right of the elephant-decorated entrance to Cave 16.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p178}} It is an ancient Hinayana cave with three cells opening around a minuscule central hall.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p178}} The doors are decorated with a rail and arch pattern.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p=178}} It had an inscription in an ancient script, which has been lost.
<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p178}}
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File:Ajanta Cave 13 exterior.jpg|Cave 13
File:Ajanta Cave 14 exterior.jpg|Cave 14
File:Ajanta Cave 15 exterior.jpg|Cave 15
File:Ajanta Cave 15A.jpg|Cave 15A
File:Interior of newly discovered vihara 15A at Ajanta 2nd century BCE.jpg|Interior of cave 15A<ref>{{cite book |titleIndian Archaeology 1955-56 review |page72 |urlhttp://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201955-56%20%20A%20Review.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201955-56%20%20A%20Review.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
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Cave 16
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| footer = Entrance stairs to the single-storey Cave 16, with stone elephants and front with pillars (left). Inside hall with seated Buddha statue (right).<ref>[https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-16/EQHGrRl_AS01EA ajanta-cave-no-16] Google Arts & Culture</ref>
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Cave 16 occupies a prime position near the middle of site, and was sponsored by Varahadeva, minister of Vakataka king Harishena (r. {{circa|475|500 CE}}). He was a follower of Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite book |titleHistory and Sociology class sixth |publisherMaharashtra rajya pathyapustak nirmiti va sanshodhak mandal |year2021 |edition5th |locationPune |page44 |languagemr |script-titlemr : इतिहास आणि नागरिकशास्त्र इयत्ता सहावी |trans-title9 . Ancient kingdoms of South India |script-chaptermr : ९ . दक्षिण भारतातील प्राचिन राज्ये |typeHigh-school Textbook}}</ref> He devoted it to the community of monks, with an inscription that expresses his wish, may "the entire world (...) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease" and affirming his devotion to the Buddhist faith: "regarding the sacred law as his only companion, (he was) extremely devoted to the Buddha, the teacher of the world".{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp179–181}}<ref>For a full translation of the inscription see: {{cite book |last1Burgess |first1James |last2Bhagvānlal |first2Indrājī |titleInscriptions from the Cave-temples of Western India: With Descriptive Notes &c. |date1881 |publisherGovernment Central Press |pages[https://archive.org/details/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog/page/n148 71]–73 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog}}</ref> He was, states Spink, probably someone who revered both the Buddha and the Hindu gods, as he proclaims his Hindu heritage in an inscription in the nearby Ghatotkacha Cave.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p180}} The 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described the cave as the entrance to the site.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=179–181}}
Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m)<ref nameasicave1to29/> influenced the architecture of the entire site. Spink and other scholars call it the "crucial cave" that helps trace the chronology of the second and closing stages of the entire cave's complex construction.<ref>Walter M. Spink (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629287 Ajantā's Chronology: The Crucial Cave] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215173420/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629287 |date15 December 2018 }}, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 10 (1975), Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution, pp. 143–169</ref><ref>{{cite journal | lastDhavalikar | firstM. K. | titleSri Yugadhara: A Master-Artist of Ajanta | journalArtibus Asiae | volume31 | issue4 | year1969 | doi10.2307/3249338 | pages301–307| jstor3249338 }}</ref> Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery and has the standard arrangement of a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp181–183}} The veranda of this monastery is 19.5 m × 3 m, while the main hall is almost a perfect square with 19.5 m side.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=83–84}}
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The paintings in Cave 16 are numerous. Narratives include various Jataka tales such as Hasti, Mahaummagga and the Sutasoma fables. Other frescos depict the conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, Sujata's offering, Asita's visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|ppix–xiii}} The Hasti Jataka frescos tell the story of a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a large group of people starving, then tells them to go below a cliff where they could find food. The elephant proceeds to sacrifice himself by jumping off that cliff thereby becoming food so that the people can survive.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp83–84}}{{refn|groupnote|Similar morals and virtue-defining fables are also found in Jainism and Hinduism, in texts such as the Panchatantra. The antiquity of these tales has been a subject of scholarly debate. The pictorial narrative in Ajanta Caves attests to their influence by the 5th century.<ref>{{cite book|first1H. T. |last1Francis|first2E. J. |last2Thomas |titleJataka Tales|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWYjRAwAAQBAJ |year2014|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-1-107-41851-6|pages1–10, 168, 389 with footnotes}}</ref> In some cases such as the Sibi and Hasti Jataka, the Ajanta friezes more closely match the version of the same fables found in Hindu or Jain texts, suggesting a common root and shared heritage.<ref>{{cite book|firstG |lastYazdani | year1964 |titleAjanta: Part I|publisher Oxford University Press|pages4–6|oclc 2980379}}</ref>}} These frescos are found immediately to the left of entrance, in the front corridor and the narrative follows a clockwise direction.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=83–84}}
The Mahaummagga Jataka frescos are found on the left wall of the corridor, which narrates the story of a child Bodhisattva.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp84–85}} Thereafter, in the left corridor is the legend surrounding the conversion of Nanda – the half brother of the Buddha. The story depicted is one of the two major versions of the Nanda legend in the Buddhist tradition, one where Nanda wants to lead a sensuous life with the girl he had just wed and the Buddha takes him to heaven and later hell to show the spiritual dangers of a sensual life.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp84–85}} After the Nanda-related frescos, the cave presents Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying votaries with offerings to worship the Buddha and the Buddha seated in teaching asana and dharma chakra mudra.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=85–86}}
The right wall of the corridor show the scenes from the life of the Buddha.<ref name"Dehejia1997p210">{{cite book|firstVidya |lastDehejia|titleDiscourse in early Buddhist art: visual narratives of India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLb6fAAAAMAAJ|year1997|publisherMunshiram Manoharlal|isbn978-8121507363|pages210–229}}</ref>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp86–88}} These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha with a begging bowl in white dress, Tapussa and Bhalluka next to the Buddha after they offering wheat and honey to the Buddha as monk, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp86–88}} One mural shows Buddha's parents trying to dissuade him from becoming a monk. Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in dhoti and women in sari as his behavior presents the four signs that he is likely to renounce.<ref name"Dehejia1997p210"/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp86–88}} On this side of the corridor are also paintings that show the future Buddha as a baby with sage Asita with rishi-like looks.<ref name"Dehejia1997p210"/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp86–88}} According to Spink, some of the Cave 16 paintings were left incomplete.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p=74}}
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File:018 Cave 16, Bodhisattva Painting (34141156892).jpg|The conversion of sensuality-driven Nanda to Buddhism, left corridor<ref>{{cite book|firstG |lastYazdani|year1964|title Ajanta: Part III|publisherOxford University Press|pages 49–56|oclc= 2980379}}</ref>
File:017 Cave 16, Colonnaned Hall (34141160892).jpg|Palace scene fresco, right corridor of Cave 16<ref name="Dehejia1997p210"/>
File:027 Cave 16, Buddha on Almsround (33914608490).jpg|The Buddha in asceticism stage, getting sweet milk-rice from Sujata{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}}
File:019 Cave 16, Buddha Paintings, with Inscription (34141152992).jpg|Manushi Buddhas painting in Cave 16{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}}
File:Ajanta Cave 16 King paying hommage to the Buddha.jpg|Cave 16: king paying homage to the Buddha
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Cave 17
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| footer Cave 17: exterior view and inside hall with seated Buddha statue<ref>[https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-17/CwH58-jTd0lSdQ ajanta-cave-no-17] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220603172232/https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-17/CwH58-jTd0lSdQ |date=3 June 2022 }} Google Arts & Culture</ref>
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Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m)<ref nameasicave1to29/> along with Cave 16 with two great stone elephants at the entrance and Cave 26 with sleeping Buddha, were some of the many caves sponsored by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp179–180, 203–209}} Cave 17 had additional donors such as the local king Upendragupta, as evidenced by the inscription therein.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=67–68}}
The cave features a large and most sophisticated vihara design, along with some of the best-preserved and well-known paintings of all the caves. While Cave 16 is known for depicting the life stories of the Buddha, the Cave 17 paintings has attracted much attention for extolling human virtues by narrating the Jataka tales.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp88–90}} The narration includes attention to details and a realism which Stella Kramrisch calls "lavish elegance" accomplished by efficient craftsmen. The ancient artists, states Kramrisch, tried to show wind passing over a crop by showing it bending in waves, and a similar profusion of rhythmic sequences that unroll story after story, visually presenting the metaphysical.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994|pp299–300}}
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The Cave 17 monastery includes a colonnaded porch, a number of pillars each with a distinct style, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep in the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, along with extensive integrated carvings of Indian gods and goddesses.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp203–209, 213}} The hall of this monastery is a {{convert|380.53|m2}} square, with 20 pillars.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp88–90}} The grand scale of the carving also introduced errors of taking out too much rock to shape the walls, states Spink, which led to the cave being splayed out toward the rear.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp=209–214}}
Cave 17 has one long inscription by king Upendragupta, in which he explains that he has "expended abundant wealth" on building this vihara, bringing much satisfaction to the devotees.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p209}} Altogether, Upendragupta is known to have sponsored at least 5 of the caves in Ajanta. He may have spent too much wealth on religious pursuits however, as he was ultimately defeated by the attacks of the Asmaka.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p209}}
Cave 17 has thirty major murals. The paintings of Cave 17 depict Buddha in various forms and postures – Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvbhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa and Sakyamuni. Also depicted are Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Wheel of life, a panel celebrating various ancient Indian musicians and a panel that tells the tales of Prince Simhala's expedition to Sri Lanka.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|ppxii–xiii, 41–51, 70–75}}<ref>Meena Talim (2007), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931451 The wheel of law of causation in Ajanta paintings] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180923162839/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931451 |date23 September 2018 }}, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Vol. 66/67 (2006–2007), pp. 245–258</ref> The narrative frescos depict the various Jataka tales such as the Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodamiga Jatakas.<ref name"RingWatson2012p17"/>{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|ppix–xiii, 206}} The depictions weave in the norms of the early 1st millennium culture and the society. They show themes as diverse as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers in scenes of dalliance, and a wine drinking scene of a couple with the woman and man amorously seated. Some frescos attempt to show the key characters from various parts of a Jataka tale by co-depicting animals and attendants in the same scene.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp9–14, 68–84}}{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp201–202}}
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File:Ajanta amorous palace scene.jpg|Vessantara Jataka: the story of the generous king Vessantara{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}}
File:Ajanta Cave 17 Shada-Danta Jataka.jpg|Shaddanta Jataka: six-tusked elephant giving away his tusks{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}}
File:079 Cave 17, Beautiful Composition (34298740365).jpg|Painting depicting "Darpana Sundari", a lady with a mirror<ref>{{cite book |titleDance and Music in the Temple Architecture |publisherAgam Kala Prakashan |page47 |firstChoodamani |lastNandagopal |date1990 |isbn=978-8171860005}}</ref>
File:1880 sketch Buddha in sanctum Cave 17 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctum
File:Indra and Apsara mural.jpg|Musician with Alapini Vina (far left), next to Indra.
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Cave 18
Cave 18 is a small rectangular space (3.38 × 11.66 m) with two octagonal pillars and it joins into another cell. Its role is unclear.<ref nameasicave1to29/> Cave 19 (5th century CE)
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Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 × 7.09 m) datable to the fifth century CE. The hall shows painted Buddha, depicted in different postures.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{Sfn|Spink|2007|pp9, 237–238}} This worship hall is now visited through what was previously a carved room. The presence of this room before the hall suggests that the original plan included a mandala style courtyard for devotees to gather and wait, an entrance and facade to this courtyard, all of whose ruins are now lost to history.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp101–102}} Cave 19 is one of the caves known for its sculpture. It includes Naga figures with a serpent canopy protecting the Buddha, similar to those found for spiritual icons in the ancient Jain and Hindu traditions. It includes Yaksha dwarapala (guardian) images on the side of its vetayana (arches), flying couples, sitting Buddha, standing Buddhas and evidence that its ceiling was once painted.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp101–102}}
Cave 19 drew upon on the plan and experimentation in Cave 9.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp26–27, 47–48}} It made a major departure from the earlier Hinayana tradition, by carving a Buddha into the stupa, a decision that states Spink must have come from "the highest levels" in the 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist establishment because the king and dynasty that built this cave was from the Shaivism Hindu tradition. Cave 19 excavation and stupa was likely in place by 467 CE, and its finishing and artistic work continued into the early 470s, but it too was an incomplete cave when it was dedicated in 471 CE.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp26–27, 34–35, 47–48, 56}}
The entrance facade of the Cave 19 worship hall is ornate. Two round pillars with fluted floral patterns and carved garlands support a porch. Its capital is an inverted lotus connecting to an amalaka. To its left is standing Buddha in varada hasta mudra with a devotee prostrating at his feet. On right is a relief of woman with one hand holding a pitcher and other touching her chin.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp101–102}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp44–46, 131–137, 231–239}} Above is a seated Buddha in meditating mudra. Towards the right of the entrance is the "Mother and Child" sculpture.<ref>[http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ic/id/6726 Mother and Child, Cave 19] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170428041327/http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ic/id/6726 |date28 April 2017 }}, Washington University</ref>{{refn|groupnote|The "Mother and Child" theme is found in other caves, such as in the painting of Cave 17. These show the father Buddha with a begging bowl, with his son and wife looking up to him. Some show a towering figure of the Buddha looking below, with a small inset with the mother and child looking up. These images are interpreted as they offering food to him, or alternatively as the Buddha giving his son the begging bowl as his inheritance. The artwork signifies the belief that human values and spirituality is highest exchange across human generations.<ref>{{cite book|firstV A |lastSmith|titleArt of India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWQ9gYUuP5acC&pgPA137| year2012|publisherParkstone|isbn 978-1-78042-880-2|pages137 with footnote}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstG |lastYazdani|titleThe early history of the Deccan, Vol. 2|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_D9uAAAAMAAJ|year1961|publisherOxford University Press|page766}}</ref>}} A figure with begging bowl is the Buddha, watching him are his wife and son.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp101–102}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=44–46, 131–137, 231–239}}
The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and a fluted shaft topped with Buddha in its capitals. Next, to the Buddha in the capitals are elephants, horses and flying apsara friezes found elsewhere in India, reflecting the style of the Gupta Empire artwork.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp102–103}} According to Sharma, the similarities at the Karla Caves Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggest that Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.<ref name"Sharma">{{cite book|last1Sharma|first1Ramesh Chandra|titleBharhut Sculptures|date1994|publisherAbhinav Publications|isbn 978-8170173083|page51|url https://books.google.com/books?idpIiOsQSUbBwC&pgPA51}}</ref>
The walls and the ceiling of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings. These show the Buddha, flowers, and in the left aisle the "Mother and Child" legend again.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
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File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19 plan suggests that it once had a courtyard and additional artwork{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}
File:Engravings in pathway of Ajanta.JPG|Nagaraja in ardhaparyanka asana, with his wife holding lotus and wearing mangalasutra{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}
File:013 Cave 19, Buddha Meditating (33535639164).jpg|The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefs{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
File:027 Cave 19, Buddha Paintings (34219246102).jpg|Buddha paintings in the side aisle of Cave 19{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
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Cave 20
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Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) from the 5th century. Its construction, states Spink, was started in the 460s by king Upendragupta, with his expressed desire "to make the great tree of religious merit grow".{{sfn|Spink|2007|p249}} The work on Cave 20 was pursued in parallel with other caves. Cave 20 has exquisite detailing, states Spink, but it was relatively lower on priority than Caves 17 and 19.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp249–251}} The work on Cave 20 was intermittently stopped and then continued in the following decade.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=249–251}}
The vihara consists of a sanctum, four cells for monks and a pillared verandah with two stone cut windows for light. Prior to entering the main hall, on the left of veranda are two Buddhas carved above the window and side cell. The ceiling of the main hall has remnants of painting.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p103}} The sanctum Buddha is in preaching posture. The cave is known for the sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel.<ref nameasicave1to29/> The cave has a dedicatory Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script in its verandah, and it calls the cave as a mandapa.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp217–218}}<ref>{{cite journal |firstNadine |lastOwen |date2001 |titleConstructing Another Perspective for Ajaṇṭā's Fifth-Century Excavations |journalJournal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume24 |issue1 |page=42 with footnotes 40–42}}</ref>
Many of the figural and ornamental carvings in Cave 20 are similar to Cave 19, and to a lesser degree to those found in Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans were responsible for the evolution of the three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, something unique at the Ajanta site.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp261–263}} The decorations are also innovative in Cave 20, such as one showing the Buddha seated against two pillows and "a richly laden mango tree behind him", states Spink.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp261–263}}
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File:033 Cave 20, Buddha on Lion Throne (34246702601).jpg|The Buddha on Lion throne
File:037 Cave 20, Naga (33567164493).jpg|The sanctum has two Nagarajas on the side as guardians.
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Cave 21
Cave 21 is a hall (29.56 × 28.03 m) with twelve rock-cut rooms for monks, a sanctum, and twelve pillared and pilastered verandah. The carvings on the pilaster include those of animals and flowers. The pillars feature reliefs of apsaras, Nagaraja, and Nagarani, as well as devotees bowing with the Anjali mudra. The hall shows evidence that it used to be completely painted. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp273–311}}
Cave 22
Cave 22 is a small vihara (12.72 × 11.58 m) with a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells. It is excavated at a higher level and has to be reached by a flight of steps. Inside, the Buddha is seated in pralamba-padasana. The painted figures in Cave 22 show Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp288–290}} A pilaster on the left side of the Cave 22 veranda has a Sanskrit prose inscription. It is damaged in parts, and the legible parts state that this is a "meritorious gift of a mandapa by Jayata", calling Jayata's family as "a great Upasaka", and ending the inscription with "may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all sentient beings, beginning with father and mother".{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p259}}
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Cave 23
Cave 23 is also unfinished, consisting of a hall (28.32 × 22.52 m) but a design similar to Cave 21. The cave differs in its pillar decorations and the naga doorkeepers.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp=290–303}}
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Cave 24
Cave 24 is like Cave 21, unfinished but much larger. It features the second largest monastery hall (29.3 × 29.3 m) after Cave 4. The cave 24 monastery has been important to scholarly studies of the site because it shows how multiple crews of workers completed their objectives in parallel.{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp308–309}} The cell construction began as soon as the aisle had been excavated and while the main hall and sanctum were under construction.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp18 footnote 5}} The construction of Cave 24 was planned in 467 CE, but likely started in 475 CE, with support from Buddhabhadra, then abruptly ended in 477 with the sponsor king Harisena's death.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp31–32, 60}} It is significant in having one of the most complex capitals on a pillar at the Ajanta site, an indication of how the artists excelled and continuously improved their sophistication as they worked with the rock inside the cave.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp243–244}} The artists carved fourteen complex miniature figures on the central panel of the right center porch pillar, while working in dim light in a cramped cave space.{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp37–38, 42}} The medallion reliefs in Cave 24 similarly show loving couples and anthropomorphic arts, rather than flowers of earlier construction.{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp37–38, 42}} Cave 24's sanctum has a seated Buddha in pralamba-padasana.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2007|pp304–311}}Cave 25Cave 25 is a monastery. Its hall (11.37 × 12.24 m) is similar to other monasteries, but has no sanctum, includes an enclosed courtyard and is excavated at an upper level.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}
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File:Ajanta caves Maharashtra 210.jpg|The Buddha of Cave 21
File:060 Cave 22, Interior (34336161086).jpg|Cave 22: inside hall
File:064 Cave 23, Side View (34377438285).jpg|Cave 23: inside hall
File:075 Cave 24, Pillar in Unfinished Cave (34336108966).jpg|Sophisticated pillars of Cave 24 with embedded loving couples; evidence of parallel work{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp=37–38, 42}}
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Cave 26 (5th century CE)
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Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 × 11.52 m) similar in plan to Cave 19. It is much larger and with elements of a vihara design. An inscription states that a monk Buddhabhadra and his friend minister serving king of Asmaka gifted this vast cave.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp104–106}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp9–10}} The inscription includes a vision statement and the aim to make "a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue", translates Walter Spink.{{sfn|Spink|2014|p34 with footnote 30}} It is likely that the builders focussed on sculpture, rather than paintings, in Cave 26 because they believed stone sculpture will far more endure than paintings on the wall.{{sfn|Spink|2014|p34 with footnote 30}}{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp64–65, 88–96 with footnotes}}<ref>{{cite journal | lastSingh | firstRajesh Kumar | titleThe Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta | journalSouth Asian Studies | volume28 | issue1 | year2012 | doi10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 | pages37–68| s2cid=161425050 }}</ref>
The sculptures in Cave 26 are elaborate and more intricate. It is among the last caves excavated, and an inscription suggests late 5th or early 6th century according to ASI. The cave consists of an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (pradikshana). This path is full of carved Buddhist legends, three depictions of the Miracle of Sravasti in the right ambulatory side of the aisle, and seated Buddhas in various mudra. Many of these were added later by devotees, and therefore are intrusive to the aims of the original planners.{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp53–57, 33–42, Figures on 88–96 (plus cover page), 311–324}} The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately the left side of entrance. The major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the legend called the "Temptations by Mara". The temptations include the seduction by Mara's daughters who are depicted below the meditating Buddha. They are shown scantly dressed and in seductive postures, while on both the left and right side of the Buddha are armies of Mara attempting to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence. In the top right corner is the image of a dejected Mara frustrated by his failure to disturb the resolve or focus of the ascetic Buddha.<ref nameasicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–106}}
At the center of the apse is a rock-cut stupa. The stupa has an image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, a three tiered torana above him, and apsaras are carved on the anda (hemispherical egg) stupa.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp104–106}} On top of the dagoba is a nine-tiered harmika, a symbolism for the nine saṃsāra (Buddhism) heavens in Mahayana cosmology. The walls, pillars, brackets and the triforium are extensively carved with Buddhist themes. Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were badly damaged, and have been restored as a part of the site conservation efforts.{{sfn|Spink|2014|pp311–339, Figures on 88–93, with footnotes}}
Between cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of Rashtrakuta Nanaraj (who is mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates), from late 7th or early 8th century. It is the last inscription in Ajanta.{{sfn|Spink|2006|p=336}}
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File:Ajanta cave 26 plan.jpg|Cave 26 plan as completed. The etchings suggest the original plan was more ambitious.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=xvii, 29–30}}
File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Digoba Stupa.jpg|The sculptured dagoba (stupa) in the worship hall. It has 36 carved panels.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=105–106}}
File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Temptation of the Buddha.jpg|Temptation of the Buddha; the daughters of Mara carved below are trying to seduce him. Mara is on the top right.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=105–106}}
File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Buddha Parinirvana.jpg|Cave 26, left aisle wall: Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, or Dying Buddha{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–105}}
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Cave 27
Cave 27 is a monastery and may have been planned as an attachment to Cave 26. Its two storeys are damaged, with the upper level partially collapsed. Its plan is similar to other monasteries.
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Cave 28
Cave 28 is an unfinished monastery, partially excavated, at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex and barely accessible.<ref nameasicave1to29/>Cave 29Cave 29 an unfinished monastery at the highest level of the Ajanta complex, apparently unnoticed when the initial numbering system was established, and physically located between Caves 20 and 21.<ref nameasicave1to29/>
Cave 30
In 1956, a landslide covered the footpath leading to Cave 16. In the attempts to clear and restore the walkway, a small aperture and votive stupa were noticed in the debris by the workers, in a location near the stream bed.<ref name"Le 112"/><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://vmis.in/upload/Assets/Archive/379/1.jpg |titleA view of Cave 30, photographed by Walter Spink |access-date31 October 2017 |archive-date7 November 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107003356/http://vmis.in/upload/Assets/Archive/379/1.jpg |url-statuslive }}</ref> Further tracing and excavations led to a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave dated to the 2nd and 1st century BCE.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p106}}<ref>Walter Spink (1966), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629225 Ajantā and Ghatotkacha: A Preliminary Analysis] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215224207/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629225 |date15 December 2018 }}, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 6 (1966), pp. 135–155</ref> Cave 30 may actually be the oldest cave of the Ajanta complex.<ref name"Le 112">{{cite book|last1Le|first1Huu Phuoc|titleBuddhist Architecture|date2010 |publisherGrafikol|isbn978-0984404308|page112|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9jb364g4BvoC&pgPA112}}</ref> It is a 3.66 m × 3.66 m cave with three cells, each with two stone beds and stone pillows on the side of each cell. The cell door lintels show lotus and garland carvings. The cave has two inscriptions in an unknown script. It also has a platform on its veranda with a fine view of the river ravine below and the forest cover. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been closed at some point with large carefully carved pieces as it distracted the entrance view of Cave 16.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p106}}
Other infrastructure
Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were vihara (temporary traveler residences, monasteries). The designers and artisans who built these caves included facilities for collecting donations and storing grains and food for the visitors and monks. Many of the caves include large repositories cut into the floor. The largest storage spaces are found, states Spink, in the "very commodious recesses in the shrines of both Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11". These caves were probably chosen because of their relative convenience and the security they offered due to their higher level. The choice of integrating covered vaults cut into the floor may have been driven by the need to provide sleeping space and logistical ease.{{sfn|Spink|2005a|pp100–101}}{{refn|groupnote|Granaries and kitchens were commonly integrated as infrastructures near major temples and monasteries in India. They are also found embedded into the design elsewhere such as the Bagh monuments.{{sfn|Spink|2005a|pp100–101}}}} Recent excavations brick monastery facing the caves at Ajanta. The cells were built around a stupa set on a central platform.<ref name"AjantaASI"/>]]
A burnt-brick vihara monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river Waghora has been recently excavated.<ref name"AjantaASI"/><ref name"ASI Ajanta"/> It has a number of cells facing a central courtyard, in which a stupa was established.<ref name"AjantaASI"/><ref name"The Early Development of the Cave 2"/> A coin of the Western Satraps ruler Visvasena (ruled 293–304 CE) as well as a gold coin of the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II (ruled 402-450 CE) were found in the excavations, giving further numismatic confirmation for the dating of the caves.<ref name"AjantaASI">{{cite book |last1Mitra |first1Debala |titleAjanta |date2004 |publisherArchaeological Survey of India |pages[https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr/page/94 94]–95 |isbn9788187780199 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr}}</ref> A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini was also found, which was possibly under worship by the artisans.<ref name"AjantaASI"/><ref name"ASI Ajanta">{{cite book |titleIndian Archaeology 2000-2001 A Review |date2001 |publisherArchaeological Society of India |pages92–98 |urlhttp://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%202000-2001%20A%20Review.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%202000-2001%20A%20Review.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<gallery widths=180>
File:Ajanta burnt-brick monastery.jpg|Buddhist vihara cell structure at the recently excavated brick monastery at Ajanta
File:Ajanta Visvasena.jpg|Coin of Western Satrap Visvasena (293–304), found in the excavations at the monastery
File:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|Coin of Byzantine Theodosius II (402–450), found in the excavations at the monastery
File:Ajanta terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini.jpg|Terracotta plaque of Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini found on the site
</gallery>
Copies of the paintings
(1915) right]]
The paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th century for European and Japanese museums. Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters. In 1846 for example, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras Presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to make copies of the frescos on the cave walls.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp2–3}} Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863. He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display.<ref>{{harvnb|Gordon|2011|pp234–238}}; Conserving the copies of the Ajanta cave paintings at the V&A</ref> Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}
's 19th-century copy<ref>Detail from this [https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O115444/copy-of-painting-inside-the-oil-painting-gill-robert/ painting in the V&A] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180414100711/http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O115444/copy-of-painting-inside-the-oil-painting-gill-robert |date14 April 2018 }}</ref>]]
Another attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some {{convert|3|×|6|m}}. A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria.<ref>[http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-52/conserving-the-copies-of-the-ajanta-cave-paintings-at-the-v-and-a/ Conserving the copies of the Ajanta cave paintings at the V&A] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018201728/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-52/conserving-the-copies-of-the-ajanta-cave-paintings-at-the-v-and-a/ |date18 October 2012 }}, Victoria & Albert Museum, Conservation Journal, Spring 2006 Issue 52, accessed 24 October 2012</ref> Griffith and his students had painted many of the paintings with "cheap varnish" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.{{sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp=50–51}}
, Paris. Part of a mural probably relating the conversion of Nanda, Cave 1.<ref>{{cite book|titleAjanta Murals (An Album of Eighty-Five Reproductions in Colour)|date1996|publisherArchaeological Survey of India|pageFig. 2|url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/ajanta-murals-album-of-eighty-five-reproductions-in-colour-NAL459/}}</ref>]]
A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling India Society. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.<ref>[http://www.burlington.org.uk/magazine/back-issues/2010/201004/ Rupert Richard Arrowsmith, "An Indian Renascence and the rise of global modernism: William Rothenstein in India, 1910–11"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130509065716/http://www.burlington.org.uk/magazine/back-issues/2010/201004/ |date9 May 2013 }}, The Burlington Magazine, vol.152 no.1285 (April 2010), pp.228–235.</ref>
Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library),{{sfn|Gordon|2011|p236}}<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00478000.html example from the British Library] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131221033636/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00478000.html |date21 December 2013 }} (search on "Gill, Robert Ajanta")</ref> then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp2–3}}
, Jaipur, India]]
Some slightly creative copies of Ajanta frescos, especially the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from the shrine antechamber of Cave 17, were commissioned by Thomas Holbein Hendley (1847–1917) for the decoration of the walls of the hall of the Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur, India.<ref name"Tillotson"/> He had the work painted by a local artist variously named Murli or Murali.<ref name"Tillotson">{{cite book|last1Tillotson|first1Giles Henry Rupert|titleJaipur Nama: Tales from the Pink City|date2006|publisherPenguin Books India|isbn9780144001002|page156 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkmfxexeX3pIC&pgPA156}}</ref> The museum was opened to the public in 1887. This work is otherwise presented as characteristic of the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |titleWall Paintings of Rajasthan|date1998|publisherJawahar Kala Kendra|page23 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0jzrAAAAMAAJ |quote=artist Murali and Kishan are good examples of 19th C. painting}}</ref>
Another attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井寛方:1878–1945) after being invited by Rabindranath Tagore to India to teach Japanese painting techniques.<ref>M. L. Ahuja,[https://books.google.com/books?idGQWcAwAAQBAJ&pgPT51 Eminent Indians: Ten Great Artists,] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221123135902/https://books.google.it/books?idGQWcAwAAQBAJ&pgPT51 |date23 November 2022 }} Rupa Publications, 2012 p.51.</ref> He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials perished during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.<ref>{{cite book|first1Caterina |last1Bon Valsassina|first2Marcella |last2Ioele|titleAjanta Dipinta – Painted Ajanta Vol. 1 e 2|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZ81lcQNAg8kC&pgPA150 |year2014|publisherGangemi Editore Spa|isbn978-88-492-7658-9|pages150–152}}</ref>
Reception history
{{multiple image
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| footer Ajanta arts predominantly show natives. Left: people discussing the king's renunciation; Right: sadhus or brahmakayikas heading to a temple, five women chatting in a market square, children playing a board game near a banana tree.<ref>{{cite book|firstIrving L. |lastFinkel |titleAncient Board Games in Perspective|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB20NAQAAMAAJ|year2007|publisherBritish Museum Press|isbn978-0-7141-1153-7|pages183, 226}}</ref>
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The Ajanta cave arts are a window into the culture, society and religiosity of the native population of India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Different scholars have variously interpreted them from the perspective of gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia.<ref>Lisa N. Owen (2010), Review: Ajanta: History and Development: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture – Year by Year by Walter M. Spink, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 69, No. 1 (FEBRUARY 2010), pages 317–319</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstDieter |lastSchlingloff|year2000 | title Ajanta – Handbuch der Malereien|publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn 978-3447042482}}</ref> The dress, the jewellery, the gender relations, the social activities depicted show at least the lifestyle of the royalty and elite,<ref>{{cite book|first1Annette |last1Lynch|first2Mitchell D. |last2Strauss|titleEthnic Dress in the United States: A Cultural Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtiEvBQAAQBAJ&pgPA256|year2014|publisherRowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn978-0-7591-2150-8|page256}}</ref> and in others definitely the costumes of the common man, monks and rishi. They shine "light on life in India" around mid 1st millennium CE.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp12–14}}<ref name"Mehta199539">{{cite book|firstTarla |lastMehta|titleSanskrit Play Production in Ancient India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl7naMj1UxIkC&pgPA39 |year1995|publisherMotilal Banarsidass |isbn978-81-208-1057-0|pages39, 42, 65, 102, 173–178, 207–213}}</ref>
The Ajanta paintings provide a contrast between the spiritual life of monks who had given up all materialistic possessions versus the sensual life of those it considered materialistic, luxurious, symbols of wealth, leisurely and high fashion. Many frescos show scenes from shops, festivals, jesters at processions, palaces and performance art pavilions. These friezes share themes and details of those found in Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, Ellora, Bagh, Aihole, Badami and other archaeological sites in India. Ajanta caves contributes to visual and descriptive sense of the ancient and early medieval Indian culture and artistic traditions, particularly those around the Gupta Empire era period.<ref name"Mehta199539"/><ref>{{cite book|firstHermann |lastGoetz|titleThe Early Wooden Temples of Chamba|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkMwUAAAAIAAJ |publisherBrill Academic|pages101–111 |year=1955}}</ref>
{{Quote box
|quote = Orientalism and Ajanta Caves<br>
In the early nineteenth century, when Europeans first visited the Ajanta caves, they had no literary precedents through which to determine what they saw. Thus they saw very little beyond hunting scenes, domestic scenes, seraglio scenes, Welsh wigs, Hampton court beauties, elephants and horses, an Abyssinian black prince, shields and spears, and statues that they called 'Buddha' because of the curly hair.
|source – Richard Cohen<br>Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity{{Sfn|Cohen|2006a|p119}}
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The earliest colonial era descriptions of the Ajanta caves was largely orientalist and critical. According to William Dalrymple, the subjects in the Ajanta caves were puzzling to 19th-century Orientalists. Lacking the Asian cultural heritage and with no knowledge of Jataka Tales or equivalent Indian fables, they could not comprehend it.<ref>Dalrymple, William (2015), [http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/open-essay/the-familiar-faces-of-ajanta The familiar faces of Ajanta] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107022940/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/open-essay/the-familiar-faces-of-ajanta |date7 November 2017 }}, Open, September 2015</ref> They projected their own views and assumptions, calling it something that lacks reason and rationale, something that is a meaningless crude representation of royalty and foreigners with mysticism and sensuousness.<ref name"Lannoy1971">{{cite book|firstRichard |lastLannoy|title The speaking tree: a study of Indian culture and society|urlhttps://archive.org/details/speakingtreestud0000lann|url-accessregistration |year 1971|publisher Oxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-215177-3|pages[https://archive.org/details/speakingtreestud0000lann/page/46 46]–53}}</ref><ref nameasher4>{{cite book|first1Catherine |last1Asher|first2Thomas R. |last2Metcalf|titlePerceptions of South Asia's visual past|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHDluAAAAMAAJ|year 1994|isbn 978-81-204-0883-8|pages4–5, 17–21, 26–29, 47–63|publisherAmerican Institute of Indian Studies, New Delhi, Swadharma Swarajya Sangha, Madras, and Oxford & IBH Publishing Company }}</ref> The 19th-century views and interpretations of the Ajanta Caves were conditioned by ideas and assumptions in the colonial mind, saw what they wanted to see.{{Sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp119–120}}<ref nameasher4/>{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=3–4}}
To many who are unaware of the premises of Indian religions in general, and Buddhism in particular, the significance of Ajanta Caves has been like the rest of Indian art. According to Richard Cohen, the Ajanta Caves to them has been yet another example of "worship this stock, or that stone, or monstrous idol".{{Sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp119–120}} In contrast, to the Indian mind and the larger Buddhist community, it is everything that art ought to be, the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the social fused to enlightened perfection.{{Sfn|Cohen|2006a|pp120–131}}
According to Walter Spink – one of the most respected Art historians on Ajanta, these caves were by 475 CE a much-revered site to the Indians, with throngs of "travelers, pilgrims, monks and traders". The site was vastly transformed into its current form in just 20 years, between early 460 CE to early 480 CE, by regional architects and artisans. This accomplishment, states Spink, makes Ajanta, "one of the most remarkable creative achievements in man's history".<ref name"Williams1981">{{cite book|firstWalter M. |lastSpink|editor-firstJoanna Gottfried |editor-lastWilliams|chapterAjanta's Chronology: Politics and Patronage|titleKalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-qoeAAAAIAAJ&pgPA109| year1981|publisher BRILL Academic|isbn978-90-04-06498-0|page 109}}</ref>
Foreigners in the paintings of Ajanta
The Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio-economic information in ancient India, particularly in relation to the interactions of India with foreign cultures at the time most of the paintings were made, in the 5th century CE (Common Era). According to Indian historian Haroon Khan Sherwani: "The paintings at Ajanta clearly demonstrate the cosmopolitan character of Buddhism, which opened its way to men of all races, Greek, Persian, Saka, Pahlava, Kushan and Huna".<ref>{{cite book |last1Sherwani |first1Harron Khan |titleDr. Ghulam Yazdani commemoration volume |date1966 |publisherMaulana Abul Kalam Azad Oriental Research Institute |page186 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtK7de_DTsW8C}}</ref> Depictions of foreigners abound: according to Spink, "Ajanta's paintings are filled with such foreign types." They have sometimes been a source of misinterpretation as in the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene". These foreigners may reflect the Sassanian merchants, visitors and the flourishing trade routes of the day.<ref>Ajanta History and Development Vol IV p.153 Fig.27</ref>
;The so-called "Persian Embassy Scene"
Cave 1, for example, shows a mural fresco with characters with foreigner faces or dresses, the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene".{{sfn|Spink|2007|p29}} This scene<ref>Visible on Streetview [https://www.google.com/maps/@20.5524934,75.702265,2a,75y,243.85h,120.89t/data!3m6!1e1!3m4!1sczdf3FBMVCcAAAQWjJFwRQ!2e0!7i13312!8i6656?hlen here]</ref> is located at the right of the entrance door upon entering the hall.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p29}} According to Spink, James Fergusson, a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu Chalukya king Pulakeshin II.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p132}} An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king Khusrau II in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with.{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p 29}}<ref>Jas. Fergusson (1879), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25196825 On the Identification of the Portrait of Chosroes II among the Paintings in the Caves at Ajanta] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215172716/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25196825 |date15 December 2018 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Apr. 1879), pages 155–170</ref> These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena-era painting of a Jataka tale (the Mahasudarsana jataka, in which the enthroned king is actually the Buddha in one of his previous lives as King) with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as Sassanian near East that was common by the 5th century.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p132}}{{Sfn|Spink|2007|p27}}<ref>Anand Krishna (1981), An exceptional group of painted Buddha figures at Ajanta, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4, Number 1, pages 96–100 with footnote 1;<br>{{cite journal|last1Schlingloff|first1 Dieter|titleKalyanakarin's Adventures. The Identification of an Ajanta Painting|journalArtibus Asiae| volume38| issue1|year1976| pages5–28|jstor3250094 |doi10.2307/3250094}}</ref>
;International trade, growth of Buddhism
dress drinking wine, on the ceiling of the central hall of Cave 1, likely a generic scene from an object imported from Central Asia (460–480 CE)<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/><ref name"DK">{{cite book|titleDK Eyewitness Travel Guide India|date2017|publisherDorling Kindersley Limited|isbn9780241326244|page126 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTTcnDwAAQBAJ&pgPT126}}</ref> The men depicted in these paintings may also have been Bactrians, at that time under Hephthalite rule.<ref name"MC40">{{cite journal |last1Compareti |first1Matteo |titleSome Examples of Central Asian Decorative Elements in Ajanta and Bagh Indian Paintings |journalThe Silk Road |date2014 |volume12 |page41 |url=https://www.academia.edu/10060191}}</ref>]]
Cave 1 has several frescos with characters with foreigners' faces or dresses. Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17. Such murals, states Pia Brancaccio, suggest a prosperous and multicultural society in 5th-century India active in international trade.<ref name"Brancaccio 81">{{cite book |last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |year2010 |publisherBRILL|isbn978-9004185258|pages80–82, 305–307 with footnotes |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pgPA81}}</ref> These also suggest that this trade was economically important enough to the Deccan region that the artists chose to include it with precision.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/>
Additional evidence of international trade includes the use of the blue lapis lazuli pigment to depict foreigners in the Ajanta paintings, which must have been imported from Afghanistan or Iran. It also suggests, states Brancaccio, that the Buddhist monastic world was closely connected with trading guilds and the court culture in this period.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/> A small number of scenes show foreigners drinking wine in Caves 1 and 2.{{refn|groupnote|In Cave 1, there are also four "foreign" bacchanalian groups (one now missing) at the middle of each quadrant of the elaborate ceiling painting.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p27}} Cave 2 shows two foreigners, possibly from Central Asia, sharing wine. These scenes, interprets Brancaccio, show what are probably foreign ewers from Sogdia or Persia were used to consume imported wines. A text from the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea era states that silverware vessels and wine was one of the main products imported for kings of Barygaza.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/> Sassanian bowls dated to about 400 CE have been discovered in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal |lastRead |firstCharles Hercules |titleXI.—On a Silver Sassanian Bowl of about the year 400 A. D., found in the NW. Provinces of India |journalArchaeologia |volume63 |year1912 |pages251–256 |doi10.1017/s0261340900011656 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1551870}}</ref> A copper plate in the Kanheri caves near Mumbai indicates that foreigners were active in trade in the city of Kalyan in the 5th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|title The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|year2010|publisherBRILL|isbn978-9004185258|page 86|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pgPA86}}</ref>}} Some show foreign Near East kings with wine and their retinue which presumably add to the "general regal emphasis" of the cave.{{sfn|Spink|2007|p27}} According to Brancaccio, the Ajanta paintings show a variety of colorful, delicate textiles and women making cotton. Textile probably was one of the major exports to foreign lands, along with gems. These were exported first through the Red Sea, and later through the Persian Gulf, thereby bringing a period of economic and cultural exchange between the Indians, the Sasanian Empire and the Persian merchants before Islam was founded in the Arabian peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|year 2010|publisherBRILL|isbn 978-9004185258|pages83–87 with footnotes|url https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C}}</ref>
While scholars generally agree that these murals confirm trade and cultural connections between India and Sassanian west, their specific significance and interpretation varies.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/>{{sfn|Spink|2007|p27}} Brancaccio, for example, suggests that the ship and jars in them probably reflect foreign ships carrying wine imported to India. In contrast, Schlinghoff interprets the jars to be holding water, and ships shown as Indian ships used in international trade.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>
Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17, but this time in direct relation to the worship of the Buddha. In Cave 17, a painting of the Buddha descending from the Trayastrimsa Heaven shows he being attended by many foreigners. Many foreigners in this painting are thus shown as listeners to the Buddhist Dharma.<ref name"Brancaccio 81 and Note 27"/> The ethnic diversity is depicted in the painting in the clothes (kaftans, Sasanian helmets, round caps), hairdos and skin colors. In the Visvantara Jataka of Cave 17, according to Brancaccio, the scene probably shows a servant from Central Asia holding a foreign metal ewer, while a dark-complexioned servant holds a cup to an amorous couple. In another painting in Cave 17, relating to the conversion of Nanda, a man possibly from northeast Africa appears as a servant.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/> These representations show, states Brancaccio, that the artists were familiar with people of Sogdia, Central Asia, Persia and possibly East Africa.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/>{{refn|groupnote|The expansion of Buddhism into Gandhara and Central Asia began during the 1st millennium BCE. Some early Buddhist worship halls in western India included Yavanas (Greeks) as donors.<ref name"Brancaccio 81"/> Inscriptions recording such donations are found at Karla Caves, Pandavleni Caves or Manmodi Caves.<ref>{{cite book|last1Bhandarkar|first1D. R.|titleSome Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture|date1989|publisherAsian Educational Services|isbn9788120604575|page60 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgUAvuYu-otEC&pgPA60}}</ref><ref name"Brancaccio 81 and Note 27">{{cite book|last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date2010 |publisherBRILL|isbn978-9004185258|page81 and Note 27|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pgPA81}}</ref> }} Another hypothesis is offered by Upadhya, who states that the artists who built Ajanta caves "very probably included foreigners".{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|p=135}}
{{Clear}}
<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:Ajanta Cave 2 Veranda ceiling foreigners.jpg|Cave 2, ceiling: foreigners sharing a drink of wine<ref>{{cite book|last1Brancaccio|first1Pia|titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date2010|publisherBRILL|isbn978-9004185258|page307|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pgPA307}}</ref>
File:Ajanta foreigner 2.jpg|Cave 1, ceiling: another Persian-style foreign group, one of the four such groups (one now missing) at the center of each quadrant of the ceiling{{sfn|Spink|2007|p=27}}
File:Ajanta Cave 17 foreign servant.jpg|A servant from Central Asia, Cave 17.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>
File:Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall foreigners detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners attending the Buddha<ref name"PB305">{{cite book |last1Brancaccio |first1Pia |titleThe Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date2010 |publisherBRILL |isbn9789004185258 |page305 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA305}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall horsemen detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners on horses attending the Buddha<ref name="PB305"/>
File:Ajanta Cave 1, Padmapani attendant, Lady in blue dress with tiara.jpg|Lady in blue dress with tiara, of possible "Persian origin"."<ref>"The central figure is of colossal size and, whether it represents the Bodhisattva Padmapani or Prince Siddhartha, it bears the marks of both high rank and great spiritual stature. (...) The handmaid in long blue velvet coat and high embroidered cap appears, from her features, to be of Persian origin..."{{cite book |titleEncyclopedia Of World Art Vol. 1 |date1959 |publisherMcGRAW-HILL |locationNew-York, Toronto, London |page165 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.462549/page/n113/mode/2up}}</ref>
</gallery>
Impact on later painting and other arts
The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117550.htm |titleThe Imprint of Ajanta in Tibetan Art, Eva Fernanadez del Campo Barbadillo, Buddhist Himalaya: A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods, Vol. IX No. I & II (1998) |access-date24 July 2014 |archive-date28 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140728064417/http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117550.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> and Sri Lanka.<ref>[The Imperial Guptas: Cultural history, Volume 2 of The Imperial Guptas, Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, 1979 p. 221]</ref> Some influences from Ajanta have also suggested in the Kizil Caves of the Tarim Basin, in particular in early caves such as the Peacock Cave.<ref name"BR156">{{cite book |last1Rowland |first1Benjamin|page156 |titleThe art of Central Asia |date1975 |publisherNew York, Crown |urlhttps://archive.org/details/artofcentralasia00rowl/page/156/mode/2up}}</ref>
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists with examples from ancient India to follow. Nandalal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style.<ref>Vasudev Sharan Agrawal, Kala aur Sanskriti, 1952, p. 282–299</ref> Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.
Anna Pavlova's ballet ''Ajanta's Frescoes was inspired by her visit to Ajanta, choreographed by Ivan Clustine, with music by Nikolai Tcherepnin<ref>Robert H. Stacy, India in Russian Literature (Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1985, p.92.</ref> (one report says Mikhail Fokine in 1923).<ref>{{cite web |authorLakshmi Shreeram |titleThe Pavlova Project: A unique exhibition presents the life and work of legendary ballerina through her costumes |workFirstpost |date21 Jan 2020 |urlhttps://www.firstpost.com/living/the-pavlova-project-a-unique-exhibition-presents-the-life-and-work-of-legendary-ballerina-through-her-costumes-7928291.html |access-date21 March 2021}}</ref> and premiered at Covent Garden in 1923.
Jewish American poet Muriel Rukeyser wrote about the caves in "Ajanta," the opening poem of her third collection Beast in View (1944). Rukeyser was inspired in part by writings on the caves by artist Mukul Dey in 1925 and art historian Stella Kramrisch in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bergman |first1David |titleAjanta and the Rukeyser Imbroglio |journalAmerican Literary History |dateFall 2010 |volume22 |issue3 |pages553–583 |doi10.1093/alh/ajq040 |jstor40800579 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/40800579 |access-date4 July 2021}}</ref>
See also
{{Portal|India}}
* Cetiya
* Bedse Caves
* Bhaja Caves
* Dambulla cave temple
* Kanheri Caves
* Karla Caves
* Mogao Caves
* Nasik Caves
* Pitalkhora Caves
* Shivneri Caves
* List of colossal sculptures in situ
Notes
{{Reflist|groupnote}} References {{Reflist|30em|refs
<!-- This ref should be first in a series of refs. -->
<ref nameasicave1to29>{{cite web|titleWorld Heritage Sites – About Ajanta Caves 01 to 29 |publisherArchaeological Survey of India |year2015 |urlhttp://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta_caves.asp |access-date22 October 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120501151253/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta_caves.asp |archive-date1 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}
Bibliography
* "ASI": [http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta.asp Archaeological Survey of India] website, with a concise entry on the Caves, accessed 20 October 2010
* Burgess, James and Fergusson J. Cave Temples of India. (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2005). {{ISBN|81-215-0251-9}}
* Burgess, James and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India, Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).
* Burgess, James. Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).
* Burgess, James. "Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures," Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).
* Behl, Benoy K. The Ajanta Caves'' (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998).
* {{harvc |lastCohen |firstRichard S. |urlhttp://profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |cAjanta's Inscriptions |inSpink |year2006 |pp273–339}}.
* {{cite book|firstRichard S. | lastCohen|titleBeyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idR5IPMKb4WFUC |year2006a|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-134-19205-2}}
* Cohen, Richard S. "Nāga, Yaksinī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta," History of Religions. 37/4 (May 1998): 360–400.
* Cohen, Richard S. "Problems in the Writing of Ajanta's History: The Epigraphic Evidence," Indo-Iranian Journal. 40/2 (April 1997): 125–48.
* Cohen, Richard S. Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves. A PhD dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).
* Cowell, E.B. The Jataka, I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).
* Dhavalikar, M.K. Late Hinayana Caves of Western India (Pune: 1984).
* {{cite thesis|lastGordon |firstSophie |year2011 |titleMonumental visions: architectural photography in India, 1840–1901 |typePhD thesis |publisherSOAS, University of London |url=http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/12776/}}
* {{cite book|first1Ramesh Shankar|last1 Gupte|first2B. D.|last2 Mahajan|titleAjanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id478MAQAAIAAJ|year1962|publisher=D. B. Taraporevala}}
* Griffiths, J. Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta, 2 vols. (London: 1896–1897).
* Halder, Asit Kumar. "AJANTA" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a foreword by Gautam Halder LALMATI. Kolkata. 2009
* {{citation|lastHarle|firstJames C.|titleThe Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|edition2nd|year1994|publisherYale University Press|isbn978-0-300-06217-5|urlhttps://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl}}
* {{cite book|firstStella |lastKramrisch|titleExploring India's Sacred Art |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbxPeWwFz9MkC |year1994|publisherMotilal Banarsidass |isbn978-81-208-1208-6}}
* Kramrisch, Stella. A Survey of Painting in the Deccan (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: "Ajanta," ''Exploring India's Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch, ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp.&nbsp;273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp.&nbsp;273–307.
* {{citation|lastMichell|first George|titleThe Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu |year 2009|publisherPenguin Books|isbn 978-0-14-008144-2}}
* Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).
* Mirashi, V.V. "Historical Evidence in Dandin's Dasakumaracharita," Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp.&nbsp;164–77.
* Mirashi, V.V. Inscription of the Vakatakas. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).
* Mirashi, V.V. The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).
* Mirashi, V.V. Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam's Dominions, 1941).
* Mitra, Debala. Ajanta, 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).
* Nagaraju, S. Buddhist Architecture of Western India (Delhi: 1981)
* Parimoo, Ratan; et al. The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).
* Schlingloff, Dieter. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)
* Schlingloff, Dieter. Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations (New Delhi: 1987).
* Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. The Age of the Vakatakas (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 'The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta,' South Asian Studies (London: March 2012), vol. 28, No. 1, pp.&nbsp;37–68.
* {{cite book |lastSingh |firstRajesh Kumar |year2021 |chapterCirca 465 CE and the Stupa-Shrine of the Ajanta Cave 11 |editor-first1Marek M.|editor-last1Dziekan|editor-first2Sylwia|editor-last2Filipowska|editor-first3Ewa|editor-last3Siemieniec-Gołaś|titleMyth, Image, Metaphor in the Cultures of Asia and Africa, Proceedings of the 6th All-Polish Conference of Oriental Studies|placeWarsaw|publisherElipsa|pages301–373|chapter-urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/355021687|access-date15 April 2023}}
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. (2024). ''Ajanta's Evolution: From Sāvakayāna to Bodhisatvayāna amid Hunnic Turmoil. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2021a. Early Hunnic Invasions and Abandonment of Buddhist Temples in India. = Ajanta Mahāpiṭaka I.4. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2020a. Khiṅgīla vs. Buddhist Caves: A Synchronised Chronology of the Early Alchon Hūṇs, Early Guptas, Vākāṭakas, Traikūṭakas, and Buddhist Caves (ca. 451–480 CE) =Ajanta Mahāpiṭaka I.2. Baroda: Hari Sena Press.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2019b. Ajanta Paintings: A Compilation of 84 Abridged Narratives. 2nd. Baroda: Hari Sena Press.
* {{cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2005a |titleAjanta: The end of the Golden Age |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-14832-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFjgq2OivwmkC}}
* {{cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2005b |titleAjanta: The arrival of the uninvited |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-14833-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv2lyNi_K8P4C}}
* {{cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2006 |titleAjanta: History and Development, Volume 2: Arguments about Ajanta |placeLeiden |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-15072-0 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=RbYnAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2009 |titleAjanta: History and Development, Volume 4: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Year by Year |publisherBrill |placeLeiden |isbn978-90-04-14983-0 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=3me7pY6zJyEC }}
* {{Cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2007 |titleAjanta: History and Development, Volume 5: Cave by Cave |publisherBrill |placeLeiden |isbn978-90-04-15644-9 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=UPqUHXlwXdcC}}
* {{cite book |lastSpink |firstWalter M. |year2014 |titleAjanta: History and Development, Volume 6: Defining Features |publisherBrill Academic |isbn978-90-474-4465-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPdlXAwAAQBAJ}}
* Spink, Walter M. "A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves," C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 1's Patronage," Chhavi 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp.&nbsp;144–57.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 7's Twice-born Buddha," Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia, ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp.&nbsp;103–16.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Politics and Patronage," Kaladarsana, ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp.&nbsp;109–26.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: The Crucial Cave," Ars Orientalis, 10 (1975), pp.&nbsp;143–169.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11," Ars Orientalis, 7 (1968), pp.&nbsp;155–168.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating," Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume, ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p.&nbsp;457.
* Spink, Walter M. "Notes on Buddha Images," The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp.&nbsp;213–41.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Achievement of Ajanta," The Age of the Vakatakas, ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp.&nbsp;177–202.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Vakataka's Flowering and Fall," The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp.&nbsp;71–99.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Archaeology of Ajanta," Ars Orientalis, 21, pp.&nbsp;67–94.
* {{cite book|firstOm Datt|lastUpadhya|titleThe Art of Ajanta and Sopoćani: A Comparative Study: an Enquiry in Prāṇa Aesthetics|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLCPx0R1TqOMC|year1994|publisherMotilal Banarsidass |isbn978-81-208-0990-1}}
* Weiner, Sheila L. Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).
* Yazdani, Gulam. Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescos Based on Photography, 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955).
* Yazdani, Gulam. The Early History of the Deccan, Parts 7–9 (Oxford: 1960).
* Zin, Monika. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003)
External links
{{Commons category|Ajanta Caves}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ajanta}}
<!--NO MORE CANVAS GURU TOURIST SPAM LINKS. THEY WILL BE DELETED AS SOON AS INSERTED-->
* [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0192.xml Ajanta Caves Bibliography], Akira Shimada (2014), Oxford University Press
* [https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta]
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/oct/23/greatest-ancient-picture-gallery The Greatest Ancient Picture Gallery. William Dalrymple, New York Review of Books (23 Oct 2014)]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/ Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List]
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/entity/m0_z7 Google Streetview Tours of each Cave of Ajanta]
* [http://www.profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf Inscriptions with Translations: Ajanta Caves], Richard Cohen
{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{Aurangabad district, Maharashtra topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Indian Buddhist Caves}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:2nd-century BC establishments
Category:1819 archaeological discoveries
Category:Architecture in India
Category:Indian art
Category:Indian painting
Category:Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Category:Caves of Maharashtra
Category:World Heritage Sites in Maharashtra
Category:Caves containing pictograms in India
Category:Former populated places in India
Category:Tourist attractions in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra
Category:Rock-cut architecture of India
Category:Buddhist paintings
Category:Gupta art
Category:Indian Buddhist sculpture
Category:World Heritage Sites in India
Category:Vakataka dynasty
Category:Buddhist caves in Maharashtra
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Ajmer
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{{About|the city in Rajasthan, India|its namesake district|Ajayameru district|the historical region|Ajmer region}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ajaymeru (Ajmer)
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 290
| image_style | perrow 1/2/3
| image1 = Dargah of moinuddin chishti.jpg
| caption1 = Ajmer Sharif Dargah
| image2 = Mayo college in a sunny day.jpg
| caption2 = Mayo college
| image3 = Nareli jain Mandir Ajmer.jpg
| caption3 = Nareli Jain Temple
| image4 = Prithvi Raj Chauhan (Edited).jpg
| caption4 = Prithviraj smarak
| image5 = Nasiyan Jain Temple.jpg
| caption5 = Soniji Ki Nasiyan
| image6 = Anasagar Lake, Ajmer.JPG
| caption6 = Ana Sagar Lake
}}
| pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption Location in Rajasthan, India
| coordinates {{coord|26.4499|N|74.6399|E|displayinline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Rajasthan.svg}} Rajasthan
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = Ajmer
| founder = Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II
| named_for = Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = Ajmer Municipal Corporation
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 = 155
| area_footnotes <ref>{{cite web|titleAMC|urlhttp://ajmermc.org/UI/Static/staticpage.aspx?pageid5}}</ref>
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m 480
| population_total = 542,321
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank | population_demonym
| population_urban = 551,101
| population_footnotes <ref name"c2011-c82"/>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 Hindi<ref name"langoff">{{cite web|title52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India |urlhttp://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|websitenclm.nic.in|publisherMinistry of Minority Affairs|access-date22 May 2022|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date25 May 2017|pages=34–35}}</ref>
| demographics1_title2 = Additional&nbsp;official
| demographics1_info2 English<ref name"langoff"/>
| demographics1_title3 = Regional
| demographics1_info3 = Marwari, Rajasthani
| timezone1 = IST
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = PIN
| postal_code = 305001 to 305023
| area_code = 0145, +91145
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = RJ-01
| website = {{URL|www.ajmer.rajasthan.gov.in}}
| official_name | other_name
| leader_party = BJP
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name Braj Lata Hada<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/80743195.cms|titleBraj Lata Hada of BJP was elected mayor of the Ajmer Muncipa |websiteTimes of India|date8 February 2021 |languageen-US|access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref>
| nickname = Heart of Rajasthan
}}
Ajayameru, currently known as Ajmer ({{IPA|hns|ədʒmeːr|pron|Ajmer.ogg}}) is a city in the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite web |date29 April 2024 |titleAjmer {{!}} India, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Ajmer |access-date3 June 2024 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref> It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Ajmer district and Ajmer division. It lies at the centre of Rajasthan, earning it the nickname the Heart of Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGupta 'SIR' |firstDevesh |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id96pIEAAAQBAJ&dqheart+of+rajasthan+ajmer&pgPA3 |titleRajasthan Jila Darshan : Question Answer Series: One Liner GK : 33 District of Rajasthan |publisherAtharv Publication |language=en}}</ref>
Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. Ajmer has been a municipality since 1869. Ajmer has been selected as one of the heritage cities for the HRIDAY<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.hridayindia.in/hriday-cities/|titleHriday Cities {{!}} Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)|websitewww.hridayindia.in|languageen-US|access-date28 September 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180928082927/http://www.hridayindia.in/hriday-cities/|archive-date28 September 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> and Smart City Mission schemes of the Government of India.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://hridayindia.in/|titleIntroduction|websiteHriday official website|access-date30 April 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150826075658/http://hridayindia.in/|archive-date26 August 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>EtymologyThe city of Ajmer was established as "Ajaya Meru", meaning "invincible hill" in Sanskrit<ref>{{Cite web |titleAjmer |urlhttps://www.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in/ajmer.html#:~:textTHE%20DELIGHTFUL%20DARGAH%20DESTINATION,translated%20as%20%E2%80%9Cinvincible%20hill%E2%80%9D. |websiteRajasthan Tourism}}</ref> by a Chahamana ruler, either Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II. It refers to the Taragarh Hill, on which the city is situated. Over time, "Ajaya Meru" evolved into "Ajmer".<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBühler |firstG. |date1897 |titleThe Origin of the town of Ajmer and of its name |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23860911 |journalWiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes |volume11 |pages51–56 |jstor23860911 |issn0084-0076}}</ref> It served as their capital until the 12th century CE.Other namesA Gujarati historic novel named Gujaratno Jay written by Zaverchand Meghani, based on various Jain Prabandhas, describes the city as sapādalakṣaṇa (સપાદલક્ષણ).<ref>{{Cite book|titleGujaratno Jay|lastMeghani|firstZaverchand|publisherGurjar Sahitya Bhavan|dateApril 2011|isbn978-81-8461-481-7|locationAhmdabad|pages62}}</ref> History Ajmer was originally known as Ajayameru. Maharaja of Parmar Rajputs founded the Ajmer city in the 11th-century, which was admired from Chahamana king Ajaydeva. Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the earliest mention of the city's name occurs in Palha's Pattavali, which was copied in 1113 CE (1170 VS) at Dhara. This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE.{{sfn|Dasharatha Sharma|1959|p40}} A prashasti (eulogistic inscription), issued by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Sanskrit college), states Ajayadeva (that is Ajayaraja II) moved his residence to Ajmer.{{sfn|Har Bilas Sarda|1911|pp=68-74}}
A later text, Prabandha-Kosha states that it was the 8th-century king Ajayaraja I who commissioned the Ajayameru fort, which later came to be known as the Taragarh fort of Ajmer.{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|p87}} According to historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have been found at Ajmer.{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|p88}} Singh theorises that Ajayaraja II later expanded the town area, constructed palaces, and moved the Chahamana capital from Shakambhari to Ajmer.{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|pp=131-132}}
In 1193, Ajmer was annexed by the Ghurids and later was returned to Gaur Rajput rulers under condition of tribute.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|titleAjmer|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Ajmer|url-statuslive|websiteEncyclopaedia Britannica|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906032724/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ajmer|archive-date6 September 2015|access-date21 October 2020}}</ref>
By the 15th century, Ajmer was captured by Mewar and in 1506, Ajja Jhala was appointed as the Governor of Ajmer.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGirase |firstJaypalsingh |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idonH0DwAAQBAJ&dqajja+jhala&pgPT298 |titleRashtragaurav Maharana Pratapsingh: Ek Aprajit Yoddha |date2 August 2020 |publisherNotion Press |isbn978-1-64919-952-2 |language=hi}}</ref>
In 1556, Ajmer came under the Mughal Empire after being conquered by Mughal Emperor Akbar.<ref name":0" /> It was made the capital of the eponymous Ajmer Subah. The city enjoyed special favour under the Mughals, who made frequent pilgrimages to the city to visit the dargah of Moinuddin Chishti. The city was also used as a military base for campaigns against Rajput rulers and, on a number of occasions, became the site of celebration when a campaign bore success. Mughal Emperors and their nobles made generous donations to the city, and endowed it with constructions such as Akbar's palace and pavilions along the Ana Sagar.<ref>{{Cite book|lastAsher|firstCatherine B.|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521267281|titleArchitecture of Mughal India|date24 September 1992|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-26728-1|pages77–80|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastAsher|firstCatherine B.|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521267281|titleArchitecture of Mughal India|date24 September 1992|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-26728-1|pages118–122|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastAsher|firstCatherine B.|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521267281|titleArchitecture of Mughal India|date24 September 1992|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-26728-1|pages170 & 174–178|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> Their most prominent building activities were in the dargah and its vicinity.<ref>{{Cite book|lastAsher|firstCatherine B.|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521267281|titleArchitecture of Mughal India|date24 September 1992|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-26728-1|pages220|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> Jahanara Begum and Dara Shikoh, children of Shah Jahan, were both born in the city in 1614 and 1615, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |last1Government of India |first1MoC |titleIndianCulture |urlhttps://www.indianculture.gov.in/stories/dara-shikoh |websiteindianculture.gov.in |publisherMoC, IIT Bombay, IGNOU |access-date21 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |editor-last1Singhal |editor-first1Shruti |titlethebetterindia |urlhttps://www.thebetterindia.com/168684/jahanara-begum-mughal-princess-chandni-chowk-history-india/ |websitethebetterindia.com |date24 May 2019 |publisherthebetterindia |access-date21 October 2021}}</ref>
Mughal patronage of the city had waned by the beginning of the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|lastAsher|firstCatherine B.|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521267281|titleArchitecture of Mughal India|date24 September 1992|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-26728-1|pages310|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> In 1752, the Scindias conquered the city,<ref name":1">{{Citation |lastCurrie |firstPeter Mark |titleAjmer |date1 October 2009 |urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_23249 |encyclopediaEncyclopaedia of Islam, THREE |publisherBrill |languageen |doi10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_23249 |access-date14 December 2021}}</ref> and in 1818, the British gained authority over the city.<ref name":0" /> A municipality was established at Ajmer in 1866.<ref>{{cite book |authorRima Hooja |titleA History of Rajasthan |year2006 |publisherRupa |isbn9788129108906 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtosMAQAAMAAJ |page1166}}</ref> Colonial-era Ajmer served as the headquarters of the Ajmer-Merwara Province and possessed a Central jail, a large General Hospital, and two smaller hospitals, according to Gazetteer, 1908. It was the headquarters of a native regiment and of a Railway Volunteer corps. From the 1900s, the United Free Church of Scotland, the church of England, the Roman Catholics, and the American Episcopal Methodists have had mission establishments here.<ref name"World Tourism Day 2018">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.patrika.com/ajmer-news/world-tourism-day-2018-new-tourism-point-develop-in-ajmer-district-3472887/?ufrmlsub|title#World Tourism Day 2018:सूफियत की महक और तीर्थनगरी पुष्कर की सनातन संस्कृति|workwww.patrika.com|access-date28 September 2018|languagehi-IN}}</ref> At that time there were twelve printing presses in the city, from which eight weekly newspapers were published.<ref name"Imperial Gazette of India, 1908">{{Cite book|titleTHE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA, 1908.|publisherOUP|pagesExtract}}</ref>
At the time of India's independence in 1947, Ajmer continued as a separate state with its own legislature until its merger with erstwhile Rajputana province, then called Rajasthan. The Legislature of Ajmer State was housed in the building which now houses T. T. College. It had 30 MLAs, and Haribhau Upadhyay was the first chief minister of the erstwhile state, with Bhagirath Chaudhary as the first Vidhan Sabha speaker. In 1956, after acceptance of the proposal by Fazil Ali, Ajmer was merged into Rajasthan to form Ajmer District with the addition of Kishangarh sub-division of Jaipur district.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://epaper.patrika.com/c/32616903|titleClipping of Patrika Group - Ajmer|access-date28 September 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180928083127/http://epaper.patrika.com/c/32616903|archive-date28 September 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtosMAQAAMAAJ |page1166 |titleA History of Rajasthan |isbn9788129108906 |last1Hooja |first1Rima |date29 October 2023 |publisherRupa & Company }}</ref>GeographyAjmer is in the northwest of India and is surrounded by the Aravali Mountains. It is situated on the lower slopes of the Taragarh Hill of that range. To the northwest is the Nagapathar Range of the Aravali Mountain Ranges which protects it from desertification from the Thar Desert.ClimateAjmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over {{convert|55|cm|in|abbroff}} of rain every year, but most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months, between June and September. Temperatures remain relatively high throughout the year, with the summer months of April to early July having an average daily temperature of about {{convert|30|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. During the monsoon there is frequent heavy rain and thunderstorms, but flooding is not a common occurrence. The winter months of November to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from {{convert|15|–|18|C|F}} with little or no humidity. There are, however, occasional cold weather fronts that cause temperatures to fall to near freezing levels.
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| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 32.6
| Feb record high C = 36.8
| Mar record high C = 42.3
| Apr record high C = 44.6
| May record high C = 47.4
| Jun record high C = 46.4
| Jul record high C = 44.4
| Aug record high C = 42.3
| Sep record high C = 42.0
| Oct record high C = 42.0
| Nov record high C = 37.4
| Dec record high C = 34.2
| year record high C = 47.4
| Jan record low C = -2.8
| Feb record low C = -1.1
| Mar record low C = 2.2
| Apr record low C = 9.4
| May record low C = 14.3
| Jun record low C = 14.7
| Jul record low C = 14.4
| Aug record low C = 18.9
| Sep record low C = 14.6
| Oct record low C = 7.8
| Nov record low C = 2.8
| Dec record low C = -0.6
| year record low C = -2.8
|Jan high C = 23.9
|Feb high C = 27.2
|Mar high C = 32.5
|Apr high C = 37.6
|May high C = 40.3
|Jun high C = 38.7
|Jul high C = 34.1
|Aug high C = 32.0
|Sep high C = 33.6
|Oct high C = 34.5
|Nov high C = 30.2
|Dec high C = 26.1
| year high C = 32.7
|Jan low C = 10.1
|Feb low C = 13.5
|Mar low C = 18.8
|Apr low C = 24.4
|May low C = 28.0
|Jun low C = 27.8
|Jul low C = 26.1
|Aug low C = 24.8
|Sep low C = 24.3
|Oct low C = 21.1
|Nov low C = 15.9
|Dec low C = 11.4
| year low C = 20.7
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 4.9
| Feb rain mm = 7.3
| Mar rain mm = 3.1
| Apr rain mm = 6.6
| May rain mm = 20.4
| Jun rain mm = 61.0
| Jul rain mm = 182.2
| Aug rain mm = 180.6
| Sep rain mm = 86.7
| Oct rain mm = 15.6
| Nov rain mm = 1.1
| Dec rain mm = 1.8
| year rain mm = 571.4
| Jan rain days = 0.4
| Feb rain days = 0.7
| Mar rain days = 0.4
| Apr rain days = 0.9
| May rain days = 1.7
| Jun rain days = 3.8
| Jul rain days = 8.8
| Aug rain days = 9.2
| Sep rain days = 4.1
| Oct rain days = 0.9
| Nov rain days = 0.1
| Dec rain days = 0.2
| year rain days = 31.2
|time day = 17:30 IST
| Jan humidity | Feb humidity
| Mar humidity | Apr humidity
| May humidity | Jun humidity
| Jul humidity | Aug humidity
| Sep humidity | Oct humidity
| Nov humidity | Dec humidity
|year humidity |source 1 India Meteorological Department<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240408025145/https://www.imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| archive-date = 8 April 2024
| url = https://www.imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| title = Station: Ajmer Climatological Table 1991–2020
| work = Climatological Normals 1991–2020
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date 7 July 2024}}</ref><ref nameIMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M173
| access-date 20 January 2021}}</ref> Climate of Ajmer<ref nameIMDclimatology>
{{cite web
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/caui/smartcities/AJMER.pdf
| title = Climate of Smart City - Ajmer
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date 21 October 2022}}</ref><ref nameIMDcityrainfall>{{cite web
| url https://cdsp.imdpune.gov.in/extremes_1991_2020/?stn42343
| title = Climatological Information - Ajmer(42343)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date = 12 August 2022
| archive-date = 22 April 2023
| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230422103254/https://cdsp.imdpune.gov.in/extremes_1991_2020/?stn42343
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
| date = August 2012
| source | Jan uv 5
| Feb uv = 6
| Mar uv = 7
| Apr uv = 9
| May uv = 9
| Jun uv = 8
| Jul uv = 7
| Aug uv = 7
| Sep uv = 7
| Oct uv = 6
| Nov uv = 6
| Dec uv = 5
| source 2 Weather Atlas<ref name"Weather Atlas">
{{cite web
| url = https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/india/ajmer-climate
| title = Climate and monthly weather forecast Ajmer, India
| publisher = Weather Atlas
| access-date = 17 July 2022
}}</ref>
| Jan avg record high C = 29.1
| Feb avg record high C = 32.4
| Mar avg record high C = 38.0
| Apr avg record high C = 41.9
| May avg record high C = 43.6
| Jun avg record high C = 43.2
| Jul avg record high C = 39.1
| Aug avg record high C = 36.0
| Sep avg record high C = 38.0
| Oct avg record high C = 37.6
| Nov avg record high C = 34.1
| Dec avg record high C = 30.1
| year avg record high C = 43.9
| Jan avg record low C = 5.4
| Feb avg record low C = 7.8
| Mar avg record low C = 17.4
| Apr avg record low C = 17.4
| May avg record low C = 21.8
| Jun avg record low C = 22.2
| Jul avg record low C = 22.7
| Aug avg record low C = 22.5
| Sep avg record low C = 21.5
| Oct avg record low C = 16.2
| Nov avg record low C = 10.7
| Dec avg record low C = 6.3
| year avg record low C = 5.2
}}
Demographics
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Ajmer
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|width = 50
|bars=
{{bar percent|Hindus|orange|83.53}}
{{bar percent|Muslims|green|11.58}}
{{bar percent|Jains|pink|2.50}}
{{bar percent|Sikhs|black|0.94}}
{{bar percent|Others|lightgrey|0.18}}
}}
{{Historical population
| source <ref name"censusindia1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm|titleHistorical Census of India|access-date22 March 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130217053707/http://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm|archive-date17 February 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"c2001-towns">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stadA&state5999|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stadA&state5999 |archive-date16 June 2004|titleCensus of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date1 November 2008|publisherCensus Commission of India}}</ref><ref name"c2011-c82"/>
|1891 | 68800
|1901 | 73800
|1911 | 86200
|1921 | 113200
|1931 | 119500
|1941 | 147300
|1951 | 196300
|1961 | 231200
|1968 | 265200
|1971 | 264300
|1981 | 374400
|1991 | 402700
|2001 | 485197
|2011 | 542321
}}
According to the 2011 census, Ajmer had a population of 542,321 in the city, 551,101 including its suburbs.<ref name="c2011-c82"/>
The female to male ratio in the city was 947/1,000. The literacy rate in the city was 86.52%, male literacy being 92.08% and female literacy being 80.69%.<ref name="c2011-c82">
{{cite web|titleAjmer City Population Census 2011 {{!}} Rajasthan|urlhttps://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/82-ajmer.html|website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>
Ajmer's population growth in the decade was 18.48%; this compares to a growth figure of 20.93% in the previous decade.<ref name"c2001-towns" />Government and politics Administration Divisional commissner of Ajmer is Bhanwar Lal Mehra and district collector is Ansh Deep.<ref>{{Cite web |titleDistrict Administration (DATA) |urlhttps://ajmer.rajasthan.gov.in/pages/contact-directory/22/30261}}</ref>Villages
*Ajaysar Village, Rajasthan, located in Srinagar block of Ajmer district
*Ashok Nagar Ajmer (1989), colony
Tourism
|thumb]]
|thumb]]
is a recent addition to Ajmer|thumb]]
]]
*Pushkar: Located a few kilometres from Ajmer, it is an important tourist and pilgrimage destination and a satellite town of Ajmer city. It is famous for the Pushkar Lake and the 14th century Brahma Temple at Pushkar, dedicated to Brahma. According to the Padma Purana, Pushkar is an important pilgrimage site of Brahma, and is regarded to be the only major shrine dedicated to the deity.<ref name"kamakoti.org">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.kamakoti.org/kamakoti/details/padmapurana7.html |titlePADMA PURANA - Significance of Pushkara Tirtha |access-date7 April 2018 |archive-date7 April 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407183612/http://www.kamakoti.org/kamakoti/details/padmapurana7.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Taragarh Fort: It is reputed to be the oldest hill fort in India. It stands, with precipitous surroundings, at a height of 2,855&nbsp;ft. above sea-level, and between 1,300 and 1,400&nbsp;ft. above the valley at its base; and it is partially enclosed by a wall some 20 feet thick and as many high, built of huge blocks of stone, cut and squared and are about {{convert|2|mi|km|0|spellin}} in circumference. This hill fort guarding Ajmer, was the seat of the Chauhan rulers. It was built by King Ajaypal Chauhan on the summit of Taragarh Hill and overlooks Ajmer. The battlements run along the top of the hill. When it fell to the British Raj, the fort was dismantled on the orders of Lord William Bentinck in 1832 and was converted into a sanatorium for the British troops stationed at the garrison town of Nasirabad.<ref name"EB1911" /> Within it stands the shrine of a Muhammadan saint, Saiyid Husain, known as the Ganj Shahldan.In the older city, lying in the valley beneath the Taragarh hill and now abandoned, the Nur-chashma, a garden-house used by the Mughals, still remains, as also a water-lift commenced by Maldeo Rathor, to raise water to the Taragarh citadel.
*Ajmer Sharif Dargah: It is a shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti which is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Akbari Mosque, built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and containing the domed tomb of the saint. Akbar and his queen used to come here by foot every year on pilgrimage from Agra in observance of a vow when he prayed for a son. The large pillars called "Kose ('Mile') Minars" (Kos Minar), erected at intervals of about {{convert|2|mi|km|0|spellin}} along the entire way between Agra and Ajmer mark the places where the royal pilgrims halted every day, they are also seen today, one such is near private bus station in Ajmer City.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAjmere|volume1|pages452–453}}</ref> About 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day. The Urs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is celebrated every year on the 6th and 7th of Rajab.
*Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra: Literally meaning "shed of two-and-a-half days", it is an ASI protected monument near Ajmer Sharif Dargah and a converted mosque built after the partial destruction of earlier Hindu and Jain temples there on orders of Muhammad Ghori after he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the second battle of Tarain.Originally built as a Sanskrit college, the mosque underwent a transformative evolution in the 12th century under the reign of Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak.<ref>{{Citation |title8 must visit places in ajmer |date 9 January 2024 |urlhttps://indiatrendwatch.com/8-must-visit-places-in-ajmer-city/ |access-date 1 February 2024 |archive-date1 February 2024 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20240201115549/https://indiatrendwatch.com/8-must-visit-places-in-ajmer-city/ |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |titleDeprecated (X)HTML Markup |date1 November 2011 |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118257586.ch8 |workHTML, XHTML & CSS for Dummies® |pages119–128 |placeHoboken, NJ, USA |publisherWiley Publishing, Inc. |doi10.1002/9781118257586.ch8 |isbn978-1-118-25758-6 |access-date19 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Sunday Tribune - Spectrum |urlhttps://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070902/spectrum/main2.htm |access-date19 March 2022 |website=www.tribuneindia.com}}</ref>
*Mayo College: The college was founded in 1875 at the suggestion of Lord Mayo as a college where the sons of chiefs and nobles might receive an education to fit them for their high positions and important duties.<ref nameMayo/> It was known as "Indian Eton", as a number of Indian princes studied in this college. The main building, in white marble, is a classic example of Indo-Saracenic architecture. In front of the college is memorial marble statue of Lord Mayo. The boarding-houses are arranged in the form of a horseshoe, with the college in the centre of the base. Some of the Native States built boarding-houses, while the Government of India presented the college park, comprising 167 acres and formerly the site of the old Residency, and erected the main building, the residences of the principal and vice-principal, and the Ajmer boarding- house. It provided the salaries of the English staff. The foundation-stone of the college was laid in 1878, and the building was opened by the Marquis of Dufferin in 1885.<ref name"Mayo">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/m/019pho0000015s5u00015000.html |titleMayo College, Ajmere - British Library |access-date7 April 2018 |archive-date7 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220407040930/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/m/019pho0000015s5u00015000.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> John Lockwood Kipling, father of Nobel Laureate, Rudyard Kipling, had been principal of Mayo College.
*Soni Ji Ki Nasiyaan: It is architecturally rich Jain temple built in the late nineteenth century whose main chamber Swarna Nagari "City of Gold", has prominent depiction of Ayodhya made from 1000&nbsp;kg of gold.<ref>{{cite news |date24 July 2017 |titleThis Temple In Rajasthan Has A Golden Chamber Where 1000kg Of Gold Was Used To Carve Out Depictions Of Ayodhya. It's Truly Mesmerizing! |newspaperDaily Bhaskar |urlhttp://daily.bhaskar.com/news/JM-RIT-jain-temple-gold-ajmer-5653991-PHO.html |access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref>
*Akbari Fort & Museum: The city's museum was once the residence of Prince Salīm, the son of the Emperor Akbar, and presently houses a collection of Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture. This is a magnificent example of Mughal architecture, construction of which was commissioned by Akbar in 1570. This is where Salim, as the Emperor Jahangir, read out the firman permitting the British East India Company to trade with India.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.rajasthangk.net/2013/05/akbar-ka-kila-ajmer-akbars-fort.html|titleAkbar Ka Kila, AJMER}}</ref> It is a massive square building, with lofty octagonal bastions at each corner. It was the headquarters of the administration in their time and in that of the Marathas. It was here that the emperors appeared in state, and that, as recorded by Sir Thomas Roe, criminals were publicly executed. The interior was used as a magazine during the British occupation until 1857; and the central building, used as a tahsil office. With the fort, the outer city walls, of the same period, are connected. These surround the city and are pierced by the Delhi, Madar, Usri, Agra, and Tirpolia gates.
*Nareli Jain Temple: is a Jain temple complex of fourteen temples recently built. It is known for its architecture and intricate stone carvings which gives it both a traditional and contemporary look.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bhaskar.com/news/RAJ-AJM-OMC-enlightenment-completed-the-pilgrimage-area-5291015-PHO.html|titleEnlightenment completed the pilgrimage area|workdainikbhaskar|access-date14 April 2016|date=4 April 2016}}</ref>
*Ana Sagar Lake: This is an historic man-made lake built by Maharaja Anaji (1135–1150&nbsp;CE).<ref nameMadan>{{cite book|titleIndia through the ages|urlhttps://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|lastGopal|firstMadan|year 1990| page[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/173 173]|editorK.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> By the lake is the Daulat Bagh, a garden laid out by Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Shah Jahan later added five pavilions, known as the Baradari, between the garden and the lake embankment of the Ana Sagar supports the beautiful marble pavilions erected as pleasure-houses by Shah Jahan. The embankment, moreover, contains the - site of the former hammam (bath-room). Three of the five pavilions were at one time formed into residences for British officials, while the embankment was covered with office buildings and enclosed by gardens. The houses and enclosures were finally removed in 1900–1902, when the two south pavilions were re-erected, the marble parapet completed, and the embankment restored, as far as practicable, to its early condition. The Baradari has since been closed for the public because of increased crowd and pollution caused by people.A new garden called Subhash Udhyan has been opened in the recent years in place of Baradari.
*Lake Foy Sagar: It is a picturesque artificial lake that was created as a famine relief project in 1892 some 3 miles to the west of the city. It offers excellent views of Aravali mountains range as well migrating birds.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://futureofpower.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Ajmer-Summary-Report-of.pdf |titleThe Future of Power - summary report, Ajmer - February 2014 |access-date7 April 2018 |archive-date20 May 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170520111623/http://futureofpower.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Ajmer-Summary-Report-of.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref> The city used to derive its water-supply from it during colonial times. The water was conveyed into the city and suburbs through pipes which were laid underground. The capacity of the lake is 150,000,000 cubic feet.
*Prithviraj Smark: Prithviraj Smark is dedicated to Prithviraj Chauhan. It is located on the way to Taragarh Fort. This place has a life-size statue of King Prithviraj Chauhan mounted on a horse.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.urban.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/udh/ada-ajmer/en/ajmer--the-city/major-attractions/PRITHVIRAJSMARAK.html |titlePrithviraj Memorial Ajmer |access-date7 April 2018 |archive-date7 April 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407183804/http://www.urban.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/udh/ada-ajmer/en/ajmer--the-city/major-attractions/PRITHVIRAJSMARAK.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*Tomb of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri: Khwaja Husain Ajmeri also known as Shaikh Husain Ajmeri, he was a Grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer from the line of Khwaja Fakhruddin's son Khwaja Husamuddin Jigar Sokhta, he was SajjadaNasheen and Mutwalli<ref>{{Cite web |titleMuntakhab-ut-Tawarikh - Google Search |urlhttps://www.google.com/search?kgmid/g/121g7ms5&qMuntakhab-ut-Tawarikh |access-date21 April 2020 |websitewww.google.com}}</ref> of Ajmer Dargah before and during the time of Emperor Akbar and Emperor Jahangir, his tomb is situated near the Sola Khamba (Tomb of Khwaja Alauddin another grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer), Behind Shahjahani Mosque Dargar Sharif Ajmer, he died sometime between the year 1619 and 1620. his tomb was built in the year 1637–38.
*Manibandh : Also known as Chamunda Mata Mandir is one among the 108 Shakti Pitha at Gayatri hills near Pushkar, 11&nbsp;km from Ajmer. It takes 14 minutes to travel from Pushkar Lake to Chamunda Mata Mandir (about 5–6&nbsp;km)
*Sri Nimbark Peeth : Located in Salemabad it is the principal seat of Sri Nimbarka Sampradaya.
Transportation
Air
The Kishangarh Airport is the nearest airport. It is 25&nbsp;km from Ajmer city. The Ajmer Airport ground breaking ceremony was done by then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh in 2012. The airport was finally completed and inaugurated by then Union Minister of State for Civil Aviation Jayant Sinha and Chief Minister Vasundhara Raje on 11 October 2017.<ref name"DC">{{cite news|titleKishangarh airport inauguration ends decade long wait of Ajmer residents: CM Raje|urlhttp://www.deccanchronicle.com/videos/kishangarh-airport-inauguration-ends-decade-long-wait-of-ajmer-residents-cm-raje.html|access-date13 October 2017|newspaperDeccan Chronicle|date12 October 2017|archive-date13 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171013123907/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/videos/kishangarh-airport-inauguration-ends-decade-long-wait-of-ajmer-residents-cm-raje.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The airport is operational since then and regular flights to/from Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Indore and Surat are currently available. The airport is now among main and busy airports of Rajasthan. Currently SpiceJet and Star Air operate from Ajmer Airport on daily basis. Kishangarh Airport, Ajmer is being managed and operated by Airports Authority of India (AAI).
The Jaipur International Airport which is 135&nbsp;km from Ajmer is the nearest international airport.
Rail
The Ajmer Junction is the main railway station situated in the city.<ref>{{cite news|titleRajasthan finds favour in railway budget|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/rajasthan-finds-favour-in-railway-budget/article718148.ece|access-date7 June 2014|workThe Hindu|date26 February 2010}}</ref> It was built during colonial times. Education The city has many schools and colleges. Among them, Mayo College is a prominent college. The regional office of CBSE is located here.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/over-3l-to-appear-for-cbse-exams-from-ajmer-region/articleshow/63162343.cms|titleOver 3lakh to appear for CBSE exams from Ajmer region|workThe Times of India|date5 March 2018|access-date14 February 2021}}</ref>
Notable people
* Sufiya Sufi - (born 1987) an Indian sprint athlete.
See also
*Delhi Gate, Ajmer
*Ajmeri Gate
**Ajmeri Gate metro station
*Qabil Ajmeri
*Ajmeri Kalakand
*Marwari language, also known as Ajmeri, spoken around Marwar and Ajmer
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
* {{cite book |authorDasharatha Sharma |titleEarly Chauhān Dynasties |publisherS. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |year1959 |isbn9780842606189 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |authorHar Bilas Sarda |author-linkHar Bilas Sarda |titleAjmer: Historical and Descriptive |chapterAdhai-Din-ka-Jhonpra |publisherScottish Mission |year1911 |chapter-urlhttp://oudl.osmania.ac.in/bitstream/handle/OUDL/1953/218387_Ajmer_HIstorical_And_Descriptive.pdf?sequence2 }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2018 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book |authorR. B. Singh |titleHistory of the Chāhamānas |publisherN. Kishore |year1964 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=11038728 }}
* W.D. Begg: The Holy Biography of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Millat Book Centre, Delhi, 1999).
* [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectidDS405.1.I34_V05_145.gif Ajmer] The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 5, p.&nbsp;137-146.External links
*[http://www.ajmer.rajasthan.gov.in Ajmer District website]
*[http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/ic/searchterm/R%20Nath!Ajmer/field/creato!covera/mode/all!all/conn/and!and/order/title R. Nath Mughal Architecture Image Collection, Images from Ajmer] - University of Washington Digital Collection
{{Ajmer|state=expanded}}
{{Rajasthan}}
{{Districts of Rajasthan}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Subject bar|portal1India |commonsyes |syes |voyyes |q=yes}}
Category:Cities and towns in Ajmer district
Category:Holy cities
Category:Tourist attractions in Rajasthan
Category:1818 in British India
Category:Smart cities in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajmer
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2025-04-05T18:26:07.286454
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Ajmer-Merwara
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Ajmer-Merwara (also known as Ajmir Province, and Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri) was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818.
It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1861 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces. Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri.
It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.
The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwar, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.
In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India's agent for the Rajputana Agency.
Extent and geography
The area of the province was . The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.
The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.
Superintendents for Ajmer
9 Jul 181817 Jul 1818 Nixon
18 Jul 181815 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785–1849)
16 Dec 182421 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)
22 Apr 182523 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton
24 Oct 182728 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish
29 Nov 18311 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)
2 Jul 183216 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs
17 Apr 183430 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813–1864)
1 Jul 183625 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807–1886)
26 Jul 1837Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten
Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara)
18231836 Henry Hall (1789–1875)
18361857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)
Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency
183229 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781–1834)
29 Nov 1833Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs
Jun 18341 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves
1 Feb 18391839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788–1880)
Apr 1839Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848)
Jan 1844Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)
Dec 1847Jan 1853 John Low (1788–1880)
25 Jun 184819 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)
8 Sep 18511 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)
18521853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804–1884) (1st time)
5 Mar 1853Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806–1857)
15 Mar 1857Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time)
10 Apr 185924 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814–1867) (acting for Lawrence)
Apr 18641867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.)
18671870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825–1904)
15 Jun 18701 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818–1899) (acting for Keatinge)
Chief Commissioners
1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.)
1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)
21 Jun 18736 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825–1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)
6 Apr 18746 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (1903)
6 Jul 187412 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.)
12 Nov 187418 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835–1911)
18 Aug 18765 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (1st time)(acting)
5 Mar 187712 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.)
12 Dec 187827 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836–1911) (1st time)
17 Mar 188128 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)
28 Nov 188227 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)
27 Mar 188720 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)
20 Mar 189027 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840–1927)
27 Aug 18912 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)
2 Dec 189122 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.)
22 Nov 189311 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840–1914)
11 Jan 189520 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.)
20 Mar 189510 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841–1917)
10 Mar 18981 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854–1942) (1st time)
1 May 19001 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848–1909)
1 Apr 19013 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)
3 Feb 19021 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time)
1 Apr 19054 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861–1940)
4 Jan 191822 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864–1920)
22 Dec 19197 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873–1965)
7 Aug 192518 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872–1942)
18 Mar 192714 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874–1946)
14 Oct 193228 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882–1966)
28 Oct 19371 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887–1962)
May 1939Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893–1980) (acting for Lothian)
1 Dec 194415 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904–1949)
Post-independence
From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.
The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region.
See also
Rawat Rajputs
The Mer (community) are a Hindu caste from the Gujarat and Central India who emigrated hundred of years ago from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.
Mair Rajputs of Punjab are a Hindu caste who emigrated hundreds of years ago to Punjab from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.
References
Category:Provinces of British India
Category:Historical Indian regions
Category:History of Rajasthan
Category:Ajmer district
Category:1818 establishments in British India
Category:1936 disestablishments in British India
Category:History of Ajmer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajmer-Merwara
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Abatement of debts and legacies
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Abatement of debts and legacies is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.
Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.
The order of abatement is usually:
Intestate property
The residuary of the estate
General Devises—i.e., cash gifts
Demonstrative Devises—i.e., cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.
Specific Devises—i.e., specified items of personal property, real property, etc.
Non-probate property—i.e., life insurance policies—do not abate.
Definitions
A specific devise, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving his $500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.
A general devise, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving $500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.
A demonstrative devise, is money given from a particular account. For example, "$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock."
A residual devise is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James's will might say: "I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly." Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James's residuary estate.
References
Category:Common law
Category:Wills and trusts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies
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Affection
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thumb|right|200px|Two children showing affection
Affection or fondness is a "disposition or state of mind or body" commonly linked to a feeling or type of love. It has led to multiple branches in philosophy and psychology that discuss emotion, disease, influence, and state of being. Often, "affection" denotes more than mere goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and temporary. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the distinctively sensual element.
Affection can elicit diverse emotional reactions such as embarrassment, disgust, pleasure, and annoyance. The emotional and physical effect of affection also varies between the giver and the receiver.
Restricted definition
thumb|right|A young girl kisses a baby on the cheek.
Sometimes the term is restricted to emotional states directed towards living entities, including humans and animals. Affection is often compared with passion, stemming from the Greek word . Consequently, references to affection are found in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and early British ethicists. Despite these associations, it is commonly differentiated from passion on various grounds. Some definitions of affection exclude feelings of anxiety or heightened excitement, elements typically linked to passion. In this narrower context, the term holds significance in ethical frameworks, particularly concerning social or parental affections, forming a facet of moral duties
Expression
Affection can be communicated by looks, words, gestures, or touches. It conveys love and social connection. The five love languages explains how couples can communicate affections to each other. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards. Such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants, especially their biochemical systems and prefrontal development.
Affectionate gestures can become undesirable if they insinuate potential harm to one's welfare. However, when welcomed, such behavior can offer several health benefits. Some theories suggest that positive sentiments enhance individuals' inclination to engage socially, and the sense of closeness fostered by affection contributes to nurturing positive sentiments among them.
Benefits of affection
Affection exchange is an adaptive human behavior that benefits well-being. Expressing affection brings emotional, physical, and relational gains for people and their close connections. Sharing positive emotions yields health advantages like reduced stress hormones, lower cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and a stronger immune system. Expressing affection, not merely feeling affection, is internally rewarding. Even if not reciprocated, givers still experience its effects.
Parental relationships
Affectionate behavior is frequently considered an outcome of parental nurturing, tied to hormonal rewards. Both positive and negative parental actions may health issues in later life. Neglect and abuse result in poorer well-being and mental health, contrasting with affection's positive effects. A 2013 study highlighted the impact of early child abuse and lack of affection on physical health.
Affectionism
Affectionism is a school of thought that considers affections to be of central importance. Although it is not found in mainstream Western philosophy, it does exist in Indian philosophy.
See also
References
External links
Category:Emotions
Category:Love
Category:Personal life
Category:Phrenology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affection
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Affiliation (family law)
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{{multiple issues|
{{globalize|date=August 2012}}
{{Update-EB|date=February 2012}}
}}
In law, affiliation (from Latin {{Lang|la|affiliare}}, "to adopt as a son") was previously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity. The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document.
Affiliation procedures in England
In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 10), and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts 1872 and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances){{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2016}} may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAffiliation|volume1|pages300-301}}</ref>
An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case, the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over 14 years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in a discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins, it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.<ref name="EB1911"/>
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 (42 & 43 Vict. c. 49) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 58), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the Royal Navy.<ref name"EB1911"/> Affiliation procedures in other countries In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (except for California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).<ref name"EB1911"/>
On the continent of Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Serbia and the Canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.<ref name="EB1911"/>
Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.<ref name="EB1911"/>
In India, affiliation cases are decided by section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code. According to this section - among other things - if a person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his illegitimate child, a magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of such child.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastDiwan |firstParas |date1985 |titleClaim of Maintenance Under Criminal Procedure Code |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/43950919 |journalJournal of the Indian Law Institute |volume27 |issue2 |pages291–317 |jstor43950919 |issn0019-5731}}</ref>See also
* Adoption
* Illegitimacy
* Paternity (law)
* Poor Laws
References
{{reflist}}
External links
*{{wiktionary-inline|affiliation}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Affiliation (Family Law)}}
Category:Family law
Category:Wills and trusts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affiliation_(family_law)
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Affinity
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Affinity may refer to:
Commerce, finance and law
Affinity (law), kinship by marriage
Affinity analysis, a market research and business management technique
Affinity Credit Union, a Saskatchewan-based credit union
Affinity Equity Partners, an Asian private equity firm
Affinity fraud, a type of scam targeting a specific demographic
Affinity marketing, a method of extending market reach by forming partnerships and cross-selling relationships
Affinity Partners, an American private equity firm
Religion and belief
Affinity (canon law), a kinship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman
Affinity (Christian organisation), network of conservative evangelical churches and Christian agencies
Affinity group, a private, non-commercial and non-governmental organisation formed around a shared interest or goal
Science and technology
Affinity, the UK's first road-legal solar car, built by Cambridge University Eco Racing
Affinity (mathematics), an affine transformation preserving collinearity
Affinity (pharmacology), a characterisation of protein-ligand binding strength
Affinity (sociology), a shared interest and commitment between persons in groups and/or willingness to associate
Affinity (taxonomy), a suggestion of common descent or type
Affinity chromatography, method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture
Affinity electrophoresis, general name for many analytical methods used in biochemistry and biotechnology
Affinity laws, laws used in hydraulics to express relationships between variables involved in fan or pump performance
Binding affinity, a measure of the interaction of ligands with their binding sites
Chemical affinity, used to describe or characterise elements' or compounds' readiness to form bonds
Electron affinity, energy released on formation of anions
Processor affinity, a computing term for the assignment of a task to a given core of a multicore CPU
Serif Europe's Affinity series of programs
Affinity Designer, a vector illustration editor
Affinity Photo, a raster graphics editor
Affinity Publisher, a desktop publishing application
Media-related
Music
Affinity (band), a jazz/rock band
Affinity (Affinity album)
Affinity (Bill Evans album)
Affinity (Haken album)
Affinity (Oscar Peterson album)
Affinity (EP), a 2013 EP by the English band Press to Meco
Johnny Alegre A, a jazz collective based in Manila
Other media
Affinity (novel), a 1999 novel by Sarah Waters
Affinity (film), a 2008 feature film based on the novel
"Affinity" (Stargate SG-1), an episode from season 8 of the TV sci-fi spin-off series Stargate SG-1
Elective Affinities, a novel by Goethe
Other uses
Affinity (medieval), late medieval retainers of a monarch in "bastard feudalism"
Affinity, West Virginia
See also
Affine (disambiguation)
Affine transformation, a type of transformation applied to a geometry
Refining, also known as "affining"
Afinidad (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity
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Affray
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{{Short description|Public fight that disturbs the peace}}
{{for|the British submarine|HMS Affray (P421)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
, The Brawl, 1855]]
{{Wiktionary}}
In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, affray is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in {{langx|fr|à l'effroi}}) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.<ref name"britannica">"Affray", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911</ref>Australia
In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety.<ref>See also Colosimo and Ors v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) [2005] NSWSC 854 (25 August 2005) [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWSC/2005/854.html AustLII]</ref> A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence.<ref>Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 93D(2) [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s93d.html AustLII]</ref> The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.<ref>Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 93C(1) [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s93c.html AustLII]</ref>
In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899<ref>Schedule 1 to the Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld)</ref> defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says "Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty—1 year’s imprisonment."<ref>[http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/C/CriminCode.pdf "Criminal Code Act 1899"], retrieved 22 July 2009 from the website of the Office of the Queensland Parliamentary Counsel</ref>
In Victoria, Affray was a common law offence until 2017, when it was abolished and was replaced with the statutory offence that can be found under section 195H of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). The section defines Affray as the use or threat of unlawful violence by a person in a manner that would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to be terrified. However, a person who commits this conduct may only be found guilty of Affray if the use or threat of violence was intended, or if the person was reckless as to whether the conduct involves the use or threat of violence. If found guilty, the maximum penalty that may be imposed for Affray is imprisonment for 5 years or, if at the time of committing the offence the person was wearing a face covering used primarily to conceal their identity or to protect them from the effects of crowd-controlling substances, imprisonment for 7 years.<ref>[https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s195h.html "Crimes Act 1958 - Section 195H"]. AustLII. AustLII. Retrieved April 9, 2024.</ref>
India
The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of "actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the lieges".<ref name"britannica"/>New ZealandIn New Zealand affray has been codified as "fighting in a public place" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981.<ref>[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1981/0113/latest/DLM53522.html Section 7. Fighting in public place] in Summary Offences Act 1981. legislation.govt.nz13 January 1981</ref>South AfricaUnder the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica.<ref name"britannica"/>
United Kingdom
England and Wales
The common law offence of affray was abolished<ref>The Public Order Act 1986, [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64/section/9 section 9(1)]</ref> for England and Wales<ref>The Public Order Act 1986, section 42</ref> on 1 April 1987.<ref>The Public Order Act 1986 (Commencement No. 2) Order 1987, [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1987/198/article/2/made article 2] and [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1987/198/schedule/made Schedule] (1987/198 (C. 4))</ref> Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:
{{Blockquote|{{unbulleted list
|(1) A person is guilty of affray if he uses or threatens unlawful violence towards another and his conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his personal safety.
|(2) Where 2 or more persons use or threaten the unlawful violence, it is the conduct of them taken together that must be considered for the purposes of subsection (1).
|(3) For the purposes of this section a threat cannot be made by the use of words alone.
|(4) No person of reasonable firmness need actually be, or be likely to be, present at the scene.
|(5) Affray may be committed in private as well as in public places.
|(6) ... [Repealed]
|(7) A person guilty of affray is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years or a fine or both, or on summary conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum or both.<ref>[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64/section/3 Digitised copy] of section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 from Legislation.gov.uk.</ref>}}}}
The term "violence" is defined by section 8.{{clarify|date=February 2015}}
Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.
The mens rea of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.<ref>The Public Order Act 1986, [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64/section/6 section 6(2)]</ref>
The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
In R v Childs & Price (2015),<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/gerard-childs-stephen-price-cleared-8721065|titleGerard Childs and Stephen Price cleared of Prescot retail park murder of Jonathan Fitchett on appeal|lastPattinson|firstRob|date25 February 2015|workLiverpool Echo|publisherTrinity Mirror Merseyside|access-date18 September 2016}}</ref><ref>R v Childs & Price 2015: as yet unreported</ref> the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.
Northern Ireland
Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.<ref>The Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008, [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisi/2008/1216/article/12 article 12(2)] and [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisi/2008/1216/schedule/1 Schedule 1], paragraph 5.</ref>
United States
In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states.<ref name"britannica"/><ref name"bishop">Bishop, American Criminal Law 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. sec. 535</ref>
See also
* Assault
* Battery
* Combat
References
* Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4: General police duties, Fraser Simpson (2006). pp.&nbsp;247. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-928522-5}}
{{reflist}}
{{EB1911|wstitle=Affray}}
Category:Crimes
Category:Legal terminology
Category:Violence
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affray
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Afghan Turkestan
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{{Short description|Region in northern Afghanistan}}{{Infobox settlement
| name = Afghan Turkestan
| other_name | settlement_type Region
| image_map = Areas of Afghanistan inhabited by Turkic speaking people (orthographic projection with inset).svg
| map_caption = Turkic-inhabited areas (according to the CIA, 2005)
| subdivision_type = Countries
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Afghanistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = Languages
| subdivision_name1 = Uzbek, Turkmen, Dari, Pashto
| area_total_km2 = 147000
}}
Afghan Turkestan,{{efn|{{langx|prs|ترکستان افغان|Turkistāni Afghān}}}}a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In the 19th century, there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan with Mazar-e Sharif as provincial capital. The province incorporated the territories of the present-day provinces of Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-e Pol, and Faryab. In 1890, Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was separated from Turkestan Province. It was later abolished by Abdur Rahman.<ref>{{cite book|author-firstAngus |author-lastHamilton |titleAfghanistan |publisherW. Heinemann |date1906 |pageshttps://books.google.com/books?idnexWAAAAMAAJ&pgPA247&dqMazar-i-Sharif+Province&hlen&ei3cXiTPemB4a8lQe26NyCBA&saX&oibook_result&ctresult&resnum3&ved0CDYQ6AEwAg#vonepage&qMazar-i-Sharif%20Province&f=false 247}}</ref>
The whole territory of Afghan Turkestan, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some {{convert|500|mi|km|orderflip}} in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of {{convert|183|km|abbron}}. It thus comprised about 147,000 km<sup>2</sup> (57,000 sq mi) or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan.
Geography
The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.
The province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or Chahar Wilayat ("four domains") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhoy (city), and Maymana in the west.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |lastHoldich |firstThomas Hungerford |wstitleAfghan Turkestan |volume1 |page319}}</ref> Demographics
map showing the territory of the settlement of ethnic groups and subgroups in Afghanistan]]
The bulk of the people are Uzbeks and Turkmens with large concentrations of Hazaras, Qizilbashs, Tatars, Tajiks, and Pashtuns.<ref>{{cite web|websiteUSA Today |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/05/13/pashtuns.htm |titlePashtuns say they're being brutalized |date12 May 2002}}</ref>
History
Khanates forming Afghan-Turkestan, 19th century]]
Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur Shah. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mohammad, the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. Dost Mohammad's earliest campaigns begin in the 1830s in the Afghan Turkestan Campaign of 1838-39. The sovereignty over Andkhoy, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maymana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.In 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul.<ref namemcchesiraj>Fayz Muḥammad Katib. Siraj al-tawarıkh. V. III. Afghanistan Digital Library. <http://afghanistandl.nyu.edu/books/adl0009/index.html></ref> See also
* Chinese Turkestan
* Russian Turkestan
* Turkestan Province
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{reflist}}
Further reading
{{Main|Bibliography of the history of Central Asia#Afghan Turkestan}}
Category:Former provinces of Afghanistan
Category:Turkestan
Category:Regions of Afghanistan
Category:Turkic toponyms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Turkestan
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Afyonkarahisar
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{{Infobox Turkey place
| type = municipality
| name = Afyonkarahisar
| other_name | image_skyline Afyonkarahisar evleri, 2019 49.jpg
| image_caption = View of Afyonkarahisar Castle
| image_logo = Afyon City Logo.png
| coordinates {{coord|38|45|28|N|30|32|19|E|region:TR|displayinline,title}}
| province = Afyonkarahisar
| district = Afyonkarahisar
| leader_party = CHP
| leader_name = Burcu Köksal
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2
| elevation_m = 1021
| population_footnotes <ref nametuik/>
| population_total = 251799
| population_as_of = 2021
| blank1_name = Licence&nbsp;plate
| blank1_info = 03
| postal_code = 03000
| website = {{URL|https://www.afyon.bel.tr/}}
}}
Afyonkarahisar ({{IPA|tr|ɑfˌjon.kɑˈɾɑhisɑɾ}}, {{langx|tr|afyon}} 'poppy, opium', kara 'black', hisar 'fortress'<ref>{{cite book | last1 Lewis Thomas | title Elementary Turkish | url https://archive.org/details/elementaryturkis00thom | url-access limited | publisher Courier Dover Publications | date Apr 1, 1986 | pages [https://archive.org/details/elementaryturkis00thom/page/n14 12] | isbn 978-0486250649}}</ref>) is a major city in western Turkey. It is the administrative centre of Afyonkarahisar Province and Afyonkarahisar District.<ref>[https://www.e-icisleri.gov.tr/Anasayfa/MulkiIdariBolumleri.aspx İl Belediyesi] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140818093925/https://www.e-icisleri.gov.tr/Anasayfa/MulkiIdariBolumleri.aspx |date2014-08-18 }}, Turkey Civil Administration Departments Inventory. Retrieved 15 January 2023.</ref> Its population is 251,799 (2021).<ref nametuik>{{Cite web |titleAddress-based population registration system (ADNKS) results dated 31 December 2021|urlhttps://www.tuik.gov.tr/indir/duyuru/favori_raporlar.xlsx |access-date12 January 2023|publisherTÜİK|languagetr |formatXLS}}</ref> Afyon is in the mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, {{convert|250|km|mi|0|abbron}} south-west of Ankara along the Akarçay River. In Turkey, Afyonkarahisar stands out as a capital city of hot springs and spas,<ref name"auto">{{cite book|authorEvren Ekiz|titletermal turizmde farkli bir destinasyon: jeoturizm (afyonkarahisar örnegi) |urlhttp://oaji.net/articles/2016/569-1461323338.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://oaji.net/articles/2016/569-1461323338.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|page70|year2016}}</ref> an important junction of railway, highway and air traffic in West-Turkey,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.britannica.com/place/Afyonkarahisar|titleAfyonkarahisar - Turkey|websitebritannica.com|access-date8 April 2018}}</ref> and the place where independence was won.<ref>{{cite book|author Rosie Ayliffe|titleTURKEY|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTbC6B1uMgSAC&qafyon+independence|page606|year2003|publisherRough Guides |isbn9781843530718}}</ref>
In addition, Afyonkarahisar is one of Turkey's leading provinces in agriculture,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.habermonitor.com/en/haber/detay/the-project-created-in-afyon-thermal-greenhou/160335/|titleThe project created in Afyon, thermal greenhouse out of 660 thousand square meters|websitewww.habermonitor.com|access-date8 April 2018|archive-date9 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409105941/http://www.habermonitor.com/en/haber/detay/the-project-created-in-afyon-thermal-greenhou/160335/|url-statusdead}}</ref> globally renowned for its marble<ref name"Erica">{{cite book|authorErica Highes|titleMeaning and λόγος: Proceedings from the Early Professional Interdisciplinary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida_WmBgAAQBAJ&qpavonazzetto+origin |year2013|page29|publisherUniversity of Liverpool|isbn9781443873505}}</ref> and is the world's largest producer of pharmaceutical opium.<ref name"auto1">{{cite book|authorUS Department for State Bureau|titleInternational Narcotics Control Strategy Report|dateAugust 1995|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw0DlWjK3YCEC&qbolvadin+alkaloid+factory|page388|publisherDIANE |isbn9780788120572}}</ref> In antiquity, the city was called Akroinon and it is the site of Afyonkarahisar Castle, built around 1350 BC.EtymologyThe name Afyon Kara Hisar literally means opium black fortress in Turkish, since opium was widely grown here and there is a castle on a black rock.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Afyonkarahisar|titleAfyonkarahisar {{!}} Turkey|websiteEncyclopædia Britannica|languageen|access-date2019-05-24}}</ref> It is also known simply as Afyon. Older spellings include Karahisar-i Sahip, Afium-Kara-hissar and Afyon Karahisar. The city was known as Afyon (opium), until the name was changed to Afyonkarahisar by the Turkish Parliament in 2004.
History
{{further|Afyonkarahisar Castle}}
in Afyonkarahisar]]
Ancient times
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2024}}
The top of the rock in Afyon has been fortified for a long time. It was known to the Hittites as Hapanuwa, and was later occupied by Phrygians, Lydians and Achaemenid Persians until it was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the city (now known as Akroinοn (Ακροϊνόν) or Nikopolis (Νικόπολις) in Ancient Greek), was ruled by the Seleucids and the kings of Pergamon, then Rome and Byzantium.
Medieval period
Akroinοn became an important fortress in the Armeniakon theme due to its strategic location and natural defences and was first mentioned in Byzantine history when it was attacked in 716 and 732 by Arabs invaders.<ref name"oxford">{{ODB|lastKazhdan|firstAlexander|last2Cutler|first2Anthony|titleAkroinon|page48}}</ref> The Byzantine emperor Leo III renamed the city Nicopolis (Greek for "city of victory") after his victory over Arab besiegers under Abdallah al-Battal (who would become the famous Turkish literature figure of Battal Gazi) in 740.<ref name"EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAfium-kara-hissar|volume1|pages319–320}}</ref> Since the 10th century it was also a bishopric of Phrygia Salutaris.<ref name"oxford" />
After 1071 the town became part of the frontier zone between the Byzantine Empire and the invading Turks.<ref>{{cite book |last1Pitcher |first1Donald Edgar |titleAn Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire from Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century |date1972 |publisherBrill |isbn9789004038288 |page26 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8gs4AAAAIAAJ |access-date27 September 2023}}</ref>
The city was still held by the former in 1112 but was lost to the Sultanate of Rum at some time before 1146 when Manuel I Komnenos won a victory here.<ref name"oxford" /><ref name"Matthews">{{cite book |last1Matthews |first1Roger |titleAncient Anatolia Fifty Years' Work by the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara |date1990 |publisherBritish Institute of Archaeology at Ankara |isbn9780995465695 |pages309–311 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwElHDwAAQBAJ |access-date27 September 2023}}</ref> The Turks were unable to firmly control the city until around 1210,<ref name="Matthews" /> renaming it to Kara Hissar ("black castle") after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201&nbsp;meters above the town. Following the dispersal of the Seljuqs the town was occupied by the Sâhib Ata and then the Germiyanids.
The castle was finally conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid I in 1392 but was lost after the invasion of Timur Lenk in 1402. It was recaptured in 1428 or 1429.
Modern times
From its situation on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia on the one hand, and places such as Armenia and Georgia, on the other, the city became a place of extensive trade.<ref name"EB1911"/> It thrived during the Ottoman Empire, as the centre of opium production, and Afyon became a wealthy city. From 1867 until 1922, Afyon was part of the Hüdavendigâr vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. In 1902, a fire burning for 32 hours destroyed parts of the city.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |titleLatest intelligence - Turkish town burnt |date1 September 1902 |page4 |issue=36861}}</ref>
in Afyonkarahisar]]
During the First World War, British prisoners of war who had been captured at Gallipoli were housed here in an empty Armenian church at the foot of the rock. During the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) campaign (part of the Turkish War of Independence) Afyon and the surrounding hills were occupied by Greek forces. However, it was recovered on 27 August 1922, a key moment in the Turkish counter-attack in the Aegean region. After 1923 Afyon became a part of the Republic of Turkey.
The region was a major producer of raw opium (hence the name Afyon) until the late 1960s when under international pressure, from the US in particular, the fields were burnt and production ceased. Now poppies are grown under a strict licensing regimen. They do not produce raw opium any more but derive Morphine and other opiates using the poppy straw method of extraction.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://fco-stage.fco.gov.uk/resources/en/pdf/pdf20/fco_adidu_licitcultivation |titleArchived copy |websitefco-stage.fco.gov.uk |access-date6 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080902004159/https://fco-stage.fco.gov.uk/resources/en/pdf/pdf20/fco_adidu_licitcultivation |archive-date2 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Afyon was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote of 1927–1938.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ |date2009-06-15 }}. Banknote Museum: [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/18.htm 1. Emission Group - Fifty Turkish Lira - I. Series] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090305073133/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/18.htm |dateMarch 5, 2009 }}. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009.</ref>
Economy
The economy of Afyonkarahisar is based on agriculture, industries and thermal tourism.
Especially its agriculture is strongly developed from the fact, a large part of its population living in the countrysides. Which stimulated agricultural activities greatly.
Marble
{{further|Pavonazzo marble}}
{{further|Docimium}}
Afyonkarahisar produces an important chunk of Turkish processed marbles, it ranks second on processed marble exports and fourth on travertine.<ref>{{cite book|authorBelkıs ÖZKAR|titlemermer sektöründe katma degerin ve ihracatin artirilmasi|urlhttp://www.zafer.org.tr/jdownloads/Raporlar%20%20Strateji%20Belgeleri/mermer-sektorunde-katma-degerin-ve-ihracatin-artirilmasi.pdf|page29|access-date2016-06-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160810175332/http://www.zafer.org.tr/jdownloads/Raporlar%20%20Strateji%20Belgeleri/mermer-sektorunde-katma-degerin-ve-ihracatin-artirilmasi.pdf|archive-date2016-08-10|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorDilsad Erkek |titleMermer ve Traverten Sektörüne Küresel ve Bölgesel Yaklaşım |urlhttp://geka.gov.tr/Dosyalar/o_19v5e0ki7134g6no139s7pj10658.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://geka.gov.tr/Dosyalar/o_19v5e0ki7134g6no139s7pj10658.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|page25}}</ref> Afyon holds an important share of Turkish marble reserves, with some 12,2% of total Turkish reserves.<ref>{{cite book|authorSevgi Gürcan|titleTürkiye ve Afyon'da mermer sektörünün gelisim trendi, Kocatepe University|urlhttp://www.maden.org.tr/resimler/ekler/24d21019de5e59d_ek.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.maden.org.tr/resimler/ekler/24d21019de5e59d_ek.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|page389}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorNuran Tasligil|titleDie Analyse der als Baumaterial genutzten, Marmara University|urlhttp://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/article/viewFile/5000172507/5000155571|page619|access-date2016-06-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160919041022/http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/article/viewFile/5000172507/5000155571|archive-date2016-09-19|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Historically marble from Afyon was generally referred to as "Docimeaen marble" due to the place where it was mined, Docimium.<ref name"Strabo">{{cite book|authorStrabo|titleGeography|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D16}} "Book 9, chapter 5, section 16"</ref> Afyon has unique marble types and colors, which were historically very renown and are unique to Afyon such as "Afyon white", historically known as "Synnadic white", "Afyon Menekse", historically known as "Pavonazzetto",<ref>{{cite book|authorBarbara E. Borg|titleA Companion to Roman Art|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDS-PCgAAQBAJ&qbath-gymnasium+pavonazzetto|page157|year2015|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn9781118886090}}</ref> and "Afyon kaplan postu", a less popular type.
Docimian marble was highly admired and valued for its unique colors and fine grained quality by ancient people such as the Romans.<ref>{{cite book|authorDonato Attanasio |titleAncient White Marbles|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id08gOUB2qRcQC&qdocimian+marble+church|page154|year2003 |publisherL'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER |isbn9788882652470}}</ref> When the Romans took control over Docimaean quarries, they were impressed by the beautiful color combinations of the Docimaean Pavonazzetto, which is a type of white marble with purple veins. Emperors such as Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian made extensive use of Docimaean marble to many of their major building projects.<ref>{{cite book|authorDonato Attanasio |titleAncient White Marbles |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id08gOUB2qRcQC&qancient+white+marbles|page157|year2003 |isbn9788882652470 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorStrabo|titleGeography|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D12%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D14}} Book 12, 8, 14</ref> These include the Pantheon,<ref>{{cite book|authorAnthony Grafton|titleClassical Tradition, Harvard University|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLbqF8z2bq3sC&qpantheon+pavonazzetto|page842|year2010|isbn9780674035720}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorWilliam Lloyd Macdonald|titleThe Pantheon, Harvard University|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvjKDS_XoPXQC&qThe+Pantheon:+Design,+Meaning,+and+Progeny|page86|year2002|isbn9780674010192}}</ref> Trajan's Forum<ref>{{cite book|authorGaynor Aaltonen|titleThe History of Architecture|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Q0EAwAAQBAJ&qforum+romanum+pavonazzetto&pgPT92|year2008|isbn9781782127970}}chapter, ROME: CROSSING CONTINENTS</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorJames E. Packer|titleThe Forum of Trajan in Rome |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTn7zf3ecm2wC&qpavonazzetto|page120|year2001|isbn9780520226739 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorBen Russell|titleThe Economics of Roman Stone Trade, Oxford University|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idna0JAgAAQBAJ&qbasilica+ulpia+pavonazzetto|page229|year2013|isbn9780199656394}}</ref> and the Basilica Aemilia.<ref>{{cite book|authorMax Schvoerer|titleASMOSIA 4, University of Bordeaux|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id51vdxp7FUdwC&qbasilica+aemilia+phrygian|page278|year1999|isbn9782867812446}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorGilbert J. Gorski|titleThe Roman Forum, Cambridge University|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6U4QCAAAQBAJ&qbasilica+aemilia+pavonazzetto|page19|year2015|isbn9780521192446}}</ref>Thermal sector
The geography of Afyon has great geothermal activity. Hence, the place has plenty of thermal springs. There are five main springs and all of them have high mineral content with temperatures ranging between 40 and 100&nbsp;°C. The waters have strong healing properties to some diseases. As a result, plenty of thermal facilities formed over time.
In time, Afyon has developed its thermal sector with more capacity, comfort and innovation. Afyon combined the traditional bath houses with 5-star resorts, the health benefits of the natural springs have made the thermal resorts more than a mere tourist attraction.
Hospitals and universities have come in association with thermal resorts, to utilize the full health potentials of the thermals.
As such, Afyon Kocatepe University Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Hospital opened for that purpose.<ref>{{cite book|author1Kurtulus Karamustafa |author2ömer Sanlioglu |author3Kenan Gülle |titleUlusal Turizm Kongresi, Erciyes University|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZUgsCQAAQBAJ&qafyon+termalin+baskenti|pages245–246|year2013|isbn9786055216740 }}</ref>
Afyon now has the largest residence capacity of thermal resorts,<ref>{{cite book|authorProf.Ergün Türker|author2Ahmet Yildiz|titleTermal ve Maden Sulari Konferansi, Afyon University|urlhttp://www.dsi.gov.tr/docs/sempozyumlar/termal-ve-maden-sular%C4%B1-konferans%C4%B1-afyonkarahisar.pdf?sfvrsn2|pageiX|year2008|access-date2016-06-23|archive-date2016-08-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160809170041/http://www.dsi.gov.tr/docs/sempozyumlar/termal-ve-maden-sular%C4%B1-konferans%C4%B1-afyonkarahisar.pdf?sfvrsn2|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"auto"/> of which a large part are 5-star thermal hotels which give medical care with qualified personnel.Spa waterKızılay, was the first mineral water factory in Turkey which opened in Afyon, in 1926 by Atatürk. After the mineral water from Gazligöl springs, healed Atatürk's kidneys and proved its health benefits. Since its foundation, "Kızılay Mineral Water" grew as the biggest mineral water distributor in Turkey, Middle-East and Balkans.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.yenisafak.com/ekonomi/kizilay-maden-suyu-17-ulkeye-satiliyor-2226071|titleKızılay maden suyu 17 ülkeye satılıyor|firstYeni|lastŞafak|date17 August 2015|websiteYeni Şafak|access-date8 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.kizilaymadensuyu.com.tr/assets/pdf/katalog.pdf |titleKızılay |access-date2016-06-23 |archive-date2016-07-05 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160705170749/http://www.kizilaymadensuyu.com.tr/assets/pdf/katalog.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Pharmaceuticals and morphine
Almost a third of all the morphine produced in the world derives from alkaloids factory in Afyon, named as "Afyon Alkaloids". this large capacity is the byproduct of Afyon's poppy plantations. The pharmaceuticals derive from the opium of the poppy capsules. "Afyon Alkaloids" factory is the largest of its kind in the world,<ref name"auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.tmo.gov.tr/Upload/Document/poppy.pdf|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131007054501/http://www.tmo.gov.tr/Upload/Document/poppy.pdf|url-statusdead|titleplantation Office|archivedateOctober 7, 2013}}</ref> with high capacity processing ability and modern laboratories. The raw opium is put through a chain of biochemical processes, resulting into several types of morphine.
In the Alkaloid Extraction Unit only base morphine is produced. In the adjacent Derivatives Unit half of the morphine extracted is converted to morphine hydrochloride, codeine, codeine phosphate, codeine sulphate, codeine hydrochloride, morphine sulphate, ethylmorphine hydrochloride.<ref>{{cite book|authorZohara Yaniv |author2Nativ Dudai |othersInstitute of Plant Sciences|titleMedical and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHuSCBAAAQBAJ&qMedicinal+and+Aromatic|page328|year2014|isbn9789401792769 }}</ref>
Agriculture
Livestocks
Afyon breeds a large amount of livestock, its landscape and demography is suitable for this field. As such it ranks in the top 10 within Turkey in terms of amounts of sheep and cattle it has.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id18852|titleTürkiye İstatistik Kurumu, Hayvansal Üretim İstatistikleri, Haziran 2015|firstTürkiye İstatistik Kurumu|last(TÜİK)|websitewww.tuik.gov.tr|access-date8 April 2018|archive-date9 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409171414/http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id18852|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Meat and meat products
As a result of being an important source of livestock, related sectors such as meat and meat products are also very productive in Afyon. Its one of the leading provinces in red meat production<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://haber.star.com.tr/ekonomi/et-fiyatlari-artik-afyonda-belirlenecek/haber-835587|titleEt fiyatları artık Afyon'da belirlenecek - Son Dakika Ekonomi Haberleri - STAR|websitestar.com.tr|access-date8 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160805124243/http://haber.star.com.tr/ekonomi/et-fiyatlari-artik-afyonda-belirlenecek/haber-835587|archive-date5 August 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.yabantv.com/haber/8892-tarimda-afyon-modeli|titleTarımda Afyon Modeli!|lastYABANTV|websiteyabantv.com|access-date8 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.memurlar.net/haber/565515/|title'Fiyat istikrarı için et sınıflandırılmalı' - Memurlar.Net|websitewww.memurlar.net|access-date8 April 2018}}</ref> and has very prestigious brand marks of sausages, such as "Cumhuriyet Sausages".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2014/06/07/afyonkarahisar-where-the-old-world-meets-the-new|titleAfyonkarahisar Where the old world meets the new|websitedailysabah.com|date7 June 2014|access-date=8 April 2018}}</ref>
Eggs
Afyon is the sole leader in egg production within Turkey. It has the largest amount of laying hens, with a figure of 12,7 million.<ref>{{cite book|authorfoundation of egg producers|titleYumurta Tavukculugu verileri|urlhttp://www.yum-bir.org/UserFiles/File/Sektor-Verileri-2015.pdf|page4|year2015|access-date2016-06-23|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160812113903/http://www.yum-bir.org/UserFiles/File/Sektor-Verileri-2015.pdf|archive-date2016-08-12|url-statusdead}}</ref> And produces a record amount of 6 million eggs per day.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.afyonyumurta.com.tr/s/company-profile-23.html|titleCompany Profile|websitewww.afyonyumurta.com.tr|access-date8 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409044424/http://www.afyonyumurta.com.tr/s/company-profile-23.html|archive-date2018-04-09|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Cherries and sour cherries
Sour cherries are cultivated in Afyon in very large numbers, so much so that it became very iconic to Afyon. Every year, a sour cherry festival takes place in the Cay district. It is the largest producer of sour cherries in Turkey.<ref name"auto2">{{cite book|author1Government of Turkey, statistics|titleAfyonkarahisar'in sosyo-ekonomik göstergeleri|urlhttp://yeni.afyonkarahisartso.org.tr/TuIK-Afyon-Sunum.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://yeni.afyonkarahisartso.org.tr/TuIK-Afyon-Sunum.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|page60|year2014}}</ref> The sour cherries grown in Afyon are of excellent quality because of the ideal climate they're grown in. For the same reason Afyon is also an ideal place for cherry cultivation. First quality cherries known as "Napolyon Cherries" are grown in abundance, its one of the top 5 leading provinces.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.tzob.org.tr/Bas%C4%B1n-Odas%C4%B1/Haberler/ArticleID/1619/ArtMID/470|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160812141921/http://www.tzob.org.tr/Bas%C4%B1n-Odas%C4%B1/Haberler/ArticleID/1619/ArtMID/470|url-statusdead|titleFoundation of Turkish Agriculture|archivedateAugust 12, 2016}}</ref>
Poppy
One of the iconic agricultural practices of Afyon is the cultivation of poppy. Afyon's climate is ideal for the cultivation of this plant, hence a large amount of poppy plantation occurs in this region. Though, a strong limitation came some decades ago from international laws, cause of the opium content of poppy plants peels. Nevertheless, Afyon is the largest producer of poppy in Turkey<ref name="auto2"/> and accounts for a large amount of global production.
Potatoes and sugar-beets
Afyon has a durable reputation in potato production, it produces around 8% of Turkish potato requirement. It ranks in the top 5 in potato, sugar-beets, cucumber and barley production.<ref name"auto2"/>Climate
Afyonkarahisar has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa)<ref>[http://www.meteocorne.it/plugins/climateClassification/koppen.php Meteocorne (Köppen Climate Classification)]</ref> under the Köppen classification and an oceanic climate<ref>[http://www.meteocorne.it/plugins/climateClassification/trewartha.php Meteocorne (Trewartha climate classification)]</ref> with a hot summer and a cool winter (Doak) under the Trewartha classification. The winters are cool and the summers are warm and dry with cool nights. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn.
Highest recorded temperature:{{Convert|39.8|C|F|abbron}} on 29 July 2000<br>Lowest recorded temperature:{{Convert|-27.0|C|F|abbron}} on 28 January 1954<ref name=extremes>
{{cite web | url https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?kA&mAFYONKARAHISAR | title Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri | publisher Turkish State Meteorological Service | language tr | access-date = 13 July 2024}}</ref>
{{Weather box
|location = Afyonkarahisar (1991–2020, extremes 1929–2023)
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|collapsed = y
| Jan record high C = 18.1
| Feb record high C = 21.8
| Mar record high C = 26.4
| Apr record high C = 30.2
| May record high C = 33.9
| Jun record high C = 35.8
| Jul record high C = 39.8
| Aug record high C = 39.6
| Sep record high C = 37.2
| Oct record high C = 31.3
| Nov record high C = 26.3
| Dec record high C = 21.0
| year record high C = 39.8
| Jan high C = 4.6
| Feb high C = 7.1
| Mar high C = 11.7
| Apr high C = 16.6
| May high C = 21.8
| Jun high C = 26.2
| Jul high C = 30.3
| Aug high C = 30.2
| Sep high C = 25.9
| Oct high C = 19.7
| Nov high C = 12.8
| Dec high C = 6.8
| year high C = 17.8
| Jan mean C = 0.4
| Feb mean C = 2.2
| Mar mean C = 6.0
| Apr mean C = 10.5
| May mean C = 15.3
| Jun mean C = 19.4
| Jul mean C = 22.8
| Aug mean C = 22.8
| Sep mean C = 18.5
| Oct mean C = 13.0
| Nov mean C = 6.9
| Dec mean C = 2.5
| year mean C = 11.7
| Jan low C = -3.0
| Feb low C = -1.8
| Mar low C = 1.1
| Apr low C = 4.9
| May low C = 9.2
| Jun low C = 12.7
| Jul low C = 15.3
| Aug low C = 15.4
| Sep low C = 11.4
| Oct low C = 7.2
| Nov low C = 2.1
| Dec low C = -0.8
| year low C = 6.1
| Jan record low C = -27.0
| Feb record low C = -25.3
| Mar record low C = -17.0
| Apr record low C = -7.6
| May record low C = -3.1
| Jun record low C = 1.0
| Jul record low C = 4.0
| Aug record low C = 2.4
| Sep record low C = -3.2
| Oct record low C = -7.9
| Nov record low C = -20.5
| Dec record low C = -24.3
| year record low C = -27.0
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 46.9
| Feb precipitation mm = 38.4
| Mar precipitation mm = 44.6
| Apr precipitation mm = 47.0
| May precipitation mm = 50.1
| Jun precipitation mm = 41.5
| Jul precipitation mm = 21.8
| Aug precipitation mm = 18.0
| Sep precipitation mm = 23.6
| Oct precipitation mm = 40.3
| Nov precipitation mm = 32.4
| Dec precipitation mm = 46.8
| year precipitation mm = 451.4
| Jan precipitation days = 12.37
| Feb precipitation days = 12.4
| Mar precipitation days = 12.37
| Apr precipitation days = 11.6
| May precipitation days = 11.8
| Jun precipitation days = 8.07
| Jul precipitation days = 3.6
| Aug precipitation days = 4.27
| Sep precipitation days = 4.63
| Oct precipitation days = 7.97
| Nov precipitation days = 7.57
| Dec precipitation days = 12.87
| year precipitation days = 109.5
| Jan snow days =9.1
| Feb snow days =7.1
| Mar snow days =4.2
| Apr snow days =1.5
| May snow days =0
| Jun snow days =0
| Jul snow days =0
| Aug snow days =0
| Sep snow days =0
| Oct snow days =0
| Nov snow days =1.1
| Dec snow days =4.9
| year snow days | Jan humidity77.7
| Feb humidity =72.1
| Mar humidity =65.1
| Apr humidity =61.2
| May humidity =59.9
| Jun humidity =56.5
| Jul humidity =49.6
| Aug humidity =50.8
| Sep humidity =53.6
| Oct humidity =63.9
| Nov humidity =70.3
| Dec humidity =77.7
| year humidity | Jan sun 80.6
| Feb sun = 113.0
| Mar sun = 151.9
| Apr sun = 183.0
| May sun = 229.4
| Jun sun = 273.0
| Jul sun = 331.7
| Aug sun = 310.0
| Sep sun = 249.0
| Oct sun = 189.1
| Nov sun = 138.0
| Dec sun = 77.5
| year sun | Jand sun 2.6
| Febd sun = 4.0
| Mard sun = 4.9
| Aprd sun = 6.1
| Mayd sun = 7.4
| Jund sun = 9.1
| Juld sun = 10.7
| Augd sun = 10.0
| Sepd sun = 8.3
| Octd sun = 6.1
| Novd sun = 4.6
| Decd sun = 2.5
| yeard sun = 6.4
|source 1 Turkish State Meteorological Service<ref nameeather1>
{{cite web
| url https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?kH&m=AFYONKARAHISAR
| title = Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Mevism Normalleri (1991–2020)
| publisher = Turkish State Meteorological Service
| language = tr
| access-date = 26 June 2021}}</ref>
|source 2 NCEI,<ref>{{cite web | url https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Afyonkarahisar_Bolge_17190.csv |formatCSV | title World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020: Afyonkarahisar Bolge | publisher NOAA | access-date 11 April 2024}}</ref> Meteomanz(snow days 2000-2005 and 2014-2017)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.meteomanz.com/sy3?l1&cou6290&ind17190&m101&y12000&m212&y22023 |titleAfyon - Weather data by months |access-date15 July 2024 |website=meteomanz}}</ref>
|date=January 2016
}}
Transport
{{See also|Ali Çetinkaya railway station}}
Afyon is also an important rail junction between İzmir, Konya, Ankara and Istanbul. Afyon is on the route of the planned high-speed rail line between Ankara and Izmir.]]Zafer Airport, located 60&nbsp;km from city center, serves Afyonkarahisar. Four flights per week to Istanbul, and seasonal flights to international destinations are available.
Afyon today
Afyon is the centre of an agricultural area and the city has a country town feel to it. There is little in the way of bars, cafes, live music or other cultural amenities, and the standards of education are low for a city in the west of Turkey.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} Nonetheless, the city does host one seat of higher education, Afyon Kocatepe University.
Afyon is known for its marble (in 2005 there were 355 marble quarries in the province of Afyon producing high quality white stone), its sucuk (spiced sausages), its kaymak (meaning either cream or a white Turkish delight) and various handmade weavings. There is also a large cement factory.
This is a natural crossroads, the routes from Ankara to İzmir and from Istanbul to Antalya intersect here and Afyon is a popular stopping-place on these journeys. There are a number of well-established roadside restaurants for travellers to breakfast on the local cuisine. Some of these places are modern well-equipped hotels and spas; the mineral waters of Afyon are renowned for their healing qualities. There is also a long string of roadside kiosks selling the local Turkish delight.
Cuisine
Courses
** sucuk - the famed local speciality, a spicy beef sausage, eaten fried or grilled. The best known brands include Cumhuriyet, Ahmet İpek, İkbal, İtimat and Danet but only 2 brands has the geographical indication and these are Cumhuriyet & Danet (Vahdet Et).<ref name"Türk Patent Marka Kurumu">{{cite web |titleCoğrafi İşaret Platformu |urlhttps://www.ci.gov.tr/cografi-isaretler/detay/37934 |websiteCoğrafi İşaret Platformu |access-date2 December 2020 |languagetr }}{{Dead link|dateMay 2021 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
** ağzaçık or bükme - filo-style pastry stuffed with cheese or lentils.
** keşkek - boiled wheat and chick peas stewed with meat.
lokum, Turkish delight of cream, a speciality of Afyonkarahisar.|169x169px]]
Sweets
* local cream kaymak eaten with honey, with a bread pudding ekmek kadayıfı, or with pumpkin simmered in syrup. Best eaten at the famous Ikbal restaurants (either the old one in the town centre or the big place on the main road).
* Turkish delight.
* helva - sweetened ground sesame
Main sights
* Afyonkarahisar Castle
* Victory Museum (Zafer Müzesi), a national military and war museum, which was used as headquarters by then Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk), his chief general staff and army commanders before the Great Offensive in August 1922.<ref name"aiktm">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.afyonkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,63477/muzeler.html |publisherAyfonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü |titleMüzeler-Zafer Müzesi (Başkomutan Tarihi Milli Park Müdürlüğü) |languagetr |access-date2015-08-10 }}</ref> In the very city center, across the fortress, featuring maps, uniforms, photos, guns from the Greco-Turkish War.
* The partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name. To reach at the top, eight hundred stairs need to be climbed.
* The Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum which houses thousands of Hellenic, Frigian, Hittite, Roman, Ottoman finds.
* Afyon Grand Mosque
* Altıgöz Bridge, like the Ulu Camii built by the Seljuqs in the 13th century.
* Afyon mansion ({{lang|tr|Afyon konağı}}) situated on a hill overlooking the panoramic plain.
* the White Elephant - Afyon is twinned with the town of Hamm in Germany, and now has a large statue of Hamm's symbolic white elephant.
With its rich architectural heritage, the city is a member of the European Association of Historic Towns and Regions [https://web.archive.org/web/20080910004925/http://www.historic-towns.org/documents/members/turkey.doc].
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of population over years
|-
| Year ||1914|| 1990 || 1995 || 2000
|-
| Population ||285,750<ref>{{Cite book|title History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|last Stanford|first Jay Shaw|publisher Cambridge University|year 1976|isbn 9780521291668|pages [https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/239 239–241]|url https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/239}}</ref>|| 95,643 || 103,000 || 128,516
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} Nyíregyháza, Hungary, since 1992<ref namekardes>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.afyon-bld.gov.tr/icerikdetay/269/319/kardes-sehir-hamm.aspx|titleKardeş Şehir Hamm|websitewww.afyon-bld.gov.tr|access-date2020-04-05|archive-date2020-05-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200511041909/http://www.afyon-bld.gov.tr/icerikdetay/269/319/kardes-sehir-hamm.aspx|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Greece}} Greece, Athens, since 1999<ref name=kardes />
* {{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} Turkistan, Kazakhstan<ref name=kardes />
* {{flagicon|GER}} Hamm, Germany, since 2005<ref name=kardes />
* {{flagicon|Kosovo}} Peć, Kosovo, since 2008<ref name=kardes />
* {{flagicon|China}} Yunfu, China, since 2007<ref name=kardes />
* {{flagicon|Syria}} Latakia, Syria, since 2009<ref namekardes />Notable natives
Following list is alphabetically sorted after family name.
* Mihran Mesrobian (1889–1975), architect and decorated Ottoman soldier
* İlker Başbuğ (born 1943), former Chief of the General Staff of Turkey
* Ali Çetinkaya (1879–1949), Ottoman Army officer and Turkish politician
* Fikret Emek (born 1963), retired military personnel of the Special Forces Command
* Veysel Eroğlu (born 1948), Turkish politician
* Bülent İplikçioğlu (born 1952), historian
* Ahmed Karahisari (1468–1566), Ottoman calligrapher
* Gülcan Mıngır (born 1989), middle-distance runner
* Ahmet Necdet Sezer (born 1941), former President of Turkey
* Sibel Özkan (born 1988), Olympic medalist female weightlifter
* Nurgül Yeşilçay (born 1976), actress
* Gunay Uslu (born 1972), Dutch cultural historian and politician
See also
* 2012 Afyonkarahisar arsenal explosion
References
{{reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Wikivoyage|Afyonkarahisar}}
{{Commons category|Afyonkarahisar}}
{{NIE Poster|Afiun-Kara-Hissar}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130105921/http://en.infoturkey.net/category/cities/afyonkarahisar/ Afyon Karahisar] {{in lang|tr}}
* [http://www.afyon.bel.tr/ City council website] {{in lang|tr}}
{{Afyonkarahisar District}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Populated places in Afyonkarahisar District
Category:Anatolia
Category:Provincial municipalities in Turkey
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afyonkarahisar
|
2025-04-05T18:26:07.361872
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2670
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Abba Arikha
|
{{Short description|Jewish Babylonian scholar (175–247)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Abba Arikha
| image = <!-- filename only, no "File:" or "Image:" prefix, and no enclosing brackets -->
| image_upright | landscape <!-- yes, if wide image, otherwise leave blank -->
| alt = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software -->
| caption | native_name {{nobold|{{lang|tmr|{{Script/Hebrew|אַבָּא אריכא}}|rtl=yes}}}}
| native_name_lang = tmr
| pronunciation | birth_name Rav Abba bar Aybo
| birth_date = 175
| birth_place = Kafri, Asoristan, Sasanian Empire (present-day Iran)
| death_date = 247
| death_place = Sura, Asoristan, Sasanian Empire (present-day Iraq)
| nationality = Jewish
| occupation = Rabbi
| known_for = Scholarship (amoraim) for Talmudic academies in Babylonia
}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Eras of the Halakha}}
Rav Abba bar Aybo ({{Langx|tmr|רַב אַבָּא בַּר אִיבּוֹ|labelAramaic}}; 175–247 CE), commonly known as Abba Arikha ({{Langx|tmr|אַבָּא אריכא|labelnone}})<ref>{{Cite book |lastSherira Gaon |titleThe Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon |date1988 |publisherRabbi Jacob Joseph School Press - Ahavath Torah Institute Moznaim |locationJerusalem |page96 |languageen |translator-lastNosson Dovid Rabinowich |oclc923562173 |author-linkSherira Gaon}}</ref> or simply as Rav ({{Langx|tmr|רַב|label=none}}), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud.<ref>{{EB1911 |wstitle'Abba 'Arika |volume1 |page8 |inline1}}</ref> With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia{{sfn|Oesterley|Box|1920}} around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues.
Biography
His surname, Arikha (English: the Tall),<ref>{{Cite web |titleChullin 137b:13 |urlhttps://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.137b.13 |access-date2021-03-05 |websitewww.sefaria.org}}</ref> he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNiddah 24b:21 |urlhttps://www.sefaria.org/Niddah.24b.21 |access-date2021-03-05 |websitewww.sefaria.org}}</ref><ref name"JewishEncyclopedia">{{Harv|Singer|1901–1906|ignore-erryes}}</ref> Others, reading Arekha, consider it an honorary title, "Lecturer".<ref>Weiss, Dor, 3:147; Jastrow, Dictionary under the word</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as Rav, "the Master", (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, Judah ha-Nasi, was known simply as Rabbi. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the tannaitic literature,<ref>For instance, Tosefta Beitzah 1:7</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the Tannaim and the Amoraim, and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an amora, of disputing the opinion of a tanna.<ref>Bava Batra 42a and elsewhere</ref><ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David.<ref>Sanhedrin 5a; Ketubot 62b</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah haNasi. From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition as to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia. While Judah ha-Nasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as teacher (with certain restrictions<ref>Sanhedrin 5a</ref>), returned to Asoristan, referred to as "Babylonia" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>
In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era. As the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him agoranomos, or market-master, and Rabbi Shela made him lecturer (amora) of his college.<ref>Jerusalem Talmud Bava Batra 5 15a; Yoma 20b</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> Then he moved to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel of Nehardea, another disciple of Judah ha-Nasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>
Little is known of Rav's personal life. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture.<ref>Hullin 105a</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> He is referred to as the son of noblemen,<ref>Shabbat 29a</ref> but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi does tell us that he is being described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian emperor, Artabanus IV.<ref>Avodah Zarah 10b</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so.<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
Rav became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav's disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch.<ref>Hullin 92a</ref><ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism.<ref>Shabbat 110a, ''Mo'ed Katan 24a</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>LegacyThe method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other tannaitic'' traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as "our great master." Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>
Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in.<ref>Hullin 110a</ref><ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>TeachingsHe gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/> The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |titleThe encyclopedia of Jewish life and thought |date1996 |publisherCarta |isbn978-1-4416-5215-7 |editor-lastPearl |editor-firstChaim |locationJerusalem |pages378 |editor-last2Kessel |editor-first2Lorraine |editor-last3Ball |editor-first3Barbara Laurel}}</ref> He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu.<ref>Jacobson, B.S., The Weekday Siddur: An Exposition and Analysis of its Structure, Contents, Language and Ideas (2nd ed, Tel-Aviv, Sinai Publ'g) page 307; Nulman, Macy, Encyclopedia of Jewish Prayer (1993, NJ, Jason Aronson) page 24.</ref> In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner.<ref name"JewishEncyclopedia" /><ref>Jerusalem Talmud Rosh Hashanah 1 57a</ref> He also composed the prayer recited on Shabbat before the start of a new month, Birkat ha-Hodesh.<ref name=":0" />
The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability. The greatest aggadist among Babylonian Amoraim, he is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian Midrashim also contain many of his aggadot. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues. He especially loved to discuss in his homilies the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His aggadah is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another.<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/> A few of these teachings may be quoted here:
* "The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men's morals"<ref>Genesis Rabbah 44</ref>
* "Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber"<ref>Shabbat 64b</ref>
* "In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat."<ref>Jerusalem Talmud, Kiddushin 4:12</ref>
* "Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham"<ref>Beitzah 32b</ref>
* "Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one's fellow man."<ref>Bava Metzia 59a</ref>
* "One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'"<ref>Kiddushin 41a</ref>
* "A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result."
* "While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!" [Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive]<ref>Pesachim 113a</ref>
* "Receive the payment. Deliver the goods!" [i.e. do not sell on credit]<ref>Pesachim 113a</ref>
* "[Better to come] under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e. the Arabs) than [the displeasure of] Rome; [better to come] under the displeasure of Rome than [the displeasure of] a Persian; [better to come] under the displeasure of a Persian than [the displeasure of] a disciple of the Sages; [better to come] under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than [the displeasure of] an orphan and widow."<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org.il/Shabbat.11a.3?langbi&withall&lang2=en Shabbat 11a]</ref>
* "A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake. For eventually he will do it for their own sake"<ref>Sanhedrin 105b; Pesahim 50b</ref>
* "A man ought always to look about in search of a [good] city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is [relatively] new, its iniquities are also few."<ref>Shabbat 10b</ref>
* "A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, [and no more]."<ref>Sotah 5a</ref>
Rav loved the Book of Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org.il/Eruvin.54a.5?langbi&withall&lang2=en Eruvin 54a]</ref>
To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words:<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
{{Blockquote|Nothing on earth compares with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence.<ref>Berakhot 17a</ref>}}
Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction.<ref>Hagigah 12a, Kiddushin 71a</ref>{{sfn|Singer|1901–1906|ignore-err=yes}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abba 'Arika}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{JewishEncyclopedia |url http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letterA&artid127 |articleAbba Arika}}
* {{Citation |titleA Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism |year1920 |placeNew York, NY |publisherBurt Franklin |last2Box |first2G. H. |surname1Oesterley |given1W. O. E.}}.
{{refend}}
{{-}}
{{Amoraim}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arika, Abba}}
Category:175 births
Category:247 deaths
Category:Rabbis of Academy of Sura
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Arikha
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Abbahu
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Rabbi Abbahu () was a Jew and Talmudist of the Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina from about 279 to 320 CE and is counted a member of the third generation of Amoraim. He is sometimes cited as Rabbi Abbahu of Kisrin (Caesarea Maritima).
Biography
His rabbinical education was acquired mainly at Tiberias in the academy presided over by Johanan bar Nappaha, with whom his relationship was almost that of a son. He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean academy.
Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures. He encouraged the study of Koine Greek by Jews. He learned Greek in order to become useful to his people, then under the Roman proconsuls, that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of Hebrew even in prayer. In spite of the bitter protests of Shimon bar Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek. Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the biblical maxim: "It is good that you should take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not your hand: for he that fears God shall come forth of them all".
Rector in Caesarea
Being wise, handsome, and wealthy, Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government. On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote to them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud, is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers.
After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, Abba of Acre, as worthier than himself. He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathise with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys. Later he assumed the office of rector in Caesarea, the former seat of Hoshaiah Rabbah, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue); from which some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. In Caesarea he originated several ritual rules, one of which (regulating the sounding of the shofar) has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by rishonim as "the Enactment of R. Abbahu".
He did not confine his activity to Caesarea, but also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns. On these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many halakhot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions. In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency. On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people. Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws created hardship for the common people, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community. As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. Once he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently heard that the Samaritans no longer strictly observed the dietary laws. With the assistance of his colleagues (Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi) he investigated the report and, ascertaining it to be well founded, ruled the Samaritans to be equivalent to Gentiles for all ritual purposes.
Abbahu and Hiyya bar Abba
Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Hiyya bar Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakhic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the peopole naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakhist. At this apparent slight, Hiyya manifested chagrin, and Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the peddler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. "What," said Abbahu, "is my modesty as compared with that of Abba of Acre, who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions." When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, Abbahu simply said, "What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?" His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, "Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar."
Later years
Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Hanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi. Abbahu sent Hanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he had studied, but the youth occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: "Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea that I have sent you off to Tiberias? Study must precede practice". Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said "even the statues of Caesarea shed tears".
Against the Christians
R. Abbahu, although eminent as a halakhist, was more distinguished as an aggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day. Sometimes these disputes were of a humorous nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, "In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible, 'With joy shall ye draw water.'" To this R. Abbahu replied, "Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as you say, but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of your skin and fill them with water". These controversies, although forced on him, provoked resentment, and it was even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi discovered the crime in time.
A Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu "When does your Messiah come?" in a tone of mockery. Abbahu replied: "When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon you and His glory shall be seen on you'." A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: "How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?" Abbahu replied: "Does it not say, 'The Lord comes with fire'? Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers 31:23." Another question of the same character: "Why the boastful claim, 'What nation on earth is like Your people Israel', since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?" Abbahu replied: "Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?"
Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilyonim (Gospels) and other books of the heretics (Minnin) are not to be saved from a fire on Shabbat: "the books of those [written by Minnin for the purpose of debating with Jews] at Abidan may or may not be saved." In regard to the line "Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) recited after the Shema, Abbahu says that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of silently tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice. Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: "A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord says, 'I am the Lord your God! I am the first - that is, I have no father; and I am the last - that is, I have no brother; and besides me there is no God - that is, I have no son'". His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: "God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent; if a man says: 'I am God,' he is a liar; if he says: 'I am a son of man,' he will have cause to regret it; and if he says, 'I will go up to heaven,' he has said [something] but will not keep his word".
Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam, on Enoch, and on the resurrection, are less clear and direct.
Other Abbahus
There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakhist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan, and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) bar Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many halakhot from him.
References
It has the following bibliography:
Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv. 304, 307–317;
Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, ii.161-164;
Frankel, Mebo, pp. 58a-60;
Weiss, Dor, iii. 103–105;
Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 88–142.
Category:3rd-century births
Category:4th-century deaths
Category:3rd-century rabbis
Category:4th-century rabbis
Category:3rd-century Romans
Category:4th-century Romans
Category:Talmud rabbis of Syria Palaestina
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbahu
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Abbreviator
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An abbreviator (plural "abbreviators" in English, abbreviatores in Latin) or breviator was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out in extenso by the scriptores.
Roman lay origin
Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase.
The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the Digest and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.
Ecclesiastical abbreviatores
In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the "curial" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs "ae" and "oe", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The Abbreviatores were officials of the Roman Curia.
The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic—or Roman—Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, Praelectiones Jur. Can., 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of Abbreviatores necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the Dataria Apostolica and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of Abbreviatores.
According to Ciampini (Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc., Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name "abbreviatores", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (Extravag. Joan., Tit. 13, "Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.
Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 "In Apostolicae", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.
Institution of the College of Abbreviators
In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the "College of Abbreviators", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called "Abbreviators of the Upper Bar" (Abbreviatores de Parco Majori; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (Abbreviatores de Parco Minori); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.
Pope Paul II suppressed the college, but Pope Sixtus IV (Constitutio 16, "Divina") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency ("parco"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.
Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (Curia Romana, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the college consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called "Gallicum" and commonly "Bollatico", but in Italy "Teutonic", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his Constitutio Universae Eccles. of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.
Titles and privileges
Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as Comes palatinus ("Count Palatine"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (Militiae Aureae), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (Acta Pont. Greg. XVI, Vol. 3, 178–179–180).
Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, "Romani"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.
They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature in capella. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and cappa, as also rochet in capella. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.
These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.
As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as "Reverendissimus", "Right Reverend", and "Monsignor". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, "Maximo") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.
Suppression
Pope Pius X abrogated the college in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the protonotarii apostolici participantes.
References
Category:Catholic ecclesiastical titles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviator
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Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
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{{Short description|Arab physician, philosopher and historian (c.1162–1231)}}
{{for|the 20th-century Egyptian politician|Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi <br />{{lang|ar|عبداللطيف البغدادي}}
| image | alt
| caption | birth_name Muhammad ibn Yusuf
| birth_date = {{Circa}} 1162
| birth_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| death_date = 9 November 1231 (aged 69)
| death_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| era = Islamic golden age <br> (Later Abbasid era)
| other_names = Muwaffaq al-Din Muhammad Abd al-Latif ibn Yusuf al-Baghdadi
| known_for = {{plainlist|
*Physician
*Philosopher
*Historian
*Arabic grammarian
*Traveler
*Writer
*Egyptologist}}
| spouse | children
| parents = Yusuf al-Baghdadi
}}
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī ({{langx|ar|عبداللطيف البغدادي}}; 1162, Baghdad – 1231, Baghdad), short for Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī ({{langx|ar|موفق الدين محمد عبد اللطيف بن يوسف البغدادي}}), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.<ref>Chambers Biographical Dictionary, {{ISBN|0-550-18022-2}}, page 3</ref>
Biography
Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah's literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil's patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu'l-Qasim al-Shari'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.{{sfnm|Leaman|2015|1p44|Meri|2005|2p2}}
In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207–1208, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala’-al-Din Da’ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). ‘Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.{{sfnm|Leaman|2015|1p44|Meri|2005|2p2}}
Account of Egypt
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbdallatif|volume1|pages=30-31}}</ref>
In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.<ref>{{cite book |last1Riggs |first1Christina |titleEgypt: Lost Civilizations |date15 April 2017 |publisherReaktion Books |isbn978-1-78023-774-9 |pages37–38 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKmwvDwAAQBAJ&qRiggs,+Christina+(2017).+Egypt:+Lost+Civilizations. |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Daly |first1Okasha El |titleEgyptology: The Missing Millennium – Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings |date2005 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn978-1-84472-063-7 |page58-49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrdI96px90kUC |languageen}}</ref>ArcheologyʿAbd al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:{{sfn|El Daly|2004|page10}}
* "monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies";
* "they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur'an mentions them and their people";
* "they are reminders of human endurance and fate";
* "they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought".
While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.{{sfn|El Daly|2004| page36}}Egyptology
{{further|Cannibalism in Africa#North Africa in the Middle Ages|Human cannibalism#Whole-body roasting and baking}}
His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author's residence in Egypt. The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to ‘Abd al-Latif's detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism.<ref name"EB1911"/><ref>{{cite book |last1Tannahill |first1Reay |titleFlesh and Blood: A History of the Cannibal Complex |date1975 |publisherStein and Day |locationNew York |isbn978-0-8128-1756-0 |pages47–55 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/fleshbloodhisto00tann}}</ref> He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.{{sfn|El Daly|2004}}
Autopsy
Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw [mandible], coccyx and sacrum.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1996 |p951}}TranslationAl-Baghdādī's Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library.<ref name"EB1911"/> Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke's complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful.{{sfn|Toomer|1996|p272-273}} Pococke's complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800.<ref>{{cite book | last1al-Baghdādī | first1M.D.A.L. | last2Hyde | first2T. | last3Pococke | first3E. | last4White | first4J. | author5Oxford University Press | titleAbdollatiphi Historiæ Ægypti compendium,: Arabice et Latine | publisherTypis academicis, impensis editoris; prostat venalis apud J. Cooke, Hanwell et Parker, Oxonii; J. White, Fleet Street; D. Bremner, Strand; et R. Faulder, Bond Street, Londini. | year1800 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqTxbAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.{{sfn|Toomer|1996|p275}}<ref>{{cite book | last1al-Baghdd | first1M.D.A.L. | last2de Sacy | first2A.I.S. |author-link2Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy | titleRelation de l'Égypte | publisherImprimerie impériale, chez Dreuttel et Würtz | year1810 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6dZQAAAAcAAJ | languagefr}}</ref>PhilosophyAs far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers’ ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author's acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the “golden age of Arabic philosophy” (Gutas, 20).AlchemyʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf's view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29–62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301–17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203–5; Stern, 66–7; Allemann).SpiritualismDuring the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid-1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221–9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8–9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story ‘Ghost Writer’, as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person.References{{Reflist}}Bibliography
*Allemann, Franz, ʿAbdallaṭīf al-Baġdādī: Risālah fī Mudjādalat al-ḥakīmain al-kīmiyāʾī wan-naẓarī (“Das Streitgespräch zwischen dem Alchemisten und dem theoretischen Philosophen” or The Argument Between the Alchemist and the Theoretical Philosopher). Eine textkritische Bearbeitung der Handschrift: Bursa, Hüseyin Çelebi 823, fol. 100-123 mit Übersetzung und Kommentar, PhD dissertation Bern 1988.
*{{cite book |lastEl Daly |firstOkasha |titleEgyptology: The Missing Millennium – Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings |publisherRoutledge |year2004 |isbn1-84472-063-2 }}
* Degen, Rainer, Zum Diabetestraktat des ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī, Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, 37 (N.S. 27) (1977), 455–62.
* Dietrich, Albert, Ein Arzneimittelverzeichnis des Abdallaṭīf Ibn Yūsuf al-Baġdādī, in: Wilhelm Hoenerbach, Der Orient in der Forschung. Festschrift für Otto Spies zum 5. April 1966 (Wiesbaden 1967), 42–60.
* Gannagé, Emma, “Médecine et philosophie à Damas à l’aube du XIIIème siècle: un tournant post-avicennien?”, Oriens, 39 (2011), 227–256.
* Gutas, Dimitri, 'Philosophy in the Twelfth Century: One View from Bagdad, or the Reputation of al-Ghazālī, in: Peter Adamson, In the Age of Averroes: Arabic Philosophy in the Sixth/Twelfth Century, London/Torino: Nino Aragno Editore, 2011, 9-26.
* Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa, ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-atibbāʾ, ed. Imruʾulqais ibn aṭ-Ṭaḥḥān (August Müller), 2 vols. (Cairo-Königsberg 1299/1882), 2: 201-13 [Reprint by Fuat Sezgin et al.: Islamic Medicine 1–2, 2 vols., Frankfurt am Main 1995]. The entry on ALB has been translated, annotated, and edited by N. Peter Joosse and Geert Jan van Gelder, in: A Literary History of medicine: The ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbāʾ of Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah, HdO 134, volume 3-1 [ed.]: 1295–1323; 3-2 [trl.]: 1470-1506 (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2019).
* Joosse, N. Peter, art. "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī" in: Encyclopaedia of Islam Three.
* Joosse, N. Peter, The Physician as a Rebellious Intellectual. The Book of the Two Pieces of Advice or Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162–1231): Introduction, Edition and Translation of the Medical Section (Frankfurt am Main and Bern: Peter Lang Edition 2014). [Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 18].
* Joosse, N. Peter, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī as a philosopher and a physician. Myth or reality, topos or truth?, in Peter Adamson, In the age of Averroes. Arabic philosophy in the sixth/twelfth century (Nino Aragno Editore: London/Torino 2011), 27-43.
* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘Pride and prejudice, praise and blame’. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī’s views on good and bad medical practitioners, in Arnoud Vrolijk and Jan P. Hogendijk, O ye gentlemen. Arabic studies on science and literary culture in honour of Remke Kruk (Brill: Leiden/Boston 2007), 129–41.
* Joosse, N. Peter, 'ʿUnmasking the Craftʾ. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's Views on Alchemy and Alchemists: in: Anna A. Akasoy and Wim Raven, Islamic Thought in the Middle Ages. Studies in Text, Transmission and Translation in Honour of Hans Daiber (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2008), 301–17.
* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘De geest is uit de fles’. De middeleeuwse Arabische arts ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī: zijn medische werk en zijn bizarre affiliatie met het twintigste-eeuwse spiritisme, Gewina 30/4 (2007), 211–29.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, 'Decline and Decadence in Iraq and Syria after the Age of Avicenna?: ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162–1231) between Myth and History, in: Bulletin of the History of Medicine 84 (2010), 1-29.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's commentary on Hippocrates’ ‘Prognostic’. A preliminary exploration, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.), >Epidemics< in context. Greek commentaries on Hippocrates in the Arabic tradition (De Gruyter: Berlin and Boston 2012), 251–83.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, Archery, mathematics, and conceptualising inaccuracies in medicine in 13th century Iraq and Syria, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101 (2008), 425–7.
*{{cite book|lastLeaman|firstOliver|titleThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzpvKBwAAQBAJ|year2015|publisherBloomsbury Academic|isbn978-1-4725-6944-8|page=44 }}
* Karimullah, Kamran I., « Assessing Avicenna's (d. 428/1037) Medical Influence in Prolegomena to Post-Classical (1100‒1900 CE) Medical Commentaries », MIDÉO, 32 ( 2017), 93-134 (especially section I on ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī).
* Kruk, Remke, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's Kitāb al-Ḥayawān: A chimaera?, in: Anna A. Akasoy and Wim Raven, Islamic thought in the middle ages. Studies in text, transmission and translation, in honour of Hans Daiber (Leiden and Boston 2008), 345–62.
* Mackintosh-Smith, Tim, 'Ghost Writer', as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, (Slightly foxed Ltd: London, 2005).
* Martini Bonadeo, Cecilia, art. "‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi", in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 Edition), in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2015/entries/al-baghdadi/>.
* {{cite book |lastMartini Bonadeo |firstCecilia|titleAbd al-Laṭif al-Baghdadi's Philosophical Journey: from Aristotle's "Metaphysics" to the "Metaphysical Science |publisherBrill: Leiden/Boston |year=2013 }}
* {{cite book|lastMeri|firstJosef W.|titleMedieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH-k9oc9xsuAC|year2005|publisherPsychology Press|isbn978-0-415-96690-0|page=2 }}
* Pormann, Peter E. and N. Peter Joosse, Commentaries on the Hippocratic Aphorisms in the Arabic tradition: The example of melancholy, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.), >Epidemics< in context. Greek commentaries on Hippocrates in the Arabic tradition (De Gruyter: Berlin and Boston 2012), 211–49.
* Pormann, Peter E. and Emilie Savage-Smith, Medieval Islamic medicine (Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh 2007), 60, 73–4.
* {{cite book |lastde Sacy |firstSilvestre |author-linkAntoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpyYVAAAAQAAJ |titleRelation de l'Egypt par Abd al-Latif |locationParis |date1810 |language=fr }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |firstEmilie |lastSavage-Smith |date1996 |titleMedicine |editor-firstRoshdi |editor-lastRashed |editor-linkRoshdi Rashed |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume3 |pages903–962 |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon }}
* Stern, Samuel Miklos, A collection of treatises by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī, Islamic Studies 1 (1962), 53–70. [Reprint, in Fritz W. Zimmermann (ed.), S.M. Stern, Medieval Arabic and Hebrew thought (London 1983), No. XVIII].
* Thies, Hans-Jürgen, ''Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitbildes in der arabischen Medizin'', Diss. Bonn, Selbstverlag Uni Bonn, 1971.
* {{cite book |author-linkGerald James Toomer |lastToomer |firstGerald James |year1996 |titleEastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England |publisherOxford University Press |isbn0-19-820291-1 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/easternwisedomel0000toom }}
* Toorawa, Shawkat M., A portrait of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's education and instruction, in Joseph E. Lowry, Devin J. Stewart and Shawkat M. Toorawa, Law and education in medieval Islam. Studies in memory of professor George Makdisi (Oxford 2004), 91–109.
* Ullmann, Manfred, Die Medizin im Islam (Brill: Leiden/Köln 1970), 170–2.
* Ullmann, Manfred, review of Hans-Jürgen Thies, Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitsbildes in der arabischen Medizin, (Selbstverlag Uni Bonn: Bonn 1971), Der Islam 48 (1972), 339–40.
* Zand, K.H. and J.A. and I.E. Videan, Kitāb al-Ifāda wa l-iʿtibār fī l-umūr al-mushāhada wa l-ḥawādith al-muʿāyana bi-arḍ miṣr. Facsimile edition of the autograph manuscript at the Bodleian Library, Oxford and English translation by Kamal Hafuth Zand and John A. and Ivy E. Videan under the name The Eastern Key (London and Cairo 1204/1964).
External links
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Medieval Philosophy}}
{{Islamic medicine}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Latif}}
Category:1162 births
Category:1231 deaths
Category:Writers from Baghdad
Category:12th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Physicians from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Egyptologists
Category:13th-century physicians
Category:Travel writers of the medieval Islamic world
Category:13th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:12th-century jurists
Category:13th-century jurists
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Category:13th-century Arab people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi
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2025-04-05T18:26:07.397568
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2676
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Abd al-Rahman I
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{{Short description|Emir of Córdoba from 756 to 788}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| type = monarch
| name = Abd al-Rahman I{{break}}{{lang|ar|عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية}}
| title = Emir
| image_size = 275
| image = Dirham abd al rahman i 21816.jpg
| caption = Dirham coin of Abd al-Rahman I
| predecessor = Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri (as governor of al-Andalus)
| succession = 1st Emir of Córdoba
| reign = 14 May 756 – 30 September 788
| coronation | predecessor1
| successor1 = Hisham I
| spouse = Several; including Hulal
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = Sulayman<br>Omar<br>Hisham I<br>Abdullah
| house = Umayyad
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Mu'awiya ibn Hisham
| mother = Raha
| birth_date = 7 March 731
| birth_place = Damascus, Syria Umayyad Caliphate
| death_date = 30 September 788 (aged 57)<ref>Al-Bayan al-Mughrib by Ibn Idhari, Vol. 2 p. 69, 2013</ref>
| death_place = Qurtuba, Al-Andalus, Emirate of Cordoba (present-day Spain)
| place of burial | signature
| religion = Sunni Islam
}}
'''Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham ({{Langx|ar|عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام|translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Hishām}}; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known as Abd al-Rahman I', was the founder and first emir of the Emirate of Córdoba, ruling from 756 to 788. He established the Umayyad dynasty in al-Andalus, which continued for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba).
Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus in 750. He was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"),{{Sfn|Lévi-Provençal|1960|pp81–82}} Saqr Quraysh'' ("the Falcon of Quraysh").<ref>{{Cite book |lastAllen |firstRoger |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9cOAPkN31vAC&pgPA22 |titleAn Introduction to Arabic Literature |publisherCambridge University Press |year2000 |isbn978-0-521-77657-8 |pages22}}</ref>BiographyEarly life and flight from DamascusAbd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra, near Damascus in the heartland of the Umayyad Caliphate, the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Rah, a Berber woman from the Nafza tribe,<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcbfORLWv1HkC|titleThe Legacy of Muslim Spain|last1Jayyusi|first1Salma Khadra|last2Marín|first2Manuela|publisherBrill|year1994|isbn978-90-04-09599-1|pages19|chapter=The Political History of Al-Andalus}}</ref> and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743.<ref>Peter C. Scales, The fall of the caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in conflict, Brill, 1994, p. 111</ref><ref>Arnold Joseph Toynbee, A study of history, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1934, Vol. 8, p. 372</ref> According to ibn Idari he was ""tall, blonde, one-eyed, beardless, with a mole in the face, he carried two earlocks".<ref>Manuela Marín,A GALLERY OF ROYAL PORTRAITS: ANDALUSI UMAYYAD SOVEREIGNS (2TH-4TH/8TH-10TH CENTURIES) IN ARAB CHRONICLES, ANUARIO DE ESTUDIOS MEDIEVALES (AEM) 41/1, enero-junio de 2011 pp. 273-290 ISSN 0066-5061, https://estudiosmedievales.revistas.csic.es/index.php/estudiosmedievales/article/view/344/348</ref> He was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari. The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, 96. Al-Maqqari quotes from historian Ibn Hayyan's Muktabis when detailing Abd al-Rahman's flight from Syria.</ref>
Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back. The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come to me!"<ref nameal-Maqqari-60>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, p. 60.</ref> Yahya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut off his head and left his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him.<ref nameal-Maqqari-60/> Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.
Exile years
After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled. It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous. At the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Umayyad vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself. At first, he sought an understanding with the Abbasids, but when they refused his terms and demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants of the Umayyad dynasty to take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time.
But Ibn Habib soon changed his mind. He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than his own, might become a focal point for intrigue among local nobles against his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them. At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping a low profile, staying in Kabylie, at the camp of a Nafza Berber chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed.<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain. Again al-Maqqari cited Ibn Hayyan for the majority of the preceding information, 58–61.</ref> Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards.
In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbd-ar-Rahman|displayAbd-ar-Rahman s.v. Abd-ar-Rahman I|volume1|page31}}</ref> At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another member of the Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly of south Arabian or "Yemeni" tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun, drawn from the junds or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.<ref name=Kennedy>H. Kennedy (1996) Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus. London: Longman.</ref>
Among the Syrian junds were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500,<ref nameKennedy/> and Abd al-Rahman believed he might tug on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make contact. Bedr managed to line up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin.<ref nameKennedy/> The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try to make himself emir.<ref nameKennedy/> As a result, Bedr and the Umayyad clients sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders. Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are cousins of the Qaysid tribes), their interest was piqued. The emir Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself unable to keep the powerful al-Sumayl in check and several Yemeni chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, whether in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they had a better chance of advancement if they hitched themselves to the glitter of the Umayyad name.<ref nameKennedy/> Although the Umayyads did not have a historical presence in the region (no member of the Umayyad family was known to have ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns about young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several of the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and much to gain, and agreed to support the prince.<ref name=Kennedy/>
Bedr returned to Africa to tell Abd al-Rahman of the invitation of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off with a small group of followers for Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa. He did indeed hand over some amount of dinars to the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Just as Abd al-Rahman launched his boat, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a fee from him for leaving. One of the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew.<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain. pp. 65–68.</ref>
Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however, his landing site was unconfirmed.
Fight for power
]]
Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry.<ref nameKennedy/> During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly. Waves of people made their way to Málaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted through history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. During this time, emir al-Fihri and the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If that did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for Abd al-Rahman, since he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following of Umayyad clients and Yemeni junds, were able to take Sevilla without violence. He managed to break the rebellion attempt in Zaragoza, but just about that time the Cordovan governor received news of a Basque rebellion in Pamplona. An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After the setback, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the "pretender". The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought. Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered from hunger. In an attempt to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of the Umayyad lines. An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth. Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed and that his mettle was untried in battle. The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed. The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads.<ref name"EB1911"/> Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.".<ref>Philip K. Hitti. Makers of Arab History. (New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. p. 66</ref> Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him—people who would have liked to see him back in power.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering 20,000. It is doubtful, however, that his troops were "regular" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge.{{Citation needed|dateJune 2013}} With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus.{{Citation needed|dateJune 2013}} However, in order to take over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Still, most of central and northern al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}RuleIt is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph. There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up the title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. One of these kinsmen, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 to drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in medieval Islam), and became one of his top generals and his governor in Seville.<ref>{{cite book |last1Kennedy |first1Hugh |titleMuslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |date1996 |publisherTaylor and Francis |locationLondon |isbn0-582-49515-6 |edition1st |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNFfJAwAAQBAJ&pgPA32 |page=32 }}</ref>
By 763 Abd al-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army. Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger. The gate lifted and Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph, who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing a sea between us!"<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, p. 81</ref> Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (the Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe).<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain. p. 82</ref>
Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus.<ref>W. Montgomery Watt. Islamic Surveys 4: A History of Islamic Spain. (Edinburgh; Edinburgh University Press, 1965), p. 32</ref> Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.<ref>Thomas F. Glick. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. (Princeton, Princeton University Press), p. 38</ref>
Problems in the Upper March
Zaragoza proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd al-Rahman, but his successors as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi,<ref>Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Maqqari, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, p. 85</ref> the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. "[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] in Cordoba...."<ref>Jo Ann Hoeppner Moran Cruz. Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Perception and Other. Edited by David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto. (New York, Saint Martin's Press, 1999), p. 56</ref> Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd.<ref>"Historia de Espnña antigua y media", Vols. 1 & 23; Luis Suárez Fernández, 1976; {{ISBN|9788432118821}}</ref> It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland).<ref>Philip K. Hitti. Makers of Arab History. (New York. St Martin’s Press), 1968. p. 68</ref> Charlemagne was also attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.
from the Grandes Chroniques de France, A romanticization of Battle of Roncevaux Pass.]]
Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's governorship. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines.<ref>José Luis Corral Lafuente. Historia de Zaragoza: Zaragoza Musulmana. (Zaragoza; Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza, 1998), p. 14</ref> Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence.
Legacy and death
Construction works
hall, with its distinctive two-tiered arches, inside the Great Mosque of Córdoba, begun by Abd al Rahman I in 785–786.]]
Abd al-Rahman did much work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGill |firstJohn |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgGY2fSXko5kC&pgPA75 |titleAndalucia: A Cultural History |publisherOxford University Press |year2008 |isbn978-0-19-970451-4 |pages75}}</ref> He also built the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day cathedral of Córdoba), which took place from 785 to 786 (169 AH) to 786–787 (170 AH).<ref name":4">{{Cite book |lastDodds |firstJerrilynn D. |urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |titleAl-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisherThe Metropolitan Museum of Art |year1992 |isbn0870996371 |editor-lastDodds |editor-firstJerrilynn D. |locationNew York |pages12|chapterThe Great Mosque of Córdoba}}</ref> It was expanded multiple times by his successors up to the 10th century.<ref name":24">{{Cite book |titleThe Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisherOxford University Press |year2009 |isbn9780195309911 |editor-lastBloom |editor-firstJonathan M. |pages505–508 |chapterCórdoba |editor-last2Blair |editor-first2Sheila S.}}</ref>
Social dynamics
Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa<ref>W. Montgomery Watt. Islamic Surveys 4: A History of Islamic Spain. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965), p. 33</ref> as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers under his command was nearly 40,000.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}
As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the jizya. Possibly because of tribute taxes, "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim".<ref>Philip K. Hitti. Makers of Arab History. (New York: St Martin’s Press), 1968. p. 71</ref> However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century.<ref>Thomas F. Glick. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), pp. 33–35. Glick based this work on a prior scholar's work (Bulliet). On page 33 of this book, Glick writes that Bulliet said "that the rate of conversion to Islam is logarithmic, and may be illustrated graphically by a logistic curve".</ref>
Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction among the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza, married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility.<ref>Marianne Barrucand & Achim Bednorz. Moorish Architecture in Andalusia. (London: Taschen, 2002)</ref>
Death
Abd al-Rahman died c. 788 in Córdoba, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita.<ref name":0">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Rahman-III|titleAbd al-Rahman III {{!}} Umayyad caliph|workEncyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-10-13}}</ref> Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III.
Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards.<ref name"EB">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica|title'Abd ar-Rahman I|edition15th|year2010|volumeI: A–Ak – Bayes|locationChicago|isbn978-1-59339-837-8|pages[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17 17]|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17}}</ref> His legacy started a new chapter for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating in the new Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by his descendants.Family
Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry.<ref>Fagnan, E. (trans. & ed.) (1893) ''Histoire des Almohades d'Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi (Algiers)'' ("Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi"), p. 50.</ref> Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of the Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750.<ref>Cherbonneau, M. A. (trans.) 'Chronique d'Ibn-el Kouthya', Journal Asiatique 5th series Tome VIII (Paris, 1856), p. 456.</ref>
Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal.<ref>{{cite book |lastGuichard |firstP. |titleAl-Andalus: Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en Occidente |publisherBarral Editores |locationBarcelona |year1976 |isbn8421120166 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastal-Makkari |firstAhmed ibn Mohammed |titleThe History of Mohammedan dynasties in Spain VI. |publisherKessinger Publishing |year2010 |isbn978-1173728465 |pages234–235}}</ref> She is said to have been very beautiful and was the mother of Hisham.<ref>{{Cite web |lastJames |firstDavid |titleEarly Islamic Spain: The History of Ibn al-Qutiyah; The Reign of the Emir Hisham. |urlhttps://www.routledge.com/Early-Islamic-Spain-The-History-of-Ibn-al-Qutiyah/James/p/book/9780415668552 |access-date2022-06-01 |websiteRoutledge & CRC Press}}</ref> Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:
* Sulayman (745–800),<ref>Cherbonneau, M. A. (trans.) 'Chronique d'Ibn-el Kouthya', Journal Asiatique 5th series Tome VIII (Paris, 1856), p. 475.</ref> Governor of Toledo. Exiled after he refused to accept his brother Hisham's rule. Returned to challenge his nephew in 796, captured and executed in 800.
* Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed by Fruela I of Asturias.<ref>Chronicle of Alfonso III: Wolf, K. B. (trans) (1999) Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain (Liverpool University Press, 2nd ed.), 16, p. 171, and Barrau-Dihigo, L. (1989) Historia politica del reino Asturiano (718–910) (Gijón), p. 134.</ref>
* Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796), Emir of Cordoba.
* Abdallah
Legends
In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but he was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.
According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of "Falcon of the Quraysh" (Saqr Quraish, foremost of the Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful!", but the Caliph denied this. Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no. They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied:<ref>Safi, L. (1995) "Leadership and Subordination: An Islamic Perspective". The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, pp. 2-12</ref>
{{Blockquote|The falcon of Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who escaped by his cunning the spearheads of the lances and the blades of the swords, who after wandering solitary through the deserts of Asia and Africa, had the boldness to seek his fortune without an army, in lands unknown to him beyond the sea. Having naught to rely upon save his own wits and perseverance, he nonetheless humiliated his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized armies, secured his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire and reunited under his scepter a realm that seemed already parcelled out among others. No man before him ever did such deeds. Mu'awiya rose to his stature through the support of Umar and Uthman, whose backing allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, because of previous appointment; and the Commander of the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of his kin and the solidarity of his partisans. But Abd al-Rahman did it alone, with the support of none other than his own judgment, depending on no one but his own resolve.}}
See also
* Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
* Abbasid Revolution
* al-Andalus
* Caliphate of Córdoba
* Abd al-Malik ibn Umar
* Sara al-Qutiyya
Further reading
* Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)
* Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
* {{EI2|volume1|articleʿAbd al- Raḥmān|lastLévi-Provençal|firstÉvariste|pages81–82}}External links* {{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbd-er-Rahman I. |short=x}}
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{{Umayyads}}
{{Umayyad governors of al-Andalus}}
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Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:731 births
Category:788 deaths
Category:8th-century Arab people
Category:8th-century monarchs in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I
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Abd ar-Rahman II
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{{Short description|Emir of Cordoba from 822 to 852}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2014}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Abd ar-Rahman al-Awsat <br />عبد الرحمن الأوسط
| title | titletext
| image = Dirham abd al rahman ii 20192.jpg
| alt | caption Silver dirham coined during the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II
| succession = 4th Emir of Córdoba
| reign = 21 May 822–852
| predecessor = al-Hakam I
| successor = Muhammad I
| birth_date = 792
| birth_place = Toledo, Emirate of Córdoba
| death_date = {{death year and age|852|792}}
| death_place = Córdoba, Emirate of Córdoba
| issue = Muhammad I of Córdoba
| house = Umayyad
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = al-Hakam I
| mother = Halawah
| image_size =
}}
Abd ar-Rahman II ({{Langx|ar|عبد الرحمن الأوسط}}; 792–852) was the fourth Umayyad Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852.<ref nameEB>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica|title'Abd ar-Rahman II|edition15th|year2010|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|volumeI: A-Ak - Bayes|locationChicago, IL|isbn978-1-59339-837-8|pages[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17 17]|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17}}</ref> A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures.<ref>The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-670-02098-0}}. p. 341.</ref> He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids.<ref name"Ghazal">{{EI2|doi10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2484|titleal-Ghazāl|page1038|firstAmbrosio|lastHuici Miranda|volume2}}</ref> Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGraham-Campbell |firstJames |titleThe Viking World |publisherFrances Lincoln Limited Publishers |year2013 |pages31 |languageen}}</ref>
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastEl-Hajji |firstAbderrahman |title"Andalusian Diplomatic Relations with the Franks during the Umayyad period" |journalIslamic Studies |volume6 |pages27–28}}</ref>
, Spain]]Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.<ref name"EB" /> A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.<ref>{{cite book |authorThorne, John |titleChambers biographical dictionary |publisherChambers |locationEdinburgh |year1984 |isbn0-550-18022-2 }}</ref> He was also involved in the execution of the "Martyrs of Córdoba",<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAbd-ar-Rahman|displayAbd-ar-Rahman s.v. Abd-ar-Rahman II|volume1|page31}}</ref> and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba.References
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{{Umayyad governors of al-Andalus}}
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Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:792 births
Category:852 deaths
Category:People from Toledo, Spain
Category:9th-century monarchs in Europe
Category:8th-century Arab people
Category:9th-century Arab people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II
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2025-04-05T18:26:07.416054
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2678
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Abd al-Rahman III
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{{Short description|Final Emir of Córdoba (r. 912–929); founder and 1st Caliph of Córdoba (r. 929–961)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| dynasty = Umayyad
| name = Abd al-Rahman III<br />عبد&nbsp;الرحمن&nbsp;الناصر&nbsp;لدين&nbsp;الله
| title {{ubl|Amir al-Mu'minīn<ref name"Fletcher">{{cite book |lastFletcher |firstRichard |author-linkRichard A. Fletcher |titleMoorish Spain |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwrMG-LfuU7oC&pgPA53 |edition2nd |year2006 |orig-year 1992 |publisherUniversity of California Press |locationBerkeley |isbn978-0-520-24840-3 |pages53–54 |chapter=Chapter 4: The Caliphate of Córdoba}}</ref>|al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh}}
| image = Dirham abd al rahman iii 20386.jpg
| image_size = 255px
| caption = Silver dirham of Abd al-Rahman III, minted in 946 AD
| succession1 = 8th Emir of Córdoba
| reign1 = 16 October 912{{snd}}17 January 929
| coronation1 17 October 912 (aged {{age|890|01|11|912|10|17}})<ref>{{cite book |lastAzizur Rahman |firstSyed |titleThe Story of Islamic Spain |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiRAsAQAAIAAJ&qoath+of+allegiance |formatsnippet view|year2001 |publisherGoodword Books |locationNew Delhi |isbn978-81-87570-57-8 |page129 |quote[Emir Abdullah died on] 16 Oct., 912 after 26 years of writing an intro to the first caliph and leaving his fragmented and bankrupt kingdom to his grandson 'Abd al-Rahman. The following day, the new sultan received the oath of allegiance at a ceremony held in the "Perfect salon" (al-majils al-kamil) of the Alcazar.}}</ref>
| cor-type1 = Bay'ah
| predecessor1 = Abdullah
| succession = 1st Caliph of Córdoba
| reign = 17 January 929{{snd}}15 October 961
| coronation 17 January 929 (aged {{age|890|01|11|929|01|16}})<ref name"Wasserstein">{{cite book |lastCatlos |firstBrian |titleKingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain |year2018 |publisherHachette Book Group |locationNew York |isbn9780465055876 |page129}}</ref>
| cor-type = Proclamation
| successor = Al-Hakam II
| spouse Fatima bint Al-Mundhir<ref name"Vallvé">{{cite book |lastVallvé Bermejo |firstJoaquín |titleAl-Andalus: sociedad e instituciones |trans-titleAl-Andalus: Society and Institutions |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_pLpnuW3AX0C&pgPA48 |seriesVolume 20 of Clave historial |year1999 |publisherReal Academia de la Historia |locationMadrid |languagees |isbn978-84-89512-16-0 |pages48–50}}</ref><br />
Marjan<ref>{{cite book |lastMarín |firstManuela |editor-firstEukene |editor-lastLacarra Lanz |titleMarriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCPkAi2tr8KEC&pgPA14 |seriesVolume 26 of Hispanic issues |year2002 |publisherRoutledge |locationNew York |isbn978-0-415-93634-7 |page14 |chapterMarriage and Sexuality in Al-Andalus}}</ref> or Murjan<ref name"Kassis">{{cite book |lastKassis |firstHanna |editor1-firstBalázs |editor1-lastNagy |editor2-firstMarcell |editor2-lastSebők |titleThe Man of Many Devices, Who Wandered Full Many Ways |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrbWZAgg9a5EC&pgPA162 |chapter-formatFestschrift in Honor of János M. Bak |year1999 |publisherCentral European University Press |locationBudapest |isbn978-963-9116-67-2 |page162 |chapter=A glimpse of openness in medieval society: Al-Ḥakam II of Córdoba and his non-Muslim collaborators}}</ref>
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue Sons in order of birth according to Ibn Hazm:<ref name"Vallvé"/><br />Al-Hakam II (son of Murjan)<ref name="Kassis"/><br />Abd al-Aziz<br />Al-Asbagh<br />Ubayd Allah<br />Abd al-Jabbar<br />Abd al-Malik<br />Sulayman<br />Abdullah<br />Marwan<br />Al-Mundhir<br />Al-Mugira
| full name Kunya: Abu al-Mutarrif<ref name"Gordon">{{cite book |lastGordon |firstMatthew |titleThe Rise of Islam |urlhttps://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord |url-accessregistration |seriesGreenwood guides to historic events of the medieval world |year2005 |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |locationWestport, Connecticut |isbn978-0-313-32522-9 |page[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/151 151] |chapterDocument 15: Abd al-Rahman III of al-Andalus}}</ref> ({{lang|ar|أبو المطرف}})<br />Laqab: Al-Nasir li-Din Allah<ref name"Fletcher"/> ({{lang|ar|الناصر لدين الله}})<br />Nasab: Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As ibn Umayya<ref>Lane-Poole 1894, [https://archive.org/stream/mohammedandynas00lanegoog#page/n47/mode/1up p. 11]</ref><ref name"Lane-Poole 22">Lane-Poole 1894, [https://archive.org/stream/mohammedandynas00lanegoog#page/n58/mode/1up p. 22]</ref>
| house = Umayyad; Marwanid (Andalusian) Branch
| father = Muhammad ibn Abdullah
| mother Muzna (originally Maria?)<ref name"Fletcher"/>
| birth_date = 18 December 890
| birth_place Córdoba<ref name"worldhistory">{{Cite web|titleAbd al-Rahman III|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Abd_al-Rahman_III/|access-date2022-02-02|websiteWorld History Encyclopedia}}</ref>
| death_date {{death date and age|961|10|15|890|12|18|dfyes}}<ref name="Gordon"/>
| death_place Córdoba<ref nameEB/>
| burial_place Alcázar of Córdoba<ref>{{cite book |lastKennedy |firstHugh N. |author-linkHugh N. Kennedy |titleMuslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHDppAAAAMAAJ&qburied+Alcazar |formatsnippet view |access-date6 September 2010 |year1996 |publisherLongman |locationLondon |isbn978-0-582-49515-9 |page99 |quoteThe Caliph died on 15 October 961 and was buried with his predecessors in the Alcazar at Cordoba.}}</ref>
| signature | religion Sunni Islam<br> (Maliki school)<ref>{{cite book |lastDaftary |firstFarhad |titleThe Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkQGlyZAy134C&pgPA173 |year1992 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-42974-0 |page173 |quote=... the Umayyad ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, who was a Mālikī Sunnī.}}</ref>
}}
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil ({{langx|ar|عبدالرحمن بن محمد بن عبداللہ بن محمد بن عبدالرحمن بن الحكم بن هشام بن عبد الرحمن الداخل}};<ref nameEB>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica|title'Abd al-Rahman III|edition15th|year2010|volumeI: A–Ak – Bayes|isbn978-1-59339-837-8|pages[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17 17–18]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/17}}</ref> 890–961), or simply ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, was the Umayyad Emir of Córdoba from 912 to 929, at which point he founded the Caliphate of Córdoba, serving as its first caliph until his death. Abd al-Rahman won the laqab (sobriquet) {{transl|ar|al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh}} ({{lit.|the Defender of God's Faith}}) in his early 20s when he supported the Maghrawa Berbers in North Africa against Fatimid expansion and later claimed the title of Caliph for himself.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Golden Caliphate |urlhttp://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197605/the.golden.caliphate.htm |access-date5 January 2008 |archive-date16 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131116123602/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197605/the.golden.caliphate.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref> His half-century reign was known for its religious tolerance.LifeEarly yearsLineage and appearanceAbd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December 890.<ref name"worldhistory" /><ref>His year of birth is given as 891 in the Chambers Biographical Dictionary, {{ISBN|0-550-18022-2}}, p. 2</ref> His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891. He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine.<ref>{{cite book| url http://www.bookrags.com/biography/abd-al-rahman-iii/| title Abd al-Rahman, III Biography}}</ref> His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infanta Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black."<ref name"ibn">Ibn Idhari, Kitab al-Bayan</ref> He had reddish-blond hair,<ref>{{Cite book |lastFlood |firstTimothy M. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDuh3DwAAQBAJ&pgPA38 |titleRulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711-1492 |publisherMcFarland & Company |year2018 |isbn978-1-4766-7471-1 |pages38 |languageen}}</ref> which he reportedly dyed black to appear more "Arab".<ref>{{Cite book |lastHeng |firstGeraldine |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsnRJDwAAQBAJ&pgPA142 |titleThe Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages |publisherCambridge University Press |year2018 |isbn978-1-108-42278-9 |pages142 |languageen}}</ref>Harem youthMuhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as al-Sayyida ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour.<ref>Ibn Hazm</ref> It was claimed that he had learned and known the local Mozarabic language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1Byfield|first1Ted|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id68qCEMEZ6gwC&dq%22Abd+al-Rahman+III%22+red+hair&pgPA250|titleThe Quest for the City : A.D. 740 to 1100 : Pursuing the Next World, They Founded this One|last2Project|first2Christian History|last3Stanway|first3Paul|date2004|publisherChristian History Project|isbn978-0-9689873-6-0}}</ref>Accession to throne
Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.
Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912.<ref name"EB" /> Historiographers of the time, such as Al-Bayan al-Mughrib and the Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III, state that his succession was "without incident". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba.<ref name"EB" /> To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of Reconquista in the Douro valley. To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented Muwallad families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Bobastro, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.
From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and centralise power, and re-establish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba.<ref name="EB" /> From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the saqalibah, slaves of East European origin. The saqalibah represented a third ethnic group that could neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.
Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues:
{{blockquote|The revenue of the king [Abd al-Rahman] amounts annually to 100,000 florins, this arising only from the income derived from the numerous merchants who come hither from various countries and isles. All their commerce and affairs must be subjected to my guidance, praised be the Almighty, who bestows his mercy upon me! The kings of the world no sooner perceive of the greatness of my monarch, than they hasten to convey to him presents in abundance. It is myself who am appointed to receive such presents, and at the same time to return rewards awarded to them.<ref>Mahberet Menahem (ed. Herschell Filipowski), London & Edinburgh 1854 (reprinted: Jerusalem 1987), in: Biography of the Author (the Celebrated Rabbi Menahem ben Saruk), p. 7; cf. Elkan Nathan Adler, Jewish Travellers, Routledge: London 1931, pp. 22–36 [vide Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schecter Collection (T-S Misc. 35.38)].</ref>}}
Early rule
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2019}}
During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre. The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy.<ref namewikisource>{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbd-ar-Rahman|displayAbd-al-Rahman s.v Abd-al-Rahman III|volume1|pages31–32}}</ref> Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.
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He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some {{convert|50|km}} from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.
In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the Kūras (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.
During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (hasam) under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun.<ref name="EB" /> Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.
The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.
Ibn Hafsun and other rebels
Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the long-standing rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.
His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troops moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.
The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called Turrus or Turrus Jusayn (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army appeared.
Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. One of Ibn Hafsun's sons, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around the city. Ja'far, after two years of siege, escaped from the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebels escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.
In 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina a year later. In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off following the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.
The last of the sons of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by troops commanded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Said ibn al-Mundhir, who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months,<ref nameEB/> until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.<ref>{{cite book|firstHermann |lastSchreiber|titleGli Arabi in Spagna|year1984 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/gliarabiinspagna00schr |url-accessregistration |page[https://archive.org/details/gliarabiinspagna00schr/page/142 142]|publisherGarzanti}}</ref>The Levente and Algarve rebelsThe continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.<ref nameEB/> In most of the eastern and western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's authority was not recognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba.
To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, the governor ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Saʿid ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr. Alcácer do Sal and Lisbon were under the control of the Banu Dānis.
The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño&nbsp;II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915. Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III did not send an army and only several local Berber jefes offered some resistance which was ineffective.
Assumption of the Caliphate
{{Quote box
|title = Letter proclaiming Abd al-Rahman III's assumption of the caliphal title
|quote = We are the most worthy to fulfill our right, and the most entitled to complete our good fortune, and to put on the clothing granted by the nobility of God, because of the favour which He has shown us, and the renown which He has given us, and the power to which He has raised us, because of what He has enabled us to acquire, and because of what He has made easy for us and for our state [? dynasty; {{Langx|ar|dawla}}] to achieve; He has made our name and the greatness of our power celebrated everywhere; and He has made the hopes of the worlds depend on us <nowiki>[</nowiki>{{Langx|ar|a‘laqa}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and made their errings turn again to us and their rejoicing at good news be (rejoicing at good news) about our dynasty <nowiki>[</nowiki>{{Langx|ar|dawla}}<nowiki>]</nowiki>. And praise be to God, possessed of grace and kindness, for the grace which He has shown, [God] most worthy of superiority for the superiority which He has granted us. We have decided that the da‘wa should be to us as Commander of the Faithful and that letters emanating from us or coming to us should be [headed] in the same manner. Everyone who calls himself by this name apart from ourselves is arrogating it to himself [unlawfully] and trespassing upon it and is branded with something to which he has no right. We know that if we were to continue [allowing] the neglect of this duty which is owed to us in this matter then we should be forfeiting our right and neglecting our title, which is certain. So order the khaṭīb in your place to pronounce [the khuṭba] using [this title] and address your communications to us accordingly, if God will. Written on Thursday, 2 Dhū al-Ḥijja 316 [16 January 929].
|source Translated by David Wasserstein<ref name"Wasserstein"/>
|width = 45%}}
Despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba on 16 January 929, effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs.<ref>[http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/abd-al-Rahman-iii.htm Abd-al-Rahman&nbsp;III] {{dead link|dateAugust 2020|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref> The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa.<ref namewikisource/> He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.
Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphal power were a sceptre (jayzuran) and the throne (sarir). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars<ref>No gold Islamic coins had been found in Spain preceding Abd al-Rahman&nbsp;III's reign. See Schreiber, Gli Arabi in Spagna, p. 143.</ref> and silver dirhams, replacing the "al-Andalus" title with his name.
In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931)<ref nameEB/> and Tangiers (951), who, in return, accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatimids.<ref nameEB/> In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety by paying a huge sum.<ref>Schreiber, Gli Arabi in Spagna, p. 154</ref>
In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.
War with the Christian kingdoms of the north
Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño&nbsp;II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.
Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño&nbsp;II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz.<ref nameEB/> After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of León at Valdejunquera on 26 July,<ref nameEB/> he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.
In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. He launched a counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.<ref>{{cite book| url https://books.google.com/books?idqVYT4Kraym0C&dqAbd-al-Rahman++III+zaragoza&pgPA435| title Al Maqqari, Nafh at-Tih, I| page 363| isbn 978-9231041532| last1 Hareir| first1 Idris El| last2 Mbaye| first2 Ravane| date 2011| publisher = UNESCO}}</ref>
The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño&nbsp;II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro&nbsp;II gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid.
In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.
Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman,<ref name=EB/> due to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956. However, they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.
In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphal supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in Córdoba.<ref name=EB/>
Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during the period. Ordoño&nbsp;III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño&nbsp;IV. Together with his grandmother Toda of Pamplona, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño&nbsp;IV.
Later years
Abd al-Rahman was accused of retreating in his later years into the "self-indulgent" comforts of his harem.<ref name=wikisource/> Indeed, he is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem (common with a few previous rulers such as Hisham II and Al-Mu'tamid).<ref>Encyclopedia of Medieval Iberia, ed. Michael Gerli (New York: Routledge, 2003), 398–399.</ref> This likely influenced the polemical story of his sexual attraction for a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. This story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.<ref>Walter Andrews and Mehmet Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, Duke University Press, 2005; p. 2</ref><ref>Mark D. Jordan, The Invention of Sodomy in Christian Theology, Chicago, 1997; pp. 10–28</ref>
Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam&nbsp;II.
Legacy
Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings.<ref namewikisource/> After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometres north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modelled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. It was said that Córdoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.<ref nameEB/>
Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.
He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa. The colonisers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.
Due to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.<ref name=EB/>
He was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins on his family. In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him. He was tolerant of non-Muslims, and Jews and Christians were treated fairly provided they were not one of his caliphate's slaves, sexual or otherwise.<ref>{{Cite book|titleReviewing Imperial Conflicts|last1Mendes|first1Ana Cristina|last2Baptista|first2Cristina|date2014|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing|pages24}}</ref> European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor.<ref nameEB/>AncestryAbd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region. His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona. In his immediate ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque.<ref name"Fletcher"/>
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
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|1= 1. Abd al-Rahman III, Caliph of Córdoba
|22. Muhammad<ref name"Lane-Poole 22"/>
|33. Muzna (originally Maria?)<ref name"Fletcher"/>
|44. Abdullah, Emir of Córdoba<ref name"Lane-Poole 22"/>
|55. Onneca Fortúnez (Durr)<ref name"Salas Merino">{{cite book |lastSalas Merino |firstVicente |titleLa Genealogía de Los Reyes de España |trans-titleThe Genealogy of the Kings of Spain |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids-YxL2tIbEgC&pgPA216 |edition4th |year2008 |publisherEditorial Visión Libros |locationMadrid |languagees |isbn978-84-9821-767-4 |pages216–217 |chapter=La Dinastía Íñiga (820–905)}}</ref>
|6|7
|88. Muhammad I, Emir of Córdoba<ref name"Lane-Poole 22"/>
|99. Baher<ref>Ibn Idhari, [https://books.google.com/books?idzSs-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA233 p. 233]</ref>
|1010. Fortún Garcés, King of Pamplona<ref name"Salas Merino"/>
|1111. Oria<ref name"Salas Merino"/>
|12|13
|14|15
}}
Notes and references
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
* {{cite book|firstJessica |lastCoope|titleMartyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion|locationLincoln|year1995|isbn0-8032-1471-5|publisher=University of Nebraska Press}}
* {{cite book|firstMaribel |lastFierro|titleAbd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba|locationOxford|publisherOneworld Publications|year2005|isbn= 1-85168-384-4}}
* {{cite book |authorIbn Idhari |author-linkIbn Idhari |otherstranslated by Francisco Fernández y González |titleAl-Bayan al-Mughrib |trans-titleHistory of Al-Andalus from Spanish |volume1 |year1860 |orig-yearComposed c. 1312 |publisherFrancisco Ventura y Sabatel |locationGranada |languagees |oclc557028856 |ref=Ibn}}
* {{cite book | last Lane-Poole | first Stanley | author-link Stanley Lane-Poole | title The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions | url https://archive.org/details/mohammedandynas00lanegoog | year 1894 | publisher Archibald Constable and Company | location Westminster | oclc 1199708 | ref Lan94}}
* {{cite book|editor1-firstÉvariste|editor1-lastLévi-Provençal|editor1-linkÉvariste Lévi-Provençal|editor2-firstEmilio|editor2-lastGarcía Gómez|editor2-linkEmilio García Gómez|titleUna crónica anónima de 'Abd al-Rahman III al-Nasir|languagees|publisherInstituto Miguel Asin|locationMadrid-Granada|year=1950}}
* {{cite book|firstPeter |lastScales|titleFall of the Caliphate of Córdoba|locationNew York|publisherEJ Brill|year1994|isbn= 90-04-09868-2}}
* {{cite book|firstKenneth |lastWolf|titleChristian Martyrs in Muslim Spain|location Cambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|year1988|isbn0-521-34416-6}}External links* {{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbd-er-Rahman III|shortx |noiconx}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Banu Umayyah|||||Banu Quraish}}
{{S-bef|before=Abdallah ibn Muhammad}}
{{S-ttl|titleEmir of Córdoba|years912–929}}
{{S-non|reason=Became caliph}}
|-
{{S-new|reason=Caliphate of Córdoba<br />created}}
{{S-ttl|titleCaliph of Córdoba|years929–961}}
{{S-aft|after=Al-Hakam II}}
{{S-end}}
{{Umayyads}}
{{Umayyad governors of al-Andalus}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abd al-Rahman 03}}
Category:9th-century births
Category:961 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:10th-century caliphs of Córdoba
Category:10th-century Arab people
Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:Pardon recipients
Category:Patrons of the arts
Category:People from Córdoba, Spain
Category:Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba
Category:Spanish humanists
Category:Spanish people of Basque descent
Category:City founders
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III
|
2025-04-05T18:26:07.432449
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